IDiTlOH FOR THE PACIFIC i ;/ i 1 ^ UC-NRLF mp " CD O • ■RKEtErX LIBRARY I uunwmn of f mjeuios zrhi, ^ ^ ' // \7jj^ -r^J'iW^^fA NATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES. MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY; IIST T'WO P^RTS PART I. GEOGRAPHY TAUGHT AS A SCIENCES; WRITTEN AND ILLUSTRATED ON THE PLAN OF OBJECT TEACHING. PART II LOCAL AND CIVIL GEOGRAPHY; CONTArXIXO MAPS REMARKABLE FOR THEIR CLEARNESS. AN IMPROVED SYSTEM OF MAP EXERCISES AND OF MAP DRAWING, POLITICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY, AND A PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. « BY JAMES MONTEITH, Author of n Serlet of School Geographiet and n'uli Maps, ufid a Juvenile History of the United States. ^. S. BARNES A]S^r) COMPAISJ^Y, NEW YORK, CHICAGO, AND NEW ORLEANS. t^HARACTER OF THE ^:§fORK. Its Style. — ^In the preparation of this portion of the work, the author has songht to present the snbject of Geography aa a Science ; and, at the same time, in a style calculated to attract and interest the pupU. Avoiding the use of aU techni- cal terms that would perplex the young learner, he has endeavored to explain its leading principles by means of familiar language and comparisons, and of suggestive illustrations, according to the Object System of instruction. For example, on page 19, the theory of volcanic action is explained by reference to a cake which is burst open at the top, the heat of the oven representing the heat of the earth's interior. Again ; on page 27, boihng springs, such as the geysers, are illustrated by means of a tea-kettle. The Text is divided into Short Paragraphs SO constructed that the commencement of each appears in prominent type and readily suggests the subject and the questions. It Teaches : — That the earth was formed to be the temporary dweULng-place of mankind ; and to that end, were created the land, with its mountains and plains ; the water, with its mighty ocean and its running brooks ; besides air, light, heat, plants, and living creatures : That aU the objects which we behold, whether organic or inorganic, whether on the surface or below the surface, with all the various phenomena of the earth, exert important influences upon each other and work together in harmony for the well-being of the human race. Effect upon the Mind of the Pupil. — Throughout the work the aim has been not only to impart valuable information, but especially to cultivate the learner's powers of observation and reasoning ; and, as he views the wonders, the beauty, and the perfection of Nature's works, his thoughts are thereby directed to the Creator, by whom aU things were made and adapted to the development of human life and happiness. Tlie Index and General Review serve both as a Eeference and as a system of General Exercises. Among the Works on Geology and Geography which have been consulted by the author, are those of LyeU, Hitch- cock, Dana, Miller, Johnston, Milner, and Bitter. The Maps have been executed with reference to clearness and freedom from detail. The Largest City in each State or country appears in large capital letters. The capital is designated by a *. For the names of places represented on the maps by numbers, see Appendix. Accompanying the Maps of the United States, are Additional Exercises adapted for use in each State separately. The Principal Railroads are shown by finely dotted lines, and in connection with them are questions on " Routes of Travel." In the " Reviews " are given the population of the largest cities, the height of the highest mountains, and the length of the largest rivers. The "General Review" contains questions promiscuously arranged. The Political Geography, fuUy illustrated, gives a concise view of the leading features of the Countries and States, — their topography, soil, climate, productions, &c. Comparative Sizes and Latitudes of Countries, States and Cities are shown on the margins of the Maps. (See also p. 102.) TttE WMlOWAi SYSTEM Of OEOGBM'ttY, IN THKEB BOOKS, WITH ALTERNATES. L UONTEITE'S FmST LESSONS IN QEOaSAFHY. IL MONTBITH'S MANUAL OF GEOaEAPHY. m. McNALLY'S COMPLETE QEOaSAPHY. The Vlr»t Tjcssona is designed for children just able to read. The Mfinual is a favorite book for intermediate classes. There can be no substitnte for it. Mr If ally's Geographu Is a gem of elegant and practical comprehensiveness, MONTBITH'S WALL MAPS.-Thehandsomest, most complete, and substantial School Maps published, with names ail laid down. MONTEITH'S GLOBES.— All sizes, I. UONTEITH'S INTRODUCTION TO THE MANUAL. II. MONTEITH'S COMPREHENSIVE GEOGRAPHY. m. UONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. The TntroducHon. is of a grade between the First Lessons and the Manual. The CotnprehrnMvf is a new Intermediate, poseesHing several new, attractive, and valuable features. The Phyniriil niitl Polillrtil is especially valuable for its easy style of presenting Geography as a science. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by Jambs Monteith, in the Office of the Librarion of Congress, at Washington. —n—T- Add to Llb'^ ONTENTS. SECTION I. Introductory— The Eazth the Dwelling-place of Mankind 5 SECTION II. The Creation of the Earth — Its Changes and Gradual Development — Formation of Soil — Commencement of Vegetable and Animal Life. . . 6 SECTION III. The Crust of the Earth— Internal Heat — Strata SECTION IV. The Form of the Earth — Horizons — Water, Land, Air, Light, and Heat necessar;' to Man's Existence — The Harmony of Nature's Laws i) SECTION V. The Formation of Continents — Upheaval and Submergence — The Wisdom of God's Plan manifested — Mountain Systems — Tlie Land and Water Hemispheres — Inlets, Rivers, etc., advance the Civilization of Man. . . 10 SECTION VI. Mountains and Plateaus ; their Origin, Places, and Uses — Glaciers — Moun- tain Passes : 14 SECTION VII. Volcanoes and Earthquakes ; their Origin and Effects 19 SECTION VIII. Plains and Valleys ; their Distribution ; how their Soil is enriched. 20 SECTION IX. Deserts and Oases ; their Distribution ; Causes of their Formation. 21 SECTION X. The Ocean ; its Extent and Divisions ; its Depth and Bed ; its Saltness. . 22 SECTION XI. ■ PAS1I : Oceatic Currents ; the Theory of their Movements ; their Important Influences and Benefits 23 SECTION XII. Evaporation — Springs and Wells ; Theory of their Formation — The Qey- 26 ; SECTION XIII. Rivers ; their Origin, Powers, and Importance to Man 28 SECTION XIV. ■ \ LakcH ; their Formation, Elevation, and Depth 81 i SECTION XV. The Atmosphere — The Winds — Land and Sea Breezes 32 \ SECTION XVI. i Vajior — Clouds — Distribution of Rain. 8» I SECTION XVII. i Climate ; its Dependence upon Oceanic Currents and Winds ; its Influ- ^ ence upon Vegetation and Man — Isotherms and Climatic Zones — The Climates of Elevated Regions 86 ? SECTION XVIII. Vegetation ; its Growth and Uses ; its Distribution — The Formation and S Distribution of Coal Fields 40 3 SECTION XIX. ; Animals ; their Creation, Gradual Development, and Uses ; their Adapta- ; tion to Climates and other Conditions 42 • SECTION XX. . Mankind — the Races — The Influences of Climate, Pood, and Means of ] Intercommunication, upon Individuals and Nations 44 i ^ LIST OF ]^^ A. F S Eastern and Western Hemispheres, Northern and Southern Hemispheres, Land and Water Hemispheres 50 North America 52 British America 56 United States 58, 59 Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island 60 New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia 62 North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee 64 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota 66 Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, California, Oregon. Nevada, Colorado, Wash- ington, Idaho, Montano, Dakota, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyo- ming and Indian Territory 68 Comparative Sizes 77 i Mexico and West Indies 78 i South America 80 < British Isles 84 i Europe 86 : Central and Southern Europe 88 ' Asia 92 Africa 96 | Oceanica 100 I Comparative Sizes and Comparative Latitudes 108 Index and General Review of Physical Geography 108 Astronomical Georgaphy 108 General Review of Local Geography HO Pronunciation and Meaning of Geographical Names Ill, 112 Tables 113-115 Introductory. 1. The robin builds her nest in the tree for the Purpose of there depositing her eggs, and of bring- ing forth and protecting her young. 2. For the Pur-pose of protection and comfort men build houses, found cities, and establisli gov- ernments. Purpose, therefore, leads to Jiesif/n and Action. 3. When you look at a beautiful house, and ob- serve the peculiar fitness of the various parts to each other, you are certain that it was made for the security and enjoyment of the family within ; and that the workmen shaped and placed the mcterials under the direction of an intelligent architect, who Formetl the Plan before the Work was coinnienced. 4. So, when you look abroad, you see a beauti- ful world, which was made for the enjoyment and benefit of the whole human family. 5. Man could not exist without Food ; therefore the earth yields her manifold productions of grain, fruit, and vegetables, while animals, birds, and fish, also, are given for his nourishment and use. Xeithcr couUl he live without Drink; SO the earth is abundantly supph : I with refreshing springs. For Clothing he goes t 'he cotton plant, the sheep, and the silkworm ; frci. he forests and the ground he obtains all the materials for building purposes. 6. Antnial Life receives its Sustenance from plants; Plants receive theirs from the soil and moisture ; Soil proceeded originally from the hard rock ; Moisture and Clouds, from the ocean. 7. The earth has its continents and oceans, its mountains and plains, its rocks, rains, snows, springs, and streams. All work harmoniously for the welfare and happiness of mankind. 8. You may conclude, then, that the whole earth, of which all these things are but parts, was made for a Great Purpose, by a Being of infinite wisdom, goodness, and power, according to a design formed before the beginning of the world ; and this purpose was to provide an Abode for Man, wiiose Delif/ht would be to praise, honor, and serve Him. ! '■,/Haj.i,_ 6 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Sedion II. Creation of the f arth. The Earth's Surface covered with Water. 1. The Growth of a Plant progresses slowly and systemat- ically ; from the seed comes a stem, then leaves, blossoms, and fruit. So was the process by which the world was made from chaos, — slow, gradual, and in accordance with the provisions of a well-ordered plan established by Divine wisdom. 2. The Earth's Fortnation from Chaos may be illustrated by an egg, whose fluid substances, by a certain application of heat, and in a certain time, are changed into a beautiful, living bird. 3. " In the Beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." In time the earth received its globular shape, and con- sisted of a heated, earthy matter in a fluid form, the outside of which, becoming cool and hard, formed a kind of crust around the mass. Entirely surrounding this crust was water, and surrounding the water was the atmosphere, containing dark, heavy clouds. 4. The Bain formed iw Sprtngs, watered no fields. It fell only upon the salt ocean, for the whole outer side of the earth's crust constituted the bed of the ocean. 5. By Convulsions within the Earth, parts of the crust were forced upward through the water, and became dry land. 6. The Land first Baised consisted only of masses of hard rock, on which no tree or plant could grow. 7. There ivas no Soil imtil the rock was broken and pulver- xzed by the action of the waves, air, rain, heat, and cold. 8. From the grinding together of fragments of the rock, came stones, pebbles, gravel, and sand. 9. " And God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of the waters called He Seas." 'And the Earth brought forth Grass, and Herb yielding Seed after his kind, and the Tree yielding Fruit." 10. The Violent Agitation of the Earth's Interior greatly disturbed the bed of the ocean, causing the depression of some parts and the elevation of others ; in the former, the sea became deeper, and in the latter, more shallow. 11. Portions of the Ocean's Bed were in this way brought up to the surface, then above it ; and, covered with the pulver- ized or disintegrated rock which had long been settling upon them, these tracts of land, in time, supported trees and plants which received their nourishment from both the soil and the atmosphere. ' And God >aid. Let the Waters under the Heaven be gathered together, and let the Dry Land appear." 'And God cre^i-_ „i -at Whales, and every Living Creature that moveth, which the Waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every Winged Fowl after his kind." CBBATION OF THE EARTH. N " And Ood mad* th* Bcatt of the Earth after hit kind and Cattle after their kind, and ever thing that creepeth upon the Earth after hi» kind." 12. The Various Species of ^In *»»««/« -which have lived upon the earth were not all created at once. 13. The Lfower Orders came first ; and, as centuries rolled on, other and superior classes of animals came successively into existence. 14. Inserts, Fish, and JReptiles were created before the horse or the ox; and all species of animals were created before Man. 15. With Plants, also, this was tlie ca»e. The first vegeta- tion consisted of sea-weeds ; then, with the improvement of the soil, new and superior varieties of plants and trees appeared. 16. These facts have been ascerUiined from investigations below the earth's srirface, where the forms or remains of plants and animals, which Uved in successive periods, are found in tlie order of their creation ; those created first being farthest below the surface. 17. We see the Law of Gradual IMvelopmetit exemplified in the growth of the trees and living creatures; geologists observe it, also, in the rocks and sands of the earth. 'And God said, Let us make Man m our Image, after our Likeness t and let them have dommton over the Fish of the Sea, and over the Fowl of the Air, and over the Cattle, and over all the Earth, and over every Creeping Thing that creepeth upon the Earth." ' so God created Man m his own Image." 18. The general order of Creation was as follows : ^ (1.) Chaos. (2.) Melted Matter in the form of a globe. (3.) The Globe composed of melted matter having a crust, which was entirely surrounded by water. (4.) Pabts of the Cbust upheaved through the sea, form- ing dry land. (5.) Pulverized Eock ; forming soil. (6.) Land alternately upheaved and submebged. (7.) Vegetation. (8.) Anmal Lite. (9.) Man. 19. The Observing Pupil has now Learned two important facts ; first, that God made the world, with all it contains, not at once, but step by step, on a wise and definite plan ; second, that He made it for the use of man. 20. For the Life and Happiness of Mankind there are pro- vided, not only the objects and creatures mentioned in the beginning of Genesis, but also numberless features and phe- nomena of the earth, such as its atmosphere, climates, cur- rents, rain, mountains, plains, and productions. 21. The Science of Geoyraphi/ properly embraces an investi- gation into the laws which ■ control the conditions, changes, and phenomena in nature, as affecting the life and conditions of mankind. 22. Although the various departments of Geographical Sci- ence will be presented in this work in a classified form, yet it is highly important that the learner keep constantly in mind their dependence and influence upon each other ; this renders repetition, to some extent, essential. 23. When considering the position and height of a chain of mountains, the course of the winds, or of an ocean current, he should observe the influences exerted by each upon climate, vegetation, and the pursuits of man in different regions. 24. These Differences or Contrasts furnish each section with its own characteristic productions, and lead men to estab- lish a system of trade or commerce between the nations of the earth, thus increasing theii- industry and wealth, furnishing incentives for exploration, and securing the civilization and enUghtenment of the race. 25. The Pupil should know, not only that the Gulf Stream has a north-easterly direction, but also that its warmth tempers the climate of the greater part of Europe, and sheds its genial infliience upon the atmosphere, productions, and inhabitants of that Grand Division. He should observe that the highest mountains are in the hot regions of the earth, where their lofty peaks, continually wrapped in snow, are faithful refrigerators, reducing the temperature of the air on the heated plains below. 26. The text, generally, is written without set questions ; leaving the teacher to frame or vary them as he may wish. Interrogations, however, are made which can be answered, not directly from the text, but from the illustrations, or by I inference on the part of the learner. I 27. This plan cannot fail to lead youthful minds to habits of observation and reasoning, and to direct their thoughts to the wisdom, power, and goodness of the Creator. 8 MONTEITH'S l^UYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Sediion III. ^HE &UST OF THE f ARTH. '■^^eaC^. ''./•0?v^^i:y.*-;>;^ 1. The Crust of the Earth is the resiUt of the cooling of the melted matter at the surface. It becomes thicker, as ice does, by additions to its under side. 2. Scientific investigations show that the ground is afi'ected by the sun's heat to the depth of about 50 feet ; below that, the heat of the earth's interior increases according to the depth. 3. The Internal Heat does not extend to the surface of the earth, except on occasions of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. ■f-i ,. \m • iMin •TVa A View within the Earth's Crust. -Salt Mines of Austria, 600 Feet Deep. 4. The average increase of temperature, below where it is affected by heat from the sun, is about one degree for every 50 or 60 feet in depth ; accordingly, at the depth of about 50 miles, the heat would be siifficient to melt all known rocks. 5. Geologists have variously estimated the thickness of the earth's crust to be from 20 to 200 miles. 6. Man has penetrated the earth to the depth of about one mile. 7. The Crust, if 20 miles in thickness, bears the same pro- portion to the whole earth that an egg-shell does to the egg. 8. The Heiffht of the Highest Mountaitis in the world is about 5 miles, yet the distance from the level of the sea to the center of the earth is 800 times greater than that. 9. The Material of which the earth's crust is composed is termed Rock, whether it be hard and compact, or soft and loose : it is constantly imdergoing change, owing, chiefly, to the agency of air, water, and heat. 10. Aqueous liocks are those formed by the agency of water. They consist of the sediment which has become har- dened in layers or beds, and are called Stratified. 11. Igneous Rocks are those formed by the agency of fire. They consist of hard, iiTegular masses, and are therefore called Unstratified. A. stratified Rock t B. Unsti^tified Rock i C, Melted Matter of the Earth's Interior. 12. As the Surface, at an early period, was entirely cov- ered with water, where would you find the Aqueous or Strati- fied formations ? 13. The Igneous or Unstratified rock found at the earth's surface has been forced up through the aqueous or stratified formations by volcanic action. 14. In some liocks are found forms of animals and vegeta- bles petrified or hardened like stone, caused, chiefly, by chem- ical action in nature. 15. Geologists Shou^ that the greater part of the soil or mold on the earth's surface is composed of what in former ages constituted the bodies of animals, trees, and plants, mixed with mineral substances, all of which settled at the bottom of the water. 16. The petrified forms of animals and plants are called Fossils ; the strata in which they are found are called Fossil- iferous, 17. The Direction of the Strata or layers would be hori- zontal and parallel to each other, but for the disturbing forces of the earth's interior, which have raised the strata in parts, giving them uneven or inclined positions. 18. Wlierc the strata are horizontal, whicli of them was the most recently formed ? Which was first formed ? What can you say of the heat of tlio earth's surface 1 Of the earth's interior ? What can you say of the material whicli forms the earth's surface t What is the difference between aqueous and igneous rocks ? 19. ISach Stratum of Hard liork is Composed of what had been soft mud, loose gravel, shells, vegetable and animal bodies. 20. The Forms of Animal Bodies in one stratum have been found to differ from those in the stratum below or above it, proving that at successive periods there lived successive species of animals. THE FORM OF THE EARTH. 9 "'^I'l'.Of MAN ON MO.^.**^ The Form and Surface of the Earthi Section IV. ORM OF THE ^ARTH. 1. The Form of the Earth is that of a "Globe,''' or " Sphrre." For this reason the topmast of a ship approaching us is first seen, then the sails, and, lastly, the body of the ship. 2. If you look around when at sea, or on a plain, what kind of a line limits your view ? What is the name of that circle ? 3. If you sail or move from one place to another, does your horizon change ? If you go to the top of a mountain, or any eminence, how is the extent of your horizon affected? 4. H'ho ran see an Approachiiif/ Ship flritt, the man at the foot, or the one at the top of a mountain? Which has the more extended horizon ? 5. Which of these two men can first see the sun rise in the morning? Sun set? Is the day longer to one than to the other? To whom? Why does the light on a distant hght- house appear to be on the surface of the water ? 6. The C'onftiientH, iHfawlx, and Mountain* which we now behold were not formed at once ; some parts were raised sud- denly, but most of the land elevations were the work of ages. 7. The Inequalities of the Earth's Surface are no greater, relatively, than the roughness on the surface of an orange ; and, although appearing to the careless observer as accidental and meaningless, they exert, nevertheless, important influences upon the conditions of mankind, and are in accordance with the wise designs of the Creator. 8. One-fourth of tlie Earth's Siurfare is land ; three-fourths, water. In other words, the internal forces have thus far caused the elevation of one-fourth of the ocean's bed. 9. As the Sed of the Ocean along the Coasts is inclined, what would be the efiect of an increase in the volume of water upon the size of continents and islands ? Upon their elevations ? What would be the effect upon the same if the volume of water should be diminished ? What, if the ocean's bed should bo suddenly depressed ? Elevated ? 10. The Bed of the Ocean comprises the greatest depres- sions of the earth's crust ; and, in its unevenness, it is like the land above the water level. 11. Tlie Orcan arts an Essential Tart in the unfolding of the Creator's design to benefit mankind. It is not only the high- way between the nations of the earth, but also the modifier of climate, and the vast reservoir whence the land receives its entire supply of water for the supjiort of all life, whether ani- mal or vegetable. 12. If the Ocean covered the whole Surface of the earth, could man exist ? 13. If the Surface consisted entirely of Land, the absence of water would forbid the existence of mankind ; for all vapor, clouds, rain, springs, streams, and lakes would disappear. All the fresh water of the land is raised from the great reser- voir, the ocean, by the combined agencies of the sun and air, acting like a great pump and sprinkler. 14. At the ICarth's Surface there are in contact three ele- ments, — ^water, land, and air; to deprive man of any one of these would be to deprive him of life. 15. The Earth rovrrcd ivith Eand and Water, but without the atmosphere, could not be the abode of man, for there woidd be no water to drink, no air to breathe ; the land, not watered by dews and rain, could not yield him food. 16. Therefore, Two Indispensable Agents are provided, — the Sim and atmosphere. The Sun by his Ton-erf ul Eight and Heat so acts upon the sea that thin, fresh water called vapor is separated from it. The vapor, like a feather loosened from a bird, is borne upward by the atmosphere, and carried far away by the winds. Vapor becomes Clonals, and afterward returns to the earth in the form of rain, dew, or snow, to water and fertilize the soil, and to scatter all over the land innumerable springs, streams, and lakes of delicious water. 17. It is evident, then, that All Tarts of the Earth, above and below its surface, are made to harmonize and cooperate with each other as an organized whole, for the great object of the gradual perfection of the human race. If there were no ocean, would thare be any rivers or gprings T Any rain or eloads t 10 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGBAPMT. la XjOatxtaHe 8 4S. £0 60 S i) V T ir JE R Ji A. ir T ^ M C T I _i"' IGO 12 o Xon^iidje 6 'WSst Icom 4 Greemwicli- 10 Xong. Xautt SO aelo Mountain Systems are Colored Brown | Plains and Valleys, Green. bedion V. f HE )|0NTINENTS-f HEIR f ORM. 1. The Land on the Earth's Surface is known, generally, as continents and islands : the continents are two in number ; the Eastern or Oriental, called the Old World, and the West- em or Occidental, called the New World; the islands are numerous. Australia is sometimes called a continent. 2. When Ijand first emerged from the water and came into contact with the atmosphere, it was not then as it is now, either in extent or form. 3. None of those Large Bodies of Land appeared, whose shapes we now trace on the globe or map ; but, comparatively small points were projected, which gradually rose higher and extended more widely, according to the pressure of the forces beneath. 4. A Continent is entirely surrounded by water. ' 5. A Continent, with its peninsulas, highlands, lowlands, lakes, and rivers, is like a great tree that has grown from a smaU shrub. 6. JFIiat is now a Vast Continent was, at a remote period, entirely below the level of the sea ; its general shape was the same then as it is now. 7. A Continent was not raised at once, but slowly ; ap- pearing above the water in parts. 8. These Parts, after remaining at the Surface for many centuries, were again submerged, and their great masses of vegetation, — trees, shrubs, and plants, — became covered over with gravel and sand. 9. At the End of anotlier Long Period, the submerged vegetation and the over-lying beds would be again raised, only to undergo a similar process. 10. Such Operations occurred long before the creation of THE CONTINENTS,— THEIR FORM. 11 man; and although to the uninformed they appear without purpose or use, they have, nevertheless, successfully contrib- uted toward the unfolding of God's wise design in his pre- paration of the earth for the abode of the human race. These vegetable masses are now the exhaustless beds of coal which supply indispensable aid to the industry and comfort of man. 11. The U'ifidom of thin Plan is further recognised in the fact that coal is found, mainly, in those parts of the earth that are best fitted for human habitation ; — iu the United States, Great Britain, Western Europe, British America, and China. The Parts of the Map shown m White represent the First Land of the United States. The Parts in Dark Shading along the Coasts remained under Water until a more recent Period. The Dark Shading Inland were vast Tracts of Marsh and Woodland, but now they are the great Coal Fields of this Country. 12. The Krtetuled Linen of Iteration which we call moun- tain chaius or ranges seem to constitute the frame of the continents. 13. The Slopes, Plains, and Valleys have been shaped and fertilized by slides of great ice formations of former ages, and by frequent rains, which have washed down the dissolved and pulverized rocks, and the long decayed vegetable and animal substances ; mixing them all together in a rich compound called mold, which supports the vegetation of the earth. 14. The Great liody of Lantl Surface is north of the Equa- tor, both in the Old and in the New World, and comprises the whole of Asia, Europe, North America, Northern and Central Africa, and the northern part of S. America. South of the Equator are only three considerable tracts of land ; the cen- tral and southern parts of South America, the southern part of Africa, and the island of Australia. 15. The iMud of the Two Cttntlneiifs not only lies chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere, but it also widens toward the north, and narrows into peninsulas at the south, these penin- sulas, also, terminating in capes pointing southward, thus giv- ing each continent the appearance of a triangle with the apex toward the south. 16. TtiiH Peculiar Feature makes it appear as if the water of the ocean had originally issued in great currents from the region of the Southern Ocean, as a center, and washed away the land imtil arrested by the mountains and highlands of the Northern Hemisphere. The General Form of each of the Land Divisions is that of a Triangle, the Apex polntinK toward the South. 17. Upon the Western Continent the water seems to have encroached from the south and south-west to the foot of the vast moimtain ranges which line its coast ; upon Africa to the Kong and Snow Mts., and the highlands intervening ; upon Asia to the Himalaya and the Ghauts Mts. 18. Jnth New Ze(dand as a Center, describe a great circle upon the globe, dividing it into hemispheres ; one will contain nearly all the land on the earth's surface, while the other will be composed almost entirely of water. These are known as the Land and Water Hemispheres. At or near the center of the Land Hemisphere are the British Isles. (See Map, p. 12.) 19. By means of tlie Wimls and Waves new coasts have been formed, and others washed down to the ocean's bed ; loose sand on some sea-shores is carried inland, forming drift- sand hills, such as those on the southern shore of Long Island and the eastern shore of New Jersey. In some places, these movements of the sand have been attended with destruc- tive effects, by covering houses, farms, and villages. Tower of a Buried Church on the East Coast of England. 20. An Increase of the Volume of Water would be followed by an overflowing of the land, beginning with the lowlands : thus effecting entire changes in the sizes and forms of continents. 21. The Eastern Continent comprises Europe, Asia, and I Africa ; the Western, North and South America. 12 IHONTEITH'S PHYSICAL GBOGBAPSY. 22. The Eastern Continent extends in an easterly and west- erly direction. Its great mountain system, commencing at Behring Strait and the Pacific Ocean, runs through central and southern Asia, and along the north and south sides of the Mediterranean Sea to Portugal in Europe, and to Morocco in Africa. 23. These Mountains are included, chiefly, between the parallels of 25" and 50° north latitude. 24. The Western Continent takes its direction from its great mountain system, which reaches from the Northern to the Southern Ocean in a north-westerly and south-easterly direc- tion. Each of these two mountain systems is like the back- bone, which gives position and strength to an animal body. 25. The Principal Sections of the mountain system on the Eastern Continent are the Himalay'a, Altai (ahl-ti'), and Stana- voy ranges of Asia ; the Cau'casus, Carpathian, Alps, and Pyrenees of Europe, and the Atlas Mountains of Africa. 26. The Sections of the great Mountain System of the West- em Continent are the Andes of South America, and the Bocky, Sierra Madre {se-er'rah mah'dray), Sierra Nevada (nay-vah'dah), and Cascade of North America. These great ranges form the western defenses of America against the ad- vance of the Pacific. 27. On the Eastern Side of North America is the Appa- lachian System, reaching from the Southern States to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and giving to the east coast of North America its principal direction north-east and south-west. 28. On the Eastern Coast of South America the mountains of Brazil run parallel with the Appalachian System of North America, and secure a parallelism between their correspond- ing coast Hnes; namely, that from Newfoundland to Florida Strait, and that between Cape St. Boque and the Strait of Magellan. 29. The Western Continent is laid out in two great trian- gles. North and South America, {See Illustration on page 11.) Greenland has a similar shape. This pecuharity is also no- ticeable in the Eastern Continent, concerning its peninsulas ; Africa, Hindoostan', Farther India, Corea, Kamtschatka (kahm-chat'lcah), Italy, and the Scandinavian peninsula, com- prising Norway and Sweden. 30. What is the general direction of the eastern coast of the Eastern Continent? (See Map on page 10.) Of the coast from the south- eastern part of Arabia to the southern cape of Africa? Of the western coast from North Cape to Cape Verd ? Of the eastern coast of Hin- doostan ? From the eastern shore of Greenland to the Q ulf of Mexico 1 From Cape St. Roque to Cape Horn ? What is the general di- rection of the Pacific coast of the New World from Behring {be'ring ) Strait to Cape Horn ? Of the South American coast fi-om the Caribbe'an Sea to Cape St. Und Hemisphere, Roque ? Of the coast of Africa from Cape Verd to Cape Good Hope 1 Of the western coasts of Hindoostan' and Farther India ? Mention the principal coast lines which are parallel with each other, and have a north-easterly and south-westerly direction ; those which have a north- westerly and south-easterly direction. 31. Hence, it is observed that the General Directions of Coast Lines are but two ; namely, from north-west to south- east, and from north-east to south-west. 32. Eefer to the Maps and you will see, furthermore, that such are the directions of nearly aU the coast hnes of the large islands, peninsulas, and groups of islands in the most important seas, gulfs, bays, lakes, and rivers. 33. Australia is enclosed by a coast hne composed of six sides, all of which point in one or the other of these two direc- tions. 34. Above the Parallel of 40° N. Latitude are the greater parts of North America and Asia, and nearly all Europe ; while below the parallel of 40° S. Latitude extends no part of the Eastern Continent, and only the southern extremity of the Western Continent. 35. Totvard the North Pole the Land extends and expands, as if the Southern Hemisphere was to be surrendered to the ocean ; and as new land is being constantly formed in northern latitudes by volcanic action, in time the Northern Ocean may become a land-locked sea. 36. The Arctic Ocean is connected with the Pacific by Behring Strait, less than sixty miles in width. Indeed, the Aleutian Isles, which even now reach from Alaska to Kamt- schatka, may soon, by means of their fifty active volcanoes, become a continuous rock, joining the two continents, and thus cutting off communication between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. 37. The Spa^e between Greenland and Norway, or between Greenland and Scotland, is no greater than that over which the Aleutian Isles are now being extended. It has already its stepping-stones of Iceland, the Faroe, Shetland, Orkney, and other isles, all of which have been raised by submarine forces yet in operation. 38. The Lonffest Straight Line that can be drawn on the land-surface of the earth would extend north-eastward from Cape Verd to Behring Strait, a distance of about 11,000 miles. 39. What division of the earth is in the center of the Land Hemisphere 't What two divisions are n holly in that hemisphere ? What division is almost entirely in i t ? What part of Asia is in the Water Hemisphere? What division extends fur- thest into the Water Hemi- sphere? In which hemi- sphere is the greater part of South America ? What islands in the cen- ter of the Water Hemi sphere? Name the largest bodies of land in that hemi- sphere. In which of these hemispheres is the greater part of the Pacific Ocean, — Water Hemisphere. the Atlantic, — the Indian ? THE. CONTIJfBNTS,—THE INFLUENCE OF THELR FOBM. 13 Chart thowing the Correipondence between the West Coast Line of the Old World and th« East Coast Line of the New World. Imagine the Old World to be moved westward till the mainland would meet that of the New World : what African gulf would be entered by the eastern ]>art of South America t What American sea \>y the western part of Africa t Where would be the points of contact t Into what would the Amazon River flow ? With what American peninsula would the British Isles be merged ? Oreat Britain would be in what direction from Newfoundland % 40. An Tinporfant Point of Difference between the divi- sions of the continents consists in the comparative length of coast lines. In proportion to the extent of surface, the longest line of coast belongs to Europe, the next to North America, and the least to Africa. Europe, with but three sides bounded by water, has, proportionately, four times as much coast line as the whole of Africa ; North America has three times as much as Africa. 41. About (hie-tlurd of the Entire Land of Europe con- sists of peninsulas and islands ; and, through the medium of numerous arms of the sea, this division receiver and bestowH strength, power, and prosperity ; while the closed doors of the African coast forbid entrance to vast regions yet unexplored. 42. To its reniarkably Irregular CkniM Line, together with its mild chmate and position on the globe, does Europe owe its greatness among the divisions of the earth. 43. Except in the north, Africa han no mirh important Inlets from the ocean, as those of Europe, North America, and Asia. 44. Seas, Gulfs, Hat/s, and Ixikes are most numerous within a belt around the earth, embraced between the parallels of 30" and 60° north latitude. 45. This Belt, which is midway between the Equator and the North Pole, comprises the most enlightened, powerful, and progressive nations of both continents ; here the human race had its origin, here is the birth-place of Christianity, and here flom-ished nations renowned in ancient history, which were those of Western Asia, Southern Europe, and Northern Africa. Therefore, the superiority of the land divisions of this section is owing, mainly, to the influences of their form, position within the North Temperate Zone, and the distribution of their inlets. 46. Within this Belt, the inlets on the coasts of the United States, British America, Western and Southwestern Europe, are numerous and important. Mention the principal ba.vs, gul&, and sounds on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Mention the princii)al seas in Western and Southwestern Europe. Mention the principal bays, gulfs and channels. 47. The Condition of a Race or People is aflfocted by con- tact with surrounding nations and influences ; and the greater the facilities for communication and inter-communication, the greater is the advancement ; hence, inlets, rivers, canals, and railroads promote the civilization a,nd progress of man. A C)ly>— River.— Harbor.— Railroad.— Commerce.— Agriculture, 48. Asia and Kurope together form a vast peninsula, which, with that of Africa, composes the Eastern Continent. 49. Were it not for a Separation of Sixty Miles between the Mediterranean and Bed Seas, each of these peninsulas would be a vast island or continent. In this respect, what similarity exists between the Old and the New World 1 Were the isthmuses of Darien and Suez overflowed, how many and what con- tinents would there be ? 50. The Peninsula comprising Enrojte and Asia has its greatest extent from Behring Strait on the north-east to Portugal in the south-west, a distance of about 8,500 miles, or one-third the earth's circumference. It is remarkable for the number and extent of its indentations, which give to it the appearance of a great plant, extending its munerous roots in all directions for nourishment and strength. 51. This is not the case, however, with South America, and still less with Africa, which is like a plant almost destitute of roots. Mention the principal indentations of Europe ; the peninsulas formed by them ; the seas, bays, and gulfs of Asia ; the peninsulas. 14 MOIiTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 52. Europe extends from the foot of the Ural Mountains westward, over a great expanse of land, — a continuation of the northern plain of Asia, — to the Carpathian Mountains and the Baltic Sea. Beyond these limits it becomes narrow ; facihtating external and internal communication. 53. The Coast Line is so greatly diversified by the pene- trating arms of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea that nearly all western and south-western Europe is composed of peninsulas. TABLE SHOWma THE COMPARATIVE EXTENT OF COAST-LINE. 6iUin> DivuioNS. Europe North and Central America South America Asia Africa Sqcabb Milbs. 3,830,357 9,059,927 6,954,131 16,415,758 11,556,650 Length op CoABT Line. 17,000 24,000 13,600 35,000 16,000 Square Miles POK 1 OF Coast. 329 345 477 600 741 54. The Three great Land Divisions of the South, — Africa, South America, and Australia, — resemble each other in their lack of sea arms, aiid in their backwardness of development ; presenting, in these respects, a strong contrast to the divisions of the North. 55. The Western Continent has its greatest Extent from the northern part of Russian America south-eastward to the Strait of Magellan, a distance of about 10,000 miles. 56. The Northern and North-eastern Parts of N. America are remarkable for their great number of inlets from the sea, cutting the land into a great variety of islands and peninsulas. 57. Baffin Bay separates Greenland from the main laud of the Western Continent, and Hudson Bay forms the great peninsula of Labrador and East Main. 58. As you go South, you meet the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and the Mouth of the Amazon. 59. Characteristic of the Atlantic Coast of the United States, are its numerous bays and other inlets ; the principal being the Chesapeake, Delaware, New York, Narragansett, Massa- chusetts, and Penobscot Bays ; besides Long Island, Pamlico, and Albemarle Sounds. On the Pacific Coast, the most im- portant inlets are San Francisco Bay and Puget's Sound. 60. South America lias its entire North-eastern Side turned toward Europe and North America, as if to invite their aid in its development ; and, although joined by land to North Amer- ica, the water affords far easier communication than the moun- tainous region of the isthmus. 61. Had the Wide Pacific rolled between Europe and America, instead of the narrow Atlantic, Columbus would probably not have discovered America; or, had the great Mountain System of America been placed on the eastern coast, shutting out the Atlantic as it now does the Pacific, and pre- senting to the east the same imdeviating coast line that it does to the west, the New World would probably be less adapted to the progress of mankind than Africa or Australia. 62. Between the eastern side of the New World and the western side of the Old, there is a remarkable analogy, not only in the parallelism of the general coast lines, but also in their system of seas, bays, and other inlets from the ocean. Sedion VI. f HE ||0NTINENTS-f HEIR §ELIEFS. 1. The Land of the Continents is greatly diversified,^ — low in some parts and high in others ; the altitude or absolute ele- vation of a place being the distance above the level of the ocean. 2. The highest mountains, as compared with the size of the earth, are no larger than grains of sand on a globe ten inches in diameter ; they nevertheless exert vast influences upon the conditions of the whole land surface of the earth. 3. Plains elevated but slightly above the level of the sea are called lowlands, even though lulls may rest upon them ; those of higher elevations, enclosing and supporting moun- tains, are highlands or plateaus. 4. The Transition from £«>,» to High Land is varied ; be- ing either abrupt, gradual, or terraced. 5. A Mountain Mange or Chain is a succession of moun- tains which have similar geological formations. The Highest Point in a chain is called the culminating point. 6. A Mountain System is two or more parallel ranges, con- nected with each other, or which rest upon the same plateau. 7. The Soil of the Valleys is fertile, and the chmate gene- rally delightful. A Valley in Switzerland. 8. Although Mountains and Plateaus are both elevations of land, and are coimected, yet they should be considered dis- tinct from each other. The rugged, broken outline of lofty mountain peaks, with their intervening valleys and passes, presents a strong contrast to the comparatively dull and even surface of a plateau ; just as a deeply indented coast does to one whose line is almost unbroken. 9. No Precise Height has ever been prescribed, according to which elevations of land should or should not be called moimtains. 10. The Loftiest Peaks on the Globe are among the Hima- layas, the principal one, Mt. Everest, being over 29,000 feet high. Mt. Aconcagua, the highest in S. America, is 23,906. MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS. IS The highest peaks of the Eocky Mts. are between 13,000 and 15,000 feet high. The White Mts. are about 6,000, the Cat- skills 3,000, and the Alleghanies from 1,000 to 5,000 feet. 11. A Plateau is an extent of land elevated above the level of the sea from 2,000 to 14,000 feet. 12. The Surface may be level, rolling, or hiUy ; some pla- teaus contain mountains, valleys, and lakes. 13. riattauH oive their Elevation to internal forces, exerted, not as in the more sudden and violent formation of mountains, but slowly and gradually ; giving them a comparatively level and unbroken surface. Should, however, the force from be- neath be so violent as to cause Opeuiuas or Seanm in the earth's crust (see Illustration, page 8), there would be pro- jected through this fissure melted mineral matter, called lava, besides stones, cinders, and ashes ; which, falling and harden- ing upon the uphfted surface, would form a conical pile called a mountain. 14. The Uplieaval of Ilillit and Mountainn from tit* Bot- tom of the Sea accounts for the finding of sea-sheUs on their sides and tops ; and the boulders, stones, pebbles, and gravel found in all countries, were irregular fragments of rock, broken off by violence or by atmospheric action, and carried great distances by the rush of water, ice, and icebergs, from high to low ground. 15. Mountains were raised to their Present Elevation by violent and repeated convulsions, the process extending over thousands of centuries. It is the opinion of geologists that the upheaval of the highest mountains was more sudden, and attended with more violence than that of the ranges of less elevation ; that the Alleghany and BrazUian Mountains were raised more slowly, and in earUer periods, than the Rocky and the Andes Mts. The Alps were upheaved more suddenly, and »t a period comparatively recent. 16. Mountains which have been violently Eleirated arc known by their deep fissures, and great displacement of strata and fossils. 17. The Direction of a Cltain of Mountains is due to the position of the rent made in the earth's crust. 18. Mountain Cluiins ejrtend mostly in either of two gene- ral directions ; from north-east to south-west, or from north- west to south-east. 19. What chains extend from north.«a8t to aonth-west ? What from north- WM8t to south-east t 20. The Pressure from beneath forces up, also, masses of the earth's crust from a considerable depth. Granite is sup- posed to form the lower part of the crust ; hence its appear- ance in mountains and other parts of the surface is due to volcanic pressure Those Mountains whose EisMures are not yet filled up by the lava from beneath, but continue to emit it, are called volcanoes. 21. The Principal Plateaus and Mountain Ranges of a continent are between its center and one of its sides, follow- ing the general direction of the nearest side, toward which their descent is the most abrupt. 22. The Longest and most gradual Descent, either by a continuous slope, or by successive steps, called terraces, is toward the center of the continent, or the greater mass of land. 23. The Rocky, the Andes, and the Scandinavian Moun- tains have their long and gradual slope on the east, and descend abruptly on the west. The Himalayas and the Alps descend abruptly toward the south. The highland surface of Spain is terraced from the P^Tenees and Cantabrian on the north to the Strait of Gibraltar on the south. 24. The Great Plateau System of Asia Ues south of the Altai Moimtains ; that of Europe south of the Baltic Sea ; of Africa south of its central part ; and of America along the west coast. 25. The CTimate on Mountains and PUtteaus is cooler than on the lowlands of the same latitude, and the greater tlie ele- vation the lower the temperature : hence, upon the Elevation of a Country, as well as upon its latitude, depend its climate, productions, and to some extent, the pursuits of the inhabitants. 26. Elevated Regions serve to moderate the temperature of the lowlands adjoining them. When air is heated it becomes lighter than the cooler air above it, and ascends ; the cold air descending to take its place. 27. Therefore, as the Elevations are greatest in the Hot Regions of the earth, and diminish toward the poles, the inhabitants of the sultry tropical plains, at the foot of lofty mountains, are continually refreshed by the cool air which comes down from their snowy summits. NonrHPOL Cotnparativ* Height of the Mountains in America, from the Equator to the North Pole) alto, the Limrt of Perpetual Snow 28. For the same reason that you put a piece of Ice into a Pitcher of Wafer in summer, rather than in winter. Providence has uplifted the highest mountains in the tropical, and not in the polar regions of the earth. 29. The Most Elevated Plateaus on the globe are those in the south of Asia, near the Tropic of Cancer. They have an altitude of more than 15,000 feet above the sea, and on them rest the loftiest mountains in the world ; some of the peaks of the Himalayas are more than 28,000 feet above the sea. 30. In the Hot Regions of South America are the plateaus of the Andes, ranging between 10,000 and 14,000 feet in height, and supporting many peaks between 15,000 and 23,000 feet high. 31. The Highest Plateaus of North America are in Mexico and Central America, being from 5,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea. 16 MOKTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 32. Kearly the whole of Mexico is a plateau, whose inhab- itants, even in the tropical part of the country, enjoy a tem- perate and healthful climate, owing to its great elevation above the sea. Section of Mexico *rom the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico 33. The City of Mexico is 7,400 feet above the sea level, about twenty times higher than Trinity Church steeple, in the city of New York. 34 Central and Southern Africa is one vast table land, the most extensive in the world. It descends on all sides by terraces, to the strip of low ground along the coast. 35. The Great Mountain System of Eurojte, comprising the Cau'casus, Alps, Pyrenees, Cantabrian, and Apennines, is in the southern, or warmest part of that division. 36. In the Northern Regions of Europe the only important elevations are the Scandinavian Mountains of Norway and Sweden, which, however, average less than one half the height of the mountains in the south of Europe. With this exception, the northern regions are, comparatively, lowlands. 37. Take aivay these lofty Mountain ranges and extensive plateaus from the places now occupied by them, or remove them from the hot to a cold zone, thus iacreasmg the heat of the tropical and the cold of the frigid regions, and the conse- quence would be a complete derangement of cUmates, produc- tions, and the conditions of the inhabitants. Th« Alpi.— A Glacier.— A Tunnel in the Ice whence issues a Stream which is the commence- ment of a Large River 38. In the Tropical Andes, the Region of Perpetual Snotv is above the line of 16,000 feet elevation ; in the ^7p.s,— Tem- perate Zone, — ^it is about 8,500 feet above the sea level ; and, i in Arctic Latitudes, it reaches down to the sea. 39. The Masses of Snow upon the Mountains being con-, stantly increased, force their way down the vaUeys to warmer : regions below the snow-line. By Pressure, alternate Thaiv- \ ing and Freezing of the upper surface, the whole becomes a ; great stream of ice, called a Glacier, varying in depth from \ a few hundred to several thousand feet. The Water that] descends through the Crevices of the ice unites with springs ' and flows down the mountain sides through timnels which it ' cuts in the ice and snow. Every glacier is thus the source of a : stream. The Best known Glacier Region is that of the Alps. ; 40. Draw a Line from tlie Sea of Mar'mora Northeast- ■ ward to Behring Strait, and you will have, south of this line, nearly all the great elevations of Asia, consisting of a, vast system of plateaus, supporting lofty mountains whose' tops are constantly covered with snow; to the north of these] hes the great Siberian Plain. \ 41. The Highest Plateau on the Globe is that of Centrall Asia, which extends 1,500 miles from the Altai Mountains on] the north, to the Himalayas on the south, and 2,500 miles' from west to east ; having about the same dimensions as the] United States, and an average elevation above the sea ol 10,000 feet. Its Surface is greatly diversified with heights! and depressions, rivers and lakes. The principal rivers are; the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus, Amoor, and Hoang Ho.| The Ganges has its two principal sources situated in immense; masses of snow, at the elevation of 13,000 ibet. The Elevationsi diminish gradually from the Himalayas northward to Siberia,! where the slope continues downward to the Arctic Ocean. | 42. Nearly all Western and South-western Asia consists! of plateaus about 4,000 feet high. , 43. This System of Highlands extends westward to the; Atlantic Ocean, over Southern Europe and Northern Africa ;] the Mediterranean, Caspian, and Black Seas being considered! its great depressions. | ' 44. "While much the larger part of Asia consists of vast; plateaus, Europe consists mainly of an extended plain, whichj commences at the Strait of Dover, extends eastward between; its great mountain system and the Baltic Sea, and then opens upon and covers Russia. The surface of this plain is almost- level, and has an elevation of about 1,000 feet. ■ 45. The Average Height of the Alps is between 8,000 andj 10,000 feet ; the highest peak, 3It. Blanc, being over 15,000: feet. The Apennines average from 4,000 to 8,000 feet ; thei Sierra Nevada of Spain from 6,000 to 10,000 feet ; and the .S'c«»t-j dinavian Moimtains of Norway and Sweden about 4,000 feet. ■ 46. The Cfreat Plateau of Africa ranges from 2,0C0 to 10,000j feet in elevation ; its highest part being in Abyssinia. 47. The Loftiest Peaks in Africa are Kenia and Kolimand-i jaro, whose summits are 20,000 feet above the sea. ; 48. Central Africa, north of the Equator, descends to thel level of the Great Desert, which is between 1,000 and 2,00(^ feet above the sea. The highest ranges on the African pla-l teau are the Abyssinian, Cameroon, and Snow Mountains;^ the highest peaks are Kenia and Kilmandjaro. I 49. The Principal Plateaus of the New World are in South; America, among the Andes. j MO UNTAINS,—ltAIN,—JiLLS^EJlALS. 17 rxt. MT. cvatc3r,z9o»» roL. rorocA TmrtTL UYCL or il/4 (XW Comparative Elevation of Cities, Mountains, and Lalcet, 50. The city of Quito, (ke'to,) in Ecuador, is built on a pla- teau nearly 10,000 feet above the Pacific. 51. Potosi, a city of Bolivia, is built on a plateau so high that the streets of the city have an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. 52. Lake TlUcaca, (tit-e-kah'kah,) between Bolivia and Peru, has nearly the same level, being twice the height of Mt. Wash- ington in New Hampshire, four times that of the Catsldll Moun- tains, and seven times that of the Blue Eidge at Harper's Ferry. 53. Iliffh a« are these Citien, Lakcn, and Table-lands, yet they are far over-topped by the surrounding mountains, which rise about 10,000 feet aV)ove them ; hence, these places are but little more than half-way up the highest of the Andes. 54. The Rocky Mountains, if placed be«ide the Andes, would reach only to the plateaus of the latter. The elevation of the AppaUtchian range is only about one-seventh that of the Andes. 55. On the Western Side of the Andes, the slope toward the Pacific is abrupt : on the eastern, or Atlantic side, it is gradual ; being interfered with only by the Brazilian Mountains, which, however, are less than one-fourth the height of the Andes. 56. The Andejt rise so High that their tops are in the re- gion of perpetual snow, while, at their foot, the heat is oppres- sive, and would be greatly intensified, but for their cooling influence. 57. To the influence of Mountain Systems do vast regions owe the rain which is necessary to the preservation of vege- table and animal life ; for as vapor rises fiom the earth's surface by the agency of Heat, so it must return by the agency of CoM. (See illustration above.) What mountain in Asia is the highest on the g^lobe ? How far above the level of the sea is Mt. St. Elias, in North America ? The Qty of Potosi, in Soath America T Great Salt Lake? Mt. Washinf^ton ? The Catskill Mountuns? Madrid, in Spain? How far below the level of the sea is the Dead Sea ? The Andet, L.1anos and Pampas. The ftain of Soutli America. Brazilian Mtb 58. As the Torrid Begions of the Earth require the great- est amount of Rain, there are the loftiest mountains, which act as huge condensers of the clouds and vapors floating in the atmosphere; and by the melting of the snow on their sides, they supply springs and rivers to the plains below. 59. // South America contained no such lilevations, the quantity of rain poured upon the vast plains would be greatly diminished. 60. In the tropical regions of South America the Rain- hearing Winds blow, not from the Pacific, but fi'om the At- lantic Ocean. The clouds, floating westwardly over the land, feel the cooling influence of the Andes, and respond with copious rains, which cover with the heaviest vegetation a region that would otherwise be a sunburnt wilderness. 61. In Some Districts between the Andes and the Paciflc, rain is almost or wholly unknown, because the clouds are exhausted before passing the mountains. 62. Had the Andes been raised on the JCastern Side of that great peninsula, instead of on the western, the rain would fall in torrents upon the then short Atlantic slope, and South America would be deprived of its immense rivers, dense forests, and fertile plains. 63. AltJiough the Mountain Cliains and Plateaus of South America are Extensive, yet they only cover about one-fifth of its surface, the greater part of it being vast plains. 64. Tliese huge Piles, called Mountains, projected by Vio- lence through fearful gaps in the earth's crust, from the melted interior, and occupying such positions of usefulness to the earth and to man, stand in their appointed places, as mon- uments, not of the Creator's power alone, but also of His wisdom and goodness. 65. liy means of these great Upheavals, man derives a knowledge of the interior form- ations of the earth, and obtains the wealth of the mines, which, without these convulsions, would yet lie deep in the earth and beyond his reach. {See il- lustration, page 8, s&xmd column.) 66. Gold, Silver, Iron, Coal, and other precious and useful minerals were formed below the earth's surface. Mining 18 3IOWTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHT. 67. Among the many remarkable Features in the formation of mountain ranges, is one that deserves notice on account of its bearing upon civilization ; it is their Fortnation in Peaks, between whose sloping, or perpendicular sides, Passes are left. A chain of peaks, resting on a plateau, is termed by the Spaniards, sierra, from its resemblance to a saw. 68. Hold up your Hand and you will have a good illustra- tion of a section of mountains and a plateau ; the fingers, sepa- rated from each other, represent the mountain peaks, and the hand represents a plateau. 69. If the Continents were deprived of their Land Eleva- tions, the change effected in the climates alone would render the now fruitful plains unfit for the abode of mankind. 70. Were the Tops of high Mountain Ranges connected, so as to form a continuous barrier, nations on opposite sides of the chain might be further apart in their relations with each other than if an ocean roUed between them. 71. In most of the Great Chains there are Natural Passes far below the summits of the mountains. 72. The Passes through the Alps are not haH-way up the mountains ; they are proportionately lower than those of other leading chains. 73. The Advantages of National Comm-unicafion are now seen by man, but they were recognized by the Creator when he formed the mountains, with their intervening passes. 74. If the whole Land Surface of the Earth were made Level by filling up the lowlands vrith the material from the ele- vations, its height would be about 900 feet above the sea leveL 75. If tlie Matter comprising all the Mountain Systems of the World were transferred to the polar regions, they woidd not be sufficient to make the polar diameter equal to the equatorial. 76. In North America there are Two great Mountain Systems; the Eocky and the Appalachian, or Alleghany. 77. The Rocky Mountain System is supported by the North American Plateau, which is elevated from 4,000 to 7,000 feet, and extends over a great part of Central America and Mexico, the western third of the United States, and the western part of British America. 78. In this System are included the Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada, and Sierra Madre. East of the Sierra Nevada is the Great Basin, or Plateau of Utah. 79. The Rocky Mountain System extends from the Isthmus of Panama, in a north-westerly direction, to the Arctic Ocean, at about 70° north latitude. 80. Its Widest Part is in the United States, and embraces aU that region between the Pacific Ocean and the central part of Colorado, a distance of over 900 miles. 81. The Surface of the Plateau slopes eastward from Pike's Peak to the Missouri Eiver. 82. The Most Western Range of this system commences at the southern extremity of Lower California, and extends along the Pacific coast as far north as Mt. St. EHas, in latitude 60°. 83. The Sierra Madre commences at the southern part of Colorado and extends into Mexico. 84. The Most Northern Pass in the United States through the Eocky Mountains, is near the head waters of the Missouri and Lewis Elvers, and is one of the routes proposed for a rail- road to the Pacific. 85. TABUE SHOWING THE CULMINATING POINTS, AND THE MEAN ELEVATION OF THE LAND. Mean Eletation. Feet CuiMiNATiHa Points. ) Foot 1 1,080 1,060 700 630 Mt. Everest 29,000 23,906 18,500 17,800 South America North America Kurope Mt. Aconcagua Vol. Popocatepetl'. . . Mt. Elboorz .... 86. What part of the United States contains great mountains and plateaus 1 Name the States on the eastern border of the great plateau re- gion. Is the greater part of the plateau east, or west, of the Rocky Mountains ? What part of this region contains val- leys ? What rivers drain the eastern part of the plateau? The north- western part ? The south-western part ? What lake drains the Great Basin of Utah? Has it any outlet ? How much of the surface of the United States consists of pla- teaus ? About one-ludf. What can you say of the surface of Texas? The Mountains and Plateaus of the United States are here colored Brown ; the Lowlands and Valleys, Green. 87. What States east of the Mississippi Riv- er contain high land ? In what direction do the mountains of that region extend ? In what part of Maine is the surface most elevated ? Of Massachusetts ? Con- necticut ? New York ? Pennsylvania ? Vir- ginia ? Maryland ? Tennessee ? Ken- tucky ? North Caro- lina? South Carolina ? Georgia ? Alabama ? What portions of the Atlantic States consist of lowlands? What portions of the Gulf States consist of low. lands? What river drains the great lowland re- gion of the United States ? What rivers have their sources in the Appalachian System 1 VOLCANOES,— EAMTHQ UAKES. 19 Seaion VII. K§ ^OLC ANOES - E ARTHQU AKES. one of the Lipari (lip'o-re) Islands, Hecla in Iceland, Coto- paxi (ko-io-pax'e) one of the Andes, Sangay near the city of Quito, Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii (Aa/t-jin'e), and Tene- riffe on one of the Canary Islands. \ Volcano, and Fissures caused by Earthquakes, may be illustrated by means of a Cake which IS burst open at the Top, by the Escape o^ Steam arising from the Fluids within the Cake i the Heat of the Oven corresponding to that of the Earth's Interior. 1. Volcanoes, JEktrthqttake/i, the Rifting and Sinkinff of tlie Land are all attributed to the pressure of steam and gases, proceeding from the heated interior of the earth. 2. .1 Volcano is an opening in the earth's crust through which issue melted rock, or lava, stones, ashes, flame, smoke, and steam. ((See lUustratton on page 8.) 3. The Materials thrown out usually accumulate around tho opening, called the crater. 4. A lirnt in tlw, Hktrth'n Crust may be made beneath the Bea, where a high mountain will sometimes be formed ; some- times no elevation appears ; the fire, lava, and other material being thrown upwards through the water. 5. VolranocH allow tlie Escape of fire and gases from the nterior of the earth, and thus prevent greater destruction by earthquakes. 6. Sonic Volcanoes remain inactive for long or short periods ; some now called extinct may again become active. 7. Volcanic action is usually preceded by eai-tliquakea, which sometimes rend the earth open in fissures, and engulf whole villages and cities. 8. If!/ these Convulsions Mountnins and Ifills are raised, in some instances, from what, a few hours before, were low lands. 9. Throuifh the Ojteninffs issues Volcanic Matter. Vast quantities of water, mud, and fish are sometimes ejected from mountains in South America ; they proceed from subterranean lakes or pools. 10. On the West Coast of Itnly a volcano called Monte Nuovo (noo-o'vo), over 400 feet in height, was formed in two days, and the adjoimng land was elevated so that the bottom Ef the bay for 200 yards from the shore, was raised above the 'ater level, leaving the fish on the newly formed shore to be icked up by the inhabitants. 11. The Most \oted Volcanoes in tlie World are Vesuvius on the coast of Italy, Etna in Sicily, Stromboli (strom'bo-le) on Fissures caused by an Earlhquake in Italy 1713. 12. The Number of Active Volcanoes on the Earth is about 250, more than half of which are on the coasts and islands that line the Pacific Ocean. The most remarkable volcanic region is in Malaysia. Continents have their volcanoes mostly on their borders ; those of the Western Continent are chiefly among the Andes and the Eocky Mountains. 13. Although Earthquakes mostly occur in Volcanic Dis- tricts, yet any part of the earth's surface is subject to them. Some are violent and destructive, while others are almost or entirely imperceptible. 14. On the Western Continent, Earthquakes are most fre- quent in Central America, Chili, and Peru ; in Europe, they occur chiefly in Italj' and its vicinity. 15. The Approach of an Earthquake, like the eruption of a volcano, is sometimes indicated by symptoms of unusual agitation beneath the surface of the ground. 16. Amouff the Greatest Earthquakes of which we have a record, is that which destroyed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (pom-pay'e), A.D. 63 ; and, after they had lain in ruins for sixteen years, they were again overwhelmed by an erup- tion of Mt. Vesuvius. 17. In 1692, roi-t Royal, the Capital of tlie Island of Jamaica, was sunk in less than one minute ; the sea rolling in, and driving the vessels that were in the harbor over the tops of the sinking houses, 18. The Great Earthquake of lAsboti, in 1755, commenced with a didl, rumbling soimd below the surface, immediately followed by a tremendous shock, which threw down a large part of the city ; and, in the space of six minutes, 60,000 peo- ple perished. The *>« retired to a distance, only to return in a vast wave, fifty feet high. The unfortunate JPeoj>le rushed from the falling buildings to secure shelter on the new and massive marble quay (ke), which suddenly sank with them into the sea ; the water closing over the spot to the depth of 600 feet. Xot a slnyle Fragment of the many Vessels, nor one of the thousands of human bodies that were drawn into this frightful chasm, ever floated to the surface ; all being engulfed 20 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGBArHT. in the fissiires which opened, and immediately closed over them. A I'ortiou of the Earth four times as large as Europe was affected by this terrific shock. The Waters of tJie Scotch Lakes suddenly rose above, and then subsided below, their leveL On the Sliores of t/is West Indies the tide rose twenty feet, and the water resembled ink ; even the coast of Massa- chusetts and the waters of Lake Ontario were sensibly affected. 19. In 1811, occurred the Earthquake of Neiv Madrid, in Missouri, which was remarkable for the continuous quakiug and rending, over an extent of 300 miles, during several months. Great Openings were made in the surface, from which mud and water were projected. 20. These Internal Convulsions continued until they cul- minated, March, 1812, in the Earthquake of Caracas, on the northern coast of South America, by which the whole of that splendid city became instantaneously a mass of ruins, and thousands of its inhabitants perished, 21. In 1822, an Earthquake occurred in Chili, which re- sulted in the elevation of a large section of country to a height varying from two to seven feet. 22. In 1857 and 1858, Bepeated Shocks were felt, at inter- vals, in the coimtry around Naples. Several towns were re- duced to heaps of ruins, and about 30,000 inhabitants perished. 23. During the Earthquake, Mt. Vesuvius continued in action ; and, by affording a means of escape for the confined gases, doubtless prevented the entire destruction of the city of Naples and the ruin of all the region in the immediate vicinity of the volcano. 24. In 1859, the City of Quito (ke'to) and several towns in its vicinity were almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake. 25. In August, 1868, an Earthquake occurred in Peru, Chili, and Ecuador, which caused a fearful loss of life and property ; and, in October, several shocks were experienced in CaUfornia, causing considerable damage in the principal cities. 26. Shocks have been felt at different times in various parts of the United States. 27. Subsidences, like Upheavals, sometimes occur so gently that the inhabitants are only aware of the change by the dif- ference in the sea level. In 1819, an area of 2,000 square mUes about the mouth of the Indus, in Hindoostan, was sud- denly converted, by an earthquake, into an inland sea. Fort Sindree after the Earthquake. 28. The Fort and Village of Sindree sank so much that only the tops of the fort, houses, and trees were Been above the water. 29. The Coast of Siveden has been rising for many years ; near Stockholm, at the rate of a few inches in a century. 30. In Greenland, the south-west coast has been slowly sinking for four centuries past. 31. In 1866, an Island was Upheaved from the bottom of the sea south-east of Greece. The water was violently agi- tated, and from the fissures rushed flame, smoke, lava, and fragments of rock. Sedion VIII. cx>- Fort Sindree before it was SubmerKed by the Earthquake of 1819. f LAINS AND 1|ALLEYS. 1. The Land Surface of the Earth may be divided into two general classes, highlands and lowlands; the highlands comprising mountains and plateaus ; the lowlands, plaius and valleys. 2. Lowlands comprise all lands whose elevation is not more than 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the sea. 3. A Plain surrounded by Mountains or hills is called a vaUey. 4. Through the Lowest Part of a Valley, or near its cen- ter, generally flows a river, which drains it, 5. Lowlands comprise far the greater part of the land sur- face of the earth, and in them is found the great mass of vege- tation, animals, and mankind. 6. The Soil of the Loivlands is constantly enriched by the alluvial washings from the mountain sides, which have filled the fissures and depressions of the rock that originally formed the land surface of the earth ; it is still further enriched by the collection upon it of decomposed vegetable and animal substances. About two-thirds of the "Western Continent are covered by plains. 7. The Great Central Plain of Worth America is all that part north of the Gulf of Mexico and between the Eocky and Alleghany Mountains, an area of about three and a quarter millions of square miles ; comprising four great basins, drained DESERTS AND OASES. 21 by the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, and Mackenzie Rivera, and Hudson Bay. 8. The Lowlands of South America comprise those of the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata Eivera, and cover four-fifths of the surface east of the Andes. 9. The Loivlands of the Orinoco, termed Idanos, are less than 300 feet above the sea level, and present a surface almost ' as even as that of water. l>uriny the Dry Seatton, from May to November, the ground is parched and barren ; present- ing the appearance of a desert. Ihiring the Jf'et Seasoti, from November to May, the clouds, driven westward by the Trade Winds, pour down their rain ; when horses, cattle, serpents, and alligators suddenly appear in vast numbers. 10. The riainn or Lowlands of the Amazon, termed Silvan, extend from the Andes to the Atlantic, a distance of 1,500 miles, and average 600 miles in breadth. They rover an Area of about 2J millions of square miles, and consist, chiefly, of dense forests into which man has scarcely penetrated. 11. The Plainti of the Attutzon are about two-thirds the size of aU Europe. 12. The Vallni of tlie La Plata consists mainly of vast grassy flats, called Pampas, where vast herds of cattle feed ; tlieite Animals are hunted for their hides, horns, and tallow, which constitute the chief export of that region. 13. The Three Plains of South America cover an area of 5,000,000 square miles, while all Europe contains but 3,500,000 square miles. 14. The Great Northern Plnin of tlie Old World lies north of its chief mountain system. It Exteiuls from the shores of the North Sea and Englisli Chaimel, eastward, over France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Northern Germany, Russia in Europe, Russia in Asia, and Lidependent Tartary, to Behring Strait ; interrupted only by the Ural Chain, which forms a natural boundary between Europe and Asia. 15. The Portions of this Great Plain y,'\nch.a.T6 drained by the tributaries of the North, Baltic, and Black Seas, are famous for their fertility. 16. That Part of tlte Plain bordering on the North, Baltic, and White S<-os, evidently emerged from the ocean at a much later period than some other parts of the continent ; indeed, its elevation is yet incomplete ; for many parts of Holland are still below the sea level, and are protected from inundation by means of dikes constructed by the inhabitants. 17. In the Itegion of the (Uispian and Aral S<-as, the sur- face is also much depressed ; some parts being below the level of the sea. 18. L'ntil a Period eomj>aratively Recent, it probably formed the bed of a great inlet, or arm of the ocean, from which it has been isolated by the upheaval of the surround- ing highlands. The Soil contains sand, sea-shells, and salt, and the region is consequently desolate. There being no out- let to the enclosed watera, the seas of this basin are strongly impregnated with salt. 19. Toward tlie Arctic Ocean, the plains in Europe and Asia are a boundless waste, swampy in summer, and frozen in winter. 20. The Polar ICryiotis of North America may be consid- ered a continuation of the lowlands of Northern Asia. Oe6i:ion IX. Ieserts and #ases. 1. Deserts are Extensive Tracts destitute of water, and, con- sequently, of vegetation and animal life. 2. Their Condition is Attributable, chiefly, to the heat and dryness of the winds which blow over them. 3. The Desert Iteyion of the Old World extends over the greater part of Northern Africa, and north-eastward over vast regions of Arabia, Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Lidependent Tartary, and the Chinese Empire ; this is, also, the great rainless region of the world : its area is more than twice that of the United States. 4. The Surface of that jmrt of Sahara which lies north of Timbuctoo (see Map of Afnca), thence toward the Atlantic, is a vast sandy waste covered with a coating of salt and sea- shells. 6. At times, the Desert is Visited by tlM dreaxled Simoon — a hot, suffocating vnnd which drives the burning sand in great clouds furiously over the surface, for great distances. 6. To avoid Suffocation, travelers throw themselves on the ground with their faces to the earth, stopping their ears and noses with their handkerchiefs until the storm has passed ; their camels lie close to the groimd and bury their noses in the sand. 7. By means of tlie Winds which Blow over the Desert, some houses, villages, and towns have been completely covered with the driven sand. There have been Discovered remains of ancient temples so long buried that no record of them is found in history. 8. L.-a Steamer uiling from Europe to the United bi.u Bottom of the Ocean,— Whalee,— Seaweeds ^,5lnl,K ,he CoasHi Wreck at the 19. The Dt-pth of the Water surrounfUna tl^e British Jsluiul.t and the islands east of Asia, is only about one-fortieth of that of the ocean basin. 20. If the ocean were withdrawn from the earth, its bed would api)ear chiefly as extensive valleys of various depths, and the parts adjoining the continents, as plateaus, sloping suddenly downward to the valleys. 21. The Ocenn in Veepent near the tropics ; here, also, are the highest mountains. 22. The Jtfjtth of the Ocean varies from 1,000 to 30,000 feet. Between Ireland and Newfoundland the bed of the sea is a submarine plateau, remarkable for its comparative even- ness, and the quietness of the waters that rest upon it. The depth of the water there varies from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. 23. The Depth of the Gulf of MexUo is about 5,000 feet in its deepest part ; of the Mediterranean from 3,000 to 9,000 feet; of the North Sea, 180 feet. The mean depth of the Ocean is estimated to be between 15,000 and 20,000 feet. 24. A Heprension of the Water lA-vel of about 300 feet would extend the main land of Europe and Asia over their neighboring seas and islands. 25. Were the Ma^ts of Water dlmininl^d, so that its greatest depth would not exceed 5,000 feet, the elevation of the conti- tinents would be so increased that the climate of the lowlands, even in the temperate and torrid zones, would cause them to l)ecome frozen wastes ; the most fertile plains of Europe would then have an elevation above the depressed ocean level of over 15,000 feet, the present height of Mt. Blanc ; the Mississippi valley would attain a far greater elevation than the present altitude of the highest peaks of the Eocky Mountains. 26. Therefore, it is plain that the f'liitiate of any Locality itepeniln essentially, not only upon its distance north or south of the Equator, but also upon its elevation above the level of the sea. 27. The Saltnesa of the Ocean is supposed by some to be caused by great masses of salt, forming parts of its bed, or by the salt brought into it by rivers ; others hold that it was originally made salt by the Creator. Seftion XI. ^. UOVEMENTS OF THE ^CEAN. 1. The Movements of the Oceanic Waters are of three kinds, — ^waves, currents, and tides. Waves may be influenced by tides or by winds. The tide affects the whole depth of the ocean ; the wind affects the water nearer the surface. 2. Currents ami Tides are regular and constant. 3. Tides are caused by the influence of the moon and sun ; mostly of the former, 4. The Oceanic C'nrretifM are caused, or modified, by the winds, the difference of temperature between the Equator and the poles, and by the revolution of the Earth on its axis. 5. If the Earth were at Rest, the whole surface covered evenly with water, and under no external influence, there would be no currents, or important movements of the water ; but admit the warm rays of the siin, and there would follow two great movements ; the warm tropical waters flowing toward the poles, and the waters of the polar regions toward the Equa- tor. 6. As Cold Water is Heavier than Warm Water, the latter would leave the Equator as surface or upper cur- rents, and the cold water would ap- proach it as under currents. Under these circumstances, the directions of the currents woidd be north and south. Besides this, the Water which is taken up from the Tropical Regions by Evaporation, is replaced by water flowing from the direction of the poles. 7. Allowing the Ettrth to Revolve on Its Axis from west to east, and, remembering that the motion of the s.pou N.POLE 24 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL GBOGBAFHY. S.POLE surface is most rapid at the Equator and diminislies toward the poles, you will observe that as the waters from the polar regions approach the Equa- tor, they are unable to acquire the more rapid motion of that part of the earth ; consequently, the Water falls behind, and presents the appearance of a cur- rent rushing from east to west, round and round on each side of the Equa- tor ; this is called the Equatofial Cur- rent. 8. The Course of the Equatorial Current is cluinged by the deep sea- slopes of the continents and islands. The eastern angle of South America is so situated that the Equatorial Cur- rent is divided at Cape St. Eoque. 9. The Wortfiem Section of the Equatorial Current here takes a north- westerly direction, enters the Gulf of Mexico between Cuba and Yucaran, and issues from it between Cuba and Florida, and then turns north-eastward, constituting the Gulf Stream. 10. While the Equatorial Current appears to seek a westerly direction, it actually moves with the earth east- ward ; and, although not fast enough to keep up with the unyieldiag land of the Equatorial regions, still, when transferred to those parts of the sur- face whose easterly motion is less rapid, the Equatorial Current retains sufficient of its actual easterly velocity imparted to it when near the Equator, to go ahead of those parts nearer the poles. Boat Race illustrating Currents ot the Ocean The Starting Points are shown by the Three Outline Figures on the Left: 11. When you are on a Steamboat, its motion causes the water, rocks, and trees near by to appear as if rushing past you in the opposite direction; even when you pass a boat which is sailing in the same direction with you, but less rapidly, it appears to move behind and away from you. 12. In the Illustration above, the Steamboat represents the land of the Equatorial regions ; the small boat in which are two oarsmen, represents the water of those regions. Although both started together as shown in the left of the pic- ture and moved in the same direction, — from west to east, — ^the swifter motion of the steamboat causes it to leave the oarsmen behind ; consequently they appear to the people on the steam- boat to move in the opposite direction, — from east to west. 13. The Two Oarsmen rejrresent the Equatorial Current ; they actually move eastward, but apparently westward. 14. Now compare the motion of the boat containing the two oarsmen with that of the boat containing but one, and it will readily be seen that the former goes ahead of the latter, and moves to the east ; here, the two oarsmen represent the Mcfurn Equatorial Current flowing eastward, which in the North At- lantic is called the Gulf Stream, while the one oarsman represents the regions toward the poles, where the eastward motion of the Earth on its axis is slower than at the Equator. 15. The Waters of the Equatorial Current and the Gulf Stream are warmer than the other waters of the ocean, and have an important bearing upon the climate, productions, and inhabitants of the countries coming under their influence. 16. To the Gulf Stream Europe is greatly Indebted for its healthful climate, rich productions, and the general prosperity of its people. 17. The Numermis Inlets from tlic Sea which give to West- em and Southern Europe an exceedingly extensive coast Une, are peculiarly fitted for the distribution of the favorable influ- ences of the Gulf Stream. 18. Disconnect North and South America by an extension westerly of the Caribbean Sea or the Gulf of Mexico, so that the Gulf Stream woidd flow into the Pacific, and the prosperity of Europe would be suddenly diminished ; the 3IiM and Genial Climate of the Uritish Isles and France would be ex- changed for that of the bleak coasts of Labrador and New- foundland, which lie between the same parallels. 19. In the same manner, the Equatorial Current of the Pacific continues westward until it reaches the islands east of Asia, where the northern part of the current is turned north- eastward to higher latitudes, where its easterly velocity pre- dominates. 1 NORTH POLE. EQUATOR EQUATOR. The Equatorial and Japan Currents ot the Pacific Ocean. 20. Under the Name of the Japan Current it then flows eastward across the Pacific, imtil turned by the western side of North America, when, following the direction of the coast, it meets the Equatorial Tropical Current. 21. Therefore, the General Flan of the Equatorial Current is a flow round and round in ellipses, westward on or near the Equator ; turning to the north in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the south in the Southern Hemisphere. 22. The Equatorial Current flows in Deep Waters, and its course is bent by the steep sides of the ocean's bed, about 100 miles from the coast line. I I CURREH^TS OF THE OCBAJf. 2S iAO J.tmiitxinie Lukes In Mountuinoiis Regions are suppUed from the melting snow of the surrounding peaks. 11. Lakes oerur iu highlands and lowlands. Some are ele- vated several thousand feet above the sea level, while others are depressed below it. 12. The yfost Elevated Lake in tlie World, is Lake Sir-i-kol, which is situated on the mountains in the western part of the Chinese Empire. It is about 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. {See Illustration on page 17.) 13. I^ke Ttftraea, between Peru and Bolivia, is over 12,000 j feet above the level of the ocean. Its area is more than 2,000 j square miles, and its depth is equal to that of Lake Ontario. ! 14. The Dead Sea, properly a lake, is more than 1,300 feet below the sea level. It is the greatest depression of the kind on the globe. This famous lake, whose formation resulted from the catastrophe which destroyed the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, about 1,900 B. C, contains a for greater portion of salt than do other salt lakes ; the watar being so impregnated with it, that even heavy bodies float buoyantly. Asphaltum, in large quantities, and sulphur, are fovmd on its banks. 15. The Waters of most Lakes are Fresh ; but those having no outlet are usually salt. This is because all streams receive from the land through which they flow, small quantities of salt, which the waters hold in solution until it reaches the ocean, or another body of water having no outlet ; here the salt is deposited. 16. The Most Celebrated Salt Lakes are the Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, and Dead Sea, and the great Salt Lake of Utah. 17. The Basin of a Lake comprises all the land drained by the streams which flow into the lake. It may be seen on a map, by passing a line around the sources of aU its tribu- taries. 18. Subterranean Lakes are numerous. They are collec- tions of rain water in caverns which are below the surface of ttie ground. 19. Subterranean Lakes and Streams frequently cause de- structive inundations. The water and steam thrown up by volcanoes proceed from these lakes. 20. The Island of Trinidad, situated near the mouths of the Orinoco Biver, contains a lake three miles in circum- ference, that is famous for the quantities of pitch contained in its waters. This substance, like petroleum, is raised by the agency of subteiTanean fire. 21. Lake Superior is the largest body of fresh water on the globe. Its area is 32,000 square miles, and is equal to about three-fifths that of England. 22. Are the waters of the Great Lakes salt, or fresh T What river forms their outlet ? In what direction does the St. Lawrence Kiver flow 1 Mention the depth of each lake. Which is the deepest, — the shallowest ? Which has the most elevated surface ? Between what two lakes are the Falls of Niagara situated ? From which does the water of the falls proceed 1 In what put of the St. Lawrence are the Thousand Islands ? The Rapids t S2 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGBAPMY. Sedion XV. |TMOSPHERE;-THE ^^^INDS. 1. The Atmosphere is a gaseous fluid which surrounds and rests upon the earth. 2. It is (IS necessary to TJfe, as are water and food ; neither plants nor animals could exist without it. 3. Air cotisiSls of Two Gases, oxygen and nitrogen, mixed together. 4. The Ingredient of the Air ivhich sustains Animal Life, is oxygen; but, should these two gases be separated, the result would be instant death. 5. The Air, like IFJiolesome Food, is necessarily composed of both nutritious and innutritions substances. 6. Oxygen forms about one-fourth of the air ; nitrogen, three-fourths. 7. The Weight of the Atmosphere is about gj^ that of water. 8. It is Heaviest at the surface of the earth, and diminishes in density, according to the distance above the surface. 9. On the Tops of the Highest Mountains, the air is so thin that man cannot breathe there. 10. The Atmosphere extends upward, to a distance, it is supposed, of about fifty miles. 11. Winds are currents or movements of the air, caused by the different degrees of temperature to which the air is sub- jected, and by the revolution of the earth upon its axis. 12. The Air is Warmed, partly by the passage through it of the sun's rays, but mostly by the radiation of the sun's heat from the earth's surface; consequently, the warmest part of the atmosphere is that which is in contact with the surface of the earth. 13. The Heat and Density of the Atmosphere diminish ac- cording as the elevation is increased ; this has been observed by travelers who have ascended high mountains, and by aero- nauts in their balloon ascensions. 14. As that part of the Atmosjtliere is Warmest which is nearest the Surface, the upper and surrounding cold air presses down and replaces the warm and hght air, which rises to more elevated regions. 15. A Balloon ascends because it is fiUed with a gas that is lighter than common air. When the gas is allowed to escape, the surrounding air rushes in and causes the balloon to descend. 16. The Two General Movements of the Air are from the Equator to the Poles, and from the Poles to the Equator. 17. As the Cool and Heavy Winds press toward the Equa- tor, they are unable to keep up mth the eastward motion of the Equatorial regions of the earth ; and, by falling behind, they appear as a current of air moving westward. {For further explanation, see page 23, paragraphs 6 and 7.) 18. A Current of Water receives the name of the direction toward which it flows ; but a current of air, that from which it moves. Therefore, a westerly current of water and an east wind move m the same direction. 19. Changes in the Courses of tlie Winds are caused by va- rious bodies of land, and by high mountaia ranges. A^. u. /// CALMS OF CANCER V / / / /^ ^;CftLMS OF CAPRICORN X. 20. Wluire Two Winds from Different Directions meet, they counteract each other's force, and cause calms ; hence, there are Equatorial Calms, Calms of Cancer, Calms of Capricorn, and Polar Calms. 21. The Trade Winds of i| the Northern Hemisphere > blowing from the north-east, and those of the Southern Hemisphere blowing from I the south-east, meet near ' the Equator, and neutralize each other; thus causing calms in that region around the earth. 22. The Winds then rise to a greater elevation and tend toward the North and South Poles, moving over chart showing the Directions of the Wind«. the tropical regions as upper currents. 23. When they reach the temperate latitudes, they have become so cool and heavy on account of their elevation, that they descend to the surface, and blow from the south-west in the Northern Hemisphere, and from the north-west in the Southern Hemisphere. These are called the Return Trades or Passage winds. {See page 24, paragraphs 10 to 14 inclusive.) 24. The General Direction of the Winds in the Tropical Megions is toward the west. These winds contribute to the westward flow of the Equatorial Current. 25. In the Temperate Regions there is a like con'espond- ence between the Eetum Currents of the ocean and the Eetmn Trade" Winds ; their motion being toward the east. 26. A loyage from the United States to England, in a sail- ing vessel, is made several days shorter by the aid of these winds and the Gulf Stream, than that from England to the United States. The time made by steamers from New York to Liverpool, is between nine and twelve days ; but, returning, they require from two to four days longer. 27. The Prevailing SoutJi-west Winds of the North Tem- perate Zone, passing over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, contribute largely to the advantages of Western and Southern Europe in climate, productions, and general develop- ment. 28. If the Earth revolved on its Axis in the Opposite Di- rection — ^from east to west — ^in what direction would the Trade Winds and the Equatorial Current move ? If the earth did not revolve on its axis, what would become of the ocean cur- rents and the winds ? 29. The Plan of the Winds, like that of the ocean currents, is such that a constant circulation of air is maintained between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, round and round the globe, and between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, from the burning zone of the Tropics to the frozen regions of the Poles. " The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about xmto the north ; it whirleth about continually." r MOISTURE AND EVATOBATIOIf. 33 l«a Breezt;. A Vit.-w un t-ie at-a Coast. From Morning; until Evening the Air which it over the Sea is Heavter than that over the Land } consequently, the Wind blows all Day from the Sea. 30. The Plan of Differencen in NfUttre, producing contact, opposition, and variety, ib beneficial to mankind. 31. It in retof/nized in the light of day and the darkness of ght, in land and water, sunshine and rain, in the variety of productions, and in the diverse pursuits of people. 32. The Winflom of thi» Plan appears not only in the ex- istence of such differences, but in their coioperalion and unity. 33. Sett Cofufts and Iidnmln enjoy a more even temperature throughout the year than inland districts, because the ocean does not change its temperature, either in summer or winter, so readily as the land. 34. Winds which blow over the sea are generally not so cold in winter, nor so warm in summer, as those blowing over the land. 35. Land n^ar the Sea is Warmer rliirhiff the Itaf/ than the neighboring water. Sea air is then cooler and heavier than the air of the land ; henoe, the wind blows all day from the sea, and is called a sea breeze. 36. After Suno Vnjtora rise itumtiy from Cold, or Wartu <'tirrriit/i? From what CUr. rent do vapois come which supply the rivers of Western and Southern Europe? From what current are the rivers of tlio Pacific coast of North America 8u|)pned 1 (See Chart on page 25.) 54. Oth trhicJt Coaat of arerntatul i* Jtain moat Ahundant ? On which side of Norway? France? Spain? Arabia? Australia? Hudson Bay? 65. miat Great River in Africa flows through the rainless district ? Whence does the Nile receive its waters ? 56. If no Ocean intcrcetied between America and Europe, the absence of rain alone would make Europe desolate. 57. The Great Rainless Region of the Old World includes the Great Desert of Africa and the deserts of Arabia, Persia, and Gobi. 58. Their ContUtlon is caused, mainly, by their interior position, the comparative dryness of the winds, and the ab- sence of lofty peaks that would act as condensers of the thin and scattered vapor which floats over them. 59. In the New World, the principal rainless districts are in Mexico and Central America, and in South America, on the western side of the Andes. 60. In some Places where Rain seldom or never falls, vegetation is sustained by frequent and heavy dews. 36 MOWTEITH'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Chart showing Isothermal Zones and the Mean Annual Temperature oF the Different Parts of the Earth's Surfaoi Sedion XVII. f UMATE-fsOTHERMAL ^NES. 1. Climate is the condition of a place in relation, chiefly, to the temperature and moisture of the atmosphere. 2. Isotherms, or Isothermal Lines, are lines drawn on a a chart through places of equal mean temperature. 3. Mean Annual Temperature is midway between the heat of summer and the cold of winter. In Cincinnati the mean temperature of summer is 73°, and of winter, 33° ; the mean annual temperature is 53°, which is obtained thus : 73° +33° „, — 2 =^^ • 4. If the Temperature diminished uniformity from the Equator to the poles, isothermal hues would correspond with parallels of latitude. 5. Their Directions are various, and indicate the influence upon climate, of ocean currents, winds, high mountains, frozen plains, and burning deserts. 6. Therefore, the Hot, Cold, and Temperate Zones of the earth are situated between isothermal lines, and not between parallels of latitude. These zones are called Isothermal Zones. 7 Isotliermal Lines have their Greatest Inclination in the North Atlantic Ocean, and show that the north-west coasts of the Old World possess warmer climates throughout the year than other parts of the land, at the same latitude. 8. This is chiefly owing to the influence of the GuK Stream, which warms the prevailing south-west winds passing over it on their way toward the west coasts of Europe. 9. Eastward from these Coasts, the temperature gradually faUs, as shown by the isotherms, on account of the cooling influence of the high mountains of Europe and Asia, and the frozen plains of Siberia. 10. If the Waters of the Atlantic imparted no Warmth to the atmosphere, Newfoundland and Northern France, being between the same parallels of latitude, would have the same climate. 11. Wltliout the Influence of the Gvlf Stream, the now genial and productive cUmate of the British Isles would be similar to that of the cold and desolate regions of Labrador. 12. In reality, however, the Center of Great Britain, at the latitude of 55°, has the same mean temperature as the east- em side of the United States, at the latitude of 40°. 13. The Isotherm tvhich passes through Newfoundland ex- tends north-eastward to the coast of Iceland, 15° nearer the North Pole. 14. The Temperature of the coast of Norway is the same as that of Central Labrador, although 20° of latitude lie between them. The influence of the Gulf Stream is felt upon the coasts of Spitzbergen and also upon the north coast of Nova Zembla. CLIMATES COJiLPAREJ). 15. The Land of the Northerti llrmii*ph(-re maybe divided nto six climatic zones : The Torrid or Hottest, the Hot, (V^arm, Temperate, Cold, and Frigid or Coldest. 16. THE MEAN ANNUAL TEMPEKATUBE OP THE ZONES. The Frigid Zone, below 32° Fahi The Cold Zone, between 32o and 40° " The Temperate Zone, between 40<> and GO" " The Warm Zone, between 60o and 70° " The Hot Zone, between 70° and 80° " The Torrid Zone 18 over 80o " 17. The Isotherm of 32° Fahr. is the line of constantly rozen ground. 18. Tlirouuh what FarU of Jforth Ameriai doe* thr InolHerm of 39° jmsn ? Through what parts of Europe? Of Asia? What large bay in British mi^rica receives cold water from the Arctic Ocean t ^^^lat effect has the temperature of the water of Hudson Bay upon the climate of the sur- rounding regions? What is the direction of the isotherms which pass over those regions ? 19. nital riarm are under the same Isotherm a* Xew York? What is their mean temperature? What places are under the isotherm which passes over Panama ? What is their mean temperature ? What places are under the isotherm which passes over Newfoundland ? 20. H7ia( l^rU of the XoHhern llemUphere are art extends furthest south t What is the mean annual temperature of Cape Horn t 21. The rrerailing WuuIh of the United States and Europe blow from the south-west ; consequently, they are Land Winds, to the eastern parts of the United States and Europe, and cause Excessive Climates («ee page 33, paragraph 34) ; while to the western coasts, they are Sea Whuh, and produce that evenness of climate for wliich Western Europe and the Pacific coast of the United States are remarkable. 22. //■ tve Coinparc the Climate of y'ew York vrith that of San Francisco, the diflference between oceanic and land cU- mates will be obvious. THE MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE HOTTEST AND COLDEST MONTHS DUBINQ THE YEAR, IN NEW YORK AND SAN FRANCISCO. Hottest month in New York, 80° Fahr. ;— San Francisco, 68°. Coldest 26° 60°. Mean difference between sum- — mer and winter 66° - - - 8°. 23. If'hile Snmt> uttually lies in Neiv York a great part of the Winter, it rarely falls in San Francisco. The winter of San Frsmcisco consists of a Rainy Season, which is caused by the cooling influence of the mountains upon the moisture of the sea winds. Its summer is known as the Dry Season. 24. The Temiteratureofthe East Cotist of the United States is further depressed by cold waters from the Arctic Currents, which here flow in a south-westerly direction between the Gulf Stream and the coast. It is therefore a counter current. 25. The Vallet/s near the Coast of California possess a more even and delightful climate than any other part of the world. 26. In some parts of tlie Faroe Isltmds, water never frti^ while in Yakoutsk, a city of Siberia, which lies under \ same parallel, the summers average 9° warmer, and the wit»- ters, 76° colder. The mean difference in temperature between summer and Avinter at the former place, is only 15° ; at the latter, it is 100°. 27. In tchieh of Ihe two Places jost mentioned is the climate excessive ? E!ven ? Continental ? Oceanic ? 28. In the Azores and Madeiras — islands north-west of Africa, — the climate is that of eternal spring ; flowers bloom there throughout the year in the open air, although those islands are between the same parallels as Philadelphia, Cin- cinnati, and St. Louis. 29. Forests, Fertile I'lains, and Parched Deserts owe their respective conditions not only to their position on the globe, but also to the influence of ocean currents, the agency of winds, and the presence or absence of rain. 30. The Isotherms of North America, Europe, and Asia extend in the same general direction — south-eastward from their western sides ; showing the mean temperature of their western coasts to be warmer than that of their eastern. 31. Tlie Climttte of the Atlantic Coasts of Europe corre- sponds with that of the Pacific Coast of North America. 32. Isothermal lines corresiiond more nearly with parallels of latitude in the Water Hemisphere than in the Land Hemi- sphere, showing the evenness of an oceanic climate. 33. Compare the Clinmte of Vaneourer's Island irith that of Maine. In tlie former, the summers are mild, and the frosts of short duration ; wliUe in the latter, the summers are hot, and the winters very severe, the snow lying on the ground from three to five months in the year. 84. Traveling Eastwardly from the Pact/le Coast of North America on any parallel north of San Francisco, what change of temperature is observed f (See Isothermal Line*.) ?i5. Sailtnv I>tte East from the Atlantic Coast, what change ? What part of the Pacific coast of North America lias the same temperature OS Newfoundland ? Give the latitude of each of these two places. What is tho average temperature ? What island on the Pacific coast of North America has the same tempera- ture as New York ? What is the latitude of each? Their mean temiierature t 80. WTuit Euroi>ean Country has a climate similar to that of California ? Although North Cape is 11° further north than Cape Farewell, its climate is no colder. Why ? What city in Russia has tho same latitude as Glasgow ? At which place is the winter more severe t Why ? 87. Why does the Climate of the West Indies differ from that of Newfound land? Which is further north — Canada, or Iceland ? In which are the winters more severe ? Why ? Which coast of the United States possesses the more even climate— the Atlantic, or Pacific ? "Wliy t 38. Tlie aimate of the Western Side of North America and of Western Europe is more conducive to health than that of their eastern parts, on account of its greater evenness. 39. If the Bed of the Atlantic should be elerated and become dry land, what climates would be affected, and how ? If a range of liigh mountains extended along the west coast of Europe, what would be the effect upon the climate and rains of that division ? 40. Why Is the Climate of the Atlantic Coast of North America Warmer in summer, and colder in winter, than that of the Pacific const ? What effect liave the Rocky Mountains upon the temperature of the west- erly winds of the United States? -38 MONTEITS'S PHYSICAL GEOGBAPSY. A Mountain Stream 41. Activity, Use, and Influence are everywhere, frcm the mighty ocean and lofty mountains to the little stream that turns the miller's wheel and furnishes drink to cattle. 42. The Common, Garden Worm opens channels in the ground through which the moisture enters to nourish the roots of plants, and otherwise assists man in preparing the soil. 43. The Ocean, although covering the greater part of the earth's surface, is not a vast waste, for it supplies the land with vegetation and an abundance of fresh water for the support of all life ; and, as the modifier of climate, it exerts its essential influence upon the physical, intellectual, and moral conditions of mankind, and contributes largely to the pros- perity of the nations of the earth. The Earth in the form of a Globe- The Earth in the form of a Cubei The Earth in the form of a Cylinder. 44. Kone can fall f,o recof/nize the Systemn of Winds and ocean currents as necessary to the life and well-being of the earth's inhabitants ; and, herein, the wisdom of the plan by which the world was made in the form of a globe. 45. If tlie World had been made in the Form of a Ouhe, or of a cylinder, there would not be that harmony of action between diverse conditions of the earth's surface which now exists. ifttie Earth were a. Great Cube, would there be zones of different degrees of temperature as there are now ? The same winds and ocean currents ? 46. Diversity in Climate and Productions of the earth, and in the pursuits of individuals and nations, constitutes a wise provision of the Creator. 47. All the Great Agents by which the various conditions of the earth are so wonderfully sustained, are so adapted to each other, and act together so harmoniously, that if but one should neglect to act its part, mankind would suffer — ^perhaps perish. 48. If the Froceaa of Hvaporation should be discontinued, what would be the effect upon vegetation, animals, and man 1 Or, if aU winds should cease, where would all the rain fall "? 49. The Southern Part of tlie United States is admirably adapted to agriculture. Its peculiarities of soil and climate so harmonize with each other that the amount of cotton alone which is here produced, and upon which milHons of the earth's inhabitants — on both continents — depend for clothing, com- prises nearly seven-eighths of the entire yield of the world. 50. The Rugged North-eastern Part of this Country is pro- vided with coal, iron, and mountain streams, which make it the great manufacturing region of the Union. 51. If the Gulf and Atlantic States of the South were mountainous, and the north-eastern States level, the cotton plant, sugar-cane, and rice would not grow either upon moim- tains of the south or cool plains of the north-east. Chart, showing that Climates between the Equator and the North Pole correspond with those on the Sides of High Mountains at the Equator 52. Temperature so ditninishes with Increase of Elevation that various cHmates, with their characteristic productions, are found not only upon the earth's surface between the Equator and the Poles, but Kkewise upon the sides of high mountains between their base and summit. 53. If we consider the Northern Hemisphere and the fiide of a mountain which is situate'^ under the Equator, to be di- vided each into three climatic zones, the Torrid Zone on the former would extend northward to about the parallel of 30°, and on the latter, upward to the elevation of about 5,000 feet ; the Temperate Zone of the former would extend to about the Isotherm averaging 60° latitude, and on the latter, to the height of about 15,000 feet. What part of the earth's surface and what part of a tropical mountain have a mean temperature of 80° Fahr.? Of 70°? Of 34°? 54. From the Equator toward the North Pole, the tem- perature diminishes about 1° for every 100 miles. 55. From the Level of the Ocean to the summit of a moun- tain, the temperature diminishes about 1° for every 350 feet. f THE CLIMATES OF ELEVATED REGIONS. 39 FROZEN REGIONS. 76. The Upper Part this JHeture repro- nt8 the regiona of per- ,jctu4l snow among the tropical Andee, which correspond, in tempera- ture, to the Frigid Zones. THest High SnotB-etad Prahs are the great con- densers which bring down moisture from tlie atmosphere, and supply the rains which fill the lakes and rivers of South America. TEMPERATE REGIONS. 57. The MtdiilK /v.r. tton of the picture ro- presents a region wluwo climate corresponds to that of the Tem- perate Zones. TItia Jtrffion nmtalnt plateaus and elevated cities, whoso inhabi- tants enjoy a cool and salubrious climate. lifpt^aaioiui on the surface of the plateaus form the Ixxls of el©, vated lakes and streams, which receive their w* tt'rs from the melting snows above them. Ilrrv are F^FrtUe Firldt of grain and grass ; here flourish trees, fruits, and ]ilant8 peculiar to the Temperate Zone. TROPICAL REGIONS. 58. Itrlow the JAn* which marks an clcv» tion of 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, U the climate wliicli cop. responds to that of the hot zone of the earth, not only in temperature, but also in its vegetable productions and species of animals. ■At varioun Jlriffhtu, are deep ravines and fearful precipices, down which rush streams and waterfalls. View among the Andei Mountaini, ihowing that 62. A Traveler afcendinf/ a High Mountain of the tropical Andes, passes through climates similar to those of the diflfor- ent zones, from the heat of the Equatorial, to the continual frost of the Arctic regions. 63. At the lias,- of the Moiintnin, OX at the ocean level, he endures the oppressive heat of the tropical sun, and observes the luxuriant vegetation, lofty trees, and luscious fruits of the hot zone. 64. Half-way up the Mountain, he enjoys the delightful FROZEN REGIONS. f,9. The Ilighnt I'rnka of the Tropical Andes are elevated above the level of the sea about 20,000 feet. The Mont Ifotrd are Chimborazo, Sorata, lUi- mani, Antisana, Coto paxi, and Arequipa. An immense bird, called the condor, builds its nest far up these heights, and has been luiown to fly above till- summit of Chimbo- razo. TEMPERATE REGIONS. 60. The VUii af I'otoMt is rt!prc8ented on the right of the illustration. It is built on a plateau, ■ :in elevation of more l.iin 12,000 feet al><>vo t lie level of the sea, and lontains about 30,000 iiiliabitants. (Julio is represented II the left, at an eleva- lion of alKjut 10,000 feet ; and, although almost immediately imder the Eiquator, its tempera- ture is that of continual spring. Surrounded by plains and fertile valleys which are enclosed by lofty • 1 1 luntaiuB, Quito is ct'le- ! :ite of Europe ; while, on the other hand, the vegetation of one region may be kept distinct from that of a neighboring region by intervening mountain ranges, or deserts. 38. Veyetntion prevents the soil from being washed away and injured by the rains. 39. The Winds not only mtpjtly Moisture tt> the Plants, but they also remove it when the quantity is superfluous. 40. Plants are distributed with reference to climate. In the Hot Zone grow rice, sago, bananas, dates, cocoanuts, and yams ; in the Temperate Zone, wheat, rye, Indian com, oats, and potatoes ; while the Fdar Begiona are almost destitute of food plants. 41. The CZimate of the Torrid Zone not only aflTords the most luxuriant vegetation, but keeps the trees and plants in leaf throughout the year ; while, in the other zones, vegetation diminishes with the distance from the Equator, and the leaves fall every year, at the approach of winter. ^ 1 NORTH POLE EQUATOR. Chart ihowing that the Luxuriance of Vegetation diminiehei toward the Poles. Treei and Productions of the Zones. 42. In the Torrid Zone, are the gigantic banyan tree, which covers more than seven acres, and the lofty palm, reaching the height of two hundred feet ; while in the Frigid Zone, there are found only dwarfed trees, low plants, and mosses. 43. Vegetation in the Northern Hetnisphe^re extends fur- ther north on the western sides of the continents than on the eastern, owing to the agency of the south-west winds which blow over the warm currents of the ocean. 44. The Forest Trees of the Temperate Zones are mostly deciduous — that is, their leaves fall in the autumn ; some, how- ever, are evergreen, or indeciduous. 45. The Productions peculiar to the Temperate and Frigid Zones do not generally thrive in the hot zone, even if trans- planted there, unless they are placed in elevated situations, where the climate corresponds with that of higher latitudes. 46. Apples, Pears, and drapes belong to the Temj)erate Zone, and thrive in the Hot Zone only at an elevation of from 600 to 1,000 feet. 47. The Produetiotis of One Zone are not separated from those of the adjoining zone by any distinct line, the change from one zone to another being gradual. 48. From the Base to the Summit of a LiOfty Mountain, vegetation varies with the elevation ; on its sides are the same gradations of climate, with their characteristic varieties of plants and trees, that exist on the earth's surface between the latitude of the mountain and the Poles. 49. The Mountuins and Valleys in the State of Ctdifftrnia afford every variety of climate, with fruits peculiar to every zone. There flourish the oUve, the fig, the date, the grape, the pine-apple, the peach, the apple, and the pear ; besides all varieties of grain. In the forests grow mammoth trees, many being from 300 to 400 feet high, and from 25 to 35 feet in diameter. 50. Of what use Is vegetation 1 What kinds of food are adapted to the inhabitants of the Temperate Zones? The Frigid? The Torrid Zone? In what zone do bananas, cocoa nuts, and dates grow t Wliat zone is most fa. vorable to grain, apples, and grapes 1 Do different kinds of plants receive their nourishment from the same ingredients of the soil 1 In what zone is vegetation the most abundant ? Mention some of the uses of trees and plants. Of snow. What two elements are necessary to the growth of all plants ? Name the principal trees and plants of the Torrid Zones. Of the Temper- ate Zones. Of the Frigid Zones. (See illustration on first column.) What effect have the winds upon the climate and productions of California? What can you say of the trees of California ? On which side of North America does vegetation extend further north? In what part of the Torrid Zone could you find the climate and productions of the Temperate Zone ? 51. The land which forms the continents was, at first, but sUghtly elevated above the surface of the water, and became covered with plants and heavy trees, such as are shown in the illustration on the following page — second colnmn. 52. Portions of the Earth's Surface would sink below the water, and their masses of vegetation, which were covered with sand, clay, etc., now appear in the form of coal. 63. .S'#f<7< was the Formation of the Importunt Coal Fields of the world. 64. In North America, one extends from Pennsylvania to Alabama, the workable area of which is estimated at 60,000 square miles ; another large field extends from Illinois to Texas. Coal abounds also in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and Newfoundland. 65. In the Old World, vast beds exist in Great Britain, France, Belgium, Spain, Germany, Hungary, and China. 42 MOJffTEITH'H PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Sand Stone. Clay- Interior or Sectional View of the Coal Regions of Pennsylvania, showing Strata, which re- sulted from Successive Submergences of the Surface. The Trees whose Stumps are nere represented, flourished at the Earth's Surface in Periods long past. 56. Bij nigging downward in the coal regions, various strata are met with, as shown above ; they do not consist of the same materials, nor do they lie ia the same order, in all places. 57. The Distribution of Coal in various parts of the earth, plainly indicates that its importance to man was anticipated by the Creator. Even the necessity for coal, in the working of iron ore, was provided for by Him ; this is observed in. the remarkable association of the two. 58. The Dirt-beds tvhich contain the Roots of Trees and Plants, formed, at some period, the surface soil which supported vegetation; and the greater the vegetable mass that was submerged, the thicker would be the coal bed ; and, while a coal bed extends over considerable space, it is generally much thinner than the strata of sand, clay, and stone, which may be above or below it. 69. Many Stumps of Large Dimensions, and with very extended roots, have been found both in America and Eng- land, transformed into coal ; the stumps retaining their shape and the natural roughness of the bark. 60. The Vegetation of which Coal was formed, included the trees and plants of the forests and marshes. 61. Vegetation ivhich undergoes Decay on the surface of the earth aserves to enrich the soil. 62. Vegetation tvhieh entered into the Fortnation of Coal must have been entirely submerged through long periods of time. 63. Had there been no Submergence of vegetation, we would not now be provided with coal. 64. The Different Coal Beds, lying one below the other, show how often that part of the surface was above the water level, and covered with vegetation. 65. In Nova Scotia, there have been discovered nineteen parallel seams of coal, varying in thickness from two inches to four feet. 66. At tlie present Bate of Consum^ption of Coal, it is esti- mated that the coal fields of Pennsylvania alone, could meet the demand of the whole world for more than 1,000 years. Appearance of Parts of the Earth's Surface at the Commencement of the Age of Reptiles. The Fern with other Trees and Plants here represented entered largely into the Forma- tion of Cpal> oe6l:ion XIX. MnIMALS; their IrEATION AND fes. 1. Vegetable and Animal IJfe existed long before the crea- tion of man, and mutually contributed to each other's support and nourishment ; vegetation sustaining animal life, and the decay of animal bodies and substances, through long ages, adding to the fertility of the soil. 2. Soil that is destitute of Decomposed Animal or Vegeta- ble Substances is very poor, and will yield little or no vegeta- tion ; such was the condition of vegetable Hfe at its commence- ment ; such, also, was the beginning of animal hfe — very infe- rior in character and form. 3. An Imjirovement in the Quality of tJie Soil, caused an improvement also in the varieties of plants ; following which came different and improved species of animals. 4. Geologists show that the Animals which were first created were very different from those we now see upon the land. 5. Those first formed were of the simplest construction, hardly distinguishable from plants. 6. Different Kinds or Cltisses of Animals followed each other ; each class being superior in construction, powers, and usefulness, to those which preceded it. 7. Throughout the Works of Nature, we see the leading law of development — improvement by successive steps. 8. According to this Law, from a small seed springs a ten- der plant, which enlarges gradually imtil it becomes a great tree. 9. The Mighty River started upon its course as a mere rivulet, which was formed from a trickling spring. ANIMALS; THEIB. CREATION AND BISTItlBUTION. 43 RADIATES. 17. Mammals are those animals which breathe with lungs, suckle their young, and have warm blood. They include Mankind {bimana — having ttvo hands), the Monkey (qitadru- mana — having four hands), and the following named animals : Jelly-fith Star^fith. Actinia. Corml. Medusa. Polyps. Actinia. Lion, Tiger, Leopard, CABinVOBA, OB FLE8H-EATBR8. Panther, Dog, Cat, Bear, Walrus, Seal. RUIOMANTS, OR CTJD-CHEWBaiS. Ox. Sheep, Goat, Deer, Camel, airaffe. BODEirrs, OR OKAWERB. Hare, Beaver, Rabbit, Rat, Squirrel, Mouse. 10. Anlmat Life first appeared in the form of Radiates. After them came Moduslcs, then Articulates ; after these there followed in order. Fishes, Reptiles, and Mammals. Last of all came Man. 11. A Kiioii'letlffe of the Aniumls tvhirh preceded .Han 18 obtained by digging into stratified rock, where their forms, sizes, and construction are distinctly observed. (iSee paye 8, paragrujih 10.) 12. liadiates, in constniction, resemble a flower or plant, but differ from them in having a mouth and stomach. Their bodies are nearly transparent, and seem only to float or rest in water. MOLLUSKS PACHYDERMS, OR THICK.8K1NNBO AKrMALS. Elephant, Horse, Hippopotamus, Zebra, Rhlnoceioe, Hog. bden'tatss, OR TOOTHLESS. Sloth, Ant-eater, Armadillo. CETACEA, OR BEA MAHMALS. Whale, Porpoise, Dolphin. IN8ECTIV0RA, OR IKSiCCT EATERS. Mole, Bat, Hedgehog. 18. Animats of the Different Zones. IN THB ARCTIC REGIONS Of BOTH HEMISPHERES. The Reindeer, Polar Bear, Whale, Seal. nC THE TEKFBRATB ZONES OF BOTH HEMISPHERES. Hoiae. Ox, Sheep, Deer, Wolt IN THB TEMPERATB ZONE. Xorth .ttneriea. Grizzly Bear, Bison, Puma, JSuropa, Brown Bear, Clutmois, Wild Boar, Stag. AMa, Tiger, Camel, Musk, Deer Sable. South AtH^riea, Aaia, IN THE TORRID ZONB. Jaguar or American Panther, Puma, Llama, Alpaca, Sloth, Camel, Asiatic Lion, Tiger, Panther Elephant, Crocodile, Tapir, Monkey. Rhinoceros, Monkey. Afrtm, Nautjius. Squid. Scallop. Clam. Oyster Snails. 13. MolliislcH are those which have soft bodies without bones or skeletons ; some are naked, while others are enclosed in shells for their protection. Of the latter, oysters, clams, and snails furnish examples. 14. .irticiUatiH are characterized by jointed or articulated coverings consisting of a series of rings : they comprise such animals as worms, crabs, lobsters, spiders, and winged insects. ARTICULATES African Lion, Camel, Hippopot'amus, Antelope, Camel'opard or Giraffe, Zebra, Hyena, Leopard, Orang Outang, Ape, Monkey. Common House-fly. Beetle. Mosquito. Caterpillar. Butterfly. Grasshopper. Lobster. 15. Following the Creation of Articulates was that of Ver- tebrates, which embrace all animals having a backbone. 16. The First Vertebrates were fishes, then reptiles, birds, and mammals. 19. It is believed that the Submergence, at Different Pe- riods, of vegetation which entered into the coal formations, ; occurred before the creation of birds ; and with vegetation, sank also vast collections of animal bodies, such as mollusks, insects, fishes, and reptiles, which contributed largely to the formation of the strata beneath the present surface of the earth. 20. The Earth yields Productions and Species of Animals pecvdiar to each region or climate. 21. The I^irgest Animals are in the hot regions; they are the elephant and hippopotamus, whose covering is a tough skin, almost entirely destitute of hair ; while, in the Arctic regions, where it is too cold for the horse and the ox, Uve the reindeer and Polar bear, thickly covered with hair, to protect them from the severe cold. 22. The Near Approart8 ; these parts are called degrees. 15. A Degree is a three hundred and sistieth part of a circle. The length of a degree varies according to the size of the circle. 16. A Degree of the Largent Circle w^hich can be drawn iround the earth, is about 69 j miles in length. 17. A Degree, marked (°), is Divided into 60 equal parts, jailed minutes ('), and each minute into 60 equal parts, called lecunds ("). 18. A Semi-drcle Contains 180°, and a quadrant 90°. 19. A Great Circle divides the earth into two equal parts, rhat which divides the earth into northern and southern hemi- iphorea is called the equator. 20. A Small Circle divides the earth into two unequal parts, yi circles dra'^'n parallel with the equator are small circles, called parallels of latitude. 21. The most Important Small Circles are the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the Tropic of Cancer, and the Tropic of Capri- corn. The Arctic and Antarctic Circles are called Polar Circles. 22. A Globe or Sphere is a round body, whose surface, in every part, is equally distant from the centre. 23. The Axis of the earth is the line or diameter on which it revolves. The two points where the axis meets the surface are called the poles ; that in the centre of the northern hemisphere is called the North Pole ; that in the centre of the southern hemi- sphere, the South Pole. 24. Semi-Circles drawn on the surface from the North to the South Pole are called Meridians. 25. Tlie Distance of any place from the equator is its Latitude. 26. The Latitude of all places on the equator is 0°, and of each pole 90°. 27. Distance East or West of an established meridian is called Longitude ; the degrees of which are marked on the equator or on the upper and lower sides of a map. Longitude is usually reck- oned from the Meridian of Greenwich, near London, and from the Meridian of Washington. 28. The Greatest Longitude a place can have is 180°. 29. Zones are five regions or belts into which the earth's sur- face is divided by the two Tropics and the two Polar Circles. Name them. 30. The Hottest is the Torrid Zone, and the coldest are the Frigid Zones. 31. To every place Within the Torrid Zone the sun is vertical at certain times during the year. 32. Tlie Tropics Mark the Umit beyond which no place can have a vertical sun. They are 23^° from the equator. 33. T7te Polar Circles mark the limit beyond which the day or the night may be more than 24 hours long. They are 23^° from the Poles. 34. The Sun is Visible at one pole, and invisible at the other polo, during six months of the year. 35. Days and lights are equal — 12 hours each — throughout the earth on the 23d days of March and September; they are always equal to places on the equator. 36. In what Zones is North America ? South America ? Eu- rope? Asia? Africa? Australia? (For Atironomical Oeography, tee page 108.) MONTEITH'S I'HYSICAI. AND I*OLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 51 o i o ! {s c2 il ^ ►^ m ^ i m P Hi 03 I i5 J3 J^ ^ -"i -< S^; S H pq cc H ► ^ H H M ^ 0^ Kuutll 4 SniiAo-i.JV. KN MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AIH) POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. S3 ^CJ*"* ,R0CtfYMT9 */J % % P^CIEIC, CREA BASIN. sionoH or itorrn amibica fbom kut to west. EXERCISES ON THE MAP. In what zones is NORTH AMERICA? In which is the greater part ? "What country wholly within the Temperate Zone t Within the Torrid Zone? Name all the countries of North America, commencing at the most ijorthem. What three oceans wash the coasts of North America ? Which is the coldest ? On which side are the greatest inlets from the ocean ? Nisme them. From what ocean does Hudson Bay receive water ; Is the water warm, or cold f (See page 37, paragraph 18.) Whence does the Gulf of Mexico receive its water ? Is it warm, or cold ? How does each affect the temperature of the winds blowing over them ? What and where are the mountain systems of North America ? Between what cliains is the Great Basin or Plateau of the United States? Into what do the rivers flow which rise west of the Ptocky Mountains ? Into what do those flow which rise on the east side f Into what do the rivers flow which rise on the east side of the Alleghanies ? How far north does the basin of the Mississippi extend ? What two general slopes are between the Rocky and the Alleghany Mountains ? Mention the rivers of the Mississippi Basin, — of Hudson Bay Basin. ^Vhat two large rivers in the north-west ? In the west ? What waters around Newfoundland ? Greenland ? Cuba ? Lower Cali- fornia ? What land around the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? Gulf of Mexico ? Carib- be'an Sea? In what cape does Greenland terminate t Nova Scotia ? Florida ? Lower California ? In what direction do these capes project ? Name all the capes on the Atlantic Coast % On the Pacific Coast t What islands are washed by the Atlantic ! Pacific ? Caribbean Sea t ' In the northern part of North America, what islands ? Straits ? Sounds J What provinces in the south-eastern part of British America ? What lakes between the United States and Canada ? Wliat is their outlet f Into what does the St. Lawrence flow ? Wliat lakes are connected with the Arctic Ocean ? With Hudson Bay ? What two high mountains north-west of British America f What two in the south-western part t • Canada But Is now the ProTince of Qnebec; Ouiada Went, Ontarto. ROUTES OF TRAVEL. In what directions and on what waters would you sail from Quebec to New York ? From Boston to Iceland ? From Washington to Dr. Kane's Open Polar Sea ? What capes and islands would you pass in sailing from New York to New Orleans ? New York to the Isthmus of Panama ? Sailing from the Isthmus to San Francisco, what direction would you take i On what water would you sail ? What capes would you pass ! Refer to the scale of miles, and state the distance, in a straight line, fnmi New York to Cuba. From Florida to Cuba./ New Orleans to New York. New Orleans to the Isthmus of Panama/ ^^ashington to Son Francisco.' ■ What countries and parts of countries lie between the parallels of 40° •nd 50° north latitude ? What parts of £urope and Asia lie Ix-tween those parallels! {See margin of map.) What parts of America, Kurope, and Asia lie between the parallels of 50' and 60' ? What parts of the Eastern Hemisphere are directly east of the United States ? West? Wliat European Countrj- is directly east of Washington ? Of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland? Of the southern part of Labrador? Of the northern part of La'Drndor ? What parts of North America lie between the same parallels as Sahara ? China ? Japan ? Siberia ? REVIE^W. MOUNTAINS. Whnv are Ihey f In trhat dirrctUitu do the range* ttct«nd t Mt. St. Elias? it* Alleghany? Fremont's Peak? Mt. Brown? i« Mt. Hooker? is Rocky? Mt. Fairweather ? ib Mt. Whitney ? ELecla ? Sierra Madre? Sierra Nevada? Cascade? {u-ei-'rah maVdrat.) (m-wTo ««y-eaA'da*) ClOAST BaKGE? RIVERS. Where do the)/ rUei What eoureee do th^ 1 take? Into tehai umtere do they flotef Missouri? sit Mackenzie? Columbu? Platte? Mississippi ? so Colorado? Brazos? Lewis? Rio Grande? is St. Lawrence? Nelson? Omo? Athabasca ? is Chijrchill? Severn? Red? GULFS, BAYS, SOUNDS, AND CHANNELS. Where are they f Into what teatere do they open T G. OP St. Lawrence? Hudson B. ? G. of Caltfornia ? Baffin B. ? B. OF Honduras ? James B. ? Mosquito Gulf? Ungava B. ? Chan, op Tuoatan? Fox Chan.? Lancaster Sd. ? Norton Sd. ? B. OF Campeachy? Fbobisheb's B.? G. of Mexico? STRAITS. Whmt land* are eeparated, and what water* are connected by thent? Hudson? "Windward? Bellisle? Davis ? Behmng? Wellington? Florida? Mona? (.bf'Hn^.) Melville? Barrow? Banks? LAKES. Where are they? What are their ottUettt SuPEMOB? Ontario? Great Slate? Huron? Great Salt? Winnipeg? Great Bear? Erie? Athabasca? Michigan? Little Slave? Itasca? ISLANDS. Where are they f By what wetter* are they *urround«d f Newfoundland? Vancouver's? West Indies ? Cuba ? Bahamas ? Iceland ? Bermudas ? Melville? Anticosti? (an-le-kot'Ue.) Disco? Sitka? Hayti? (Aoy'tM.) Greenland ? Parry? Southampton? Jamaica? Queen Charlotte's? Bank's Land. Cape Breton? Porto Rico? (brWm.) (por'to ree'to.) CAPES. Where are thryf Into tvhat water* do they pntfectf Hatteras? . Fabewell? Flattery? May? Mendocino? St. Lucas? Sable? Cod? imin-dv-uffu.) Blanco? Race? Icy? • Nnmben In Huts of Mountain* show height In llu>u*a»d* nf /e*t. Mt St EIIm, UOM feet hlKli. t ThoM in lists of Rivera show length in hundred* o/miU*. MiMonri, 8100 miles long. 54 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AKD POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ESCRIPTIVE EOGRAPHY. 1. JVOiJTlf^AX^-B-rC-4 is somewhat triangular in shape. Its widest part is from Newfoundland to Behring Strait ; its nar- rowest, where Central America joins the Isthmus ot Panama. 2. Tlie Meridian of 97° west from Greenwich (or 20° from Washington) passes through the middle of North America, and near the western coasts of Hudson B.ay and the Gulf of Mexico. 3. East of that Meridian are the great gulfs, bays, lakes, and lowlands ; while west of it, are the great plateaus and mountain chains. 4. The Plateau or High Uegion extends over the western parts of British America and the United States and nearly the whole of Mexico and Central America. It is widest in the United States, under the 40th parallel of latitude. 5. From that Meridian the surface of the United States rises gradually to the Rocky Mountains, which are from 10,000 to 18,000 feet high. 6. Between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada the surface is from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, and is mostly dry and barren. 7. Tlie Apjiolachian Chain near the Atlantic, and the Coast Range near the Pacific, are about one-fourth the height of tlio Rocky Mountains or the Sierra Nevada. 8. The Highest Peaks in North America are: over 18,000 feet high, Mt. Popocatepetl, in Mexico, and Mt. St. Elias, in Alaska ; over 15,000 feet. Mounts Brown, Whitney, and Fair- weather ; over 14,000 feet. Pike's Peak, Mt. Shasta, and Mt. Tyndall. 9. The Gulfs, Bays, and Inlets from the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans help to form numerous peninsulas and islands. ( Which are partly formed by the Gulf of Mexico ? By Hudson Bay ? By Baffin Bay f By the Gulf of St. Lawrence ?) 10. The Great Watershed of North America is the Rocky Mountain chain, on the eastern side of which are the sources of nearly all the large rivers flowing into the Atlantic. {Name them.) On its western side are the sources of those flowing into the Pacific. {Name them.) The Mackenzie River receives its waters from both sides of the Rocky Mountains. 11. North America Lies in three zones and possesses every variety of climate, from the extreme cold of the Frigid to the ex- cessive heat of the Torrid. The portion best adapted to the hap- piness and progress of the inhabitants is the intermediate or tem- perate zone, which includes the United States. 12. The Coldest Parts of North America are Greenland and the north-eastern part of British America. {For the climates on the sides of high mountains in hot countries, see p. 38, paragraph 52.) 13. The Climate of the Pacific Coast of the United States, British America, and Alaska is much milder than that of the At- lantic coast, in the same latitudes ; because one is washed by the warm waters of the Japan current, the other by the cold cur- rents from the Arctic Ocean (see p. 24, paragraphs 20 and 23). 14. Eastward from the Mackenzie Biver Valley to Bafiin Bay is a vast, frozen, treeless region, while westward is a region of forests extending to the coast, where the climate is no more ex- cessive than that of Maine or New Brunswick, hundreds of mUes further south on the Atlantic coast. 15. BRITISH AMERICA is seiajated from the United States by the 49th parallel of latitude, the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence River, and the north-eastern portion of the Appalachian Chain. 16. Its General Slope is toward the north, the watershed on its southerly side extending generally along the northern boundary of Canada, and the north-western boundary of the United States. 17. All that portion which extends from the Mackenzie River Valley eastward to Bafiin Bay and the Atlantic is a cold, barren region, covered nearly all the year with ice and snow, and is useful only as a hunting-ground. For a few weeks in summer, the snow and the top of the ground thaw, when mosses and other low plants appear ; upon these the reindeer and some other ani- mals feed. 18. The Fur-Bearing Animals are the beaver, marten, mink, bear, fox, wolf, and muskrat. 19. Tlie Southern and Western Portions of British America contain extensive forests and vast tracts of jirairie land well adapted to grazing and agriculture. On the pastures are herds of buffaloes, elks, and deer. 20. Hudson Bay Territory is north of the United States and Canada, and reaches from Alaska to Baffin Bay and Labrador ; Rupert's Land, or New Britain, is all that portion which lies east of the Rocky Mountains. It is now all under the control of the Dominion of Canada. 21. BRITISH COLUMBIA, lying north of Washington Territory, is a mountainous region, cold in winter and moist in summer. Its forests of pine, fix, and spruce are extensive. 22. Its Importance arose from the discovery of gold along Frazer River, 23. Its Chief Exports are lumber, gold, coal, furs and fish, 24. VANCOUVER ISLAND, which is comprised in the Province of British Columbia, contains fertile valleys, fine timber, and rich mines of coal, besides copper and other ores. 25. The Climate is much milder than in the same latitudes on the Atlantic coast. Vancouver Island and British Columbia are under one governor (see page 37, paragi-aph 33). 26. The Capital and chief city of the Province of British Columbia is Victoria, in Vancouver Island. 27. THE PROVINCE OF MANITOBA is south of Lake Winnipeg, which receives the waters of the Red River of the North. 28. The Settlers are French, English, Scotch, and Americans. The French have Indian blood in their veins, and live mostly by hunting ; the others, on the produce of their farms and pas- tures. 29. LABRADOR is cold, barren, and desolate along the coast, but well wooded in the interior. 30. The Inhabitants are almost exclusively Esquimaux ; but, on the eastern shore, are settlements of seal-catchers, fur-traders, and Moravian missionaries. The eastern half of the peninsula is under the control of Newfoundland ; the western, with Hudson Bay Territory and the Province of Manitoba, has been trausfeiTed to the government of Canada. 31. ALASKA, now a Territory of the United States, is more than twice the size of France, but not more than one-tenth is hab- itable, on account of the extreme coldness of its chmate. 32. Along the Southern Coasts the chmate is tempered by the winds which blow over the warm waters of the Pacific. These winds are laden with moisture that supplies the rains and fogs for which that part of the Territory is celebrated. ALASKA, GREENLAND, ANJD ICELAND. 65 Arotio R*2ioni.-A Ship Caught in tha lofc 33. Excepting along its Western and Northern Coasts, the Territory is Covered, in some places heavily, with forests valu- ible for timber. The trees are chiefly evergreens — spruce, fir, ediU", and hemlock. Its importance lies in its furs, fisheries, and 'orests. 34. Seals, Whales, and Walruses are plentiful in the waters est of Alaska. The fur seals on the islands of St. Paul and St. ieorge are very numerous. 35. Its Principal Itiver is the Yukon, which is said to rank icxt to the Mississippi in size. 36. Tlie Inhabitants are chiefly Esquimaux and TTidift-rm, who ire engaged in fishing and hunting. 37. Its Capital is Sitka, situated on one of the isl ads which iue its coast. 38. GREENLAND, a vast island, or group of islands united y fields of ice, is rugged, mountainous, barren, and almost wholly overed with ice and snow. 39. On the North-west Coast laciers extend down into the sea, ud from them fragments break IS and float out as icebergs. 40. Vegetation, in some arts, appears in summer ; lies of birch, willow, and r ..luntain ash are found, and a w vegetables are raised in the )uth. 41. TIte Inhabitants, about ,000 in number, are mostly Es- oimaux, to whom the seal fur- shes food, fuel, and clothing. 42. The Settlements of tlie fanes, who compose about one- ghth of the population, are oa .e west coast. 43. Tlie PrincijHil Settlements •e Juhanshaab and New Hem- it, which are south of the Arctic rcle, and Christianshaab and x„ Eiquimau. Uper'navik, north of it ; the latter being the most northerly settlement of civilized man. 44. Uie Distinguished American Explorers of the Arctic regions are Kane, Hall, and Hayes. The most northern point reached is a little beyond the latitude of 82 degrees. 45. Greenland and Iceland belong to Denmark, and are called Danish America. 46. The Esquimaux, except those of Alaska, are short — not over five feet in height — owing, probablj', to the rigor of the cli- mate and the nature of their food. 47. T7i.e Color of their Faces is brown ; the result, chiefly, of their uncleanliness and their smoky huts (see page 46). Their bodies are of a much lighter color than their faces. 48. Tlie nuts of the ^«Q'». >AXBS. rpPDLATlOll. Ontario 2,188,808 1,422,546 387,800 396,449 1 Newfoundla^ Prince Ed ware's Island. British Columbia Manitoba 150,000 Quebec 95,000 50,000 12397 New Brunswick COMPARATIVE TIME OF DAY. I ■ I ! £ EXERCISES ON THE MAP. Bound the UNITED STATES. What is the capital of the Republic ? What is the general direction of the Atlantic Coast ? What is the direction of the coast of Maine ? Massachusetts ? Of that from Long Island to Cape Charles ? Cape Charles to Cape Habteras ? Cape Hat- teras to the northern boundary of Florida ? Of the eastern coast of Florida ? ^Vhat is the direction of the Pacific coast from Cape Flattery t6 Cape Men- docino ? Cape Mendocino to Lower California ? What p irt of the northern boundary is furthest north ! On what parallel of latitude is t^at part ? What European city near that paralle ,'< (See Margin of Map.) Name the lakes and rivers on the northern boundary ? Where is the most southern part of the northern boundary ? From what States and Territories can you enter British America witho crossing a lake or a river ? Wliat State is in the central part of the Union ? Which is the most north-eastern State ? What States and Territories exte: further north than Maine ? Than the most southern point of Canada ? What States are entirely separated from British America by lakes and rivei What State partly separated from it by lakes and rivers ? Mention the lakes and rivers between New York and British America. What States and parts of States form peninsulas ? What fourteen States are washed by the waters of the Atlantic ? What five by the Gulf of Mexico ? What States and Territories by the Pacifi What States on the east bank of the Mississippi ? On the west bank ? What States on the north bank of the Oliio ? On the south Bank ? What States border on the Missoun River ? What States and Territories bor- on Mexico ? What States are greatest in j xtent from north to south ? From east to west ? What is the greatest latitude of the northern boundary ? Of the southern 'tindary ? Through how many degrees of latitude does this country extend ? Wliat is the longitude of its most eastern boundary, reckoning from Washing- m ? Of its most western ? Of i»s most eastern boundary, reckoning from reenwich ? Of its most western ? Through how many degrees of longitude does this country extpnd ? WTiat cities in Europe are in more northern latitude than Quebec f Than Montreal ? Than Massachusetts ? What parallel of latitude passes over Philadelphia ? What Oapitajg in the United States on or near that parallel ? What Capitals in the Eastern Hemi- sphere on or near it ? What cities, of both hemispheres, are situated in the same or nearly the same latitude as New York ? San Francisco ? Nashville ? Savannah ? New Orleans 't Name the places in the United States which have the same latitude as Paris ? Florence ? Madrid 1 Pckin ? Lisbon ? Gibraltar ? Morocco ? Name the cities, of both hemispheres, which are situated between the paral- lels of 28° and 32° north latitude ? Between 32° and 36° t Between 86° and 40° ? Between 40° and 44° ? Between 44° and 48° ? Hiifsell & StrutherBjN.Y. F>w tiut names of thoee cities and towns represented on the maps by numbers, see Appendix. Jlontcitli's P. JLOy^TEITH'S PHYSICAL AXD POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 61 EXERCISES ON THE MAP. N"iinu< tlic Eastern States, commencing with the largest. Which have sea coast ? Which border on tlio British Provinces I Mention the bays on the coast, commencing with tlie eastern part. Whut capes on the coast of Maine ? Of Miissachusetta ? What four boundary rivers Lave the Eastern States ? A^hat boandary lake? Wliich is the most mountainous of the eastern States ? Name the moun- Sains. Bound MAINE. What is its capital? What single mountains in Maine ? Into what do the rivers in the northern part of Maine flow ? Into what do most of the rivers in the State flow 1 What two general slopes has Maine ? What lakes in the region of the watershed I In what part of Maine are its largest cities and towns ?♦ Which are situated on the sea coast ? On rivers ? Bound NEW HAMPSHIRE. Wliat is its capiUU What moontains in the State ? Which is the highest peak of the Wliite Mountains? Wliut is the largest river in New Hampshire ? Largest lake t What lake in the north t On the north-eastern boundary ? In what part of the State are its largest cities and towns Y Wliat three on the Mcrrimac ? In the south-eastern part of the State ? What two towns in the south-west ? What town on the Connecticut west of the Wliite Mountains ? Bound VERMONT. What is its capital t WTiat mountains constitute the watershed of Vermont ? In what directions does the land slope ? Where is the land more elevated, at the center or sides f Into what do the rivers of Vermont flow ? Name the princi])al cities and towns in the State. Bound MASSACHUSETTS. What is its capital ? What mountains extend through the State? What large river flows through the western part ? The north-eastern part ? Wliat river from Massachusetts flows into Rhode Island ? What two into Connecticut ? What two islands south-east of the State ? What cities in Massachusetts on the Merrimac ? What cities in the south-east ! In the west ? cut ? On the Blackstone River ? Wliat single mountains in Massachusetts? Bound CONNECTICUT. What is its capital? Wliat rivers flow through the State ? Into what do they flow ? In what state is the source of the Connecticut River ? Of the Ilousatonic ? In what direction does the surface of Connecticut slope ? What city in the north ? East ? What two in the southern part ? Bound RHODE ISLAND. What are its capitals ? What large bay in the State ? What river flows into it f In what State is the source of the Blackstone River ? Mention the principal cities in Rhode Island. On what island is Newport situated ? Ana. Rhode L Draw a map of the Eastern States. (See Appendix.) ROUTES OP TRAVEL. On what waters and near what islands would you sail from Portland to New Ilavou ? In what directions, and on what waters, from Hartford to New York ? New York to Fall River I At what cities do several railroads meet ? What directions would you take and what cities would you pass in traveling by railroad from Boston to Hartford ? Boston to Albany ? Bos- ton to Portland ? Portland to Montreal ? Montreal to Rutland ? Rutland to Boston » Refer to the Scale of Miles and state the distance in a straight line from Boston to New York, — Boston to Albany, — Boston to Portland, — Portland to Mt. Washington, — Jit. Washington to Montreal. (For exer- ciaes on the margins of the map, see p. 102.) What cities in the east ? What on the Connecti- If the State In which you reside be represented on this map, the following will be additional exercises : Give the direction from you to Boston, — Albany, — New York, — Newport, — New llaven, — Burlington, — Augusta, — Mt. Washington. Point toward each. Mention all the cities and towns in the northern part of your State, — in the eastern, — southern, — western,— central part. How many miles from you to the capital of your State T To its largest city ? (See population of Cities in Reviete.) What is the population of each of the largest cities in your State ? Name all the cities and towns on the map within fifty miles of your red- dence. Name those in Ixjtli hemispheres tliat are in tho sumo latitude as the city in or near which you reside. (See Map of U. &) Draw a map of your State. CITIES AND TOWNS. WMere ore they f On or near what icoter* T BOSTON, tuf PROVIDENCE, « NEW HAVEN, il LOWELL, « HARTFORD, n PORTLAND. 31 CAMBRIDGE, w LVNN, w TAUNTON, IS NEW BEDFORD, '■ WORCESTER. ■•I (woMtar) SALEM, ■>* MANCHESTER, M LAWRENCE, !• BANGOR, 18 SPRINGFIELD, n NORWICH, II FALL RIVER, " NEWBURVPORT, 14 BRIDGEPORT, 19 GLOUCESTER, « CALAIS, CONCORD, 12 NEWPORT, 13 NEW LONDON, NASHUA, 10 PORTSMOUTH, DOVER, > RUTLAND, BATH, 8 BURLINGTON, WATERBURV, HAVERHILL, Ikay'vtr-U.) MONTPELtER, PITTSFIELD, AUGUSTA, BELFAST. LUBEC, MIDDLEBURY, GARDINER, ST. ALBANS, EASTPORT, BENNINGTON, MIDDLETOWN, WINCHESTER. MOUNTAINS. Where are they f In what dtrertione do the ranges extend T Mt. ■Washington? ej* Mt. Saddleback ? 4 Mt. Katahdin ? sj White Mts. ? « Mt. Everett? n Saddle Mt. ? Gkeen Mts.? * Mt. Wachu'sett? 2 Camel's Hump? 4 RIVERS. Wlierr do they rite? Penobscot? 4 Kennebec ? 3 AKDROSCOGeiN? 2 Mebbimac? Connecticut? b {kon-ntt'e-tuL) Bettreeti trhni and through tvhai States do they flow i Into what wati'rti do thvy flow Y Aroostook ? woolastook ? La Moille? St John? housatonic ? {hoo'ia-ton'ik^) St. Francis? Otter Creek? Salmon Falls? Blackstone ? St. Ckoix? (•«n( kroy') Sorel'? Onion? Saco? Thames? (UmM) LAKES. Where are they titiiated ? What are their outlets f Moosehead? Memphrema'goq ? Umba'oog? Winnxpiseoqee? Champlain? Chesun'cook? {uin-e-pesaWU.) CONNECTICUT? SCHOODIO? BAYS. Where are they ? Into what waters do they open Y Nabragansett? Frenchman's? Buzzard's? Cape Cod? Penobscot? Long Island Sd. ? Casco? Fundy? • Railroads ar« ihown bj dotted line*. The pnplla may Include In their answers to all snoh quesUona the names only of those Cttlea and Towns which appear on the maps In black letters. The nnmbers In Cities and Towns, show the population, in Uumtands, according to the census on 370: Boston, aiW,BS6. Mamtwrs In lists ofMooDtalns show holijht", in t/iomandt o/ /at; White Mts., &S00 feet ; thus* in list of KlTere, lengths In Kuitdrtdt o/mUtt : Connecticut B., 600 miles. C Eongltude West 2 froni.'VVashiiiijton Monteith's P. MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 63 EXERCISES ON THE MAP. Bound NEW YORK. What part borders on the Atlantic ocean ? What three mountain ranges in New Yorlc ? In what direction does the land west of the Adirondacks slope ? Name the rivers on tliat slope. Into wliat do they empty t What large river has its source on the east side of the Adirondacks ? ■\Vhat river flows through the western part of the State ? The eastern } What large tributary has the Hudson J What tributary of the Susquehanna is in New York ? What lakes in the center of the State ? By what are they drained ? Is the level of Lake Ontario higher or lower than that of these lakes ? ■\Vhat two islands in the south-eastern part of the State ? 'What water north of Long Island ? South ? What large city in Long Island ? Name the cities and towns on the Hudson, commencing at its mouth. What towns in the northern part of the State ? What cities on the Central l^lroad, between Albany and the Niagara River ? What city at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie ? What river and canal cross each other at Rochester ? What Canadian town opposite Ogdensburg ? What city at the mouth of the Oswego River ? [Canada East is now called Qaeboc: Canada Woat, Ontario,] Bound PENNSYLVANIA. Name its mountains and large riTcra. In what direction do its mountain chains extend ? What two large tributaries of the Susquehanna in Pennsylvania ? On which side are its large tributaries ? By what rivers is the land east of the Susquehanna drained ? What cities and towns between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivera. What city on the Delaware opposite Philadelphia ? What city in the south-west ? What three rivers form a junction at Pittsburg? What city in Pennsylvania on Lake Erie ? Has Pennsylvania any sea coast f What rivers and bays form outlets to the ocean ? Where are the great coal regions ? Where is the oil region ? Bound NEW JERSEY. What part is mountainous ? What large cities in the north-east ? In the west ? Island east t What cape in the south ? What on the eastern coast \ Bound DELAWARE. What city in its northern part ? With what city in Pennsylvania is it intimately connected t What two lines of communication between them? What city near the center of the state ! What cape on its coast } What cape opposite Cape Henlopen ? Bound MARYLAND. What bay almost divides the State into two separate parts ? On wliich side of the bay is the greater portion t Where are the mountainous districts of Maryland J What two cities on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay ? What tract of land on the Potomac lielongs exclusively to the General Government ? Bound the DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. What important city does it contain 7 Bound VIRGINIA. Wliat mountains extend through the State f What mountains on the south-western boundary ? What rivers east of the Alleghany Mountains ? Bound WEST VIRGINIA. What is its capital ? By what rivers is the land west of the Alleghany Mountuns drained ? Name the principal cities in Virginia. In West Virginia. Where is the oil region t Wkere are the salt works ? The warm and th« Sulphur Springs ? What cities and capes would you pass in sailing from Albany to Phil- adelphia ? From Philadelphia to Baltimore ? What two railroad routes from Jersey City to Elmira ? Richmond to Lynchburg ? Ogdensburg to New York ? What is the shortest route from New York to Richmond ? From New York to Montreal ? From Ilarrisburg to Norfolk ? AVhat canal affords means of navigation lietwesn Lakes Erie «nd Ontario f Ana. Welland Canal. Refer to the Scale of Miles, and give the distance, in a straight line, from Philadelphia to Ilarrisburg. From New York to Washington. Washington to RichmoncL Baltimore to Wheeling. New York to Mont- real. (For exercises on the margins of the map, see page 102.) If the State in which you reside be represented on this map, the following will be additional exercises : Give the direction from you of Washington, — Philadelphia, — Now York, — Albany, — Montreal, — ?Jiagara Falls, — Richmond. Point toward each. Mention all the cities and towns in the northern imrt of your Stato. In the eastern, — southern, — western, — central part. How many miles from you to the capital of your Stato t Name all the places on the map within fifty miles of the city or town in or near which you reside. Name the cities of both hemispheres that are in the same latitude as that in or near which you reside, {ike Map of U. S.) Draw a map of your State. What is the population of the largest cities in your Stat* ? R E V I E AV. CITIES AND TOWNS. Whrre attuatmd f On or n«ar irfuU waters i NEW VORK, MI- PHILADELPHIA, «'« BROOKLYN. :»« BALTIMORE, MI BUFFALO, in NEWARK, IM ALBANY, '0 WASHINGTON, IW PITTSBURG, «• ROCHESTER, •> TROV. 46 RICHMOND, »1 JERSEY CITY, t$ ALLEGHENY, H SYRACUSE, 4> READING. 34 UTICA, '.» WILMINGTON, »1 PATERSON. « PETERSBURG, 19 LANCASTER, so TRENTON, 83 OSWEGO, » KINGSTON, NEWBURG, NORFOLK, POUQHKEEPSIE. CAMDEN. WHEELING, HARRISBURQ, POTTSVILLE, ERIE, SCRANTON, ELMIRA, WATERTOWN, OGDENSBURG. LYNCHBURG, PLATTSBURG, ROME, DOVER, PARKERSBURG, DUNKIRK, CHARLESTON. MOUNTAINS. Wher*i are Ihry? In trhat liirfdtonjt rfo th*ry nttendf Alleghany? CuMBERLA>rD? Lackel Ridge? Catskiix? Adirondack? Blue Eidge? Chestnut Ridge? Highlands? RIVERS. Whert do they rite ? Ketuteen lehal, or through trtuU Htatem do they flow f Into what icatera do they flow f Susquehanna? m St. Lawrence? tj mononqahela ? 3 Rappahannock u Shenandoah ? Delaware? a Alleghany ? 3 Genesee? u Great Kanawha? » Juniata ? Pamunky ? Oswego ? Big Sandy? Ohio? 9 Hudson? s York? Potomac ? 5 Mohawk? ij NuGABA ? Racket ? ROUTES OF TRAVEL. What directions would you take, and what cities would yon pass, in traveling by railroad from New York to Rome ? From Rome to Niagara Falls ? From Rochester to Cleveland ? From New York to Dunkirk ? Wliat cities do you pass, and what rivers do you cross, in traveling by railroad from New York to Washington ? From Philadelphia to Pittsburg ? From Pittsburg to Niagara Falls ? | From Wheeling to Baltimore ? From Dover to Trenton ? I LAKES. Where are they ? What are their outlets T Champlain? 130J George? M Cayuga? ss Erie?2«o Ontario? 190 Oneida? 20 Owasco? 12 Huron ?2«o SkENEATELES? 16 SlMC0E?2T * The popalation in tAoutandt, according to C«n to Ui OC UJ - - CO 2 (3 z "05 goo £ < UJ S I- o 3 H a [I h k O 0: o 5 -■ < o I < O o I Oj CO -> « o u o 3 2 I I- 00 s^ i I? O H O O •11 O eg wo i ■fe oji z .. O " <-^" -J -J -J ^ s z s . . J o S S 5 C I- o < S < o _ ^ UJ u ^ : o S z a > Ij _] o < z I- J.: (- O o = 1 UI 3 CD S M z o I- s s o u I -> Q. m S O UJ - UJ -' . . 5= *> rf — J i > X m " 2 O < I O = 5 3 UJ > m H O S -J -J < < < 3 2 O < CO z z < 2 u q: 00 S- 1 i3 j^ \ \ t ^0^a.A'%?'m^fMuL -ifZZ^'^i^ppe^^ rink. -^^^ ^ ->vi i.Mi, --^^-^au Claire ja;' ' -JO SiduSs Ageife, y b ^ -^^''S I II, n ■'^Sew K^ .'p_.«_EllueEartR|fcity " ; gFariBaurt ^^5* / > ipwa^onna ^C'"' ^"'' -°^!.^ ^yvinoi^ Rochester" La Crasse^V'" Dako..^, M°^;^, . / J^Jl^-^fla }'- ^careen aay ' 20o«/// ^^%S? t \i21 /f ^ ^^4aver-^',2.i>r--^^V, , ? V^S^aV FMinera/~ .■' I ^ VX-^.'Sr''^ ul ^WavW^-i^jiA o„'V ,>* ieme^:fV^ .^-^ i2e > 30 ^2Sy,-.3'o or" fearney ' '^ll*^^y''''^i'GMAj^. ".o-/ ( o_ °">-^02., \6Saline\ ^1\ — " J — ^"T'T — " ^.v^^"''^ '"o °"(|Salina' DixonVj P inceton B'ltpwnivill^ ■^t- lo Solomon^. /fe^ A'd, .■.ec^< ^ — ■— ^ 1855£?\ ;?3 L_,ofc5^^s:*v' ...'>i^>f-«"''spendeace o ^?A^Mt.PlWAt Gat^sburg 4— ^y-£J;M^a}^on _.^ ^ , , -.:tchi( ^^-^""^ ' LI >l^vtfe 30/ _ !' °>..8t,cfej^>^ / ^ /^" AU.0 „,^ ■4 ^^^^^^^e^^F^S^ ?toV'^ SK.l»' -*>Cpiis ^^Kl; /Pan> Mx* 'Centralia \ ]^ jqvj 04\ '"" "^ «>%2 /MV\t#dersonj . EXERCISES ON THE MAP. What State has the greatest extent of lake coast ? What States border on Lake Superior? Lake Michigan? Lake Erie? What bay opens into Lake Michigan? \Vhat two into Lake Huron? Which of these lakes is the most elevated? What river receives their ■nrplus water? (See illustration, i>age 31.) Through what strait does water flow from Lake Michigan ? Through what river from Lake Huron ? From Lake St. Clair? By wliat three rivers are these States mostly drained T Wliat land is drained by the great lakes ? In what Western States are railroads most numerous ? What three States on this map are on the west side of the Mississippi T What three on the e^t aide, or left bank ? What three on the right bank at the Ohio ? Name the boundary rivers of theee StatM. Bound OHIO. What is its capital ? In what two general directions does the land of Ohio slope T What rivers on its northern slope ? Southern t What two cities in Ohio, on Lake Erie ? If you cross Lake E>ie from these cities, what land would you reaeh 1 What city near the western extremity of the lake ? Mention the largest river shown on this map. What cities in Kentucky opposite Cincinnati ? What cities south-west of the capital of Ohio ? What city on the Maumee ? On the Muskingum ? Bound INDIANA. What is its capiul ? What rivers in Indiana t What comer of the State is vrashed by Lake Michigan 7 What large city In the south-west ? What large cities on the Wabash River? Ohio River? Wliat city in the north-eastern part of Indiana ? Wliat two cities in Ohio are nearest Indiana])olis 7 What two in Kentucky nearest Indianapolis ? What large city in Indiana nearest Louisville ? Bound ILLINOIS. What is its capital? What rivers flow into the Mi«- sissippi ? Into the Wabash ? What city in Illinois on Lake Michigan? What other large cities in the northern part of the State ? What cities on the Wabash River? What city louth-eaat of Peoria ? What city at the mouth of Rock River ? What city in Iowa opposite Rock Island ? What city on the Mississippi west of Springfield ? Southwest ? What large city in Missouri near Alton ? In what parts of Illinoia, Wisoonain, and Iowa are celebrated lead mines ! Bound MICHIGAN. Wliat is its capital ? What mines near Lake Superior 1 Name the rivers of Michigan. Into how many parts is Michigan divided ? Which is the larger part ? What large city in the south-east ? What dty in Ohio nearest Detroit ? What city on the Kalamazoo River? What two on the Qrand? On the Saginaw River? Bound WISCONSIN. What is its capital ? Name its principal cities. What cities on Lake Michigan ? On Lake Winnebago ? Wliat are its rivers ? What lake in the eastern part of the State ? Bound MINNESOTA. What is its capital ? Name its principal cities. On what river are they ? What river has its source in Itasca Lake ? Name the lakes in Minnesota. What rivers in Minnesota flow into the Mississippi ? What boundary river north ? North-west ? Bound IOWA. What is its capital? Name its principal cities and towns. In what direction does the land slope ? Name the rivers of Iowa. Into what do they flow ? What city in the lead district ? Bound MISSOURI. What is its capital ? Name its principal dties. What rivers in Missouri ? Mountains ? Mines ? Bound KENTUCKY. What is its capital ? Name its principal cities. By what rivers is Kentucky drained ? Into what do they flow ? In v^at mountains do many of its rivers rise ? For " Review " and " Routes of Travel " see Appendix. 70 MOXTElTtl H PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL OEOGRAPHY. Descriptive §eography. 1. THE UNITED STATES: This Republic comprises 38 States and 10 Territories, besides the District of Columbia, in which Washington, the capital, is situated. 2. Its Extent from east to west is about 2,800 miles, and from north to south, about 1,600 miles. Its area is over 3,000,000 square miles, not including Alaska, which covers over 400,000 square miles. 3. The Largest State is Texas, which is about half the size of Alaska, the largest Territory. 4. T/ie Greater rortion of the United States is generally level or undulating. The high region comprises the western third of its area. 5. The Great Mountain Chains are the Eocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Range. 6. The Hii, '-est Peaks are over 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. 7. The Mountains in the Eastern part are the Alleghany or Appalachian System, which extends from Northern Alabama and Georgia to Northern Maine. Thej' comprise the Cumberland, Blue Ridge, Catskill, and Green Mountains. Their height is about one-fourth that of the Eocky Mountains. 8. The Rocky and Alleghany Mountains Divide the United States into three great physical regions — the Pacific Slope, be- tween the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean ; the Atlantic Slope, between the Alleghany Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean ; and the Basin of the Mississippi Eiver. 9. Besides these are the Gulf Slope, the St. Lavsrence Basin (including the Great Lakes), and that part of the Eed Eiver Basin which is ia Minnesota and Dakota. 10. West of the Sierra Kevada and the Cascade Eange are fertile valleys in California, Oregon, and Washington Territory. 11. A large portion of the High Iteyion is dry and barren, particularly the Great Basin in Nevada and Utah ; but its river valleys are fertile and productive. 12. The Pacific Slope is rich, principally in its mineral pro- ducts ; the Mi;:,-'issippi Basin and Gulf Slope, in their agricultural products ; and the Atlantic Slope, in its manufactures, commerce, agi-icultural and pastoral products. 13. The Mountains, generally, are covered with valuable tim- ber, and nearly every State and Territory has its productive farms, pastures, and manufactories. 14. This Country Possesses nearly every variety of cHmate, soil, and productions. This is due to its great extent, its position on the globe, and the difference in elevation of the various parts of its surface. 15. The Climate varies according to the latitude, elevation, and the influences of the ocean and the mountain ranges. 16. Iti the North-east the •winters are long and severe ; the summers, hot and short. 17. In the South the summers are hot and the winters mild. 18. Along the Pacific Coast it is not so cold in winter, nor so hot in summer, as on the Atlantic coast, in corresponding latitudes (see page 37, paragraphs 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 38). 19. In Minnesota and Westward to the Eocky Mountains the winters are extremely cold, but remarkably dry and healthful. 20. Rain is abundantly supplied to the States between the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean, by vapors from the Gulf and the Gulf Stream ; and to those between the Sierra Nevada and the Pacific Coast, by vapors from the warm current of the | Pacific Ocean ; hence the fertility of these sections. Between them is the high region, where, in some places, rain but seldom falls, and the soil, consequently, yields little or no vegetation. 21. The Desert Regions of the United States r.re east of the Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and the Eocky Mountains, the west winds being deprived of their moisture before passing over the moun- tains (see page 34, paragraphs 41, 47, 48). 22. The Agricultural Products of the noi-them half of the United States are grain, fruits, and garden vegetables ; of the southern half, cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar. 23. Celebrated for— Wheat, are Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana, & Wisconsin ; Indian Corn, Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, and Missouri ; Manufactures, the States N. of the Potomac ; Gold and Quicksilver, California r Coal and Iron, Pennsylvania ; Silver, Nevada ; Copjier, Michigan ; 24. Cotton, the Gulf States, with N. and S. Car., Tenn. ajid Ark. ; Wool, California, Ohio, New York, Mich., and Penn. ; Tobacco, Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee ; Commerce, New York and Massachusetts ; Cane Sugar, Louisiana ; Rice, South Carolina ; Shipbuilding, Maine. 25. This Republic Covers an area more than nine times as large as that of the oxigiual thirteen States, which, previous to the 4th of July, 1776, were British colonies. Texas, with all that por- tion of the United States northwest to Oregon and the Pacific, was ceded to the United States by Mexico, in 1848. The remaining portion which lies between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean, was ceded by France, in 1803 ; Florida was ceded by Spain, in 1819, and Alaska by Russia, in 1867. 26. The Original Inhabitants were Indians ; the white people, who form the bulk of the pojjulation, are Europeans by birth or descent, and these are mainly of British or Irish extrac- tion ; next, are the Germans, French, end Swedes. The colored inhabitants are of African descent. The Chinese are numerous on the Pacific Slope. 27. The First Settlements were in Florida, in 1565 ; Virginia, in 1607 ; New York, in 1614 ; and Massachusetts, in 1620. 28. The General Government comprises the President and Congress. Congress is composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 29. The President is elected for four years. 30. Each State is Entitled to two Senators, who hold office six years. The number of its Representatives, whose term of office is two years, is according to its population. 31. The whole number of Representatives from the 37 States, in 1870, is 291 ; which, for a total population of 38,925,528, is one Representative for every 133,000 inhabitants. Each State is en- titled to, at least, one Representative. Each Territory is allowed one, but he has no vote. 32. The States having the largest number of Representatives are : New York, 33 ; Pennsylvania, 27 ; Ohio, 20 ; Illinois, 19. 33. Eacli, State is independent in the management of its inter- nal affairs (see page 48). 34. The ITn/ited States surpasses every other counti-y in the world in its mineral and agricultural resources, in the extent of its rivers, canals, and railroads, in the entei-prise of its peoj)le, in religious and political freedom and jirivileges, in its support of public instruction, and in the influence of the press. THE NORTH-EASTEBN AJfD THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 71 1. THE XEW ENOLAND or North-eastern States occupy the north-eastern part of the Union. (See map on page 60.) 2. Tliey arc in the same Latitudes as Oregon and Southern 1 I ance. (For their comparative climates, see page 37, paragraphs ■21. 24,31, 33, and 38.) 3. Their Charaeteristies are their rugged surface, their vast forests of pine, hemlock, spruce, etc. ; their numerous streams and waterfalls, which furnish abundant water-power ; and their long, severe winters. 4. Consequently, they are not well adapted to agriculture, but are celebrated for their manufactures, their lumber trade and •shipbuilding, live stock, and dairy products. Their fisheries and coasting trade are also important. (See p. 37, par. 33.) 5. The Principal Mountains are the Green Mountains, so called from the evergreen forests which cover them, and the White Mountains, which are white with snow during most of the year. 6. The miite Mountains are celebrated for their wild and pic- turesque scenery. 7. The Highest of the White Mountains are, — Mount Wash- ington, over 6,000 feet. Mounts Jefferson, Adams, Madison, and Monroe, each over 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mount Katahdin, in Maine, is also over 5,000 feet high. 8. The Largest River is the Connecticut, whoso valley is cele- brated for its fertile soil and beautiful landscapes. 9. Maine Covers about one-half the area of New England, and excels every other State in tho Union in the iiuijortance of its shipbuilding. 10. Its itumcrous Streams afford tho means for floating its timber, and abundant water-power for sawing it into lumber (see page 30, pai-agraph 49). 11. Its CapitAil is Augusta, at the head of sloop navigation on the Kennebec River, and its metropolis is Portland, which is cele- brated for its fine harbor and important railroad connections with Canada and the Statea 12. A ViUage or a City is located, usually with rtference to some Tiatural features ;—on a bay or harbor, where ships may enter and anchor safely ; on a river, for the purpose (^ navigation and trade; on a certain part of a river, as the head of navigation., or just below a waterfall or rapids where water-power for manuf oritur ing purposes may be obtained; at or near tJie junction of two or more rivers ; near mines or quarries ; at the end of a lake, or at a mountain pass. In the old world many villages and towns were built in places almost inaccessible, tJuit they might be easily defended against the attacks of enemies. 13. Tlui Surface of Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire is more rugged and mountainous than that of Massachusetts, Con- necticut, and Rhode Island. 14. The Manufacturing States are Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. 15. Vermont is mainly a grazing and agricultural State. 16. Tlie Capitals of New Hampshire and Vermont are Concord and MontpoUer, and their chief cities, Manchester «ud Burlington. 17. Massachusetts Excels every other State in the Union in its manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, and in its whale and cod fisheries. 18. It is Second to Maine in shipbuilding, and to New York in commerce. 19. Its Capital and Metropolis is Boston, the largest city in New England ; next in size in the State are Worcester, Lowell, Cambridge, Lawrence, and Charlestown. Boston is in nearly the same latitude as Detroit and Dubuque, in the United States, and as Rome, in Italy. 20. In Connecticut and Rhotle Island the winters are shorter and less severe than in the other New England States. 21. TIis Principal Cities in Connectictit are New Haven, Hartford, Bridgeport^ Norwich, Norwalk, and Waterbury. The principal cities in Rhode Island are its capitals. Providence and Newport 22. Providence is the second city in size in New England. It is situated at the head of navigation on Narragansett Bay. 23. Xeufport has an excellent harbor, and is one of the most celebrated watering plivces in the United States. 24. Tlie Legislature of Connecticut meets in Hartford and New Haven each year, alternately ; of Rhode Island, in Provi- dence, in winter, and in Newport, in summer. 25. The People of New England are chiefly of English descent. The first settlement was made at Plymouth, by the Pilgrim Fathers, December 22, 1620. MAT DtRAWIJVG. 26. To draw a map of a State, begin at its north-west cor- ner, and proceed easterly, then sontJierly, then westerly, and northerly to the point of beginning. Then draw the mountains, the rivers, lakes, bays, capes, cities, and taiims. Draw only those rivers which are rmmed on the map, and, those cities and tovons which appear in capital letters. Where there is not space sufficient for the whole name, mark its first syllable or first letter. The New England States may be divided, and drawn on three different maps, being three separate lessons, viz. : 1st. Maine ; M. New Hampshire and Vermont; 3d. Massachusetts ; Uh. Con- necticut and Rhode Island. (See map Drawho in the Appendix.) 27. THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES are New York, Virginia, and the intervening States. (See map on page 62.) 28. Tliey Extend between 300 and 400 miles from the Atlantic coast 29. The^f are all Mountainous except Delaware, and have two principal slopes ; one eastward to the Atlantic, the other west- ward to the Ohio. 30. Tlic Mountains are disposed in separate ranges, between which are fertile valleys. Their distance from the coast is greatest in Northern Georgia, about 250 miles ; and least in New York and New Jersey, about 50 miles. 31. Eastward from the Mountains, and midway to the coast, is a hilly, fertile, and delightful country ; while between the hiU country and the coast it is generally low, with marshes and sandy islands along the coast. 32. Between the Hudson and the Potomac are States rich in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce ; whUo south of tho Po- tomac are those celebrated for the wealth of their agricultural products. 33. NEW YORK is in the same latitude as Oregon, Northern California, Northern Spain, and Southern France. 34. About one-half of its Surface is in the St. Lawrence Basin ; the other half is drained by the Hudson, Delaware, Sus- quehanna and Alleghany Rivers, and the streams which flow into Lake Champlain. 35. Its Mountains and rich pastures are in the east ; its level and agricultural lands, in the west 72 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 36. Near the Centre are several lakes, celebrated for their beau- tiful scenery. 37. In the North-east is a wild, mountainous region, abound- ing in forests and lakes. 38. In tlie Soutti-east are its two important islands. Long Island and Stateu Island. 39. The Highest Motintaitis are the Adirondacks — their high- est peak, Mt. Marcy, being over 5,000 feet high — and the Catskills, between 3,000 and 4,000 feet high. 40. Between New York and Canada are the Falls of Niagara, and the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence Kiver. 41. New York Excels every other State in the Union in popula- tion, wealth, commerce, and importance of its canals and railroads. 42. Its Capital is Albany, and metropolis New York, the largest city on the western continent. 43. New York City is finely situated for commerce, having New York Bay on the south, the Hudson River on the west, and the East River on the east, all of which furnish wonderful facilities for shipping. 44. Its Latitude is the same as that of Naples and Constanti- nople (41° north latitude). 45. Here took place the first meeting of Congress, and the in- auguration of Washington, the first President of the United States (1789). 46. Brooklyn, the second city in size in the State, is situated on the western extremity of Long Island. 47. Buffalo is situated at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, the most southern of the Great Lakes. Its trade between the east and the north-west is extensive ; owing chiefly to its position, fine harbor, important canal and railroad connections. Its manufac- tures are important. 48. Bocllestcr, built on the Genesee River, at its falls, has long been noted for its immense flour miUs. The city is crossed by the Genesee River and the Erie Canal, and a considerable trade is car- ried on with the east, west, and Canada. 49. Troy is situated on the Hudson River, at the head of steam- boat navigation. 50. Syracuse, the most central of the large towns in New York, is noted for its manufacture of salt from the water of its salt springs or wells. The salt is obtained from the water by boiling or evaporation. 51. Oswego is the most populous and flourishing city on Lake Ontario (in New York). Its extensive commerce and manufactures are chiefly due to its fine harbor and its situation at the mouth and falls of the Oswego River. 52. Niagara Falls, Syracuse, Utica and Saratoga Springs are in nearly the same latitude as Milwaukee and Madison, in Wisconsin ; and as Nice and Marseilles, in France. 53. The First Settlements were made where Albany and New York now stand, by the Dutch, in 1614. The latter place, then called New Amsterdam, received its present name in honor of the Duke of York, when it was taken by the EngUsh, in 1664. Draw a map of New York, as directed on page 71. 54. PENNSYL VANIA is remarkable for its mountain ranges ; the abundance of its coal and iron ; its iron, cotton, and woolen manufactures ; and its rich soil, which is well adapted to grain and grazing. 55. Its Principal Bange extends through the center of the State ; the highest peaks of this range^ — ^the AUeghanies — are be- tween 2,000 and 3,000 fee high ; of the Blue Ridge, in the south- eastern part, about 1,500 feet high. 56. Its Capital is Harrisburg ; its metropohs is Philadelishia, which is the second city in p^|)Md,tiGn in the United States. 57. Philadelphia is a wealthy and important manufacturing city, situated on the west side of the Delaware River, and on both sides of the Schuylkill River, fi-om which the city is suppUed with fresh water. In its state-house the Declaration of Independence was signed by Congress, in 1776. 58. Pittsburg is situated at the confluence of the Monongahela and the Alleghany River, which here form the Ohio. It is sur- rounded by hiUs famous for coal and iron. 59. Its Iron Works and Manufactures are immense, and its coal trade, extensive, 60. Among the other IiiiportaiU Cities of Pennsylvania are Allegheny, Scranton, Reading, and Lancaster. 61. Pittsburg is in the same Latitude as Madrid, in Spain ; Philadelphia, the same as Mount Ararat and Pekin, and in nearly the same latitude as Columbus, Indianapohs, Springfield, and Denver — four capitals in the United States. 62. Pennsylvania ivas Settled by the Swedes, in 1643. Wil- liam Penn, after whom the State was named, established a colony here, in 1682. Draw a map of Pennsylvania. 63. NEW JERSEY: Its northern half is hilly, with moun- tains in the north-west ; its southern half, generally low and level. 64. In the Central and Northern portions are excellent farining and grazing lands and its flourishing manufacturing towns. 65. Tlie State is finely situated for inland trade, owing chiefly to its position between the North-eastern and the Southern States. Its canals and railroads are of great importance. 66. Its Capital is Trenton, and metropolis, Newark : the other leading cities are Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth, Hoboken, Cam- den, and New Brunswick. 67. Cape May, Long Branch, and Atlantic City are famous summer and sea-bathing resorts. 68. New Jersey was settled by the Dutch, in 1620, Draw a map of New Jersey, as directed on page 71. 69. DEL A WARE is generally level — having hills only in the north. 70. Its best Soil is in the northern part. 71. Tlie Leading Agricultural Productions are grain, gar- den vegetables and peaches. 72. Its Capital is Dover, and chief city, Wilmington, which has become celebrated for its various and important manufac- tures — particularly for its steamboat, car and iron works, its flour and powder mills. 7'3. Wilmitn/ton is Situated on the Christiana Creek, near its junction with the Brandywine. 74. Delaware tvas Settled by the Swedes and Finns, in 1638. 75. MARYLAND is level in the eastern, or widest part, and mountainous in the west, where it is narrow. 76. It is rich in coal, iron, tobacco, grain, cotton and com- merce ; its flour and cotton mills axe extensive. 77. The Capital of Maryland is Annapolis. 78. Its Principal Cities are Baltimore, Frederick, and Cum- berland. 79. Tlie First Settlements were made by people from Virginia, in 1631, and from England, in 1634. Draw a map of Maryland and Delaware, as directed onpage 71, VIRGINIA, WEST VIRGINIA, THE GULF STATES, &c. 73 80. 1'IllGiyiA slopes eastwardly from the Blue Ridge, be- tween which and the Alleghany Range is the fertile Valley of Virginia, 81. It is chiefly an agricultural State, and ranks next to Ken- tucky in the production of tobacco ; its coal and iron mines and I its abundant water-power furnish great facilities for manufactures. 82. Itg Capital anil Cltief City is Richmond, situated at the lower falls of the James River and the head of navigation. It is remarkable for the beauty of its situation, and for its natural I advantages as a manufacturing and business center. 83. Bichmond is in the same Latitude as San Francisco and Mt. Etna. 84. Next in importance are Petersburg, Norfolk and Alex- andria. 85. Among its Objects of Interest are numerous medicinal springs and the celebrated Natural Bridge, all in the western part of the State. 86. Virginia is noted as the birth-place of six Presidents of the United States, — "Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Tyler and Taylor, besides many other statesmen and oflScers closely identified with the independence and progress of the United Statea 87. The First English Settlement in America was made on the James River, in 1607. 88. WEST VIBGiyiA is a mountainous State, sloping north- westwardly from the Alleghanies to the Ohio River. 89. This State, like Virginia, contains rich mines of coal and iron, besides copper, lead and other metals. 90. It 2'roduces, also, grain, timber, tobacco, salt wooL 91. Its Capital and chief city is Wheeling, whose trade and manufactures are very important, owing mainly to its situation on the Ohio River, near extensive coal mines. 92. This State formed a part of Virginia until 1863. Draw a map of Virginia and West Virginvt, as directed on page 71. 1. THE SOUTHERN and SOUTH-WESTERN STATES are south of the parallel of 36° 30' north latitude, with which (he northern boundaries of three States — North Carohna, Tennessee and Arkansas — nearly coincide. 2. Bordering on the Atlantic are North Carolina, South I Carolina, Georgia and Florida. 3. Bordering on the Gulf, are Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. These are called the Gulf States. 4 The Mountains are the southern poi-tious of three ranges, here about midway between the Mississippi and the Atlantic. They are the Cumberland, Alleghany and Blue Ridge. .'). The Surface slopes from those mountains to the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the 3Iississippi River. 6. Along the Atlantic Coast is low, flat and marshy land, lined with isLinds which are celebrated for the production of Sea- island cotton. 7. The Interior is higher ground, with mountains in the west and north-west ; except in Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana, wliich have no mountains. 8. Along the Loner Course of the Mississippi, the land is so low, that embankments have been raised from 5 to 10 feet higli, to prevent inundation during the spring freshets ; sometimes, however, the waters break over them and cause great destruction of property. 9. The Climate of tlie Lotv Lands along the coast and the Mississippi is unhealthy. 10. The Southern States possess a rich soil and a warm cli- mate, which are peculiarly adapted to the production of cotton, rice, sugar and tobacco. 11. NOBTU CABOLINA: Tlie Eastern part ia low, sandy and marshy, and is noted for tixrpentiue forests, pahnetto groves, and the production of rice, cotton and tobacco. 12. Tlie Western part is mountainous and a good grazing country ; portions ai-o moderately high, and well adapted to the raising of grain. 13. Its Capital is Raleigh, and its chief city and seaport is Wilmington. 14. The First I'ermanent Settlement was made by colonists from Virginia, in 1653. Sii' Walter Raleigh made an unsuccessful attempt to settle the State, in 1586. Draw a map of North Carolina, as directed on page 71. 15. SOUTH CABOLINA and GEOBGIA have the same general characteristics as North Carohna, only warmer and less mountainous ; the northern half of each being high and adapted to the growth of grain ; the southern half is low, producing rico and cotton. 16. Their Capitals are Columbia and Atlanta, and their chief cities Charleston and Savannah, both of wliich have excellent harbors. Draw a map of South Carolina. 17. FLOBIIiA: its characteristics are its low, marshy sur- face, its warm, moist and even climate, its forests and luxuriant vegetation. Oranges and other tropical fruits arc cultivated. 18. Its Capital is Tallahassee. 19. The First Settlement was made by the Spaniards, in 1565, at St. Augustine, which is the oldest town in the United States. Draw a map of Florida. 20. ALABAMA has a general slope to the Gulf, with moun- tains in the north, hills in the center, and low lands in the south. 21. Its Northern part is drained by the Tennessee River, which enters the State at its north-eastern corner, and leaves it at its north-western. 22. The State contains forests of pine and cypress, and yields extensively, cotton, grain, sugar and sweet potatoes. 23. Its Capital is Montgomery, and its chief city. Mobile ; the latter is celebrated as a shipping port for cotton. 24. Alabama was Settled by the French, in 1702, and admit- ted into the Union, in 1819. Draw a map of Alabama. 25. MISSISSIPPI and Alabama have less sea-cojist than the other Gulf States. 26. Mississi ppi is low and level in the west and south. It is noted for its production of cotton, rice and tobacco. 27. Its Capital is Jackson ; its lai^est towns are Vicksburg and Natchez. 28. It was Settled by the French, in 1716, and admitted into the Union, in 1817. Draw a map of Mississippi, 29. LOUIST.tNA has a low surface, which in some places is below high water level. 30. Along the Missinsippi, on both sides, are extensive marshes. 31. Louisiana exctls in the production of cane sugar; be- sides this, are cotton, corn, rice and tropical fruits. 74 MONTEITH'S rHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 32. New Orleans is the capital and metropolis of the State. 33. It is celebratctl for its immense trade, especially in cotton. 34. It is buUt around a bend in the river, and is therefore sometimes called the " Crescent City." 35. Its Surface is below the level of the Mississippi during the usual freshets, but the city is well protected from inundation by its levee, which is about six feet in height and of a considerable width. 36. The Latitude of New Orleans is the same as that of Cairo, the capital of Egypt (30°). 37. Among its other Important Cities are Shreveport and Baton Rouge. The latter, until lately, was the capital of the State. Draw a map of Louisiana. 38. TENNESSEE, a south-western State, is divided by the Cumberland Mountains and the Tennessee River into East Ten- nessee, which is mountainous ; Middle Tennessee, hiUy ; and West Tennessee, generally level. 39. Ttie Soil is fertile, and the climate delightful. 40. Its Productions consist chiefly of live stock, com, cotton, and tobacco. 41. Its Trade with other States is extensive. 42. The Abundance of Iron, Coal, and Water-power in East Tennessee furnishes great facilities for manufacturing purposes. 43. Its Capital is Nashville, situated at the head of steam- boat navigation on the Cumberland River. It is a beautiful and flourishing city, and is next in size to Memphis, the metropolis of the State. 44. Nashville is in the same Latitude as Gibraltar, Algiers and the southern part of Greece. 45. Tennessee originally formed part of the possessions of North Carolina, and became a State in the Union, in 1796. Draw a map of Tennessee. 46. ARKANSAS has a south-easterly slope from its moun- tains in the north-west, to its extensive marshes along the Mis- sissippi. 47. Its Leading Productions are corn, cotton and live stock. 48. Its Forests of valuable timber and its prairies are extensive. 49. Little Mock is its capital and chief city. 50. Its Minerals — coal, iron, lead and zinc — are abundant. Draw a map of Arkansas. 1. All the States North and North-west of the Ohio River are remarkable for their rapid increase in wealth, population and internal improvements. ( acooo ae.BllM. 4B.S0O Cuba... 45,800 N.Carollna SaTM Jara. 51,000 a. Carolina 84.000 Liberia 96,000 Oeoreia A Florida . . 109.000 Italy 114,000 Texaa 974.000 Borneo 984,000 NewKexico 191X100 British Irlee 198,000 Bq. BllM. Mieeonri 06,000 Eaotem States 08,000 Califomia 189,000 Spain 195,000 Montana 148,000 PmHla 186,000 Hindoostan 1,500,000 ArabU 1,000.000 Perfla BOO.OOO Hlnd.,.\ra. * Persia. 8,000,000 Anctralla. 8,000,000 CDit«d States, wlth- ootAlaska t,OOI)jm MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL OEOGMAPHY. 79 " The Capital of Bolivia Is La Paz ; formerly it vras Sucre." F. fferrera. Consul qf Bolivia. MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 81 UCTIOM or •OUTU U1IUC4 TBROUSH 11* OUTU rSOJi TUC rACUriO TO TUI ATLAJmO EXERCISES ON THE MAP. 'VVhat diyision of land is SOUTH AMERICA ? In what direction docs it project t To wliat is it joined ? By what isthmus f What water north of South America ? East f West I What cape at its northern extremity f Eastern t Southern t Western ? Between what capes is South America longest t If you draw a line between these two capes, on which side of the line would be the greater part of South America ? Between what two capes is the greatest width of South America! Is the greater part of South America north or south of its widest part 1 On which side is its great mountain chain ) With what coast is that .;hain parallel ? What mountains in its eastern part ? With what coast are they x>arallel t What mountains on the northern boundary of Brazil t What mountains in the central part of South America } Into what ocean do nearly all the rivers flow t What river of South America is the largest in the world I Is the Amazon north or south of the Equator t What line on the map passes through its mouth ! What tributaries flow into its southern side ! Northern side f Which have their sources in the Andes ? ■What two countries of South America wholly north of the Equator f ■\Vhat three countries partly north of it ? What country between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean ? Name all the countries which border on the Pacific ? On the Atlantic ? On the Caribbe'an Sea ? What is the only country without sea coast ? In what country is the Isthmus of Panama included ? Bound the UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. What is the capital ? What cities in the north ? WTiat city in the south-west I Wliat two rivers flow north ? South-east f Bound VENEZUELA. What is ite capital I What city and lake in the north-west t What large river flows through Venezuela ? What island north of the delta of the Orinoco ? What gulf! Bound GUIANA. Into what three colonies is it divided ? Which colony is in the eastern part ? Western t Central I What is the capital of each colony ? Bound BRAZIL. Wliat is its capital ? Name the capes on the coast of Brazil. The cities. Wliat large island at the mouth of the Amazon ? In what part of Brazil are its mountain regions } Its Silvas ! Llanos 1 Pampas ? Its diamond district 2 What lake in the southern part of Brazil 1 By what river and its tributaries is the greater part of Brazil drained ? By what is its southern part drained ! Its eastern ! What is the greatest width of Brazil from east to west 7 Of the United States of North America I Bound ECUADOR. What is its capital ? What three celebrated volcanoes near Quito ? What high mountain ! What two capes on the coast of Ecuador } What tributaries of the Amazon flow through Ecuador t Bound PERU. What is its capital ? What is the port of Lima ? What town in the north-west ? What town and volcano in the south ! What capos on the coast ? What lake and river in Peru ! Boun'1 BOLIVIA. What is its capital ! What lake between Bolivia and Peru ? What high mountain near it ? What river flows through the southern part 1 Into what does it flow ! By what is the northern part of Bolivia drained f "What city south-west of its capital ! What desert between the Andes and the Pacific Coast ! What volcano in the south-west f Wliat town ! Bound the ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. What is its capital J Name its jmiKipal cities ? AVhat large river flows through the countrj- f What volcanoes l)etween the Argentine Republic and Chili ? In what part are the Pampas ? What capes on the coast i Bound PARAGUAY. What is its capiul ? What two large rivers unite at the south-west comoi of Paraguay ! "What division of land is Paraguay ? What town in the west ? Bonjid URUGUAY. What is iU capital ? Bound CHILI. What is its capital ? What cities on the coast ! In the south-west, what islands ? Peninsula ? Gulf? Bound PATAGONIA. Has it any capital ? Citiej? On what ocean docs Patagonia border ? "What two bays east f ■\VTiat capes on its coast ! AVhat peninsula ! AVhat islands east of the southern part ? ■\Vliat islands compose the group of Terra del Puego ! What strait between Patagonia and Terra del Fuego t K E V I E ^V. CITIES AND TOWNS. mkcre tituatrd f On or noar tffhat umUcts f MONTE VIDEO, PARAMARIBO. CARACAS, M POTOSI, GEORGETOWN, PERNAMBUCO, w LA PAZ, ASFINWALL, VALPARAISO, 7 POPAVAN, (/x>-/>i-A'fM.) Gebal? ACARAY ? Chdcborazo? 81 AunsANA? 1» AbEQUIPA? 18 Atacama? («AA.r3ci^n jsr I 'SSTK I ; 'AssHar iwsN: i °a •VrHIOSOA 00 MONTEITH'S rHYSICAL ANJ) POLITICAL GEOGBAPHY. The Palace of Versailles, near Paris i Now Used as a Historical Museum. 14. FRANCE corresponds in latitude with the New England States, the Great Lakes, Minnesota and Oregon. 15. It>i Mountains are on its eastern and southern borders ; they are noted for the grandeur of their scenery. 16. The River Valleys present beautiful landscapes. 17. Its Climate, soil, and agricultural productions are varied ; the cold of winter increases according to the distance inland. The southeastern section is noted as a winter resort for invalids. 18. The Most Important Ayriculturul Products are grain and grapes, the former flourishing in the north, the latter in the south. 19. The Commerce and Manufactures of France are very important ; the latter comprise silk, woolen, linen and cotton goods. 20. The Larr/est City in France is Paris, the capital and third city in size in the world ; London and Pekin being the largest. 1. EUROPE is remarkable for its great length of coast line, its great plain, mountain and river scenery, and powerful nations. 2. Its Northern Half is mostly level ; its southern half, mountainous. 3. Its Great Plain comprises two-thirds of its area, covering Eussia, Prussia, Denmark and Holland. 4. Its Most Celebrated Mountains are the Alps ; Mount Blanc, the highest mountain in Europe, is 15,810 feet above the level of the sea. 5. The Rivers which are celebrated for the beauty of their scenery are the Rhine, Rhone, Seine, Loire and Danube. The Rhine is noted for its vine-covered Mils, picturesque villages, its crags and ancient castles. Its most interesting portion is in Prussia, between the towns of Bonn and May once. 6. The Foreiyn and Inland Commerce of Europe is very extensive, owing largely to the numerous indentations of its coast, and its network of rivers, canals, and railroads. 7. TJic Climate of Western and Southern Europe is greatly modified by the winds which blow over the Gulf Stream, and the Mediterranean Sea. It corresponds to that of the Pacific coast of the United States. (See p. 37, paragraphs 21, 31 and 38.) 8. The Warm Zone of Europe embraces Spain, Italy, Turkey, Greece, and Southern France. The winters are short, frost and snow, rare, with but slight interruption to vegetation. Here flourish the vine, orange, lemon, citron, fig and olive. The heat of this region is often greatly increased by the hot winds from Africa. 9. The Central, or Temperate Region, except along the western coast, has long, cold winters, with considerable snow. Here grain is largely produced. 10. The Northern and Eastern Parts of Europe are remark- able for their severe winters, and the rapid growth of vegetation in their warm, short summers. 11. Edinburyh and Moscow, although in the same latitude, have very different cUmates ; one is oceanic and mild, the other continental and excessive. 12. The Governments of Europe are mostly hereditary mon- archies. 13. Tlie Leading European Nations are Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and France. 21. PRUSSIA has a northern slope. Its surface is even, except in the south and west. 22. THE GERMAN EMPIRE was formed by the union of all the Kingdoms, States, and Free Cities of North and South Germany. 23. The King of Prussia became Emperor of Germany. 24. The Largest City in Germany is Berlin, the capital. Its population is larger than that of Philadelphia. 25. Other Large Cities are Hamburg, Breslau, Munich, Dres- den, and Cologne. Strasburg and Metz were lately ceded by France to Germany. 26. The Leading Products of Germany are grain, flax, tobacco and wine, linen, cotton, woolen and silk goods, coal and the useful metals. 27. DENMARK and HOLLAND have a low, flat surface and a moist climate. Their principal products are grain, cattle, butter, etc. 28. They Correspond in Latitude with Labrador and Hud- son's Bay. 29. The Surface of a Large Portion of Holland is below the level of the sea and several of its rivers ; the water from them being prevented from overflowing the land, by embankments. The country is drained by means of its numerous canals, into which the water is raised by windmills and steam engines. 30. The Foreign Possessions of France and Holland in Asia, Africa and America, are important. 31. The Most Important Cities of Denmark and Holland are Copenhagen and Amsterdam, their capitals. 32. BELGIUM is the most thickly settled, and the best culti- vated country in Europe. 33. It is Rich in agricultural, mineral and manufacturing products. Coal and iron are abundant. Its manufactures are Brussels carpets, linens, laces, cotton, woolen, and silk goods. 84. Its Capital and chief city is Brussels. 35. France, Holland and Belgium together cover an area about equal to that of Texas. EUROPE. 91 Stt Peter's, the most celebrated cat::. ..;.„. -. .., .^..^... .^ .^ . :,_,, ,,. picture appears the Palace of the Vatican, which is the residence of the Pope. able for their magnificence, their treasures of art, a museum, and a library. 1. AUSTRIA is re- lurkable for its mount- in scenery, its great I eiitral plain of Hun- iry, its exten.sive for- t.s, its mineral wealth, !id the variety of the I aces which compose its inhabitants. 2. Its Pi-odiictious If grain, grapes, hops '\ hemp, with olives, ingos, lemons and iii:0. 3. The LMfgest Cilics in Austria are Vienna — its capital, Prague and Pesth. 4. RUSSIA is re- markable for its great area, severe climutcj, vast forests and steppes (gras.sy plains). 5. It in Chieflij an agricultural and grazing country ; its yield of wheat and other grains is abundant. 6. Its Larffest Cities are SL Petersburg — the capital, Moscow and Warsaw. 7. SWEDEN^ AND NOB1VAT, now under one sovereign, form the Scandinavian Peninsida ; each has its own laws and legislature. 8. The Surface of Norway is exceedingly mountainous, while that of Sweden is comparatively level. 9. Tfie Coasts of both are lined with islands. The Norwe- gian coast is remarkable for its numerous inlets, called fiords. 10. The Climate of Sweden is remarkable for its long, cold winters, and its short, hot summers ; while that of Norway is milder, owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream. 11. The Peninsula is remarkable for its forests, pastures, and its stores of iron and copper. Ship-building, commerce, the lumber trade, and the fisheries, are important. 12. Stockholm, their capital and chief city, is built partly on several islands. 13. SWITZERLAXD, an inland republic, is the most mount- ainous coimtry in Europe. 14. It is remarkable for its grand and picturesque scenery, es- pecially that of its mountains, glaciers, valleys, lakes and waterfalls. 15. Its Area and Pojtulation are about double those of Mas- sachusetts. More than half the inhabitants are Germans, who occupy the northeastern cantons or states; in the west are French, and in the south, Italians. 16. Its Capital is Berne ; its chief city, Geneva. 17. ITALY is celebrated for its mild winters and clear sky, its mountain and lake scenery, its volcanoes and ancient ruins. 18. Rome, the ancient capital of the Roman Empire, is, next to Jerusalem, the most celebrated city in the world. It was once "the mistress of the world," but now is noted chiefly for its ruins, the most famous of which are the Coliseum and the Roman Forum. — , i^ :cet| and itt hight, 458 feet. It contains more than 4000 rooms. Its On the right of the galleries are remark- Its celebrated Cathedral, St. Peters, is the largest church in the world. Rome was founded more than 700 years B. C, and was in the height of its power at the beginning of the Christian era. 19. The LargeM City is Naples, near which are Vesuvius and the ruins of Pompeii (pom-pay'e) and Ilerculaneum. 20. The Principal Volcanoes, besides Vesuvius, are Mt. Etna, in Sicily, and Strom Txili, of the Lip'ari group, all Italian islands. Corsica, the birthplace of Napoleon I., belongs to France. 21. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL correspond, in latitude, with Missouri and Iowa ; and in area, with Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota. 22. Their Surface consists of plateaus and mountains. Their climate is mild on the coasts. 23. The Ilighlands are dry and unproductive ; but the vine, tobacco, sugar cane, and tropical fruits flourish in the lower grounds. Merino sheep in vast numbers are reared for their wool, which is the finest in Europe. 24. Their Largest Cities are the capitals, Madrid and Lisbon. 25. THE TURKISH or OTTOMAN EMPIRE lies in Europe, Asia, and Africa. 26. The Surface of Turkey in Europe is mountainous and undulating ; the climate, variable. Grapes and grain flourish. 27. Many of the people are Mohammedans ; the emperor is called the Sultan, and his court, the Sublime Porte. 28. Constantinople, the capital, is, next to London and Paris, the largest city in Europe. 29. GREECE is noted for its fine scenery and climate, and its delicious fruits, especially currants, olives, and gra))e8. 30. Athens, its capital, and long one of the most celebrated cities in the world for Uterature and science, was founded more than 1300 years B. C. 94 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AKD POLITICAL GBOGRAPBY. ->*i A Procession in Japan, in honor of the Mikado- Descriptive §eography. 1. ASIA is remarkable for its extent of surface, its high moun- tains, extensive plains and deserts, excessive climates, vast popula- tion, and historical antiquity. 2. The Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world, are south of the central part of Asia. Northward, the slope is gradual, while southward, it is very abrupt. 3. The great Plateau Region of Asia is in the center ; the great plains are in the north, west, and east. 4. The Highest Mountain on the globe is Mount Everest, 29,000 feet above the level of the sea ; the plateau of Thibet is from 10,000 to 15,000 feet high. 5. Nearly every Country is rich in wheat, rice and other grains, besides precious metals and stones. 6. Famous for the Manufacture of rich shawls, carpets, silks and velvets, are India, Persia and Turkey. 7. SIBERIA is composed of forests, steppes or prairies, marshes and fertile tracts, with fresh and salt lakes. 8. The Northern Third of its Surface is chiefly a region of salt steppes and endless swamps, where the soil is ijerpetually frozen to the depth of hundi-eds of feet. The surface is thawed only two or three months of the year. 9. The Rivers of Siberia are large, and their lower or northern courses are frozen the greater part of the year. 10. Siberia is rich in gold, precious stones and fur-bearing animals. 11. The Population is composed of Kussian settlers, criminals and pohtical exiles ; besides the original inhabitants, who are a very degraded race, given to the lowest forms of idolatry. 12. CHINA, which forms about one-third of the Chinese Em- pire, has an area about equal to that portion of the United States which hes east of the Rocky Mountains, and a population ten times as large as that of the United States. 13. Its Surface is mountainous in the west, with an eastward slope to the Pacific Ocean. 14. Its great Source of Wealth is in the fertile soil of its extensive plains, river valleys and hills, which are highly cul- tivated. The lowlands yield two crops each year ; the soil is enriched by a deposit of fine mud which is left by the floods. 15. The Agricultural Products of China and Japan are tea, rice, cotton, sugar, grain and fruits. 16. Among its Mamifuctures are silk goods and porcelain ware, the first inventors of which were the Chinese. 17. Inland Trade is facihtated by important rivers, canals, creeks and lakes. 18. The Minerals of China and Japan include gold, sUver, copper, lead, iron and coal. 19. THIBET, an elevated region, belongs chiefly to China. It has a dry climate, except in summer, and abounds in precious metals. 20. THE JAPAN EMPIRE which is no larger than Cali- fornia, has a population nearly equal to that of the United States. 21. Its Climate is rainy, but milder than that of China, in the same latitude. The country suffers from hurricanes, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. 22. The Government, like that of China, is a despotism. The Emperor of Japan is called the Mikado. ASIA. COKPAHATmS Areas. Sqcabji Miij». Russia in Asia, 5,800,000. United States, 3,603,884. Japan Kmpire, 149,399. California, 188,981. Afglianistan, 258,500. Austria, 340,319. Burmali. 193,5')0. Sjiain, 195,000 mifflhM .//.^■■"vy, « -'-' '1^ ■■^«F^-''^— -■ "'^ j'- 1 I I 9J COMPA«ATIT« POPIXATIOSS. Chinese Empire, 44«,000,000. United SUtes, 40,000,000. Japan Empire, 83,000,000. at. Britain h Ite., 32,0(K),000. Tnrkey in Asia. 16,a'50,0OO. Spain, l(i.505,000. Ceylon, .'.000,000. Chill, 2,000,000. The City of Bagdad, on the Tigris River, the principal city in tha eattem part of Turkey m Ana. The Mo$que of Imam (Mouta. 23. ASIATIC TURKEY containa some of the most cele- brated places in the world. Palestine, or the Holy Land, is in the south-west ; Mt. Ararat is on the northeastern border ; Damascus is the oldest, and Jerusalem, the most renowned city in the world. 24. Smyrna is the largest city in Asiatic Turkey. 25. TURKESTAy is high in the east, with a western slope to the Caspian Sea. Its western section is sandy, salt and barren. 26. It is now chiefly under the dominion of Eussia. 27. PERSIA consists mainly of a desert plateau, coTered with sand, salt and nitre, where the heat of siunmer and the cold of winter are excessive. Its fertile section is in the northwest, near the Caspian Sea. The population comprises variotis Asiatic races. 28. Tlie Head of the Government is called the Shah. 29. Many of the Inhnbitants of Persia, Turkestan ', Afghanis- tan', Beloochifitan', Turkey in Asia and Arabia are Nomads, a wandering people, who rear sheep, goats, horses and camels. 30. ARAIilA is a dry, hot and barren region, low along the coasts and high in the interior. 31. The Arabs comprise two classes ; those who live in the cities and are engaged in agriculture, trade, etc., and the Bedouins, who live in tents and wander from place to place in search of pas- ture for their flocks and herds. 32. Ayricuttiire is carried on by means of artificial irrigation. The leading products are coffee, grain, dates, gum Arabic and medicines. 33. The Largest City is Muscat. Mecca is celebrated as the birth-place of Mohammed (bom 571, a.d.), the founder of Moham- medanism. Mocha is famous for its large export of excellent coffee. 34. INDIA extends from the Arabian to the China Sea, a dis- tance from east to west, about equal to that of the United States. 35. It is Remarkable for its hot, moist climate, rich soil and the abundance of its vegetable and animal life. 36. TIte Forests, Vallrys, Slopes and river banks contain valuable timber and a wonderful profusion of flowering vinos, shrubs and trees. 37. The I,eadinff Products are rice, wheat, cotton, coffee, opium, silk and tropical fruits. 38. The Wild Animals include the elephant, rhinoceros, lion, tiger, leopard, panther, bears and others. The foresta teem with monkeys and beautiful birds. 39. I7i« Useful Animals of Asia include the camel, horse, ox and donkey. The elephant and buffalo are also domesticated. 40. The Precious Metals and precious stones are abundant 41. Hindoostan covers an area nearly equal to one-half that of the United States, with more than four times their poptilation. It is mainly under the dominion of Great Britain. In the north, the cold of winter and the heat of summer are excessive ; on the table-lands of the center and south, the climate is comparatively temperate ; but, on the thickly settled plains, the heat, during the greater portion of the year, is intense. 42. AFOHAJflSTAjr and BELOOCHISTAN consist of high plateaus and mountains. Their climates are excessive. 43. Tfte Asiatic Govemmrnft, are despotic ; the religions, very diverse. Buddhism (bood'ism), an idolatrous worship, prevails in Thibet, China and Japan ; Brahminisni, also idolatrous, in India. The religion of Siberia is chiefly that of the Greek Church ; that of Western and Southwestern Asia, Mohammedan, except Greeks and Armenians, who are Christians. Showing the course of the Congo River, discovered by Stanley in 1877. * Source of the Nile, discovered by Stanley, 187s. AFRICA. 97 SOUDAN ABYSSINIA BBCTIOH or UrUOA nOM CAP* TIU>, UnrWASD, TO THB «EO UA. EXERCISES ON THE MAP. What natural division of land is AFRICA ? By what waters is it em- braced ? What preyents it from being an island ? To what is Africa joined ? Where does Africa approach nearest to Eiirope ? What line is drawn east and west, nearly midway between the Meditei^ ranean Sea and the Southern Ocean ? Is the greater part of Africa north, or south, of the Equator J Near what parallel of latitude is Africa widest ? Does Africa become wider, or narrower, toward the south t In what part is Sahara ? Wiat tropic passes through its center t What desert in the southern part of Africa ! What tropic passes through it ? In how many zones does Africa lie ? In which is its greater part t What countries in the North Temperate t In the Torrid ? In the South Temperate ? Are the mountains of Africa in the interior, or near the coasts t What mountains in the north ? With what coasts are they parallel T What range of mountains in the east ? South-east ? With what coast are they parallel ? What mountains in the southern part of Africa ? With what are they parallel ? What ranges in the west ? Near what coast are they I On which side of Africa are the greatest elevations I What river rises in the elevated regions of Africa I What large lake is the source of the Nile River ? In what latitude is Lake Victoria Nyanza ? What lakes south f What lake in the central part of Africa ? now does the elevation of Lake Victoria Nyanza compare with that of Lake Tchad ? (See Sectional View.) What two high mountains near Lake Victoria Nyanza ? In what directions does the land slope which lies between the mountain ranges and the sea coast t Name the rivers which flow into the Indian Ocean, — the Atlantic, — ^the Gulf of Guinea, — ^the Mediterranean Sea. What rivers of Africa have deltas ? Name the Barbary States. By what bounded on the north t South t Bound EGYPT. What is its capital ? lU large river ? What towns on the Nile J On the Mediterranean Sea ? What town in the delta of the Nile ? At the head of the Red Sea t Bound NUBIA. Name its principal towns. What two rivers unite in Nubia ? From what directions do they flow f Bound ABYSSINIA. What is its capital ? What divisions of Africa border on the Indian Ocean ? On Mozambique Channel ? On the Atlantic Ocean t On the Gulf of Guinea I What large division south of Saliara ? Bound SOUDAN. Has Soudan any sea coast ? What other extensiTe region baa no sea coast I What lake near the center of Soudan t What large river flows through its western part ? What towns on the Niger ? Wlmt towns in the north-east ? Bound SENEGAMBIA. What cape on the north-western coast? What Republic south-east of Sencgambia 1 British colony south ? What is the capital of LIBERIA ? Wliat are the divisions of Guinea ? Name the capitals of the kingdoms in Guinea. In Lower Guinea. Bound CAPE COLONY. AVhat is its capiUl » Bound the GREAT DESERT. What countries partly covered by it ! What important o'aaes in the Great Desert ? What is the capital of Madagascar t Wliat capes on its coast f What is the capital of Fezzan ! RE V I E AV. COUNTRIES OR DIVISIONS. Vii^Tf ar« Uteff 9 On what water do th^y bonier > Morocco, or Marocco ? Guinea ? Liberu ? Abyssinu? Seneoahbu? Orange Free State ? Transvaal? (trant-viihl'.) Mozambique? (ine.«im-&Mf.) Lower Guinea? Zanguebar? CapeC!olont? Ashantee? Hottentot ? Algeria ? Caffbabu? Barca? Oentbal Africa ? Benin ? Siebra Leone? Dahomey? (M.«r'raA<»o'iM.) (*'o-«~a.) Com'obo Is.? GULFS AND SEAS. Where are they t Jnio what watera do they «pet^ 9 G. OF Guinea? G. of Aden? G. of Sidpji? Bed S.? RIVERS. Ifkcm do they rieef Itltat eourtee do thry take T Into what do they fiom t Nile ? »«• Zambeze ? Tchadda ? Congo ? Niger? M Senegal? Orange? Coanza? Victoria Nyanza? (•m-oAh'kU.) LAKES. Where mre they eiiuated ? Tanganik A ? Nyasba ? ((irt»vas-y«'tall.) (ityaJkf'M) Tchad? (cAtid.) CAPES. Where are they T Into tehat tratere do they pr tifett T Good Hope? Corriente8? Palmas? Bon? Blanco? Lopez? Verd? Ambro? GuABDAFUi? Agulhab? St. Lucu? Fbio? (fftear-dah-^Me',) (oA-gool'yiu.) gj. Maby? (A*^*) CITIES AND TOWNS. Where are they ? On or near what watere f CAIRO, IM* TUNIS. HI MOROCCO, "1 ALGIERS. •• ALEXANDRIA, m 8ACCATOO, » {Mh-tah-too'.) COOMASSIE.' ST. SALVADOR, TANANARIVOU, MAGADOXO, TIMBUCTOO. ABOMEV. {ab-o-may') MONROVIA, MOURZOUK, TRIPOLI, CAPE TOWN, QONDAR, SIOUTT. LOANOO, UJIJI, OERR. SUEZ, j COBBE, ' OONDOKORO, • Nunbara In IM of Moantaliu tbow batubli, !■ OaMOiKb i^fut; In IM of Blrm, Unftki In kwmdrei* <^rMm ; In lUt of CIUm ud TowM, popoIMion, In IMoiuaiuU. 98 MOKTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Egyptian Ruins at Thebes 1. AFRICA is remarkable for its high surface, extensive deserts and hot climate. 2. It is mainly in the Torrid Zone. In latitude, its northern cape corresponds with Richmond (Virginia) and San Francisco ; its southern, with Buenos Ayres. 3. Its Moutvtain Chains are almost parallel with the coast lines. 4. The Coasts are low and unhealthy, but the interior consists of high table lands. 5. Its Great Desert is Sahara ; its principal rivers are the NUe, Niger, Zambeze and Congo ; its lakes are in Soudan and C. Africa. 6. The Africans include several distinct races. In the north, are Moors, Berbers, Arabs, Turks and Egyptians, all of whom belong to the Caucasian race, having straight hair ; their com- plexion is dark, but not black. The southern half of Africa is the home of the Negro. 7. The Productions of Africa consist of wheat and other grains, cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, indigo, ivory, ebony, ostrich feathers, palm oil and tropical fruita 8. Inland Trade is carried on by means of caravans. 9. Celebrated for their Explorations in Africa, are Barth, Du Chaillu, Grant, Speke, Baker and Livingstone aaid Stanley. 10. The Animals are numerous : they include the lion, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, leopard and giraffe. The gorilla is found in the Equatorial regions, and the crocodile in the rivers. 11. EGYPT corresponds in latitude with Flor- ida: it extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the first Cataract of the Nile ; it has the Eed Sea on the east, and the desert on the west. 12. It is Noted for its antiquity, former great- ness, gigantic pyramids, temples, obelisks, statues and tombs, constructed about 4,000 years ago. 13. Its Climate is dry and hot. 14. Tlie Fertility of its Soil is wholly due to the annual rise of the water of the Nile, caused by periodical rains, which faU in torrents on the pla- teaus of Abyssinia and Central Africa. Without the Nile, Egypt would be a desert. 15. In Egypt, the Nile is Lined with high em- bankments, and the water is conducted in narrow channels to various parts of the valley, and allowed to cover the land, leaving a rich sedi- ment. 16. The Water Continues to Rise at Cairo from June to September. 17. TJie Valley of the Nile varies in width, from 4 to 10 miles. 18. Tlie Southern Sources of the Nile are several degrees south of the Equator. 19. The Chief Exports from Egypt, or through it from India, are sUk and cotton. 20. Tlie Trees of Egypt are the date-palm, aca- cia and tamarisk ; there are no timber forests. 21. The Useful Animals are the horse, camel and donkey. Milk is obtained from the goat and the domestic buffalo. 22. The Inhabitants comprise Fellahs, Copts, Arabs and Turks ; the Fellahs are the peasants and laborers, the Arabs are Bedouins, and the Turks are the ruling class. All are Mohamme- dans, except the Copts, who profess Christianity, and are the reputed descendants of the ancient Egyptians. Besides these, there are many Europeans and Jews. The language of the inhabi- tants is Arabic ; their complexion, a brownish yellow. 23. The Government of Egypt, which is despotic and oppressive, is administered by the Khedive (king), who is subject to the Sultan of Turkey. Until recently, the ruler of Egypt was called the Viceroy. 24. Tlie History includes six periods, the country being succes- sively ruled by the Pharaohs, Ptolemies, Eomans, Arabs and Turks. 25. The Pyramid of Clieojys (ke'ops) is the largest ; it is over 450 feet in height, and its base covers an area of 12 acres. 26. Trade and Travel between Europe and India are facilitated by the railroads between Alexandria, Cairo, and Suez, and by the Suez Canal, which connects the Red with the Mediterranean Sea. 27. Cairo is the capital and largest city. It is in the same lati- tude as New Orleans, and contains a population about equal to that of St. Louis and Kansas City combined. 28. Alexandria, next in size to Cairo, is the principal sea-port ; it was founded by Alexander the Great, after whom it was named. AFRICA. 99 l>OPULATION8 OF COUHTBUS. 4.913,500. Sahara, 4,000,000. Morocco, 2,750,000. Algeria, 2,921 AM (i. Liberia, 730,000. Cape ('olony, 683,600. Sierra Leone. 57,000. POPHIATIOMS or ClTOB. Cairo, 354,000 .Viexandria, 220,000. Tunis, 120,000. More ceo, SO.OOC. Algiers, 68,000. Fez, 100,000. Moquinc:: 63,000. A Traveler and hi* Attendants, in Central Africa, 29. yZTBTA has the same general characteristics as Ep;ypt. 30. Tfte IitUahitants are partly of Arab descent, but of a darker complexion ; many are black, with Caucasian features. They cul- tivate the soil, and rear cattle, sheep and goats. 31. Nubia sftifl.H to Eftypt. hid3S, ivory, ebony and ostrich feathers. It is subject to the Khediye of Egypt 32. ABYSSINIA is a high table land, between 7,000 and 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, crowned with mountains, ;irid connected with the great plateau of Southern Africa. 33. The Climate varies with the elevation, from the hot, pesti- lential coasts, to the limit of perpetual snow ; on the high lands lio climate is delightful. During the wet season, the rain falls in < )rrent8. 34. The Product It are grain, coffee, cotton, sugar, fruits, gums, and medicines. 35. Tlie DomeKtic Animals are numerous. 36. The Population comprises various races — Ethiopians, Arabs, Jews, savage Grallas, and Negroes in a state of slavery. 37. Tlie Abf/nninian Pel iff ion is a branch of the Coptic Cliurch ; Mohammedanism, Judaism and Paganism also exist. 38. THE BAPBARY STATES comprise Morocco, Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli ; subject to Tripoli, are Barca and Fezzan. 39. The Prinrijtfil ProdiirtiouH are Morocco leather, wool, grain, fruits, gum, oUve oil, ostrich feathers and cabinet woods. 40. Cattle, Iloriten and Goeecri\>e it. Of what is it composed ? Its Thickness — What can you say of it ? Its Greatest Depressions — ^Where are they ? Page Paragr'ph 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 38 38 88 38 38 34 34 34 21-25 17 57 17 57 34 I 18 41 !5a-52 42 42 42 42 42 9 10 12 12 8 8 8 9 INDEX AND BEVIEW OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. lOS I Currents of tlie Ocean. — TJieir Theory — Ex- plain it Illustrate the Movement of the Equatorial Cur- rent by means of a Boat Race Their Change of Direction — How caused ? What gives the Gulf Stream a Rotary Median f . . . If South America had not been raised from the Bed of the Sea, what would be the Direction of the Equatorial Current ? Equatorial Currents of the Pacific — Describe them. Cold Currents — How many and what are they ? . . Warm Currents — Mention them What Current washes the Eastern Coast of the United States What Current washes the Western Coast of Europe ? Benefits of the Oceanic Currents — "What are they ? Dead Sea. — Its Origin — Describe it. What is its Distance below the Level of the Sea ? What Substances are contained in its Waters ? DesertH. — WTiat are they ? By what are they Caused f The Desert Region of the Old World comprises what ? What is its Extent t Simoon — Describe it. Drifting Sand — What destructive Effects ? Sahara — State its Extent and Elevation. . Oases — Describe them Alacama — Describe this Desert Dew. — Its Formation — Describe it ^Vhat are its Uses ? Earth. — Its Creation — What was the Process ? Illustrate its Formation from Chaos For what Purpose was it Created ? By whom ?. . General Order of Creation — Mention it Its Shape— mi&i is it? Its Surface — Of what did it at first consist ? EarthquakeH.— Their Origin — ^Describe it Their Effects — Mention some of them. How are they rendered less Destructive ? What Warnings precede them ? What can 'you say of the Destruction of Hercu- laneum and Pompeii f. Describe the Earthquake of Port Royal — Of Lisbon. Of New Madrid— Oi Caracas— Ot Chtli. Have the United States been visited by Earth- quakes ? What connection between them and the Forma- tion of Mountains ? Are they always Destructive? May they occur anywhere ? '. . . On wh .t part of a Continent do they occur most frequently ? Europe. — lis Surface — What can yon say of it ?. . . Its Area and Extent of Coast Line ? What can you say of its Peninsulas and Islands ? p>(. Plrafr'ph 23 6-8 24 11,12 24 8 24 Cut. 24 18 24 19.20 25 Chart. 26 Chart. 25 23 25 30 25 27 31 14 31 14 31 14 21 1 21 2 21 3 21 3 21 5 21 7 21 10 21 11,12 21 14 33 6 33 6 6 1 6 2 5 8 7 18 6 3 6 3 19 1 19 7 19 6 19 15 19 16 19 17,18 20 19-21 20 26,26 19 8 19 18 19 14 16 86,44 14 63 13 41 Europe. — Its Mean Elevation — ^What is it ? Its Great Plain — ^What Countries are comprised in it ? Ib any part of its Surface below the Sea Level ? . . Describe the Region around the Caspian Sea .... What is the Character of the Land toward the Arctic Ocean? What can you say of the River System of Central Europe? Ftstnires. — ^What are they ?. Their Origin Eoff What is Fog? How are the Fog^ near Newfoundland formed ?. . Food. — From what is it obtained ? Do all People require the same kind of Food ?. . . Is it Adapted to the Wants of the Earth's Inhabi- tants? What kind is required in the Hot Zone f In the Temperate 2!oru: f Frigid Zone f What forms the Chief Food of the Esquimaux? . . Geysers. — TJieir Position and Origin T How can you illustrate them ? Give an account of the Eruptions of the Great Geyser Glaciers. — Describe them Gulf Stream. — Whence does it proceed? De- scribe it How is Euroj)e benefited by the Gulf Stream ? . . . . Does it wash the Eastern Coast of the United States ? Why not? What is the Difference in Temperature between the Gulf Stream and the Cold Current near the Coast of the United States ? Does any part enter the Arctic Ocean ? How ? . . What is the Velocity of the Gulf Stream ? How far North is its Influence felt ?. How has it assisted in the Erterusion of Vegetation f Hail. — ^How is it produced ? Heat. — Does the Internal Heat of the Earth extend to the Surface ? Whence does the Surface receive its Heat ? How far below the Surface does Solar Heat ex- tend? 18 21 21 21 21 29 16 19 84 26 40 40 40 40 44 27 27 27 16 24 24 25 26 26 25 36 41 34 8 8 8 15 Isotherm^.— 'Wh&t are they ? Are they Parallel with each other ? What are Isothermal Zones ? Why not?. I Japan Current. — Describe it ' Does any part enter the Arctic Ocean ? Where ? 36 36 24 26 Pangr'ph 85 14 17 18 19 36 13 4 19 26 1 8 6,6,8 29,30 20 22 89 9 16,17 28 28 Chart. 81 14 37 81 8 2 14 Ice and Jrehergs. — Mention some of their Effects. How do they contribute to the Formation of tlie Banks near Newfoundland ? 26 24, 26 2 4.5 6 20 38 106 MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL ANlf POLITICAL GMOGRAPHY. Lakes. — What are they ? How many Classes of Lakes are there ? Describe the First Class — The Second — The Third— The Fourth How are they supphed ? Why do not all Depressions contain Lakes ? Mention the Most Elevated Lake and its Elevation. What is the elevation of Lake Titicaca ? What Lake is furthest below the Sea Level ? . . . . Why is the Water of some Lakes Salt ? Mention the principal Salt Lakes Svhterraiiean Lakes — What are they ? What are sometimes caused by them ? What is the Largest Lake in the World ? Its Area ? Land Slides. — Describe them JUan. — How distinguished ? Is he influenced by Chmate ? His Adaptability to Climate — what can you say of it ? The Races — Mention them How are they distinguished from each other ? What can you say of the Races which inhabit the Torrid and Frigid Zones ? How is Man affected by extreme Heat ? Extreme Cold? What are the Characteristics of the Inhabitants of the Tropical Regions '? Of those of the Frigid Zones ? Describe the Inhabitants of the Temperate Zone. Where has Man reached the highest State of development ? Mississippi River. — Describe it From New Orleans, how far North is it navigable ? " North-east? North- west f Its Windings, — What can you say of them ? Its Basin — What is its Area ? Its Delta — How is it formed ? Its Wearing and Transportation Power — How shown ? Mountains. — Their Origin ? Time occupied in their Formation ? A Chain — A Culminating Point — What are they ? . On the Eastern Continent — Mention them On the Western Continent A Mountain System — What is it ? Name the highest Mountains on the Globe Violence in their Formation — How indicated ? . . . Their Direction — To what due ? The Greatest Elevations are in what Zone ?. What if there were no Mountains ? '. The Influence of Mountains upon Clouds ? Where are the highest Mountains required ? Why ? Their Upheaval— What benefit to Mankind ? North America. — Its Form Mountain Systems — Mention them Elevation — What is the Mean Elevation ? . . Page "aragr'pli 31 1 31 2 31 3-7 31 9-10 31 8 17 Cut. 17 52 31 14 31 15 31 16 31 18,19 31 18,19 31 21 27 23 u u 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 45 30 17 15 14 12 12 14 14 15 15 15 18 17 17 17 11 18 18 3 9-11 4-5 7 16-19 25 23 24 27,33 30 29 19 29 20 29 21,22 29 25 29 30 30 44-46 45 64 15 5 25 26 6 10 16 17 27 69 57 58 64-66 Cut. 76 85 Ocean. — How divided ? Total extent of Surface ? . . What is the Area of the Pacific ? Atlantic ? In- dian ? Arctic ? Antarctic ? Rs Bed — What Changes has it undergone ? Its Temperature — How regulated ? Its PuHly — How preserved ? By what Process is the Land supplied with Water ? What are Dependent upon the Ocean ? Its Uses — Mention the principal As a Means of Communication, which Ocean is the most Useful to Man ? Its Depth — Is it uniform ? Where is the deepest part of the Ocean ? What is its Mean Depth ? What can you say of its Depth near the Coasts ? . Plains. — What are they ? What do they comprise f How shaped and fertihzed ? Of North America — What do they comprise ? . . . . Of South America — ^What do they comprise ? . . . . Of the Amazon — What is their Extent ? The Arctic Plains — Describe them Page Paragr'ph 22 22 6 26 22 22 22 26 22 22 23 23 22 14 20 11 20 21 21 21 Plants. — Their Growth — ^How does it progress ?. . . . 6 Of what Element are Plants chiefly composed ?. . . 22 What Conditions are most favorable to its growth? 40 Their Nourishment — From what received, and by what means? 40 To what do Plants supply Nourishment ? 40 How are they affected by Frost ? j 40 By what means is the Growth of some Plants ex- tended? 41 Mention the Trees and Plants of the Frigid Zone — Of the Temperate. Zone — Of the Torrid Zone. 41 Plateaus. — What are they ? 15 Their Formation — Describe it 15 Where are the Plateaus of Asia f Europe ? America ? Africa ? 15 The Highest on the Globe — Mention them 16 The North American Plateau — Describe it 18 Rain. — How produced ? 34 Its Distribution over the Surface — How caused ? . 34 Its C/ses— What are they ? 26 How does it penetrate the Ground ? 26 How influenced by high Mountains ? 34 Where does the greatest Amount fall ? Why ? . . 34 What parts of a Continent receive the greatest Amount of Rain ? 34 On which Side of the Tropical Andes does the greatest Amount fall 34 Why does Uttle or no Rain fall on the lee-side of the Andes ? 34 On which Side of the Andes do the Trade Winds deposit Rain ? 35 On which Side do the Return Trades deposit Rain? 35 In what parts of Ncrrth America is Rain most abundant ? 35 Why do the West Indies receive Copious Rains ? . 35 INDEX AND REVIEW OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 107 liahiless Itegions. — Thfiy Include what parts of the Eastern Continent ? What parts of the Western Continent . . ftivers. — How Formed ? Their Uses — Mention them Their Courses — Describe them — 'What do they indicate ? TIw Ganges — Describe it T)ie Indus and Brahmaputra — Describe them. . . . How do Eivers afiFect the Surface of Lowlands ?. . Delias — How formed ? ITwir Windings — What advantages attend them ? What is the most important River in N. America ? A River Basin — What is it ? A River Bed—'WhsX is it ? A Channel f A River System — What is it ? Inland Basins — Name some of them Where do some Rivers of Africa empty ? Oceanic Rivers — What are they ? Continental Rivers — ^What are they ? How are Rivers affected by the Melting of Snow ? Mountain Streams — Mention their Uses Rivers which rise periodically — How supplied ?. . . Rocks. — What are Aqueotis Rocks f Stratified Rocks f What are Igneous Rocks f Unstralified f Stratified — ^Of what composed ? Rocky Mountain Syatem. — ^Its Extent ? 'WTiat Ranges does it include ? The Greatest Width of the System — where and what? Sea Shells. — ^To what Class of Animals do they be- long? ITieir Appearance on Mountains — How accounted for? Snoir. — How is it produced ? Of ichat Advantage is Snow ? Why ? Of what Uses is Snow which covers the Tops of Tropical Mountains ? Perpetual Snoic — At what Elevation on the An- des ? On the Alps ? In Arctic Ijatitudes ? . . South America. — Its Area in Square Miles ?. Its Plateaus — Where situated ? Its Mountain Systems — Possess what Advantages ? Its Surface — What can you say of it ? Elevation — What is its Mean Elevation ? What is the total extent of Plains ? The Llanos, the Wet and Dry Seasons, the Sdvas — ^Describe them Springs.— Their Origin — Describe it Wells — How supplied ? In the Dry Season some Springs become dry while others continue to flow ? Why is this? The Quality of Spring Water depends on what ?. . InlermUlent Springs— Wh&i are they ? Salt Springs — ^Their Origin ? p.g« Pingrph 21 3 35 59 28 1 28 7 28 8 28 13 29 14 29 18 30 14 29 24 29 19 29 29 29 33 29 28 30 40 30 41 30 42 30 43 30 51 30 49 30 52 8 10 8 11 8 19 18 79 18 78 18 80 43 13 15 14 34 32 34 35 17 58 16 38 14 53 15 30 17 60-62 17 63 ; 18 85 21 13 21 9 26 4r-6 27 27 10 12 ' 27 13 j 27 14 1 27 16 Springs. — Mineral Waters — What are they ? Mineral Waters — Of what Uses are they ? Mineral Springs — 'WTiere are the most celebrated? Sot iSprings — Their Origin and Uses ? " " — Where are the most noted ? United States. — Was all the Land of this Country raised at the same time ? Describe its great Plateau Region. For what Production is the Southern Part of this Country noted ? What can you say of the North-eastern Part ?. . . 2%e Means (f Communication — ^What can you say of them ? Vapor. — Hie Process of its Formation — ^What is it ?. Il8 Uses — ^Mention them Why is it not always Visible ? To what does it supply Nourishment ?. Vegetatimi. — ^When and for what Purpose was it made ? ITie First Vegetation — What was its character ?. . . Where is it produced in the greatest abundance ? How does it purify the Atmosi>here ? What Mutual Dependence between Vegetable and .iVnimal Life ? On which Side of a Continent docs Vegetation extend furthest North ? Why ? How does Vegetation vary on the Sides of Moun- tains ? Volcanoes. — Iheir Origin^ Ulustrato by means of a Cake Of what Benefit are Volcanoes ? The Effect ot an Eruption of Mt Vesuvius — Give an Account of it Monte Nuovo — Give an account of its Formation . The Most Noted Volcanoes — Mention them Hot Water and Steam of Volcanoes — Whence do they proceed ? Water. — Whence is the Land supplied with Fresh Water? The Center of the Water Hemisphere — Where is it ? Rs Wearing Poxoer — What can you say of it ? ... . How affected by Heat ? Of what Benefit is it to Plants ? Winds.— yfh&i are they ? The two General Movements of the Air — WTiat are they ? The Tropical Winds — ^Explain their Movement. . The. Trade Winds — Describe them The Return Trades — Describe them What Effect have the Trade Winds on the Equa- torial Current ? What Winds blow over South-western Europe ?. How do thev affect that Division ? Land and Sea Breezes — Describe them C(dm'' — How caused ? Where are the Regions of Calms ? p««« Para^'pb 27 15 27 16 27 16 27 18 27 19 11 11 18 77,81 88 49 88 60 44 14 9 16 9 16 83 7 83 6 40 1.2 42 2 40 9 40 19 40 17,18 41 43 41 48 19 1-2 19 Cut. 19 5 20 23 19 10 19 11 31 11 29 33 40 32 82 82 82 32 82 32 82 38 32 82 19 13 18 26,27 1 14 11 16 17 21,22 23 24 27 27 86,36 20 20 lOH MONTEITH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. SfsTRONOMICAL |-EOGRAPHY. [the -words in black ttpb sireeBT th« quxsnoits.] 1. Astronomical Geography treats of the form, size, and motions of the earth ; its relations to the Sun, Moon, and other heavenly bodies ; its seasons, latitudes, and longitudes. 2. The Earth is one of a family of heavenly bodies which revolve around the Sim. 3. The bodies which revolve around the Sun are distributed into three classes ; Planets, Asteroids, and Comets. 4. These bodies, together with the Sun, constitute the Solar System. 5. The Solar System is but a small portion of the Universe. 6. Hie Sun is a luminous body, because it shines by its own light. The planets are opaque (dark) bodies. 7. The Earth, Moon, and other planets receive from the Sun light and heat. 8. The names of the principal planets, according to their size, are Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Ura'nus, the Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury. 9. Their names according to their distances from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 10. The form, of the Earth is that of a sphere, slightly flat- tened at the Poles. [See illustration on page 9.) 11. A Sphere or Globe is a round body whose siurface, in every part, is equally distant from its center. 12. A Hemisphere is half a sphere or globe. 13. The Dlatneter of a Sphere is a straight line passing through its center, and terminated at both ends by the surfece. 14. The Diameter of the Earth is nearly 8,000 miles. Its diameter at the Equator is 7,925 miles, but from Pole to Pole it is 26 miles less. 15. The Circumference of a Sphere is the distance around it. 16. T/te Circumference of the Earth is nearly 25,000 miles. 17. The Axis of a Sphere is the line or diameter on which the sphere revolves. 18. Tlie Poles of the Earth, or of any sphere, are the extrem- ities of its axis, or the two points where the axis meets the surface. 19. The Sun shines upon one half of the earth's surface at any one time ; so that one hemisphere has day while the opposite hemisphere has night. 20. The succession of Day and Night is caused by the revo- lution of the eai-th on its axis, which it performs every 24 hours. 21. The rate of Motion of the equatorial parts is 1,000 miles every hour, but it diminishes toward the Poles. The Axis does not revolve, neither do the Poles. 22. Localities on the Earth's surface are determined and described by means of imaginary lines or circles. 23. Great Circles are those which divide the Earth into two equal parts. 24. Small Circles are those which divide the Earth into two unequal parts. 25. The jjrincijfal Great Circles are the Equator, Ecliptic, and Meridians. 26. The principal Small Circles are the two Tropics and the two Polar Circles. 27. The Equator divides the Earth info Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It is midway between the Poles. 28. Meridians pass from Pole to Pole, crossing the Equator at right angles. 29. Meridians divide the Earth into Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 30. Latitude is distance northward or southward from the Equator, measured on a Meridian. 31. Longitude is distance eastward or westward from a certain Meridian, measured on the Equator. 32. Latitude and Longitude are reckoned in degrees, min- utes, and seconds, which are known by the signs (°), ('), ("). The City Hall of New York is in lat. 40° 42' 43 " (read 40 degrees, 42 min utes, and 48 seconds). A degree contains 60 minutes, and a minute 60 seconds 33. A Degree is one 360th part of a circle ; it varies in length according to the size of the circle. 34. The length of a degree on a Great Circle of the Earth is about 69| statute miles, or 60 geographical miles. A statute mile contains 5,280 feet, and a geographical mile, 6,075 feet. 35. Tlie parts of the Earth farthest from the Equator are the Poles, whose latitude is 90'. 36. Longitude is usually reckoned, on our maps and globes, from the Meridian of Greenwich, near London, and from the Meridian of Washington. 37. The greatest Longitude a place can have is 180° — ^half way round the globe. 38. liefer to the Map on pages 52 and 53, and state the Lati- tude of Philadelphia ; of New Orleans ; of Columbus ; of Nashville ; of San Francisco ; of Savannah. 39. What is the Longitude of each, from Greenwich, and from Washington? 40. Refer to the Map on page 72, and state the Latitude of Naples ; of Venice ; of Lucerne ; of Athens ; of Constantinople ; of Paris ; of Frankfort ; of Hamburg ; of London ; of Liver- pool ; of Dublin. 41. What is the Longitude of London ? of Dublin ? of Geneva ? of Eome ? of Vienna ? 42. The Ecliptic is the path in which the Earth revolves around the Sun. In Geography, the Ecliptic is a great circle on the terrestrial globe which is always in the plane of the earth's orbit. 43. Tlie Equator and Ecliptic cross each other at an angle of 23^°. 44. The Sensible Hori'zon is the Small Circle which boimds our view of the Earth's surface. Its circumference is the line in which the Earth and Skies appear to meet ; spectators in different localities have different horizons. In the middle of the horizon is the spectator. Tlie higher the elevation on which the spectator stands, the greater is the sensible horizon. A person at sea, standing on the level of the surface, would see three miles in every direction. The diameter of his sensible horizon would be six miles. {Seepage 9, Ulustration, and paragraphs 1 to 5.) 45. Tlie national Horizon is the Great Circle which is paral- lel to the Sensible Horizon ; it divides the Earth into upper and lou;er hemispheres. 1 ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 109 46. Parallels of Latitude are small circles parallel to the Equator. 47. T/ie Tropica are those parallels which pass through the two points of the Ecliptic farthest from the Equator. 48. Tlie Tropic in the Northern Heminphere is called the Tropic of Cancer. That in the Southern Jleini- sphere, the Tropic of Capricorn. 49. I7ie Distance of the Tropics from the Equator is 23°. 50. The Axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of the Eaith's orbit 51. The Distance from the Poles to the Extremities of a Diameter which is perpendicular to the Ecliptic is 23]°; through these two extremities two parallels of latitude are drawn ; that around the North Pole is called the Arctic Circle or North Polar Circle, and that around the . South Pole, the Antarctic, or South Polar, Circle. (See iUuslralion at the top of the page.) 52. The Tropics and Polar Circles divide the Earth's surface into five great Belts or Zones. {See map on page 81.) 53. THE ZONES AND THEIR EXTENT FROM NORTH TO SOUTH. North Frigid From the North Pole to the Arctic Circle 231° North Temperate Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer 48° Torrid Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. . 47° South Temperate " Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. . 43° South Frigid. . . " Antarctic Circle to the South Pole 28i° Total, from Pole to Pole 180° 54. Within the Torrid Zom« the Ilent is extreme, because the Sun's rays fall directly upon the surface. 55. TJie Cold of our Winter is not known, except at high elevations. (See page 39, paragraphs 02-66.) 56. Tlie Days and Nights on and near the Equator are equal throughout the year. Leaving the Equator, their in- equality increases with the latitude. 57. The Sun is Vertical to the inhabitants of the Torrid Zone at certain times during the year. (Bead page 45, par. 16, 17, 22, and 23.) 58. The Sun is Vertical, or in the Zenith, when it is per- pendicularly over the head. 69. Within the Friffid Zones the Cold is extreme, because the Sun's rays fall very obliquely upon the stu-face. The Longest Days in Summer and the Longest Nights in "Winter are in proportion to the latitudes, — from 24 hours on the Polar Circles to 6 months at the Poles. The Sun is never Vertical to any of the inhabitants of the Frigid Zonea 60. Within the Temperate Zones the Ileal is less than that in the Torrid Zone, and the cold is less than that in the Frigid Zones. The Longest Days in Summer and the Longest Nights in "Winter vary from 13] hours on the Tropics to 24 hours on the Polar Circles. Tlie Sun is Vertical once a year — midsummer — to the inhabitants on the Tropics. 61. The Change of Seasotis depends upon the annual revolu- tion of the earth in the same plane, the incUnation of its axis, and the loaning of the axis always in the same direction. 62. The North Pole leans toward the Sun in the latter part of June ; then it is Summer in the Northern and Winter in the Southern Hemisphere. (See illustration above.) The Northern Hemisphere has long days and short nights, while the Southern Hemisphere has short days and long nights. The Whole of the North Frigid Zone has day, while the South Frigid has night The Sun is Vertical to the inhabitants on the Tropic of Cancer. 63. The North Pole leans from the Sun, in the latter part of December ; then it is Summer in the Southern and Winter in the Northern Hemisphere ; the Soutliern Hemisphere has long days and short nights, while the Nortliem has short days and long nights. The Whole of the South Frigid Zone lias day, while the North Frigid has night The Sun is Vertical to the inhabitants on the Tropic of Capricorn. 64. On the 23d of March , neither the North nor the South Pole leans toward the Sun. (In the tlltistralion above, the pupil mttst imayine the Earth to have moved around behind the Sun). Then it is Spring in the Northern Hemisphere while it is Autumn in the Southern ; t/ie Sun is vertical to the inhabitants on and near the Equator, and the Une of separation between the dark and the illuminated side of the Earth passes through the Poles. 65. Oti the 21st of June, the position of the Earth is as rep- resented in the picture ; three months afterward, or on the 23d <^ September, the Earth's position would be sidewise, as in March. (In the picture imagine the Earth to have moved toward you, and to be immediately in front of the Sun, about tux) inches from the page.) 66. On the 23d of September it is Autumn in the Northern, and Spring in the Southern Hemisphere, — 12 hours day and 12 hours night in all the Zones ; the Sun vertical to the inhabitants on the Equator ; the days and nights are everywhere equaL no MONTEITWS PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ENERAL |eview. MOUNTAIIfS. ir/ifre are they ? In wtuit dir«ctionft do the ranges enetendf Mt. St. Elias ? Mt. Washington? Mt. Mitcliell? Himalaya ? Moravian ■( Mt. Elboorz? Rocky? Mt. Brown ? White Mts. ? Cameroon ? Hindoo Coosh ? Bohemian ? Mt. Blanc ? Coast? Kilimandjaro ? Kuen Lun ? Cevennes ? Mt. Fairweather ? Green Mts. ? Kenia ? Ararat ? Auvergne ? Sierra Madre ? Brazilian Andes ? Alleghany ? Cotopaxi ? Mt. Hooker 1 Lupata ? Stanovoy ? Sierra Morena ? Fremont's Peak ? Chimborazo ? Hecla ? Snow? Eastern Ghauts? Riesen Gebirge? Cascade ? Aconcagua ? Coast Range ? Spanish Peak ? Erzo Gebirge ? lUimani ? Adirondack ? Atlas? Western Ghauts? Pike's Peak ? Cumberland ? Antuco ? Blue Ridge? Kong? Caucasus ? Fremont's Peak ? Catskill ? Antisana ? Mt. Hood ? Altai? Highlands ? Pacaraima ? Taurus? Alps? Acaray ? Carpathian ? Atacama ? Ural? Mt. Etna ? Andes ? Cantabrian ? Geral? Apennines ? Arequipa ? Mt. Vesuvius? Pichincha ? Mt. Hecla ? Popocatepetl ? Sierra Nevada ? Scandinavian ? Pyrenees ? Long's Peak ? ISLANDS. Where are they ? Hy ivhat watera are they surrounded ? Newfoundland ? Sardinia ? Saghalien ? Jamaica? Java? British Is. ? Madeira Is. ? Orkney Is. ? Vancouver's ? Negropont ? Nova Zembla ? Barbadoes ? Sandwich Is. ? Loffoden Is. ? Madagascar ? Hebrides ? Southampton ? Rhodes ? Kurile Is. ? San Salvador? Mendana Arch. 1 Baring ? West Indies ? Minorca ? Hainan ? Antigua ? New Zealand ? Bahamas ? Zante? Nicobar Is. ? Porto Rico ? Friendly Is. ? Bermudas ? Formentera ? Hondo ? I. of Pines ? Society Is. ? Melville ? Skye? Magellan Arch.? Louisiade Arch. ? Trinidad ? New Guinea ? Faroe Is. ? Canary Is. ? Anglesea ? Queen Charlotte's Ionian Is. ? Laccadive Is. ? Qaudaloupe ? Borneo ? Shetland Is. ? Socotra ? Wight ? Cape Breton? Scilly Is. ? Maldive Is. ? Martinique ? Australia ? Cyprus ? St. Helena ? Man? Greenland ? Balearic Is. ? Ladrone Is. ? New Providence ? Hawaii ? Candia ? Comoro Is. ? Philippine Is ? North Georgian ? Sicily? Sumatra ? Abaco ? Central Arch. 7 Lewis ? Jersey ? Kiushiu ? Andros ? Tasmania 7 Anticosti ? ? Lipari Is. 1 Formosa t Turks? Cuba? Corsica Shikoku? St. Thomas ? Caroline Is. ? Iceland ? Ivica ? Japan Is. ? Santa Cruz ? New Ireland ? Disco? Corfu? Yezo? Feejee Is. ? Sitka ? Majorca ? Luzon ? Spice Is. ? Hayti ? Cephalonia Ceylon ? Celebes ? Guernsey ? Marquesas ? CAPES. Where are they ? Into what taaters €io tiiey prqject ? Hatteras ? Corrientes ? Land's End ? St. Antonio? Northeast ? Canaveral ? Spartivento ? Good Hope ? Mendocino ? St. Francisco ? La Hogue ? Comorin ? Hatteras ? Matapan ? Blanco ? Farewell ? Gallinas ? Qracios ? Lopatka ? Lookout ? St. Vincent ? Guardafui? St Lucas ? St. Lorenzo? Palmo ? Negrain 7 Burica? East? St. Bias? Finisterre ? St. Roque ? St. Martin ? Cambodia ? Florida ? North? Agulhas ? Flattery ? Corso? Prince of Wales ? Fear? Clear? Palmas ? Sable ? Horn? Ortegal 1 Verd? Race? Bon? May? Frio? Cod? Icy? Roio? St. Mary? SEAS, GULFS, BAYS, tCc. Where are they ? tliey St. Lawrence? Ionian Sea ? California ? Appalachee ? The Wash ? Arabian S. ? Mediterranean ? Narragansett ? Q. of Guinea ? G. of Carpentaria ? B. of Honduras ? G. of Lepanto ? Campeachy ? Albemarle ? Firth of Forth ? Caspian S. ? Adriatic S. ? Penobscot ? G. of Aden? G. of Cambridge ? B. of Guatemala ? G. of Genoa ? Tehuantepec ? Roanoke ? Donegal ? Persian G. ? B. of Biscay ? Frenchman's ? G. of Sidra ? Coral S. ? Hudson B. ? G. of Salonica ? Mosquito ? Raleigh ? Pentland Firth ? Q. of Cambay ? Q. of Bothnia ? Long Island Sd. ? Java S. ? Baffin B.? G. of Dantzic ? Panama ? Mobile ? Loch Foylo ? Kamtschatka S. ? Caspian S. V Buzzard's ? Botany ? Into what waters do open ? James' B ? Zuyder Zee " Darien ? Tampa ? Loch Linnhe ? Okhotsk S. ? Archipelago ? Casco? G. of Slam ? Ungava B. ? Onslow ? Firth of Tay ? Yellow S. ? Baltic S. ? Cape Cod ? Frobisher's B. ? Pamlico ? Galway ? Black S. ? Fundy ? Chan, of Yucatan ? Murray Firth ? Red S. ? G. of Finland ? Fox Chan. ? Kara S. ? White S. ? Lancaster Sd. ? Aral S. ? Q. of Lyons ? Norton Sd. ? Eastern S. ? S. of Marmora? Q. of Mexico ? Celebes S. ? G. of Onega? B. of Bengal ? North S. ? China S. ? S. of Azov ? G. of Siam ? G. of Taranto ? Japan S. ? G. of Riga ? G. of Cutch? S. of Yezo? G. of Tonquin ? RIVERS. Where do they rise ? In what direc- tions do titey flow, and into what waters ? Mississippi ? Thames ? Volga? Wabash ? Meuse? Susquehanna ? Lena? Trent? Missouri ? Red? CoanzaT Brazos? Ucayali 1 Congaree 7 St. Francis? Kentucky 7 Boyne? Dwina ? Sangamon ? Elbe? Nile? Rio Grande ? St. Francisco ? Tombigby ? Penobscot ? Tennessee ? Shannon ? Danube ? Des Moines? Adige? St. Lawrence? Hoang Ho ? St. Francis ? Green ? Niger ? Athabasca ? Tunguragua ? Cape Fear ? Kennebec ? Cumberland ? Severn ? Ural? Detroit ? Monongahela ? Cambodia ? St. Maurice? Brazos ? White ? Zambeze ? Mackenzie ? Magdalena ? Mobile ? Androscoggin ? Wisconsin ? Mersey '. Vistula? Illinois ? Spree? Shenandoah ? Irtish ? Saguenay ? Salmon ? Senegal ? Colorado ? Pilcomayo ? Ogeechee ? Merrimac? Miami ? Ouse? Dnieper ? Kalamazoo ? Weser? Oswegatchie ? Brahmaputra ? Chaudiere ? Columbia ? Chattahoochee ? Tchadda? St. Lawrence? Paraguay 7 Altamaha 7 Connecticut? Muskingum ? Humber 7 Petchora ? Alleghany ? Irrawaddy 7 Grand ? Appalachicola 7 Nelson ? Orinoco 7 Pascagoula 7 Otter Creek? Sandusky ? Foyle ? Garonne 7 Big Sandy ? Pruth 7 Genesee ? Yenisei 7 Platte 7 Tallapoosa 7 Severn 7 La Plata 7 Suwanee 7 Blackstono 7 Grand (Mich.)? Avon? Douro? Big Sioux ? Po? Juniata 7 Obi? Lewis? Big Black ? Platte 7 Parana? Yazoo 7 Sorel ? Grand (Mo.) 7 Drave 7 Little Sioux? Iser? St. Regis? Tigris ? Canadian 7 Ocmulgee 7 Uruguay ? St. John's 7 Onion ? Iowa? Guadiana? Osage? Dniester ? Pamunky ? Indus 7 Yellow Stone ? Pamlico? Ohio? Amazon 7 Edisto ? Maumee? Tagus? Licking ? Saranac ? Amoo? Clarke's? Yadkin? Madeira 7 Oconee ? PRONUNCIATION OF GEOGRAPHIC AZ N^AMES. Ill RONUNCIATION OF .GEOGRAPHICAL SaMES. Co Aar, Abr. Ab«eu, fth'b&h-ko. Ah-bi-tib'U-. At»Hii«y, ab-o-may'. Aboukir, ab-boo-keer'. Ab-s4/cuin. Abydoa. ati-blM(«. Acapuico, ab-kabpool'ko. Ac-co-niac'. Acboen, atobc-ntarle'. Albiiquerqiip, ahl-biio-ker'kay. Alratian, a-lu'she-an. Algfzlraii, al-Je-zee'raa. Altai. abl-tK. Alinfiiabnw, awl-la>m«>haw'. Altm, abl'ton. Altona, abKto-nah. Alvarado, abl-vab-rah'do. Ain'azoii. Anib-been-yy. AuiTustino, St., scnt*aw'gnft-t«en. Australia aws-trayMe-a. Aiiver^rne, o-varno'. Aiix t-'ayes, o-kay'. A*i2rion. ah*v*'en-ychl3tan'. Beoarea, bcn-ah'rei. B«'ii::al. bt-n-gawl'. Bengnzi. bon-gab'z«, Bi>nln, ben-Oi'n'. Ben I^'mond. Ber'bera. Bermudas, ber-moo'da& Bexar, ba-habr'. Beyrout, bar'root. Blafra, be-arrah. Bilbao, bil-bah'o. Blng'en. BiHtintau, bls-te-no', Blenbeirn, btcn'tni. Bogota, !>o-grt-tah'. Bokbart. tni-kab'rah. Bpii'tra. Bras d'Or, brab-dore', Brash'ear. Brazil, brah-reel', Brazos, brab'zo-i. Brem'en, or bray'raen, Breton, brit'on, Bucharest, boo-kah-rfist'. BuenaveDtiira,b\vav'nab*ron-too'rah. Buena V^lsta, bway'nah-vis'lab. Buenos Ayrcs, bo'nus a'rlz. Bulfraria, bool>gay're-ab. Bar'gun-dy. Bua'ao-rab. 0. Ca-bool'. Cadiz, kay'diz. Caen, kon. Caermarthcn, ker-mnr'theiL Caernarvon, kcr-nar'von. Cogllari, kabi'vah-re. Cabawba, ka-^w'bah. Catoo^ kfkose. Cairo (Egynt). kl'ro ; (U. S.\ kay'ro. Calabar, kab-lah-bar^. CaUla, kal'is. Calcasieu, kahl'ka-sha. Callao, kabl-lah'o, or kabl-jah'o. Cambridge, kamc^irlj. Campagna, kitlmi-iiahn'fah. Canajobarle. kan-a-jo-har're. Canandaixua, kan-an-da'gwa. Can-av'er-al. Candabar', Can-ton' (Cblna); Can'ton (U. 8.) Gape Girardeau. Je-rar-do'. Cape Hayticn, bay'te-en. Cap'n-a, or kab'[MH>-i)h. Caqmta, kab-kay'tah. Caracas, kab-rab'kaa. Car'de-nas, or kar'day-naa. Carihbe'an. CarnblM?e. Carlscrona, karls-kroo'na. Carlsruhe. karls'roo. rnrtbarrena, kar-ta-JVaab. frtjihsflr'. Cash mere'. Castigllona, kahs-t^el-jo'nay. Oatoebe, kab-to-cbay'. Cat'le-gat Cau 'casus. Cayenne, kl-en Cavman. kl-man'. Celebes, sel'e-beea. Corlgo, cber'e-ga Cavennes, sa-ven'. Cey'loD. Cfaaeres, sbah'irres. Chaleiir, shab-l(K>r'. ChapuUe|>er-, chab-|VH>Uta-pek'. Chateaugay, Kbat't»-^'ay. Chaudiere, sbiwle-air', Chaumont, sbtt-nulnt;', or sbo-mo'. Chatauqua, shA'-taw'qwa. Chemung, sbi'-mung'. Cherburg, sher'burg, Che'Sun'coi>k. Cheviot, cbiv'e-pt. Cheyenne, sbe-en'. Chicago, sbe*kaw'go. Chick-a-tiiau^ga. Cblck'a-saw. (-'bicopee, ehik-o-pe'. Cbihuahuo, cbu-wah'wah. Chill, cbil'le. Cbll.ll-cotb'e. Chlloe, che-Io-ay'. Cblniborazo, chitn-bi>-rab'zo. Chlncba, cbln'chah. Chinchilla, cbln-cbeel'yah. Chlncoteague, cbin-ko-teeg'. ChiriquI, cbe-re-ko'. Cboco, cbr>'ko. Chowan, cbo-wawn'. Chuqui»aca, cboo-ke-sab'kab. iienmegos, »e-en-f\vav'iro». Cincinnati, »in-»ln-nalt'le. Cludod Real. Ro-ttonlad' ra-ahV. Clvlta Vecchin, che've-tah vek'ha-ah. Cler-mt.nt'. Coahulla, ko-ab-we'lah. Coatzacoalrtts, ko-abt-sab-kwabl'koca Cobija. ko-bfliab. ('ognac, kon-yak'. Cohahuila, ko-ab-wi/Iab. (-'oboes'. Cole-raine'. Colima, ko-le'mah. Cologne, ko-lonu'. Colorado, kol-o-rah'do. Comayagua, ko-ud-ab'gwah. Com'o-rln. Com'o-ro. Concha, kon'cbah. Concord, konk'unl C^^nea^ee, kong-ga-re'. Con-hoc'um. Connaugbt, kon'nawt. ConnecMcut, kon-net'e-kat Contrenis, kon-tray'ras. Coqninil>o, ko-keem'bo. Coralline, kor'al-iln. Cor'do-va. Cor-fti'. or kor-foo'. 0>r'inth. Cor'rl-en'tesL Cott'andesPralriea.ko-to'day-pray-ra' (otopaxi. ko-to-paks'e. Coupee, koo-pay'. Coxsackle, kook-aawlta, Cracow, kray'kn. Cniatia, kn^-a'sha-a. Croix, St.. knti. Cuenco, kwen'kah. Cumana, k'zi'. Dnimatia, dal-may'she-ab. I)alton. dawl'ton. Dantzlc, dant'sik. Dan'ube. DnupbiD, daw'fin. Del Fuerte, del fwer'tay. Del-hi'. or delle. I)em'be-a Pemerara, dem-^-raVrah, Derne, der'neh. Pcs'er-eL I>es Moines, dc^moln'. Dea Plaincs, dav-plane'. Dhawalachiri, dah-wah-lair-gher'ra. Diarbeklr, de-ar-bay-kaer'. Dnieper, n 'per. 'Dniester, nees'ter. Dominica, dom-#-nf'ka. Donegal, don-e-gnwl'. Donffolo, dong'go-la. Dor'chestor. Dnrdogne. dor-dfine'. Droifheda, drob'he-diL Dutmque, dn-book'. Duero, d-ay'ra Dun-dalk'. Dunniirk. D' Urban, dnrlwn. Kcbellos. Lea. layi-a-aheP. Ecuador', or Equador' Kdfou. etl'foo. Kdinburgb, edln-bur-rah. Kdlitto. Kider, I'der. KlbtM.rz'. Kl I>orada, do.rabMa Eteutbern. e-UHy'tha-rah. Klgln, t-l'ghln. El I*tis(»del N'orte.el'pab'aodalnor^ Enirland, ing'laiid. Kr'e-bus. E'rin. F^o'pus. Erxgebirge, ert»-ea-be«r'ga. K8plrit4> gaoto, ea-pa'ra-to-aaiito I-^uimaux, e^'k^mo. Ktienne, ay-te-on'. Et'o-wab. Euphrates, u-fhiy'taaa. Eureka, yot>-re'kui. Eutaw, yoo'taw. Euxinc, yuxin. Ev'er-esL Ezuma, ez-oo'mah. P. Faaborg, fo'borg, Falkland, fawkland. Falmouth, fal'mutli. Faroe, fay'ro. Fauquier, faw-keeK Fayal, fi-owl'. Fay 'etu villa. Fee^ee. Ferrol, fer*iole'. Fez-zan'. Fitcbtctgeblrge, flk-tei-ga-baoKg^ Finlaterre, fin-I»*tape'. Fiord, fe-ord'. Flamborougb, flam'bur-ruh. Flo'rea. Foggla, fod'Jah. Fond du Lac, fond-ilu-Uk'. Formentcra, for*men-tay'rah. Foulah. fcHi'lah. Frbs fro'o. Fron-te-nac'. Funcbal, foon-sbal'. Gaeta, gah-aytah. Galilee, gal'e-l(>. Galllnaa, gal-le'oaa. Galway, gawFwaj. Oan'gea. Garonne, gah-rona'. Gaspo, gabs-pay'. QatlneaD, gah-te-no'. Gen'o-a. Geral, ihay-rabK. Geysera, gbl'zera. Ghent, p hard. Oihon, fe-hon'. Gila, bclab. Gil-tK>'a, (7 bard. Gil'c-ad. Olaagow, glaa'ga. Gloncester, glw'ter. Goderlcb. ginle'rlk. Gotba. (To'uli, Ootbanl. gi't'hart Oracias-a-Dios, grah'se-aba-ah-de-oa'. Granada, grah-nah'dah. Oreenwich. grlnll, or jfreenlch. Ouadalaxara, gwah-dab-lab-bab'rah, GowUlqoiv'er. Ouanabanl, gwah-nah-hah'ne. Quanaxnato. gwab-nab-hwabto. QuardaAii. gwar-ftah-fwee'. Guayaqidl, gwl-ah-kecK. Guaymsfi, gwl'moa. Guernsey, ghcrn'ze. Guiana, ge-ah'na. Ouyaodolte, gl-aa-dot^ H. noffiie, hatg. Itainan. bl-nahn'. Ilakofladt, hah-ko-4lah'de. IlauAsa. how'sab. Haverhllt (Maa^.),bay'rer-n. HaTerhlll (Eng.), hav'er-il. Havre de Onre, bar'ar-de-graaa HawnlLbah-wl'e. 1 1 ay 1 1. bay't4*. Haytien, hay'te-en. Heidelberg, hi'del-barg, Herat, her-aht'. Hianaibu. ht-ah-wabthalk Jlimalay'a. Hindoos tan'. Ho-ang'Ho. Ho'bo-ken. Holstein, bol'attne. llol'yoka. HoitoluOu. U(>usat«>nlc, htM>-««-toB'llL Hue. bou-ay'. Ihi'ron. lly-dcr-a-bad'. I. IMalio. lllimnni. p«1-yah>llub^M. Illinois, ll-lin.<>v'. Inillrs. Iri'dll. Inillglilm, ln-'. La 8allo, lab-sal'. U-h, Uy. LeicaBt«-r, les'ter. I.>eigh. lee. Lel|»bic, llpe'»ik. Leyden. ll'den. LlchtenfeK llk'ten-fala. Lille, or Ltste. leel. Lima (Peru), le'mah ; (U. 8.), U'mi Linnlie, lin'ne. Lipart. Ilp'a-re. LlanoK, Tyab'noce. Locb Ix>mund, lok-lo'DDand. Lofft/den. Loire, Iwabr. Loo Cboo, loo-tchoo'. L(»U|ch Neagh, lob*nay'. Lonli, 8t . sent 11s. or lot/au I^oulsiade, lo<*-e-zc-abd'. Louisville, loo^vii Lowell, lo'eL Lneayos, Uio-kl'oa. Lupata, lu-pah'tab. Luzon, l«M».z<»n«'. Lyonnala, l«-ofi-iui7^ Macao, mah-kab'o, or mah-kow< Mackinaw. Madeira, ma-da'rah. Madras'. 112 MOy^TElTWS PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Madrid' (U.S.); mah-dreed' (8p.) Maelstrom, niajPstruoi. Mageroe, inajr'or-o, Mitjrglore, mahdjo'ra. Malaga, or D>ahaah-gah. Ma-lay'. Mai 'dives Managua, mah-nah'gwah. Manitoiiwoc, man*e-too-wok'. Man'tti-a. Manzanilln, inahn-aah*necl'yo. Mapoclio, mah-po'cho. Maraciiybo, inah-rah-kl'bo. Marantiatir. Maranon, inah-rahn-yon'. Mar'ino-ra. Marquesas, mnr-kay'saha, Marseilles, rnahr-salls'. Marguerite, inar-geh-reet'. Martinique, mar-ti-neek'. Ma-tan'zas. Matsinay, mats-ml'. Mauch Chunk, mawk-chunk'. Mauritius, maw-rish'a-us. Mayst, mi'se. MozatiaD'. Medina, me-de'nah. Meigs, megz. Mcinatn, ma-e-nam'. Melbourne, mel'burn. Menai, men'i, or men'ay. Me-nan'. Mendocino, inen-teau,plah-to'du ko-to'. Pocotal'ico. Point Coupee, koo-pee'. Polignac, po-leen-yahk', Pompeii, pom-pay'e. Pond 1 cherry, pon-de-sher're. Pontchartrain, pon-sbar-traln'. Popayan, po-pi-ahn'. Po-po-cat-a-petP. Porto Praya, pri'ah. Porto Rico, re'ko. Port Paix, por-pay'. Potosi, po-t»'se. I*oughkeepsie, po-kip'sa Powhatan'. Prairie du Chlon, du sheen. Presque Isle, presk-eeK. Puelwa. pweb'Iah. Puerto Principe, pwer'topreen's«-pay. Puget, pu'jet. Pulaski, pu-las'ke. Piinjaub'. Putumayo, poo-too-ml'o. Pyr'enees. a. Quebec'. Quillota, keel-yo'tah. Quiloa, keelo-a. Quin-e-baug'. Quito, kee'to. Qaogue, kwog. s. Racine, Kas-seen'. Rahway, raw'way. Raleigh, raw'Ie. Rangoon, rabn-goon'. Rapidan'. Baven'na. Beading, red'ing. Kt^qio, red^o. Reikiavik, ri'ke-a-vik. Reims, or Kh?ims, reemz. Rensselaer, ron'se-ler. Resacade l.i Palma, ra-s.-th'kah dalah pal'mah. Restigoiiche, rcs-te-goo-shay'. Reus, ray'ooce. Bevillagigedo,ray-veeI-yah-he-hay'do Reyes, ray'cs. Rhaetian, re'shun. Rhea, ray. Richelieu, re-.she-loc/. Rideau, re-do'. Riesengebirge, re'sen-ga-beer'geh, Ri'ga, or re'ga. Rio Dulce, re'o-dool'sa. Rio Grande, re'o-grahn'day. Rio Janeiro, re'o-ja-ne'ro. Ristogouche, ris-to-goo'sha. Rochelle, ro-shell'. Roinagna, ro-mahn'ya. Rouen, roo'en. Russia, rush'e-a, or roo'sho-a. Byswick, riz'wik. s. Saar'dam. Sabine, sah-been'. Sac, sawk. Sackatoo, sahk-kah-too'. Saco, saw'ko. Saghalien, sah-gahle-en. Sagliano, .sahl-yah'no. 8agua-la-Grande, sah'gwah-lah- grahn'day. Saguenay, sag-eh-nay'. Sahara, sa-hah'rah. Saigon, si-gon'. Salado, sah-lah'do. Salisbury, sawlz'ber-©. Salonica, sah-lo-ne'k»h. Saltillo, sahl-teel'yo. Salvador'. Samana, sah-mah-nah'. Samarcand'. Sana, sah-nah'. San Bernardino, sahn ber-nar-de'no. San Bias, san blalis'. San Diego, san de-ay'go. San Felipe, fa-le'pay. Sangamon, Sang'ga-mon. San Joaquin, wai'i-keen'. San Jose, ho-say'. San Juan, hoo-ahn'. San Sal-va-dor'. Santa Cruz, sahn'ta-krooz. Santa Fe, fay. Santa Margarita, niahr-gah*ree'tah. Santiago, sahn-te-ah'go. Saone, sone. Saratof. Sas-katch'a-wan. Saugatuck.' Saugerties, saw'ger-tees. Scheldt, sitelt Schiedam, ske-dain'. Schodak'. Schoo'dik. Schuyler, skller. Schuylkill, skool'kill Schwerin, shway-reen'. Scinde. Scio, si'o. Scioto, si-o'to. Scutari, skoo-tah'ree. Se-ba'go. Sego. say'go. Seidlitz, slde'titz. Seine, sane. Senegal, sen-e-gawl'. Serapis. ser-ay'pis. Serglpe del Rey, ser-zhe'pay-del-ray. Sevier, se-veer'. Seychelles, sa-shell'. Shamo, sha-mo'. Shang-Hae, shang-hi'. Shawangunk, shoDg'gnm. She-boy'gan. Shen-an-do'ah. Shiraz, she-rahz'. Shosh-ones'. Sierra Leone, se-er'rah la-o'na. Sierra Madre. mali'dray. Sierra Nevada, nay-vah'dah. Singapore, sing-gah-pore'. Sigonrney, sig'ur-ne. Si-koke'. Sinai, si'nay. SIn-o'pe. Sioot, or Siout, se-oot^. "''MIX, soo. Sir-i-r'ol, seer-e-kol'. Sisal, so-sii'..!' Sken-e-at'e-Ies. Skye, ski. Sli'go. So-co'tra, or sok'o-trah, Solferino, sol-fa-re'no. Sombrero, som-bra'ro. Soodan', or Soudan'. Soo-loo'. Sorato, so-rah'tab. So-rel'. Scutcheon, 8oo-che-oay, good harbor. Bon Humme, good man. Bordeaux, border of the water. Bras d'Or, an arm of gold. Buena Vista, fine view. Buenos Ayrei, fine air. Cairo, victorious. Cape Verd. green cape. Catskill, cat's or lynx oreek. Caucasus, white mountains. Cayuga, long pond. Cerro Gordo, mountain pass. Charleston, after Charles L, of Eng- Chesaneake. great waters. [land. Chili, land ofenow. Chimborazo, chimney. Chuquisaca, golden bridge. Clermont, clear mountain. Colorado, red or colored. Cork, marsh. Costa Rica, rich C4)ast. Cumberland, a land of hollows. Delaware, after Lord de la Ware. Des Moines, a place of mounds. Dnieper, upper river. Dniester, lower river. Dwina. (louble river. Ebro, foaming river. Elbe, white. El Paso, the pass. Esniritu Santo, Holy Spirit. Etniopia, to burn. Finisterre, end of the land. Florence, flowery city. Fond du Lac, end of the lake. Frio, cold. Fuego, fire. Galapagos, tortoises. Glasgow, dark ravine. GracTos 4 Dios, thanks to God. Havre de Grace, harbor of safety. Hayti, high land. Henlopen, run In. Hudson, after Henry Hadson. Irrawaddy, great river. Java, rice. Jerusalem, place of peace. Jordan, the flowing. Kansas, smoky water. Katahdin, highest place. Kennebec, long lake. Liberia, free. Louisiana, after Louis XIV. of Franco. Majorca, ereater. Manitoulin, spirit IMands. Mediterranean, middle of the land. Minnehaha, laughing water. Mississippi, great river. Missouri, muddy. Minorca, less. Montreal, royal mountain. Nova Scotia, new Scotland. Palestine, land of wanderers. Patagonia, clumsy feet. Piedmont, foot of the mountain. Polynesia, many islands. San Domingo, holy Sabbath. San Salvadtir, holy Saviour. Santa Cruz or Croix, holy cross. Santa Fe, holy faith. A View of the Vo Semite Valley, in the Sierra Nevada, looking up the Valley (E by N. E.) On tne ngnt or aouth, it thk Bridal Veil Fall (630 feet i on the left. El Capitan, a perpendicular cliff (3300 feet). OF THE CAOinc udfE, Longitude Wt'st 119 from Greenwich ... SB HurtMfdt C/ /,-„ ^ -U /° Hunftlldt City Smbky^Ci;Depot ^~^r'//. Stlj f^ \i\-r~-^mgle I. ..■.':■■■*.' 0*\ /o Hunfildt City ^s.PjO^ ^M ' SmbkyiCpDepot ^~^/-'^,j Sii ''■> ■ PtCabrilloi ^'^ ^te H^M.\^ Bcxtega B. Pt.Reyeji v^^^^S^^ SAN .f RANCISC0^1^>^^lo|Kfc-=^/s5«-i: V^ Moon :Br%^^S^l;jsBfe;.,P;^M0M»^^ ^de»to'^ Pe$caderoD N.nPy Santa*' ,oO Mont«reyA 1 " " I ' %0 taFcesiiP"""'''' afVrsalia T/A)N;..Lt5 San Simeoho=-jri7^i.._,. _ San _Clrt)DispO Pt.San Lui8^-^». - -J^BjfSitjBS; SanZuisJB. \ ft.S<>'**riisS^ " 1 44'«=^^s-++a-»S^ Grain "Qold vWine, • 8 i I V • r I Wool \ V Commerce /L VVheat Fruit* Manufactures ^Quicksilver Beet Sugar •silk *Grape> Oranges, Lemons Figs, Olivet Jea, Coffee PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS The Star Indlcktet ttie proanct Id which » Bute exceli evary other SUte In the Unioo Ift.Sall pt.Artuiiia/^^^53 *Bnd|^ort -^Columbbs » San Antonio ^)Mo^>if^ ''' ^ ^ ' l#4Sk Ik. t°4l)verP.ak K8y«tiii^/?ra>^iraa«:'« am» Havll! 3fo7iave I. ^BERN A r(^< 4 ^r^ Pt.C( nception ^ fe.n u- "-'■«.0!B^J"t'«•. RS.e rnjjdiBO— " Santa Batbarae San NieolasS) Scale of 3111m . tJ--. Wrap^.., 100 1 Clamonto Pt-LomaO 1. 10,000- -MtStHal.hTH- 9.750 A Mt.StJohnA Mt.Shastai\ 14,44 1 /^V- *^ . Laasan'a Peak Mt, ntn"o-,557 — Mt.Dana ~~, A ' uo 'i3,i27/l\Mt.Lyell /I M X A L n:?* l',fo'^<>' ,\»o"> a- Level of the Sea. Pt.Rev es ^Mt.Ulablo ii6»" Vft. Sierra Nevada » V- '^O /vMtSan Bernardino JJi). 8,370 .4»\\a!l *£^::=SOTKa-,-»iia£.,o— ^ SECTION ACROSS THE STATES OF CA-IFOKNIA & NtVADA MONTEITH'S GEOGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 3 )||ALIFORNIA AND |i,EVADA. EXERCISES ON THE MAP. CALIFORNIA, — what parallel of latitude on its northern boundary ? On or near its southern boundary ? What river forms part of its boundary ? What is the length of California from north to south ? {Apply the teale of milet.) What is its breadth ? What high mountain range in the eastern jjurt of the State ? What range in the western part ? What two large rivers drain the great valley between those ranges! Which flows from the north 1 From the south I What tributaries has the Sacramento ? The San Joaquin I What large river in the north-western part of California ? What lakes are drained by the Klamath River ? What river empties into Monterey Bay t What is the largest lake in California ? What rivers empty into it ? What is the largest city in California t (An$. — .Sun Franeiteo.) On what bay is it situated ? What bays on the coast of California, north of San Francisco ? South ? ( The teacher wiU adapt the foUowing eaureue* to the State vr Territory in which he reridet.) In what county do you live ? In what part of the State is it ? Has it any sea coast ? Any boundary river ? Does any river run through it ? By what counties is your county surrounded t What are the northern counties of your State? The sonthem t The central? What is the capital of the State ? How is it situated ? What is the county town of your county ? Of each of the surrounding counties ? Draw an outline of your State, beginning at the north-west comer, and proceed easterly, thence southerly, and so on. Insert, in order, the mountains, the rivers, the lakes, and the bays, with their names. Write your name on your paper or slate, and after your drawing has been ex- amined by the teacher, proceed with the following lessons : Insert the counties and their county towns ; next, insert the other cities and towns, then the islands, capes, &c., and complete the map. NEVADA, — what parallel of latitude forms its northern boundary! What State and Territory north of Nevada ? What two Territories east! Wiat State west ? What mountain chains in Nevada ? In what part of the State are they ? In what direction doA. VIRGINIA CITY. CARSON CITY, AUSTIN. DAYTON, UNIONVILLE, WASHOE CITY, STILLWATER. LA PLATA, AURORA, BELMONT. HUMBOLDT. GENEVA, LANDER CITY. CALLVILLE, ST, THOMAS, MILL CITY, HIKO. HAMILTON, TREASURE CITY. ELKO. MOUNTAIN RANGES. Whtre eit uat a d i In wK€U dir«etio» Ac they extend? Sierra Nevada, Santa Cruz, Santa Luou, Gavilan, Coast Range, Siskiyou, San Rafael, Granh-e, Pirr River, Totabe, White, Humboldt? MOUNTAIN PEAKS. Where eUuated T Sierra Nw>'ad«. Mt. Whttnet, Mt. Tyndall, Mt. Brewer, Mt. Lyell, Mt. Shasta, Mt. EAn'EAH, Mt. Dana, Castle Peak ? < 'oaHt llu ii|E4^> S. Bernardino, Pierce, Hamilton, Diablo, Ballet, Tamalpab ? RIVERS. Where do tkcy rieef What eoureet do they liUteT Into wfcot «ea«er« do they flowf Sacramento? Klamath? Hubtboldt? San Joaquin? Fresno? ;? Carbon? Feather? Trinity? Eel? Merged? Tbuokee ? Russian ? American? Tuolumne? Mariposa? Stanislaus? Walker? Kern? Tulare? M0HA\'E ? Salinas? Santa Clara ? Napa? LAKES. Where mre they? What are their inlete mnd outl«tat Tulare? Goose? Lower Klamath? Owens ? Mono? Mud? . Tahoe ? Clear ? Buena Vista ? Honey ? Pyramid? Walker? WnOJEMUCCA? Wright? Mohave ? Carson? Franklin? Kern? Eagle? Rhett? CAPES OR POINTS. from what counties do they prufeetT Mendocino? Arena? Loma? Conceptioh? St. George? Reyes? San Luis? Vincent? Gold Bluff? Point Pinob? Pt. Arquilla? Point Sal? BAYS. Where mre they ? Into what waters do they open t Trinidad? San Francisco? Estero? San Pedbo? Humboldt? Half Moon? San Luis? San Diego? STRAITS AND CHANNELS. What lands do they separate ? Wtiat waters do they ennneet t GktLDEN Gate? Santa Barbara Channel? ISLANDS. Where are they T By what waters are thry surrounded f Farallone? San Miguel? San Clemente? Santa Barbara? Santa Cruz ? Santa Rosa ? San Nicolas ? Santa Catalina ? MONTEITH'S GEOGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. Descriptive |eography. 1. CALIFORNIA is situated in the western paxt of the United States, on the Pacific Coast. 2. Jt Extends from Oregon on the north to Lower Califor- nia on the south. 3. Its Length is about 750 miles, its average breadth 250 miles, and its area about 189,000 square miles. 4. In Size, it is the second State in the Union, Texas being the largest. It is about as large as the Eastern and Middle States combined. 5. Its Northern Boundary is the parallel of 42° north lati- tude, and is nearly in a line with the northern boundaries of Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and Ehode Island. 6. The State lies in the same General Direction as its coast line and mountain ranges. 7. The irrincipal Mountain Ranges are two, the Sierra Nevada in the eastern, and the Coast Eange in the western part of the State ; these ranges unite ia the northern and southern parts of the State. 8. These two Ranges enclose the great vaUey of California, which is drained by the two largest rivers iu the State, the Sacramento and San Joaquia. 9. The Coast Mountains are near the coast, and rise to heights varying from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. In the northern part of the State they are covered with luxuriant forests. 10. lietween their Ridges are numerous valleys noted for their beauty, richness, and salubrity (see page 37, paragraphs 25 and 38). 11. The Sierra Nevada (snowy range), which extends along the eastern part of the State, rises generally above the snow limit, having many peaks varying from 7,000 to 15,000 feet in height. 12. The most Noted Peaks in the State are, in the Sierra Nevadas, Mt. Whitney, 15,086 feet high ; Mt. Shasta, 14,442 feet ; Mt. TyndaU, 14,386 feet ; Mt. Kaweah, 14,000 feet ; Mt. Dana, 13,227 feet ; Mt. Lyell, 13,217 feet ; and, in the Coast Eange, Mt. San Bernardino, 8,370 feet; Mt. BaUey, 6,357 feet; Mt. Pierce, 6,000 feet; Mt. Hamilton, 4,450 feet; and Mt. Diablo, 3,876 feet. 13. The Frlncijml Valleys of the State are the Sacramento, San Joaquin, Santa Clara, Pajaro, Salinas, Shasta, Scott, Napa, Amador, and Eussian Eiver. 14. The Yo Semite Valley , in the SieiTa Nevada Mountains, is celebrated for the grandeur of its scenery. It is formed by the Merced Eiver, and is situated in Mariposa County, 250 miles from San Francisco. It is about 8 miles long, and from half a mile to one mile wide, enclosed by precipitous walls of rock, rising at one point 4,737 feet above the level of the river. The highest water-fall known in the world is the To Semite, on the north side of this valley, descending in three fall's, 2,600 feet, the highest being 1,500 feet. 15. The Geysers, in Sonoma County, are hot springs, which emit water and steam containing various salts. 16. Lakes. Tulare Lake is the largest lake in the State. Lake Tahoe is 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, and is remarkable for the clearress of its water. The water of Mono Lake is exceedingly salt. Borax Lake is so named from the presence of borax in large quantities in the mud at its bottom. 17. Bays. San Francisco Bay, communicating with the Pacific Ocean by the Golden Gate, is about 60 miles long and 10 miles wide. It affords an extensive and excellent harbor. San Pablo and Suisun Bays are properly continuations of San Francisco Bay, the latter receiving the Sacramento and San Joaquin Eivers. Humboldt Bay, about 12 miles long and 4 miles wide, is a great lumber shipping port. Wilmington Bay, at the head of San Pedro Bay, is the shipping point for Los Angeles and San Bernardino Counties. San Diego Bay is, next to San Francisco Bay, the best harbor in the State. 18. Islands, The Farallone Islands, 23 miles outside the Golden Gate, belong to San Francisco County. Santa Cruz, San Miguel, Santa Eosa, and San Nicolas are chiefly valuable for sheep raising. Most of the Bay Islands belong to tlio United States, and are used for harbor defence. The United States Navy Yard is situated on Mare Island. 19. The Climate of California is milder and more equable than that of the Atlantic or Central States in the same lati- tude. The mean temperature of San Francisco in September is 58 degrees, and in January 50 degrees, being a difference of only 8 degrees between the warmest and coldest months. 20. The Summers are dry, and the winters rainy (see page 37, paragraphs 21, 22, 23, 31 and 38). 21. In the Sonth-eastern Part of the State is a desert region where the heat is intense. 22. The Agricultural Productions are varied and abundant, including those of both temperate and tropical regions. Aside from the great mineral wealth of the State, its soil and climate render it one of the richest countries in the world. 23. Tlie Principal Agricultural Productions are wheat, barley, grapes, sugar beet, hops and various kinds of fruits. The yield of wheat is about 30,000,000 bushels annually ; of barley over 7,000,000 bushels ; and of wine, about 5,000,000 gallons. The rearing of sUk-worms receives considerable attention. 24. The Forests furnish valuable timber, including redwood, oak, pine, laurel, and cedar. 25. The Big Trees {sequoia gigantea), a species of redwood, are found in several groves, the most noted being in Calaveras County. The largest trees are about 30 feet in diameter and about 350 feet in height. 26. Slieep Raising is an important interest in California and on some of the neighboring islands. In 1874 the product was more than 36,000,000 pounds of wool. 27. The leading Mineral Productions are gold, mercury, silver, and copper; besides these are iron, platinum, coal, nickel, salt, borax, lead, tin, zinc, etc. 28. The Methods of Mining Gold are three : quartz mining, placer mining, and hydraulic mining. 29. T/te laliie of the Gold taken from California since 1849 is $1,000,000,000. The largest amount in one year was in 1853, $65,000,000. 30. The most Noted Quicksilver Mine is at New Almaden, Santa Clara County, producing about 2,000,000 pounds a year. 31. The Best Coal in the State is found on Mount Diablo. MONTEITH'S GEOGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 8 32. The Manufactiirinff Interegttt of the State have ad- vanced rapidly, amounting, in 1870, to $66,000,000. They include woolen and cotton goods, flour, sugar, iron, lumber, leather, glass, powder, paper, lime, carriages — in short, nearly all kinds of goods used in the State. 33. The Covinterce of California is of great importance, and is constantly increasing. It has been greatly promoted by the establishment of a line of steamers to China and Japan, and the completion of the Pacific Railroad, thus facilitating trade between Europe and Eastern Asia, by way of San Francisco. It woiold be further advanced by the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. The State has also an increas- ing trade with the Sandwich Islands, Australia, Mexico, and other countries. 34. T/ie Principal Exports of the State are gold, grain, quicksilver, wool, and wine. 35. Excellent Facilities for Traveling throughout the State are furnished by its extensive and rapidly increasing system of railroads, and its bay and river steamers. 36. San Francisco, the Metropolis of the Pacific coast, is situated on the north-eastern part of a peninsula which is embraced between the Bay of San Francisco and the Pacific Ocean. It was first settled in 1835, and was formerly called " Terba Buena." 37. San Francisco is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth. Its population, which in 1845 numbered but 150, is now about 172,000. 38. The Chief Stutiness of the city is commerce. Its manu- factures are also varied and extensive. 39. 27t« Public Schools of San Francisco are numerous and admirably conducted. Some of the school-houses arc among •the finest buildings in the city. 40. Sacramento, the capital, is the second city in the State in size. It is situated on the east bank of the Sacramento River, at its junction with the American, in the midst of one of the best agricultural regions of the State. It is the western terminus of the Central Pacific Railroad, and has direct com- munication with San Francisco both by water and rail. The city has been twice nearly destroyed by floods, but is now well protected by levees. The capitol is a costly and elegant structure. 41. Stockton is situated on a slough near its junction with the San Joaquin River, 117 miles from San Francisco by water and 90 miles by rail. It is the distributing point for a large and fertile valley, and is one of the leading grain ports of the State. 42. Marysville is advantageously situated at the junction of the Yuba with the Feather River. It has important railroad connections, and is a well built and prosperous city. 43. San Jose, formerly the State capital, is in Santa Clara County, 8 miles from the head of San Francisco Bay. It has a delightful climate, and is one of the pleasantest cities in the State. 44. Vullejo and Benicia have excellent harbors. Both have been capitals of the State. 45. Grass Valley, Nevada, OrovUle, and Ihttch Flat are among the principal mining towns. 46. Oakland, Brooklyn, and Alameda are pleasantly situ- ated on the eastern side of San Francisco Bay, and are closely connected with San Francisco by ferries and rail. 47. Los Anyeles and San Diego are the principal towns in the southern part of the State. The former is in the midst of an excellent fruit country. Grapes, oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits abound. The latter is tlie oldest town in the State, having been founded in 1759. It is growing rapidly, and is the proposed terminus of the Southern Pacific Railroad. 48. History. — CaUfornia was discovered in the sixteenth century. It formed a portion of Mexico until it was ceded to the United States in 1848, at the close of the Mexican war. Gold was discovered near Coloma in the same year, and since that time the growth of the Stato has been very rapid. It was admitted to the Union as the thirty-first State, in 1850. 49. Government. — The Governor and Senators hold ofiice four years ; the members of the Assembly two years ; the Judge of the Supremo Court ten years ; and of the County Courts four yeare. All other State oflacers hold ofiice four years. 60. Education. — Public Instruction is under the charge of one State Superintendent, elected by the people every four years, and one County Superintendent in each County, who holds office two years. The educational system of the State in complete, ranging through all grades, from Primary to the State University. Th( re are also many private and denomi- national institutions of learning in the State. 51. NEVADA extends from Oregon and Idaho on the north, to the Colorado River on the south, a distance of 500 miles, and from California on the west to Utah on the east, a breadth of 300 miles. Its area is about 112,000 miles. 52. Surface. — The State is principally a vast basin, diversi- fied by mountains, valleys, and plateaus. 53. The Great Basin is partly in this State : its elevation is from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea level. 54. The Mountain Itunges are short and numerous, gen- erally extending nearly north and south. The East Humboldt Range is the highest. ■ Tliere are several peaks in the State ranging from 8,000 to 12,000 feet in height, but few of them have been measured. 55. The Rivera are small, and empty into lakes or " sinks," which have no connection with the ocean ; the largest river is the Humboldt. The lakes, having no outlets, are generally salt or alkaline. 56. The Climate is generally dry and the soil barren ; agri- culture is mostly carried on by means of irrigation. The north-western part of the State is a desert. 57. Its Chief Source of Wealth is in its silver mines, which are found in various parts of the State, particularly in Washoe and Storey counties in the west, and the White Pine region in the centre, the latter comprising a district about 12 miles square, in the White Pine Mountains, where recent discov- eries of silver have attracted much attention. Gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, and salt are also found. 58. Tlie Leading Towns are Virginia City, Cai-son City, Gold Hill, Elko, Belmont, Austin, Treasure City, and Hamil- ton. The last two are in the White Pine Silver Mining Dis- trict, Treasure City being about 9,000 feet above the sea leveL 59. Nevada was admitted as a State in 1864. EXERCISES ON THE MAP. What ia the largest city west of the Rocky Mountains? Through what gate or strait would you sail in going from San Francisco to the ocean ? What is the length of San Francisco Bay ? Its greatest width ? What bay north of Ban Francisco Bay ? Give the length and breadth of the Bay of San Pablo. What bay east of the Bay of San Pablo ? What two large rivers empty into Suisun Bay ? Describe them. In what county is the city of San Francisco ? What county south of San Francisco county ? What county south of San Mateo ? South-east ? What county borders on the easterly side of the Bay of San Francisco J^ On the southerly side of Suisun Bay ? On the northerly side ? What county between the Bay of San Pablo and the Pacific ? What raw a map of Washington, as directed on page 106. IDAHO,— by what is it bounded on the north? East? South? West? What ranges of mountains on the east ? By what river and its tributaries is nearly the whole of Idaho drained? By what rivers is the northern part drained ? On which side is the highest land ? The lowest ? In what direction does the land south of the Snake River slope ? {Observe the course of the risers.) What rivers flow through tlmt portion of the State t What rivers flow westeriy into the Snake River? What branch of the Colorado river has its sources near thosa of the Snake River ? What lakes in the northern part ? In the eastern part ? What is the extent of Idaho from north to south ? From east to west ? What county forms the northern part of Idaho ? ^^'hat county Ijonlers on On-gon and Nevada ? On Utah f What counties are bounded partly by the mountains? By the Snake River? What county in the centre of the State ? Draw a map tf Idaho, at directed on page lOS. MONTANA,— by what is it bounded on the north I South ? Wert ? What high mountains extend through its western part? ■What mountains on its western lx)rder i What great river has its sources in the southwertem part of Montana ? On which side of the Rocky Mountains arc the sources of the Missouri ? What small rivers form its headwaters? What large rivers on the Pacific slope have their sources near those of the Missouri ? Mention the principal passes over the Rocky Mountains in Montana I What rivers flow into the western side of the Missouri ? Into the eastern side? What lake in the north wert! What towns in Madison ami Beaver Head Counties ? What towns between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains? What towns west of the Rocky Mountains? Draw a map (jf Montana, as directed on page lOS. RE VTE^VV. MOUNTAINS. Wher* «r« thei/ f In irhal illrrrlion tlo Ihr Cascade Ranok? EoouE ErvEU Mts. ? Three Sisters? Mt. Baker? Mt. Olympus? Coast Kange ? Cedab Mt. ? Mary's Peak ? Mt. St. Helen's? Three Bdttes? Blue M're. ? Mt. Jefferson ? raH{fem net^ndf Mt. Pitt? Mt. Adams? Rocky Mth. ? Mt. Hood ? Scott's Peak ? Mt. Eainieb? RIVERS. Wheredo they rite f Zntehat dirrrtlonii tlo I hey fioui, and into tehut vmtmrmt Columbia? Umpqua? Fall? McKenzie'b? Snake? Rooue? John Day's? Malheuh? Willamette? Owyhee? Powder? Grande Ronde? Chehalis? SKAGrr? U-ma-tilla? Salmon? LAKES. Wherr nrr thry? mini iinr thrir InUlm and outUU? Upper Klamath ? Harney? Malheur? Flathead? CAPES. IVoiM vthat counties do they pn0«ct f Lookout? Foulweather? Araqo? Blanco? Flattery? Disappointment? Pt. Adams? BAYS. Ifhere are they? Into what tratert do they pri j eelt Tillamook? Okay's Harbor ? Yaquina? Coos? PuoET Sound? Shoalwateb? CITIES AND TOWNS. In what part of what county f On or near what water? PORTLAND. SALEM. ALBANV. AUBURN. CORVALLIS. LA GRANDE. JACKSONVILLE. OLVMPIA. STEILACOOM. SEATTLE. WHATCOM. OREGON CITY. ASTORIA. EMPIRE CITY. ST. HELENS. CANONVILLE. UNION. PORT ORFORD. PORT TOWNSENO. VANCOUVER. WALLA WALLA. HELENA. CANON CITV. OAKLAND. ROSEBURG. DALLES. DALLAS. GRANITE CITY. UMPQUA CITY. VIRGINIA CITY. BANNOCK CITY. GALLATIN. BOISE CITY. EUGENE CITV, HARRISBURQ. AURORA. SILVERTON. UMATILLA. ELLENSBURG. FOREST GROVE. IDAHO CITV. LEWISTON. SILVER CITV. MONTICELLO. lO MONTEITH'S GEOGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE. ESCRiPTiVE Geography. 1. WASHINGTOy TERRITORY occuTpiesihemostnorth- westem portion of the United States, except Alaska ; its north- em boundary being in a hne with that of Minnesota. 2. It lien between the parallels of 46° and 49° north latitude, between which are, also, Lake Superior, Northern Maine, Central France, Switzerland, and Austria. 3. The letiffth of Washington is about 350 miles from east to west, and its breadth from north to south is about 225 miles. Its area is about 70,000 square miles. 4. The Principal Mountain Ranges are the Cascade Range and the Coast Eange, extending nearly north and south. The principal peaks are Mt. Rainier, Mt. Baker, Mt. Adams, and Mt. St. Helens, all of which rise above the snow limit. 5. The Cascade Range in "Washington and Oregon is a continuation of the Sierra Nevada, of California. Their height is about 6,000 feet, and their distance from the coast about 100 miles. This range divides Washington Territory into two physical regions — the western or lower, and the eastern or higher. 6. The Western section contains rich and well-watered valleys, vast evergreen forests of fir, spruce, cedar, and hem- lock, and nearly all the cities and towns in the Territory. 7. The Eastern section is chiefly dry and stony, although it contains some excellent pasture grounds. WaUa Walla Valley, in the south-east, is well adapted to agriculture and grazing. 8. The Climate of Washington Territory is similar to that of the corresponding sections of Oregon, being much milder than in the same latitudes on the Atlantic slope. 9. The Principal Valleys are the Puget Sound Valley, or basin, the Columbia Valley, and the Walla Walla Valley. The former contains over 10,000 square miles. 10. Paget Sound affords the chief commercial outlet for the Territory, having about 1,500 miles of water front, with many excellent harbors. It is surrounded by valuable timber, great quantities of which are exported annually. Coal is sup- plied from Bellingham Bay, and oysters are found in abun- dance in Shoalwater Bay. 11. The Chief Exports are lumber, ship timber, coal, and oysters. 12. Gold is found in the eastern part of the Territory. 13. The Principal Towns are Olympia, the capital, Steila- coom, Seattle, Port Townsend, Monticello, Vancouver, and Walla Walla. 14. Washington was organized as a Territory in 1853. 15. IDAHO is somewhat triangular in shape, about 480 miles in extent from north to south, and 300 miles wide on its southern border. Its area is about 95,000 square miles. 16. The Rocky Mountains and a branch, or continuation, called the Bitter Boot Mountains, are on its eastern border. Among other mountains in tha Territory, are the Salmon Eiver and Bear Mountains, the Three Buttes and the Three Tetons. 17. The Principal Rivers in Idaho are the Snake or Lewis, and its tribiitaries the Salmon and Clearwater, the general slope of the surface being toward the west. ^ 18. Its Principal Productions are gold and silver. 19. The Soil of large portions is well adapted to farming and grazing, and water-power for manufacturing purposes is abundant. 20. The Chief Totvns are Boise City, the capital, Lewiston, Idaho City, Euby City, Oro Pino, and Silver City. 21. Idaho was organized as a Territory in 1863. 22. MOKTANA is in the north-western part of the United States, lying between Dakota on the east and Idaho on the west ; on the north it adjoins British America, from which it is separated by the parallel of 49^ here the northern boundary of the Union. 23. It lies partly on the Atlantic and partly on the Pacific slope ; the Rocky Mountains, the great water-shed, extending through its western part. 24. The Pacific Slope includes the north-western portion, which is drained by the Clarke's Eiver and its tributaries. 25. The Largest Portion of Montana, is embraced in the Atlantic slope, and is drained by the Missouri Eiver, which has its headwaters in the south-western part of the Territory. 26. The Greatest Length of Montana from east to west is 500 miles, and its breadth, from north to south, about 270 miles. 27. Montana is rich in gold and silver, which are exten- sively mined in the west and south-west, where, consequently, are the most thickly settled portions of the Territory. It also contains copper, iron, and coal of superior qualities. 28. The Climate is pure, healthful, and delightful, and much dryer than that of other parts of the United States. 29. r/»e Soil of its extensive valleys is very productive, and its agricidfcural and grazing facilities are excellent. 30. Its Trade with the States eastward, by way of the Missouri River, is considerable and constantly increasing. 31. Its Population is about 40,000. 32. The Chreat Palls of the Missouri, remarkable for their grand and picturesque scenery, are about 30 miles above, or south-west of, Fort Benton, the nominal head of steam naviga- tion. They comprise a succession of cataracts and rapids, with which the river is filled for about 12 miles, having an aggregate descent of 400 feet. The principal cataract is 87 feet high and 900 feet wide. 33. Helena, the metropolis and commercial centre, is 140 miles south-west of Fort Benton. It is situated on a creek which flows into the western side of the Missouri River. 34. Virginia Citt/, is situated in the south- western part of the Territory, about 130 miles south of Helena. 35. Montana was Organized as a Territory in 1864. TEBBITOBIES. CAFITALB. TBBBITOBIBS. CAPITAU. Wasiiington . . . Olympia. BoiBG City. Helena, Yankton. Cheyenne. Utah Salt Lake City. Sitka Idaho Alaska Montana Dakota .... Arizona New Mexico Indian Tucson. Santa Fe Wyoming Tahlequah. MONTEIIH'S PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. t|0MPARATIVE f IZES— ^ANSAS, THE )|oMMON ^EASURE AND f RAME. I Measure. I Measure. -S6—lS—t—^--7i' 2 Measures or 400 Mittt. Its Sfuipe and MeaiurtmenU— 200 by 400 miles, or 1 meaBure wide and 3 mea8un>s long — are easily rememU'red : so, also, are those of all thu other States wliich l-'j o are here drawn upon and com- ■ N I 2 i>ared with it. Obntrte the coin- JA ^ cidenccs between the measure- ments of Kansas and those of other States ; t. g. The width of Maine and the length of Ken- tucky are about the same as thoee of KanMii, v5 fj " / c o '^i -^-r—J ^:jrw^ MUJNT£1TH'S RELIEF MAP Of (He UNITED STAT: '* ^^' S jrcm^Iflfc PACIFIC OCEAN to m MISSISSIPPI RIVER. r Observe that the Rocky Mountains are almost midway between the Pacific t'oast and the Mississippi Kiver, and that far up their sides are the sources of numerous streams and rivers. The waters of some of these rivers find their way to the Gulf of Mexico ; and of others, to the Pacific Ocean. For aruneern to these gue»tiont, refer to the Relief Map, and to the Map of the United Statet. Mention the largest rivers which How toward the Uulf,— toward the Pacific. Mention the largest river which rises In the Ilocky Mountains. Mention the largest tributaries of the Missouri,— of the Columbia. Observe that the sources of these two rivers are very near each other. What verj- high peak near the center of Colorado ? What is the height of Pike's Peak? Abb. 14^00 feet (Aoee tht level of the tea. Wliat high peak in the western part of Wyoming? In the northern part of C\>I. ondo? In what part of Dakota and Wyoming are the Black HQIs ? Where are the Siei^ la Nevadas t What is the height of the Sierra Nevadas? Ass. About JSfiOO feet above the level of the «m. What is the highest peak of these mountains ? Ans. Mount Whitney. What is the highest moun- tain in the United States ? AH8. Mount Whitney. Where is Mt. Wliitney ? What is its eleva- tion above the level of the sea t An8. 15,086 feet. Where is Mount Shasta t Mt. Hood ? Where is the Cas- cade Kange 1 Mount St. Helens ? Which of the States represented on this Relief Map are best supplied with lakes? What and where is the largest lake west of the Rocky Mountains? What imp Mt. Obdorsli 6,397 Fichtel Gebirge . Oermany 5,286 Rieaen Gebirge " .. 5,280 Ural Mts highest 5,275 Voagea France .... 4,688 BlackForeet. .. Baden 4,675 NORTH AMERICA. Vol. Popocatepetl Mexico Mt. St Kliaa Alaska Vol. Orizaba Mexico Mt. Brown British America Mt. Hooker " " Mt. Whitney . California Mt. Fairweather Alaska Pike'e Peak Colorado ... Mt. Shasta California Mt. Tyndall " Mt. Kaweah '' Fremont's Peak Wyoming Territory. . . . Mt. St. Helens Washington Territory . Mt. Dana California Mt.Lyell .. •' Long's Peak .. Colorado Mt.Hood Oreqon Mt. Linn . . California ... Mt. San Bernardino " Mt. Baker Washington, Territory . ■Mt. Ranier " " Mt. Adams " " Laramie Peak Wyoming Territory. . . Blue Mts Jamaica Sierra del Cobre Cuba — highest MitcheH's Peak North Carolina . Mt. Waahini'ton New Hampshire Oraefa Jokiill Iceland. .about Mt. Bailey California Mt.Pierce Vol. Hecla Iceland Vol. Souffriere OuadcUoupe ... Mt. Marcy New York Mt. Katahdin ..Maine Mt. Hamilton California. Mt. Mansfield Vermont , Peaks of Otter. Virginia... . Camel's Hump , . . Vermont Saddleback Mt Maine Mt.Di:ililij California.... RoundTop New York Alleghany Mta .. — average Wacnusett Mt Masftachusetts . Highlands Neic York PilotKnob . ...Missouri. Mt. Tom Massachusetts EUROPE. Mt. Elboorz highest of Caucasus Mt. Blanc '• " Alps Mt. Rosa ' in Switzerland , Mt. Cervln between Stoiizertand and Italy. Mt. Pelvoux France Finater Aarhorn Switzerlind Mt. Viso between France and Italy Ortler Spitz. Austria Mt. Mulahacen.. Spain Mt. Oenevre The Simplon between Switzerland and Italy. Mt. Cenla France Maladettfl highest of Pyrenees Peak of Valetta . Great St. Bernard Switzerland Cantabrian Mts. . Spain — highest Ht. Perdu Pyrenees 18,500 18,000 17,.374 15,900 16,676 15,086 14,900 14,600 14,442 14,386 14,000 13,1570 13.300 13,227 13,217 12,505 10,000 10,000 8,370 8,000 7,500 7,300 6,707 6,428 6,409 6,857 6,000 5,700 6,550 5,379 6.300 4,4.50 4,430 4,260 4,188 4,000 3,876 3,804 2,500 2,020 1,600 1,500 1,200 17,796 16,810 15,208 14,771 14,108 14,026 13,599 12,811 11,660 11,614 11,541 11,460 11,168 11,389 11,080 10,998 10,994 Bohemian Mts Austria Erz Gebirge "' Ben Nevis Scotland— highest in Oreat Britain.. Ben Mac Dhu " Cairngorm... '* Ben Attow " Vol. V'eauviuB ., Italy Ben Lawers Scotland ... BrockenMt Harz Mts., Germany .. Ben Wyvia Scotland Snowdon Mt Wales Cam Tual highest in Ireland 3,414 Sea Fell England 3,092 Helvellyn " 8,056 Skiddaw " 3,083 Moravian Mts Austria 8,006 4,613 4,590 4,406 4,327 4,095 4,000 8,948 3,945 3,740 3,720 S,.571 EIVEES or THE WORLD. NORTH AMERICA. tamfls. Length to m. ilissouri, to the Missisaippi. ..3,100 -iIiaBouri,to the /G. of Mexico.. 4,350 •Mississippi .. 3,160 Mackenzie's, fr. Slave Lake.. .. 900 Mackenzie's, fr. head of the Athabasca 2,440 St. Lawrence, from Lake On- tario 750 ■it. Lawrence, from head of St. Louis R... 2,200 . .\rljan8a8 2,170 ~Rio Grande.... 1,800 Red 1,600 Platte, or Ne- braska 1,600 Nelson and Sas- katchawan 1,600 Columbia,orOr- egon 1,200 Names. Lenph to m. Colorado (of the West), 1,000 Ohio 948 ijew.8,Qr Snake 900 Tennessee goo Cumberland ... 600 Appalachicola. . 600 Mobile 550 Suaqnehannah. 450 James 460 tscramento 420 otomac 400 Savannah 400 Altamaha .... 400 Connecticut.... 400 Minnesota 375 Roanoke 350 £edee 360 •Hudson 385 Delaware 300 Penobscot .... 300 Mohawk 160 Kennebec 150 Genesee 145 Merrimac 110 \ SOUTH AMERICA. mazon 4,000 La Plata, from the head of the Parana 8,250 Madeira 1,800 Paraguay 1,600 Orinoco 1,590 St. Pranciaco.. 1,260 Tocantine 1,100 Araguay 1,000 Pnrus 900 Magdalena 800 Height of Snow Line. .Sierra Nevada, Spain 11,800 Caucasus Mts 11,000 Sidly 9,600 Mt. Olympus 9,000 .SwissAlps 8,900 Centralltaly 8,400 EUROPE. V. Pyrenees Carpat'nans Scandinavian Mt» Orampians North Cape 8,000 6,000 5,000 4.500 2,400 Mt, Kenia Mt. Kilimandjaro. AbbaJared. Cameron Mta. fPe&k of Teneriffe Vol. Mt. Miltsin Red Mts . , Mt. Spitzkop Table Mt AFRICA. , Eastern Africa 80,000 20,000 , Abyssinia 15,000 Lower Ouinea 18,000 . Canary Islands . 18,188 Morocco 11,400 . Madagascar 11,000 .. Cape Colony 10,250 . Cape of Good Hope 3,672 OCEANICA. Mt. Ophir Sumatra 13,842 Mt.KiniBalu Borneo 13,698 Vol. Mauna Loa Sandwich Islands 13,120 Mt, Semero .lava 13,000 Mt, Erebus Victoria Land 12,400 Mt, Koscinsko Australia 6,600 Mt, Hnmboldt . , Tasmania 6,680 olga 2,000 Danube 1,725 Dnieper 1 ,230 iDon 995 ■Rhine 900 Petchora 900 Ural 840 Tagua 660 Rhone 645 Loire 580 Elbe, Oder 550 J/istula 630 ^eine 497 Dneiater 440 Douro 430 Gnadiana 380 Dwina sao Po MO Thames 220 ASIA. ^ang-t8eKiang.2,500 Lena 2.400 1 Yeniaei 2,300 Amoor 2,200 Obi 2.000 -HoangHo 2,000 Cambodia 2,000 Irtyah 1,700 HEIGHTS OP SOME INHABITED SITES. Names Situation. Runechuasi Peru Tarcora Village In Peru Antiaana Shepherds' huts, Ecuador . . . Potosi City in Bolivia Puno.. CUy in Peru , Cuzco Bolivia. Leh .. City in Thibet *uito Ecuador Sherman highest point on Pacific B. R HospiceofGt. St. Bernard. .^&)s.. •,. . Arequipa CltylnPeru -Wexico City ,Cabul Afghanistan Ispahan Persia -^ieruaalem Palestine , Madrid , , Spain Munich Bavaria Geneva Switzerland ... Feet sea above level. 15,640 18,690 18,454 13,330 12,870 11,380 9,99.) 9,543 8.242 7,965 7,852 7,400 6,360 4,140 2,200 1,995 1,764 1,230 Euphrates 1,670 Indus 1,650 Ganges 1,500 Brahmaputra .1,500 Amoo, or Oxua.1,300 Irrawaddy 1,200 Sihon .., .... 900 Meinam 800 AFRICA. Nile 4,000 | Senegal 1,200 Niger 8,700 Orange 1,000 Zainbeze 1,850 I Gambia 708 The Grand Divisions of the Earth. Grand Divisions, Asia Africa BTorth America. South America Oceanica Europe Area, 16,415,768 11,556,660 9,059,937 6,954.131 4,388,025 3,830,357 DISTANCES AT WHICH MOUNTAINS HAVE BEEN SEEN. Mountains. Miles. Himalaya Mts 244 Mt. Ararat aiO Mt. Chimborazo 160 Peak of Teneriffe 185 Mt. Athos, G^eeM 100 TotaL 1 52,204,! Population, 751,062,475 191,000.000 69,539,474 27,592,600 30,248,38:1 301,753,419 1,361,196,351 TENNESSEE. Placet Yapresented oa the map by oumben. 1 Troy, 2 Dyersburg, 8 Paris. 4 Huntingdon. 6 Dover, 6 Waverly, 7 Aehland, 8 Smithville, 9 Livingston, 10 Jamestown, .11 Iluntaville, 12 MaynardBviUe, 18 Tazewell, 14 Rogersville, 15 Tayloi-aville, 16 Ellzabethtown, 17 Kingaton, 18 Madiaonville, 19 Athena, 20 Decatur, 21 Dunlap, 22 McMlnnville, 28 Manchester, 84 Waynesboro, 25 Decaturville, 26 Savannah, 27 Purdy, 38 Bolivar. ADDITIONAL CITIES AND TOWNS. ,AMES OF t&ITIES AND iOWNS ^BEPRESENTED ON THE >$ BY ^UMBERS. ALABAKA. 1 TuHcumbia. ■i UuHBellrlUe. 3 Moulton. 4 Bellefonte. 6 Lebanon. 6 IlluuntsvUle. 7 Center. 8 JacknonrUle. 8 ABhvllle. 10 'Ja(*i>er. 11 Pikovllle. U KuyotteviUo. 13 llilabcc. 14 Wodowee. 15 Rot^kford. 16 Mariun. 17 Linden. 18 Crawfofd 19 Uutler. 80 Qrore Hill. SI St. Stephens. n HonroeTllle. 88 Troy. MBotledge. 95 0»irk. m; KUa. 87 Newton. 8^ .\tulaln9ia. aj Sparta. ASKAHSAS. I ItentonvlIIe. 8 Carrollton. 3 Jasper. 4 Lelianon. 6 Sherman. 6 Pilot niil. 7 Sinithville. 8 Mt. Olive. 9 QainesTllls. 10 Osceola. 11 Jone«boro. 12 llarrUbart;. 13 ItatoHvllle. 14 JackKonport 15 Clinton. 16 Ozark. IT CI irk.vlUe. 18 Dover. I'J Lewisbnrg. 8J AiwuKta. 81 Marion. 22 .Ht. Vernon. v. S Putnam. C Woodstock. 7 Oarhev. 8 Brinford. 9 Guilf.)rd. CALIFOBinA. 1 Santa CiTiz. 8 Eureka. 3 Nana City. 4 Oilroy. R Brooklyn. 6 PlacervUIe. T OrovlUe. P Sonora. r WatsooTllki. 10 Columbia. II Monterey. 1> San I'libfo. 1" Yreka C.ty. 14 Colusa, It Orleans Bar. V: Weaverville. 17 Shasta City. iS Susjinville. ir <>ii}nry. St; K.-d Blntr. 21 DownieviUe. 8^ Lakeport. » Mariposa. 84 Snelllng. 86 MUlertoD. 86 KeysviUe. STBavilah. DAKOTA. 1 Mcdary. 8 Maxwell. 3 Sivan Lake. 4 Sioux Falla. 5 Bon Homme. 6 Vermilion. 7 Elk Rirer. FLOEIBA. 1 EachreAnna. 8 Cerro Oordo. 8 Holme* Valley 4 Mariana. 5 Newport. 8 ITewnansTUta. 7 Wacaaaaaa. 8 Adamsville. 9 Bayport. 10 Enterprise. 11 Tampa. 18 Manatu. 13 Susanna. 14 Key Biscayne. OEOBQIA. 1 Trenton. 2 Ringgold. 3 La Fayette. 4 SammenrlUek 6 Mortjantown. 6 Btalr«TiUe. 7Dahkniea. 8 ClarkaTflle. 9 Cameertlle. 10 f SimmlTi^ 11 LawrencerlUa. 1-3 .Tell^raon. 13 Elborton. U Lincotnton. 15 Lexirii^on. HI Washington. 17 WatkinsvUle. 18 Monroe. 19 Tallapooea. 80 CampbelltoD. 81 Carrollton. 88 Franklin. 83 McDonough. at Covington . 86 Qreensboro. 86 Warrenton. 17 Batonton. 88 Jackson. SB Tbomaston. SO Hamilton. 81 Ta.bottOD. Si Sandersvllle. 83 LoaUrllle. 84 Waysesbora 85 Sylvania. 86 Slatesboro. 87 ReldsTine. 83 Mt. Vernon. X) Itawklus. 40 •lacksonvllle. 41 Ilolne'ville. 4i Irwinville. 43 Brans .vlck. 44 Wareaboro. 41 Magnolia. 46 NaATlDe. 47 TroupvUle. 48 Moolble. tt .Ubany. fiOCamilk 61 Balnbridob aiOidgalt. SSBUiidy. nxnTon. 1 Belvldere. a Woodstock. 3 Mi. Carroll. 4 Oregon. 5 .Sycamore. 6 (jenera. 7 NapienrOle. 8 YorkTiIle. 9 Morris. 10 Keithshurg. 11 Oquawka. I'i KnoxriQe. 13 Toalon. 14 Hennepin. l}I^con. 16 Metamora. 17 Pontile. 1"* Cartlmtre r» M;iconil». 20 Lewiston. 21 Havana. '2i Lincoln. 23 ;iinton. 84 MontlceDo. SSFaxton. 16 Mt. Steriine. 87 RusbviUc. 88 Beardstown. 29 Petersbunr. SO PittsfleU. 81 Winchester, as TaylorsTllle. as SuUlTan. M Tnscola. 86 Carrollton 86 Hardin. 37 .lerseyville. *i llillsboro. 30 Windsor. 40 Greenup. 41 Marshall. 42 Edwardsville. 48 Oreenrtlle. 44 Vandalla. 45 Sfflngham. 46 Newton. 47BoblnK>n. 48 Carlyle. 40 Salem. 60 LewlBTille. 61 Waterloo. St NasbvUle. BS Mt. Vernon. 84FairfleU. 66 Albion. 66Mt.CanneL 67 Chester. 88 PinkneyrlDe. 60 Benton. 60 McLeansboro. 81 Marpbysboro. (B Marlon. as Barrlsbnrg. 84 Jonesboro. as Vienna. aSOoloonda. ST EHiabetli. SSTbebea. ae Caledonia. 70 Metropolla. INSIAHA. 1 Crown Point. 8 Valparaiso. 8 La Orange. 4 Angola. 6 Knoz. 6 Plymouth. 7 \\ arsaw. 8 Albion. 8 Anbnm. 10 Renaaelaer. 11 Wtnamac 18 Rochester. 13 Colombia. 14 Kent. 16 MontlceDo. 16Wabsab. 17 Huntington. 18 Blufflon. 19 Decatar. 80 Ozrord. a Delphi 88 Kokoma. 88 Marion. 84 llarlford. 16 Portland. 56 Wllllamaport. 97 Covington. 18 Frankfort. W Tipton. 50 Aiiderson. 51 Wincbeetet. S8 Lebanon, as Newcastle. 84 Newport. 86 Danrilte 86 Oreenflctd. 87 Centrevllle. SB Bockville. ae BowllngOraen 40 Spencer. 41 MiutlnsTUle. 48 Franklin. 43 Shelbyville. 41 Itasbville. 46 Connorsrilla. 46 Liberty. 47SnHiTan. 4BBIoomfleld. 40 Bloominstga. 80 Naahrille. 61 OraenaboTg. BSBrookrille. OB WaaUogton. MDoTerHUL 66 Bedford. 66 Brownatown. 57 Vemoo. 68 Versatile*. eBPrinoeton. 09 Petersbnrg. 01 Jasper. fllPaoli. 03 Salem. M Ixizington. 65 Vevay. 66 Rising San. 67 Mt. Vernon. 08 BoonOTOle. OOBockport. 70 Borne. 71 Predonia, 78 0o<7don. 78 Oharleeum. IOWA. 1 BatberviUe. 8 Forest City. SMiteheU. 4 (fresco. 6 Waterman. 6 Emmattabarg. 7 Uppe- Qrove. 8 Marc t City. 9 Charles City. 10 Bradford. 11 West rnlon. 12 El Kader. USpencei; 14Bolfe. 16 Dakota. 16 OnUrio. 17 Hampton. 18 Clarksvllle. lu Melbuorue. 10 Ida. SlSacaty. » Lake City. 18 Webster. MEUota. SBOmndy. 16 Delhi. 17 Carrollton. 18 Jelllsrson. SO BoooesbOfo. SO Nevada. SlTtdedo. aiVintOD. aa Marion. MBetlenie. aOMagnoUa. SSHanan. STBzlra. aSPanora. aOAdel. 40 Newton. 41 Hontesonuk 41 Marengo. 48 Tipton. 44Lewla. 46 FontanaDa. 46 WintarseL 47 Indlanoia. 481>ella. 48 81gaanieT. n QoUey. a Afton. asOsoeok. MAlbia. 66Fairfleld. flO Wapdk>. 07 Sidney. OSClarinda. SB Bedford. •DMt.Ayr. 01 Leon. 05 Corydon. 03 Centrorille. 04 BlooniflnkL 06 Ksosaaqne. KAH8A8. 1 Kirwin. 8 Oaylonl. S BeOevllle. 4 Washington. SMaiysTDle. OSeoeea. TBUwatba. 8 Troy. 9 Bclolt. 10 Clay Centre. 11 Ix>ulsTllle. 12 Holton. I'I Manhattan. MOskalooea. IB Hays. lORnsaelL nSaHns. 18 Abilaaa. ISAtana. SO BnriliigUM. n Marlon. BCottonw'dFns « Moimd City. MBUondo. KBonkft. 16 Sanmer. SrWfaiMd. HFredonia. lOOlrard. 30 Pern. 31 Independence. KKNTUCKT. 1 Borllngton. $ Independence. 8 .Alexandria. 4 Warsaw. 6 WilUamstown 6 Falmouth. 7 Washington. 8 Clarksbarg. 9 Greennpso'g. 10 Bedfortl. 11 Carrollton. 18 Owenton. ISCynthlana. 14CirUsl«. 16 FlemiiigBbnis 16 Morehmd. 17 Qrayaon. 18 Catlettsbarg. 19 TaylorsrlUc. 50 Uiwrencebnrg 51 Geoisetown. 88 Wtaiaiester. « Mt. BterUng. M Owtngsrille. S6 WestUberty. SSLoniaa. fr Hardlnsbarg. S8 Bardstown. SB Springfield. 80 HarrcMsbuiv. 81 NIcholasvilM. 88 Richmond. 88 Irvine. St SalversTille. SB PaintTlIle. S6 Motganfleld. 87 Dixon. 88 Olhonn. 89 Hartford. 40 Utchlleld. 41 UodgiovUle. 48 Lebuioo. 48 Stanford. 44 Tancaster. 4SMcK«e. 46 BoooeTlHe. 47 Jackson. 48 Prestonbaig. 4BPikston. gOBIandTiUe. 61 Smithland. Bi Marion. 6SBddyTUle. 64Ptlnoetoo. 86 MaditonvlDe. 66 QreenvlUe. 67 Morgantown. 68 Brownsrllle. SBMnnf'dsriUe. ao Oreensbanr. OlUberty. OS Mt. Vernon. 08 London. 04 Manchester. OBHanrd. 60 Whltesboig. 07 Clinton. OBMaylleM. 00 Murray. 70 Cadiz. 71 Eikton. 1! Franklin. 73 ScottsTilie. 74 Tompklnsr'la. 7.) Glasgow. 76 BarkesTllle. 77 Cohimbia. 78 Jamestown. 7» Albany. 80 Mootlcello. 81 Somerset, 8! WlUlamsbnrg. 83 BarboorsvUla. 84 Mu Pleasant. LOmSIANA. 1 Belletlew. 5 Homer. a Farmerarille. 4Bastarop. 6 Proridenoe. ORIdunond. 7 Wlimsboro'. 8 ColnmbU. 9 Vernon. 10 WinOdd. UMuisMd. ISQnmdOao*. ISlUnny. 14 Harrlsonboig. IB St. Joseph. lOVldaUa. 17 Alexandria. 18 MarksTine. 19 Point Conneo. 50 W.Baton R'ge 51 Lislxm. SS Hoarao. 83 (!ovinirton. 84 Fmnkllnton. 85 Greensburg. 86 Clinton 87St.FrancisT'lc KADIE. 1 Machias. S Princeton. 5 Mattawamk'g. 4 Steuben. OBnfleldv 6 Dover. 7 Frankfort 8 Uncolnville. BBkxmifleld. 10 Newport. 11 ReadfleM. 18 Jay. ISBetbcl. 14 Paris. KASTLAin). 1 Westminster. 8 KIkton. 8 Cbestartown. 4 Bockville. 6 Pr. Fred'kton. e Port Tobacco. 7 Cambridge. SLeotukrdtown. XAS8. 1 Fltchbntg. 8 Clinton. 3 Milford. 4 Ablngton. BAttleboro. ODeerfleU. lacmoAKT. 1 Houghton. ICrossrUle. 8 Alpena. 4 Sherman. 6 Midland. OVaasar. 7 Lexington. 8 St. John. B Corunna. 10 Allegan. 11 HaaOngs. ISCbarloSe. 18 Mason. UBowen. IB Pawpaw. 10 Berrien. 17 Cassopolts 18 Centrevllle. mnnsoTA. 1 OtterUllCity. 5 Long Prairie. 8 Uttte FaUs. 4 Hanover. B Bmnswick. 6 Fortuna. 7 Twin Ijikes. 8 Alexandria. B Wintbrop. 10 Sauk Centre. 11 Watab. 15 Cambridge. 18 Chengwataaa. 14 Harrison. IB Forest City. 10 MontlceUo. 17 Orono. 18 Taykir'a Falls. 19 Oleoooe. SOOiaska. SI Beaver. 8S New Dim. 53 Le Saeor. 54 Watonwan. SBMadelU. SO Wilton. 87 Mantorvine. 88 Orelchtown. SB .Tnckson. 80 Fairtnount. 81 Albert Lea. 82 Caledonia. KISSISSIPFI. 1 Hernando. 8 Anstina. SRlploy. 4 Fulton. 6 Pontotoc. CoffeevUle. 7 Cbarieston. 8 Friar's Point B Bolivar. 10 McNutt 11 Carrollton. 15 Greensboro*, lastarkvflle. 14 Kosdnsko. 15 Lexington. IS Macon. 17 De Kalb. 18 Pliiladelphia. IB Yaxoo City. SO Brandon. 81 Raleigh. 88Paalmng. 23 Quitman. U Winchester. 16 EUi vllle. SB WUlianubDrg 87 Gallatin. IB Fort Gibson. » WoodvlDe. SO Liberty. 81 Hohnesvflla. Si Angusta. SaLAsville. 84 Misslssio'iCy. USSOTTBI. 1 Ruckport SMaryviUe. 8 Grant City. 4 Albany. 6 Bethany. 6 Princeton. 7 DnionTille. K Laacaater. 8 Memphia. M WaUrioo. II MaysvlUe. 1^ Trenton. 13 Milan. 14 KirksviUe. IBBdina. 10 MontlceUo. 17 Kingston. ISLtnnens. 19 Bk>omington. 80 ShelbyviUe. 81 Pahnyra. 88 Carrolltou. S3 HunlKviile. 84 Paris. SS New London. 16 BowllncOreen RMarshan 18 Fayette. IB Cotnmbla. 80 Fnlton. 81 Danville. 81 Warrenton. 88 Troy. 84 HarrisonviDo. as Warsaw. 86 Versailles. 87 Tnsciunbla. 88 Union. SB HiUslwro. 40 Osceola. 41 Hermitage. 48 Linn Creek. 48Rolla. 44 SteelvlDe. 46 Fannington. 46 St Genevieve, 47 Perryvllle. 481iimar. 49 Stockton. 60 Bolivar. 61 Boflklo. a Wayuesvl le. a Salem. 64 Lestervine. 63 Frederickto'n. H Jackson. B7 Carthage, a Mt Vernon, a Ozark, a Marshlleld. 61 Hartvllki. tt Houston, a Bminence. 64 Greenville, a Benton. a PlnevlUe. 87Casavi]le. a Galena, a Forsyth. TOVeraCnu. 71 OalneavUle. 71 West Ftelns. 78 Tomasvllle. 74 Poplar Bhilt 7B Bloomfleld. 78 Charleston. 77 .New Maihland. 17 Medina. 18 Ravenna. 19 Warren. 80 CanfiuM. 81 Van Wert aCelina. a Wapakoneta. 84 Kenton, a Mart n. a Mt. Oilead. 87 Mt. Vernon, a Wooster. 'J> Millcrsburg. a New Phila. ^1 Cai ronton, a New LIsboiL a Sidney. SIBellefontaine. a (ireenvlll& a Troy. 87 MaiTsvllle. a Coshocton. BCadla. 40 Eaton. 41 London. 48 Lancaster. 43 Somerset 44 Cambridge. 46 St Ckilisville. 46 Lebanon. 47 WUmington. 48 Washington. 4B Logan. a McOonnollsT. 61 Sarabevllle. a WoodfleM. a McArtbnr. 64 Athens. W Batavla. M Georgetown. m West Union, a P keton. a Jackson, a Gallipolis. OSEOON. 1 Forest Grove. 5 Esst Portland. 8 Jacksonville. 4 Astoria. B Ranler. PENNSTLT'A I Mercer. 8 Butler. 3 Urookville. 4 Emporium. 6 Condersport. (1 Sunbnry. 7 Hlltotd. 8 Doylestown. 8 Lebanon. I < McOoi'cllfb'g 11 ElMinsburg. 12 Inditiita. 13 Kittanntng. 14 t^merset. IB ITniontown. IB Waynesburg. 17 Lcwlsbuig. 8 CASOLINA. 1 Anderson. 8 Spartanburg. 8 YorkvUIe 4 LaurensviUe. 6 Dnionville. Cbestervllle. 7 Lancaster. 8 Chesterfield. B Marion. 10 Camden. II EdgeficM. 15 Orangdmrg. 13 Kingstree. 14 Bamwdl. 16 Waterboro*. TENH. (opp. p.) TEXAS. 1 Bonham. 5 Paris. 5 Mt. Pleasant 4 Henderson. 6 Jasper. 6 Fort Duncan. 7 San Patricio. 8 Corvalltas. 9 RioGrandeCy. UTAH. 1 Wlllard City. 8 Promontory. 8 Harmony. 4 Uintah. BUM. VERMONT. 1 Newport. 8 Irasbunr. 8 Hyde Park. 4 Chelsea 6 Fayelteville. 6 Shattesl>ury. VIBGINU. 1 Woodstock. 5 Front Royal. 8 Warrenton. 4 Washington. 6 Luray. 6 Culpepper. 7 Madison. 8 Slanardvllle. B8noils\lvaula. 10 Monterey. 11 BowPg Green. 1-; Louisa. 13 Tappahan'ock 14 Himover. IBUealhsvlllc. 16 ISDcastcr. 17 Balnda. 18 i-'milhfield. 11) Surry. n Priiirc Oeorgs SI r^uflolk. a Jerusalem, a Sussex. 14 Goochland, a PowhataiL a Amelia. S7 Nottoway, a Lanenluirg. a Boydlon. achailette. 81 Ap'roat'xi'.H. 81 Lovingfion. a Amliersl. M Campbell. a Piltsylvi.nia. aMarrliisvllle. S7 Rockv Mount a Fiiirastli'. a Newcastle. 40Cliristlansb'g. 41 Parlsbtirg. 42 Patrick 43 HillHvllle. 44 Bland. I 46 Marlon. 4<\ Bnrbtinnn. 47 (iliidesvllle. 4.S EstllivUle. WASH. TEE. 1 Moiites-no. 8 Oyslirvllle. 3 Port Muilison. 4 Cathlaniet. 6 SlioliolnishCr. W. TIBOINU. 1 St. Mary's. 2 Clat kshurg, 8 New Creek. 4 Bath. 6 Rcmncy. (1 (iraiit. 7 Moonllrld. H Franklin. list Oeorge. 10 linn isi iTle. 11 Gruntsvillo. 18 Spencer. 15 Jackson. 14 Clay. 16 Hamlin. 16 Wsyne. 17 BslUnlsTille. ISPerrysvillo. wiscoMeur. 1 Grantsbntv. 5 StCroix Falls. SPrescott 4 Menomonee. 6 NeillsvlUe. G Wanaau. 7 Sturgeon Bay. 8 Pepin. 9 Fountain City. 10 GalesvUle. 11 Black ItFaDa. 18 Grand Baplda. 18 Plover. 14 Mnkws. 16 Kewaunee. 16 Vlrnqua. 17 New Lisbon. 18 Ft Atkinson. 10 Mmtello. a W automa. 81 Chilton. K Richland, a Itaraboo. 84 Juneau, a West Bend, a Ozaukee, 17 Lancaster, ajeffierson. aElkbom. to WanpaOL TABLES. POPULATION OF THE PEINCIPAL CITIES, TOWNS, AND VILLAGES IN THE UNITED STATES. From the Census of 1870. * The star indicates the Population in 1875. ALABAMA. Mobile 32,034 Mont^mcry. 10,588 Selma 6.484 ARIZONA Tucson 8,224 ARKANSAr Little Rock. 12.380 Pine Bluff.... 2.081 Hot Spring?.. 1,276 Van Buren . . . 985 CALIFORNIA S. Francisco*270,000 Sacramento.. 16,283 Oakland 10,500 Stockton San Jose — Grass Valley . Vallejo Los Angeles. MarysTiIle . . . Petaluma 10,066 9,089 7.063 6.391 5,728 4,7.38 4 '" 8,«i5 8,140 Nevada 3,988 CONNECTICUT. New Haven.. 50,840 Hartford 37,180 Bridgeport .. 18,96'.) Norwich 18,653 Norwalk 12,119 Waterbnry... 10,8-3fl Stamford .... 9,714 New Britain . 9,4S3 COLORADO. Denver »2U,U00 Central City... 2,360 DELAWARE. Wilmington.. 30,841 Smyrna. ... 2,110 Newcastle.. 1,916 Dover 1,906 DIST. COLUMBIA. Washington. 109,199 Georgetown. 11,384 FLORIDA, Jacksonville. *ll,tl00 Pensacola *3,.347 Tallahassee... *2..5:M GEORGIA. Savannah 28, Atlanta 21,789 Augusta 15,389 Macon 10,810 Columbus.... 7,401 Athens 4,261 Milledgeville. 2,750 Rome 2,748 Americas 8,259 ILLINOIS. Chicago *39S,408 auiucy •35,670 Peoria •26,247 Springfield. ..*2S,116 Bloomington. 14,590 Aurora 11,162 Rockford .... 11,019 Galesburg . . . 10,15S .Jacksonville . 9,203 Alton ... Belleville Rock Is land.. 'lO.RU Preeport 7,889 Ottawa 7,73(3 .Joliet 7,26.') Decatur 7,16! Galena 7,019 Pekin 5,6!)6 E. St. Louis.. 5,61-! Lk. Salle ,5,200 Kankakee.. Danville . . . Moumo'ith. Waukegan. Moline Dixon Sterling. .. Litchfield .... 3,852 Warsaw 3.583 Mendota 3,.')40 Canton 3,-303 Cairo •10,S74 Elgin 5,441 INDIANA. Indianapolis. *62, 169 Evansville . . . 21,n:i0 Fort Wayne.. *25.800 Terre Haute. •19,794 New Albany . ]5.:»6 Lafayette ... 13,.t06 Madison *ll,778 Richmond . . . 9,445 Logansport . . 8,950 Jeffersonville 7,254 South Bend.. 7,206 I-a Porte 6..5S1 Vinceiines... »e.rM) Michigan City 8,985 Peru 3,617 5,189 4,731 4,«0J 4,507 4,106 4,055 I IOWA. Dubuque ...•23.(»6 Davenport. ..•21,234 Burlington ..*I9.987 DCS Moines.. »14, 443 Keokuk 12.'H)6 Council Bluffs 10,020 Iowa City... '9.000 Muscatine... '7,940 Cedar Rapids *7,179 .Clinton 6,129 Ottnmwa 6,214 Waterloo Mt. Pleasant. Lyons Fort Madison Sioux City. .. Marshalltown Oskaloosa . . . Fort Dodge.. Cedar Fails . . Independence Washington . vVaverly Dccorah 2,110 Anamosa.... 2,083 McGregor.... 2,074 Chariton 1,728 KANSAS. Leavenworth. 17,873 8,:j30 IDonaldsonvllle 1,573 4,337 4,245 4,088 4,011 3,401 3.21« 3,204 3,095 3,070 2,945 2,575 2,291 Lawrence Atchison. . . Topeka Port Scott . Ottawa . . . Wyandotte. Emporia. . . 7,051 5,790 4,174 2,941 2,940 2,163 KENTUCKY. Louisville. ..*130,(XJ0 Covington ...*30.000 Newport *20,000 Lexington . . . 14.801 Paducah. ...•12,000 Frankfort. . . . 5.396 Maysville 4,705 Bowling Green*6,n00 Henderson. . . 4,171 Owensboro.. 3,437 Verseilles.... 3,263 Hopkinsville. 3,1-36 Danville 2,542 ShelbyvUle... 2,180 LOUISIANA. New Orleans.*a03.439 Baton Rouge. 6,;>18 Shreveport... 4,007 Monroe 1,949 Thibodeaux.. 1.923 Opelousas . New Iberia . . Plaquemines. Natchitoches. Franklin 1,546 1,473 1,460 1,401 1,265 MAINE, Portland 34,4» Bangor 18,1 Lewiston 13,600 Biddelord. . . 10,282 Augusta 7,808 BatTl 7,371 Rockland .... 7,074 Auburn 6,169 Calais 5,944 Belfast 5,278 HaUoweU.... 3,007 MARYLAND, Baltimore.. *350,000 Frederick.... 8,526 Cumberland.. 8,050 Hagerstowu . 5,7T9 Annapolis . . . 5,744 MASSACHUSETTS. Boston •.341,919 Lowell Worcester Cambridge. Pall River. Lawrence. Lynn *.32.000 Springfield ..*31 Salem *26,063 New Bedford. *26,876 Somerville. ..*21,868 Chelsea •20,695 Taunton ^20,429 Gloucester . . .•16,754 Holyoke *16.! Newton •16,105 Haverhill .... *14,628 Newburyport*13..323 Pitchburg....*12,289 Pittsfield •12,287 Flint Lansing Monroe Marshall Pontiac Niles Cold Water . Hillsdale Manistee Wyandotte... Owasso St. Clair La Peer Big Rapids... . *49,««7 .•49.203 . •47,832 . •45,-340 .•34,901 MICHIGAN. Detroit •103,770 Grand Rapids 16,507 •Jackson 11,447 E. Saginaw.. 11,.350 Adrian 8,433 Kalamazoo . . 9,181 Saginaw 7,460 Ann Arbor... 7,363 Bay City 7,064 Muskegon . . . 6,002 Portlluron.. 5,973 Battle Creek. 5,838 Ypsilanti .... 5,471 5,386 "7,632 5,086 4,925 4,867 4,630 4,381 3,518 3,343 2,731 2,065 1,790 1,772 1,237 Gold Hi Hamilton . . . Carson City, MINNESOTA. St. Paul •45,147 Minneapolis. *32,721 Winona *10,743 Red Wing . . . 4,260 Stillwater. .. 4,iai Rochester.... 3,953 Mankato 3,482 Hastings 3,453 Duluth 8,131 Faribault.... 3,045 St, Cloud.... 2,161 St. Peter 2,124 Owatonna . . . 2,070 Austin 2,039 ShakopeeCity 1,347 MISSISSIPPI. Vicksburg... 12,443 Natchez 9,057 Columbus 4, .Jackson 4,'234 Holly Springs 2,406 /Uierdeen 2,022 Grenada l,r" MISSOURI. St. Louis.... •414,: Kansas City..^24,482 St. Joseph... •20,577 Hannibal.... 10,125 St. Charles... 5,570 Springfield.. 6,555 Sedalia 4,560 Jefferson City 4,420 Lexington . . , Chillicothe... Macon Louisiana. . . . Cape Girardeau 3^535 Booneville... 3,506 Independence 3,184 Warrensburg 2,945 Palmyra 2,615 Mexico 2.602 Pleasant Hill. 2,554 4,373 3,973 3,678 NEBRASKA. Omaha 16,083 Nebraska .... 6,060 NEVADA. Virginia 7,048 4,311 3,913 3,043 Saratoga Spr. 7,.516lNorri9town.. 10,'!B8| NewBrighton 7,495 Altoona 10,610l Kingston.... 6,-315' Wilkesbarre . 10,174 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Manchester.. 25,536 Concord.. .. 12,241 Nashua 10,543 Dover 9,294 Portsmouth.. 9,211 NEW JERSEY, Newark *ia5,059 Jersey City .*116,000 Paterson.!... 33.579 Trenton 32,874 Elizabeth.... 20,832 Hoboken 20,297 Camden *.3!i,a32 N. Brunswick 15,058 Orange 9,348 Bridgeton.... 6830 I4ahwav 6,258 Millville 6,101 Burlington... 5,817 Plainfleld . . Union Harrison. . . Flushing 6,223 Long Is. City. •lO.OOO NORTH CAROLINA. Wilmington . 13,446 Raleigh 7,790 Newbeme . . . 6,849 Fayetteville. . 4."' Charlotte .... 4,473 OHIO. Cincinnati.. *266,526 Cleveland . .•I45,fi8.3 Toledo ^52,500 Columbus.... ^42,707 Dayton 30,473 Sandusky.... 13,000 Springfield... 12,652 Hamilton.... n,081 Portsmouth.. 10,592 Zanesville . . . 10,011 Akron 10,006 " 8,920 5,095 4,640 4,129 NEW YORK. New York.^1,249,868 Brooklyn.... *483,252 Buffalo *134,238 Albany •84,153 Rochester ...•82,000 Syracuse .... *49,808 Troy •48,708 Utica •32,089 Coboes *26,000 Oswego •22,280 Poughkeep... •30,097 Elmlra *2ft,093 Auburn •19,616 Yonkers *17,312 Newburg ... 17,041 Binglmmton .•16,486 Schenectady. *1-3.171 Lockport.... 12,426 Borne •12.511 West Troy... 10,093 Rondout 10,114 Ogdensbnrg..*ll,:J40 Watertown ..•10.041 Hudson ^8,794 Ithaca 8,462 Titusville.... 8,6:^9 Danville 8,436 Meadville.... 7,103 Lockhaven. . . 6,988 Pittston 6,760 Lebanon 6,737 Carlisle 6,660 Columbia.... 6,461 Carhondale . . 6,393 Chambersburg 6,308 New Castle.. 6,161 Johnstown. . . 6,028 Tamaqua .... 5,960 St. Clair 5,726 Ashland 6,714 Westchester. 5,630 Mahanoy 5,53;3 RHODE ISLAND. Providence •100,675 Newport 12,531 VERMONT. Burlington... 14,387 8,660 8,107 8,075 8,029 Chillicothe Canton Steubenville . Youngstown. Mansfield Newark 6',< Xenia 6,.377 Pioua 5. Pomeroy 5,824 Ironton 5,680 Delaware 5,641 Fremont Wooster Circleville 6,455 5,419 5,407 Marietta 6,218 OREGON. Portland 8 Oregon City. 1,3 Dalfea Forest Grove Eugene City . 942 922 861 PENNSYLVANIA. Philadelphia^817,000 Pittsburg.... 86,076 Allegheny ... 53,180 Scranton 35,092 Reading 33,933 Harrisburg . . 23,104 Lancaster.... 20,233 Erie 19,646 Williamsport 16,030 Allentown... 13,8»4 PottsviUe.... 12,384 York 11,003 Easton. 10,987 Rutland Bennington Vergennes. Brattleboro 9.834 2,501 1,570 4,93ii VIRGINIA. SOUTH CAROLINA Charleston.. Columbia. . . Greenville . . Georgetown 48,950 9,298 2,757 2,080 TENNESSEE. Memphis 40,2:6 Nashville.... •27.:M3 Knoxnlle. . Chattanooga . Jackson Murfreesboro Clarksville... Columbia Brownsville.. TEXAS. Galveston ..•40,000 Houston *30,000 San Antonio. *20.000 Austin •18.000 8,682 6,093 4,119 3,502 3,200 2,550 2,457 51,038 19,299 18,950 13,570 10,492 6,825 4,4TT Waco BrownsvlHe.. Jefferson Victoria. . . . Brenliam ■10,000 4,905 4.190 2.534 2,221 UTAH. Salt Lake City 12,854 Ogden 3,127 Provo 2,381 Logan 1,757 Mt. Pleasant. 1,346 Brigham City 1,315 Richmond Norfolk Petersburg. . Alexandria. . Portsmouth. Lynchburg.. Winchester. Fredericksburg4ioi6 Danville 3,463 Lexington . . . 2,873 Charlottesville 2,838 Manchester.. 2,699 Hampton .... 2,300 Harrisonijurg 2,036 WASHINGTON TER, Walla Walla. 1,394 Olympia 1,20:S Seattle 1,107 WEST VIRGINIA. Wheeling. . . . 19.280 Parkersburg. 5,546 Martinsburg. 4,8Iilwaukee? Alton to Columbus? Detroit to Dubuque ? Give the direction and distance from Chicago to Qalena. Chicago to St. Louis. St. Louis to Cincinnati. Cincinnati to Detroit. Louisville to Michigan City. If the State In which you reside be represented on this map, the following will be additional exercises : State the direction from you of Cincinnati, — Chicago, — St. Looia, — Loois- ville, — Detroit, — Milwaukee, — Toledo. Point toward each. Mention all the cities and towns in the northern part of your State. In the eastern, — southern, — westem,^ital of your State ? To It? largest city t Name all the places on the map within fifty miles of your residence. What is the population of the largest cities in your State ? (See" TABLES.") Name the prominent places in both bemispherea which are in the same latL tade as the city in or near which yon reside. Draw a map of your State. REVI ETS^. CITIES AND TOWNS. Jn what part CINCINNATI, MS ST. LOUIS, 414 CHICAGO. 896 LOUISVILLE, lao DETROIT, MILWAUKEE, CLEVELAND. DAYTON. INDIANAPOLIS. COLUMBUS, COVINGTON. PEORIA. TOLEDO. TERRE HAUTE, it»r'nh.hoW.) of what Slale? On QUINCV, DUBUQUE, EVANSVILLE, DAVENPORT, ST. PA)||, FORT WAYNE, LAFAYETTE, ZANESVILLE. LEXINGTON (KV,), ST. JOSEPH. SANDUSKY, GALENA, MADISON (IND.), CHILLICOTHE, what trattn'a f KEOKUK. GRAND RAPIDS. RACINE. JANESVILLE. BURLINGTON, KALAMAZOO'. MADISON. (WIS. HANNIBAL. SPRINGFIELD, OSHKOSH, ALTON, ROCK ISLAND, MUSCATINE. DES MOINES, (d« nu><>t'.) irhirh art: capUals ? LEXINGTON. (MO) BLOOMINGTON, JEFFERSON CITY. MINNEAPOLIS, WINONA. FOND DU LAC, (WIS.) ) PRAIRIE DU CHIEN. GRAND TRAVERSE, FRANKFORT. LANSING, IOWA CITY, NEW ALBANY, KANSAS, COUNCIL BLUFFS. RIVERS. Wher« do they rt»« 9 Ifrtwrrn or through what Stat** do they fiom f Into what water* do they fiote f Mississippi ? «• Ohio ? 9t Tennessee? » Cumberland ? « Wisconsin? Wabash? Des Moines? Detroit? CmrPEWA? Illinois? (iUlin-oy',') Miami? Muskingum ? Kankakee? Minnesota? Kentucky? Kansas? Nebraska ? Dakota? Kaska.skia? Sangamon ? itang'ga-mtiii.') Sandusky? Grand (Mich.) ? Gran-d (Mo.) ? I'OWA? Maumee? Rainy Lake? Red Cedar? Big Sandy? Big Sioux? Little Sioux? (wo.) White? Black? Green? Red? Rock? Wolf? Osage? Licking? St. Clair? St. Croix? (Mn( tro)/'.) LAKES. Ky what land are they enrtonnl r inia< are their ottlel* t Superior ? 8s.>« Winnebago? Erie?2«.) Pepin? Mich'igan? 830 L. op the Woods? Itasca? Rainy? Hu'BON?!Mo Bio Stone? Red? St. Claib? AP RAWING. • Numbers In list of CiUi'S ami Towns show populfttinn In tAott^ftntf* ; in thftt of Uivrr^ the loncth In hundred* ofmiieit ; \n that of Lakes, the whole length In mite*. THE SCALE. It most be evident to all thinking teachers that maps should be constructed on the tatne uaU by all the scholars in tlie school By the use of a single measure, the State or Country is accurately drawn, itd area, compared with that of other States and Countries is at once seeu, and comjiarative gixe fixed in the mind. It is certainly very important for pupils to liavi; accurate ideas of the comparative aiaes of the difierent States of the ITnion and the countries of the world. Each measure on the scale shown below always represents two hundred tniitn. One-luif npreeenU the distance of out hundred milet ; one-fourth ot fifty miles, and one-eighth, of tvoenty-five miUi. Tlie other subdivisions are shown on the scale. EXERCISES ON THE USE OF THE SCALE should be continued until the scholars are quick and accurate in its use. Square* as well as lines should l>e drawn, representing each of the divisions of this measure. aCALB FOB DBAWma ALL TUB HTATBS. li I i H i I If a distance is a little longer than is represented by the scale, it is iudicatiHl by the sign plus (+ ), and if it is a little shorter, it is indicated by the sign minus (— ). Any distance, however small, may be represented by still more minutely subdividing the measure, but for all practical purposes the dirisions indicated are sufficiently minute. DRAWING A MAP. The teacher is now prepared to commence the work of constructing a map. Let some State of a regular shape be first chosen, a» Pennsylvania. The southern boundary is one and one-third, the northern boundary the same, and the width threcfourth*. Tlie notch in the N. W. comer of the State is a little less than otiefimrth. Tliis is a part of one and one-third, the extreme length of the northern boundarj- line. The Oliii) Kiver crosses the western boundary line of the State one fourth north of the S. W. comer. As toaa as Pennsylvania is drawn it should be made a basis upon which New York and the New England States are constructed. Notice how easily this can he done. From the N. E. corner of Peimsylvania one-half catt reaches the S. W. comer of Massachusetts. Tliis point is a centre from which one-half a. little west of south, reaches Brooklyn ; one-lmlf fOH, the N. W. cor- ner of Rhode Island ; one-half north, the southern point of T.«ke (Immplain, and tiro hnlrn* or one. tneojmre, the N. E. cfirner of the State of New York. The various distances are all marked on the construction lines, fo that by noticing the outline maps that follow, no difficulty will Ije experienced in coa- Etructing all the States. MAP-DRA^?VING ON A UNIFORM SCALE. STATES SHOULD BE GROUPED. Pennsylvania is the base for New York, Virginia, Delaware, and Maryland. The New England States can more easily be drawn together than separately. By this means their comparative size is fixed in the mind. ENLARGED MAPS of single States or groups of States can easily be drawn by taking a longer unit of measure than is given in this book. Blackboard maps as large as may l<« wished can be executed by using a blackboard scale. ASSOCIATION OF SIMILAR DISTANCES should accompjny every exercise in map-drawing. Such a remarkable similarity in distance exists in the boundary lines of the United States and the Countries of Europe, that by associating their lengths, no difficulty will be experienced in remembering them. The One-half X^easures around the S. W. corner of Massachusetts have already been mentioned. Among many other coincidences, it may be noticed that the southern boundary of Iowa, the width of Iowa, the extreme width of Illinois, and the width of Kansas, are all one measure. The length of the northern boundary of Iowa is the same as the extreme length and breadth of Missouri, and these are the same as the length of the peninsula of Michigan. These are only a few of the many remarkable coincidences found to exist in the United States. By associating similar distances no difficulty will be found in teaching pupils how long and broad the States are. We now shall show HOW TIME MAY BE SAVED IN TEACHING TOPICAL GEOGRAPHY BY MEANS OF MAP DRAWING. Pupils should come to the class with paper, a scale and a pencil. First they are instructed in the use of the scale ; then they are required to draw the outlines of the States or Countries previously given, This may be done with the map drawing book open i)efore them, until they have learned to draw the lesson independently of the book. THE ORDER OF RECITATION. After a sufficient time has been spent in drawing outline maps, in accord- ance with the measurements given in the book, then the pupils may be re- quired to bring to the class-room an outline map previously prepared. This will save time. Suppose the lesson is the State of New York. Each pupil is prepared with an outline map of this State, to be filled up at the dictation of the teacher. When all are ready the pupils are given a sufficient time in which to draw the mountains, then the rivers, and after this the towns are located, noticing that the mountains control the courses of rivers, and the rivers the locations of towns. At the close of the recitation these papers are collected, corrected and returned. By pursuing this course each pupil has recited, and in such a way as to give the best possible proof of his knowledge of the geography of the State. It takes only a short time, and is a thorough test. All class exercises in map-drawing should be divided into two distinct parts : I. Exercises in drawing outline maps and in distance ; II. Exercises in completing outline maps previously drawn. It is not necessary to continue these general directions further, as the fig- ures near the measurement lines give sufficient information to enable any pupil of ordinary capacity to construct any map in this book. It is suggested that the following order be observed in the construction of the map. I. Tlie Outlines. II. Mountains and Surf ace Ele- III. Rivers and Lakes IV, Cities ami Totvns. [vations. V. — Canals and Railways. Navigable Rivers may be drawn with double lines. Coast Lines need not be shaded, but if any prefer to finish the map in this way, five or six lines may be drawn, each conforming as nearly as pos- sible to the direction of the coast. The last ones should be finer and further apart than the first. Mountains may be drawn as on the maps in this book. It should be noticed that very high elevations should not be drawn in the same manner as lower elevations or single peaks. These different methods are represented in the maps of this book. Maps may be made very distinct by first sketching the whole work with a lead pencil, and then tracing it in ink with a fine steel pen. COLORING. A map can be colored only when drawn in lead pencil or with India ink. The object of this may be to more clearly distinguish the political divisions or the physical features. In the former case several colors are necessary, in the latter, only two or three. Let the paints be of good quality, dissolved in water, and made to flow like inks, and then spread upon the paper very much diluted. Yellow Ink may be made by dissolving gamooge in pure rain-water. Blue Ink. — Dissolve an ounce of Prussian Blue in one pint of water, in which one ounce of Oxalic Acid has been dissolved. Add a small quantity of Oum Arabic. Red Ink. — Carmine dissolved in liquid Ammonia is the usual method of making red ink. After it is dissolved dil ute it with pure rain-water. Green Ink. — Mix blue and yellow inks. I'urple Ink. — Blue and red. Two or three coats should be applied with a medium sized camel-hair or sable-hair brush. If two colors only are used, red and green, or yellow and Uue should be selected. After the map is colored the boundary lines may be rendered more distinct by tracing them with good carmine ink, using a fine brush. With these directions, even pupils possessing only ordinary ability in drawing may be able to construct and finish very beautiful and correct maps. HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE CONTINENTS. The scale, representing the distance of two hundred miles, described above, is only used in constructing the United States and other subdimMons of the Continents. For constructing the Continents a scale, each division of which represents six hundred miles, is used. SCALE FOR DRAWING ALL OF THE CONTINENTS. THE SIX HTJNDBKD MILE SCALE. J_ J_ J_ J_1_L _J_ J-. .J_ J_ JL J_ J_ 4800 8 S 8 4200 8 8 8 3«* 8 8in. § § 5 Ira. 5 ^ S 6m. ^ 3000 5 m. its Slsj^i ^WW iFii'ir MOO 4m. 8 1800 3 m. 8 isoo s S 2m. S 600 Im. Larger maps may be easily drawn bv increasing the length of the measure. Note. — An toK^eni ruler, marked with the^e two map'drawing scales on one side and inches on the other, can he obtained from A. S. Barnes <& Co., New York or any l>W)k»^Xw in the country. It is as cheap as any common measure, and is useful for general desk purposes. A longer scale for the blackboard is also furnished. MAP DRAWING ON A UNIFORM SCALE. MAINE. Make a scale on a slip of stiff pai>er ; aud by it, draw maps of all the States, as ex- plained ou a previous page. Dntte no iine$ except boundariet. Commence at A, draw I'aasuma- qiioiUlj) Bay, and locate tUiHtport. -^r... .1 ^^'TlPftti^ Measure west, on the ■'"^ 45^ of latitude, mu meature to B : thence } m. to L, the northeast corner of A'. It., and } m. to H, the north- , east comer of Vt. From B meaanra J m. to the Stilimin Falls Itirrr at F, and draw the western boundary. From F measure ^ m. to G, and draw the *>«/- tnon FuUh ltiver,n lartof the Merrhnac River, and the coast line. Fnmi tlie point C, a little less than \ m. east of B, measure J m. to D, the most northern point of Me. ; thence J m. towarUs H to K, and complete the northwestern bonndajy of the State. From A measure | m. toward 0, to E, and draw Ornnd Lahe and .S7. Croijn Itiver. From E measure north to I | m., and draw the eastern boundary line and the Ulver St, John. MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTICUT. AND RHODE ISUND. Be^n at H, and measure I m. to Q and | m. to K, and draw the northern boundary of the State, the Merriiiitic River $ind Cu/te Ahm. Draw the western bound- ary, } m. from Q to P. From P, measnre j m. a little west of south to R, and draw the western boundary of Con- nect iriif and the western endot Loiif/ Islniifl. From P. measure \ m. to N, ) m. from N to M, i m. from M to L, J m. from L to 0, and J m. from south to S. Draw the northern liound- aryol t'oiuiecticut and Rhode Ifilatul ; t'/i/nioiith Buy. Ca/te Cod, Cajte Cod Bay, and the eastern coast of Maxmiehusettn ; Mar- fhfi's Vineyard and yantiirket. Draw the boundary line between VonneeticHt and Rhode Inland, \ m., a little west of N Draw the northern shore of Long Inland Sound, Narrayannett Bay, and Huzzftrd's Bay, Complete these States by adding the mountains, rirers, principal towns, and railroads. Draw Lony Island, obse^^•ing that its eastern extremity extends to a point directly south of the ea.stem boundary of Connecticut, Many questions may now be asked like the following : What is the lenpth. in miles, of the western boundary of Rhode Island T Of the western boundary of Massachusetts? If the teacher wish, the pupils may now draw the six Eastern States together. Observe how many distances, in these States, are exactly the same. NEW HAMPSHIRE AND VERMONT. The measurements for the eastern boundary of New Hampshire are the same as those for tlie western bound- ary of Maine. Make a scale like the one given at the foot of page 27. Begin at A, measure I m. north to B, I m. south to J, } m. from J to L, and J m. east from L to K. Complete the eastern Iwuudary of the State, drawing Salmon Falls River, the Atlantic Coast, and Cape Ann, Measure } m. from L to H, aud \ m. from H to C. Draw Merriniac River, and complete the southern boundary of the States. From A, measure J m. west to C, i m. from C to E, ) m. from E south to F, and \ m. from F to G. Draw Lake Chaniplain, Connecticut River, the Oreen and h'hite Mountains, Complete the drawing by adding, from the large map, the rivers,— the l>ays,— the capes, — the cities and towns, — the railroads. Note. — Here the drawings may be examined by the teaclier, or the pupils may draw the map ou the blackboard, each doing a part NEW YORK Begin at E, measure \ m. south to F, ^ m. from F to Q, J ni. from G to P, and } m. a little west of south to R. Draw Lake ChanifUain, the eastern boundary of the State, Lony Island, Lony Island Sound, Staten Island, Sandy Hook, and the southern extremity of Iludnon'tt River, I»cate »»f York, Brooklyn, and ,Tersey City, From P measure \ ro. west to B. From B measure J m. toward R and draw a part of Delaware River and the northern boundary of Setv ,Iersey \ m. From B measure a little more than 1 J m. west to K, } m. north from K to L, and } m. east from L to M, and draw the northern boundnry of Pennsyl- vania and the eastern extremity of Lake Erie. Locate Buffalo and Niagara Fallit, From L measure \ m. north to N. and 1 m. east from N. Draw Lake Ontario, obser\'ing that it is J m. wide. From E measure | m. west to 0, and I m. from D, toward K. to S, and draw .S7. Lfiwrenee River. Complete the State by marking the mount- , ains, rivers, cities, railroads, and the Erie Canal. MAP DRAAVING ON A UNIFORM SCALE. PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW JERSEY. OHIO, INDIANA, AND KENTUCKY. Beg^n at B, measure 1| m. west to A, and a little less than \ m. from A to K. Draw the northern boundary line, and a part of the shore of Lfike Erie. Locate Erie City, From A, measure south and draw a part of the Ohio River, near F, | m. south of A. Measure IJ m. east from D to E, and draw the southern boundary line of PeniisylvaiUa, including the northern line of Delaivare. Complete the outline of the State by drawing the Delaware ^^ Biver. Locate the northern corner of Nexv Jersey, \ m. from B towards R, at 0. Locate Srooklytl, f m. from B, at R. Draw Staten Tsldiid. Locate Jersey City and Kew York. Draw a part of Hudson jRiver and the northern boundary of y^ew Jersey, J m. Measure } m. south of to H, and draw the eastern shore-line of the State and Delaware Say, Draw the mountains and rivers, and railroads. Locate the principal capes, cities, towns, DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING VIRGINIA, Begin at D and measure | m. north to F, and draw the Pan Handle. Locate Wheeliny, Measure from D to E, and draw the northern boundaries of West Vir- yinia, Maryland, and Delaware. Next, draw the western and southern boundaries of Delaware \ ni. from V to G and \ m. from G to H. Draw Delinvare Bay and locate Dover, Capes May and Henlopen. Mark A ^ m. east of D, and draw the western boundary of Maryland | m. from A to B. Next mark the point P IJ m. south of E, and draw Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac Biver. Locate Washington and Baltimore, Capes Charles and Henry. Draw the southern boundary line of Virginia 1| m. from P to N, and J m. from N to M. From M meas- ure ^ m. northeast to L, and draw the Cumberland Mountains. Measure north WEST VIRGINIA, MARYLAND, DELAWARE, OHIO, INDIANA, AND KENTUCKY. southern point of the State is at W i m. southeast of L ; that the breadth of the State is I m. from C to R ; and that the point S is J m. east of B. Complete the map by marking the Mountains, Bivers, etc. Draw the eastern boundary of Ohio from A to F i m. ; then draw the western, 1 J w m. west of the eastern, from A . /;& m. from L to K, and draw the Big Sandy Biver. Draw the Ohio Biver from F to K Complete the eastern boundary of West Virginia, observing that the m. from P to S, the Mississippi Biver. mountains, etc., as in the other maps. E to 0, I m. ; next, E D ^ m. and Lake Erie \ wide. Find the point Kim. south of B, and draw the Ohio Biver. Complete the State. Join Indiana to OIUo by drawing its northern boun- dary with LMke Michigan I m. from E to F ; its western, } m. from F to G ; the Wa- bash Biver f m. from G to H ; and the Ohio Biver from to H. Draw Kentlickiihjmens- uring I m. from f south to N . Mark the soutnern boun- dary Ij m. from M to P, the Tennessee Biver; and J Locate the principal rivers. MAP DRAWING SHOULD BE SYSTEMATIC. If one State or ContineDt is drawn on a definite plan, the same course ehoold be pursued with all. Slates should be bo drawn as to be Joined to other States, and Continents to other Continents. This is not possible by some methods of drawing before 4 he public. V.nnont is drawn on one scale, and Massachusetts on another, while Connecticut is drawn on still another, and New York on quite another ; so that it Is impossible to Join all of these neighboring States in studying their common physical features. PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE SUBJECT. 1. Haps should be drawn in accordance with a definite unit of measurement. 2. Actual distance should be learned. 3. States should be studied in groups, and these should be united as the lessons advance, and thus form entire sections ORDER OF DRAWING A MAP. I. Measurement Outlines. II. Boundary Lines. III. Mountains and Surface Elevations. IV. Rivers. Inland Lakes. V. Cities and Towns. VI. Railroads and Canals. VII. Write in each State or Continent its principal products and the lead- ing occupations of its inhabitants. MAP DRA^VING ON A UNIFORM SCALE. WISCONSIN AND MINNESOTA. BL-giii at F, and lueasure > m. north, and draw their southern boundaries, A B C D ; thence, 1 1 I nortli to H. Fix tlie points E, G, L, M. 1 and N,tLS indicated, and ■iimi)lete tlie States, MICHIGAN. Form the square C N 1 F, each side IJ ni. lonj;, and subdivide into four stiuares. Draw the Strait of Muckininf, LiiKrs Mich- iyun, Huron, St. Clair, and JCrie; then tlie southern boundary. At S, J m. north of tlie Strait of Mackinaw, fix the southeastern extremity of Luhe Superior; thence IJ west to the western extrem- ity, K, and draw Lake Supe- rior, noticing that the north- ern coast at R is north of the west coast of Lake Miehiffan. ILLINOIS, IOWA. AND MISSOURI. Draw the eastern boundary line of lUiuoiit, the same as the western boundary line of Jtnli- ana, } m. from iMke Michigan to Wabwh River. From F, measure \ m. north and i m. west to A. and draw the southern coast-line of Lake Michignn. Locate Chicago. Mark the northern boundary } m. from A to B. Locate Cairo 1] m. south of the line A B. Meas- ure the extreme breadth of the State IJ m. on the line V U, and draw the Mitutiiiflippi, Ohio, and Wabash liivers. Complete drawing of State. Next draw Iowa, commencing with its north- em boundary IJ m. from C to D, | m. north of the northern boundary of Illinois, and \ m. west. From Y, i m. west of C, measure 1 m. south to E, and draw the southern boundary 1{ m. to K. Draw the Dea Moines River. The eastern bend of the river Is J m. east of the central line YE. Com- plete the drawing according to the measurements. Complete Missouri, by commencing at K nod measuring \ m. east and \ m. south to Kansas Citfi. Mark its southern boundary IJ m. south of its northern, 1| m. in length from N to T, and } m. from T to S. MAP DRAWING ON A UNIFORM SCALE. Direction. — The maps may he drawn, by the pupils at home, and examined by the teacher the next day ; or, in the class-room, on their slates ; or, in turn, on the blackboard. F DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING THESE STATES. Begin at N, and draw the northern boundaries of Tennessee and Arkan- sas, according to the distances shown on the map. -| m. south of P, mark H ; also K, G, and R, and complete the bounda- ries of Tennessee, its mountains and rivers. South of K, mark Q, then B and 0, and complete the boundaries of Mississippi and Alabama, according to the printed measurements. Draw the western boundaries of Arkansas and Louisiana, beginning at U. The mouth of the Mississippi is in a line with E and Q. Complete the boundaries, and add the mountains, rivers, chief cities, etc OUTLINE OF A TOPICAL RECITATION. First of all, DRAW THE MAP, then tell in order : I. Position on the Globe. Let this be given ex- actly. Latitude and Longitude. II. BotWDAKY, Measurement Lines, as learned from the construction of the map, general shape, number of square miles it contains, character of boundary lines, as mountain ranges, rivers, straits, bays, peninsulas, isth- muses. III. StTRFACE Elevation ; mountain ranges, pla- teaux, slopes, single peaks, inland waters, average ele- vation above the ocean. Name each river, stating its source, direction, length, and where it empties. IV. Cli.m ATE. State cau.ses regulating it, as affected by latitude and longitude, altitude, nearness to, or remote- ness from, large bodies of water, and high mountain ranges. V. Vegetation ; natural, cultivated, character of soil. VI. Animals ; domestic, wild. VII. Inhabitants ; original character of, preseat character of. VIII. Government ; how laws are made, the name and character of the government, principal oflScers, how elected. IX. Internal Improvements. Name the character, extent, and cost of each, also name the manufactures, in- dustries, exports, imports. X. Principal Towns ; where located, size, and trade of each. XI. H18TOHT; where settled, when, and by whom. Wars. Noted Men. Special formulas can easily be given for describing mountains, rivers, oceans, bays, gulfs, and straits. Draw the northern boundary to correspond with the southern boundaries of Georgia and Alabama. What river forms the northeastern boundary of Florida ? In what swamp does the St. Mary's River rise ? What town in Georgia at the mouth of that river? What town in Florida opposite the mouth of the St. Mary's River 1 Is Fernandina on the main land? Locate Fernandina. Wliat river forms the northwestern boundary of Florida ? East of its mouth is the largest city in Florida. Name and locate it. What two rivers from Georgia meet on the north- ern boundary of Florida ? What river is formed by them ? Draw them. What town at tlie mouth of the Appalachicola River? Locate it, and draw the coast-line between it and the metropolis. Mark Cape Sable 2 ms a little east of south from the mouth of St. Mary's River. Mark N on Tampa Bay 1 m south of C. Draw Tampa Bay and the coast-line to Appalachicola and Cape Sable. Mark Cape Canaveral !| m. northeast of Tampa Bay, and draw the coast-line from the mouth of St. Mary's River to Cape Sable. Complete the map. «•"» MAP DRAWING ON A UNIFORM SCALE, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA. AND GEORGIA \.9.^ ^-'^ Draw the northern boundary of y<>rt/i i'lirulinu, 1; measureii in lengtli. Mark the mouth of St, Mury'n Itiver, iX S,2 ma. south of N. From P, 1) ma. toward S, mark K, the most Bouthem )x)int of Noi'th CdroHtKi, and draw its coast-line, with its sounds and capes ; also their names. Mark 0, 1 m. west of P; L. j m. south of 0; H, 1 m. west of L ; and R, | m. west of H. Draw the eastern and northern boundaries of South Carolina and the western boundary of North Carolina. From A, the middle of the northern boundary of South dirolhm, measure south 1 m. to B, and draw the SnvauHuh Jtii'er ; also the coast- line of South Carolinti and Oi-ofyia. Mark G, } m. west of H ; E, the junction of the Flint and Chattahoochee Rivers, 1^ m. south of G, and 1 m. west of S, and complete the bonudariea. Mark the capes, dtiee, etc SUGGESTIONS. For the purpose of presenting the entire map of the United States in one view, the scale has been reduced so as to show the priiK-i|>al mea^iurements oil one page. On all of the otiier mapdrawinj; maps in this 1xx>k two inches reproiienta one ni., or two hundred miles. On the map below, one lialf an inch is one m. A ^<'ali> nuiy V)e prepared, suited to the size of the paper or board ; but when this measure is once established in the scliool-room, it should never be changed. A 11 other scales should conform to it. In no other way can comitarativo size and area be taught. In drawing the United States as a whole, it should be remembered that all meridian lines point towards the pole, THE UNITED STATES. MAP DRAWING ON A UNIFORM SCALE. SOUTH AMERICA. ex. '^ REMARKS. Ajx of the continents in this system of map drawing are drawn on the Bamc scale, thus representing to the eye their comparative areas. They are also drawn on the same plan or system ; so that, as soon as the method of constructing South America is learned, the pupil will have no difficulty in drawing North America and the other continental divisions. The unit of measure is six hundred miles. It will he seen that a fhndamental prin- ciple in this system of map drawing is, that maps should be drawn in a single unit of measure. The great advantages of this will be at once apparent to teach- ers. Comparative size is fixed in the mind, and the lengths and b: eadths of the States and Continents eaeily learned. Pages are made to suit the maps, and not the maps to suit the pages. But It may be convenient to enlarge Europe, and contract Asia and Africa. A nnit of measure can easily be taken longer or shorter than the one here given, and the same method pursued as here indi- cated. Thus a map can be shown as large or small as may be desired. The continental unit assumed in this hook is convenient for use at the desk. A.II pupils should have the same unit of measure. The maps can then be easily corrected, and in a short time the comparative sizes of the States and Continents will he learned. SCALE FOR DRAWING ALL OF THE CONTINENTS. 600 m. 600 m. 3m», QUESTIONS. Many questions will suggest them- eelves to the teacher. Among them we would suggest the following : What is the extreme length of South America compared with North America? How does the extreme breadth of the United States compare with the breadth of Europe f What is the extreme length of the Gulf of Mexico? Its breadth? How far is it from Yucatan to Appalachec Pay? What is the length of Cuba? Its breadth ? How far is Newfoundland from Hayti? Uow far is Hayti from South America ? How far is Hnyti from Green- land ? What is the distance from Cape Catoche to Cape Sable ? From Cape Sa- ble to the Straits of Belleisle? How far Is Queen Charlotte's Island north of San Francisco Bay f Commence at A, and measure 5^ ms. north, and mark Cape St. JRoqiie. Measure to C, 7^ ms. ; thence west to D, ^ i. s. At 4 ms. from C, mark Cape Oallinus and L