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GIFT OF 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC 
 METAPHORS 
 
 A Thesis 
 
 for the 
 
 Doctorate in Philosophy 
 
 by 
 
 JANE GRAY CARTER 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 THE KNICKERBOCKER PRESS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC 
 METAPHORS 
 
 A Thesis 
 
 for the 
 
 Doctorate in Philosophy 
 
 JANE GRAY CARTER 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 KNICKERBOCKER PRESS 
 NEW YORK 
 
A Thesis for the Doctorate 
 
 submitted in partial fulfillment of the 
 
 requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 in the Graduate School 
 \_ New York University 
 New York 
 
 I | '9 10 
 
PKUSI 
 C377 
 
 TO 
 
 ERNEST GOTTLIEB SIHLER, PH.D., 
 PROFESSOR OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 
 
 AT NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, 
 THIS THESIS IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION ....... i 
 
 1. Tendency of the Age. 
 
 (a) Silver Latinity from Nero to Domitian. 
 
 (b) Didactic writing suited to the period. 
 
 2. Quintilian in relation to his times. 
 
 (a) His effort to rehabilitate the Ciceronian 
 
 manner and to minimize the in- 
 fluence of Seneca. 
 
 (b) Quintilian an exemplar of the infusion 
 
 of new blood into Rome from the 
 Provinces. 
 
 QUINTILIAN'S USE OF METAPHORS, SIMILES, AND 
 
 COMPARISONS 17 
 
 I. Didactic Metaphors. 
 
 A One thing with life for another with life. 
 
 Architecture, Chariot-racing, Drama, Dress, 
 Food, Military Tactics, Music, Naviga- 
 tion, Physical World, Travel. 
 B One thing without life for another without life. 
 Agriculture, Architecture, Dress, Food, 
 Fuller's Art, Medicine, Military Tactics, 
 Music, Nature, Palaestra, Physical World, 
 Physiology, Rivers, Roads, Sculpture, 
 Treasury, Weapons, Wine-making. 
 C One thing without life for another with life. 
 Agriculture, Man, Nature, Physical World, 
 Rivers, Sculpture. 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 D A thing with life for a thing without life. 
 
 Animals, Drama, Food, Military Tactics, 
 Nature, Navigation, Trade, Travel. 
 
 2. Didactic Similes. 
 
 A Ornandi causa (per contrarium). 
 
 Food, Philosophy, Physical World. 
 B Probandi causa (per negationem). 
 
 Agriculture, Architecture, Biology, Body, 
 Dress, Nature, Navigation, Phenomena, 
 Physical World, Statuary, Weapons. 
 C Apertius dicendi (per brevitatem). 
 
 Agriculture, Body, Music, Wine-making, 
 
 Wounds. 
 D Ante oculos ponendi negotii causa (per 
 
 collationeni) . 
 
 Anatomy, Architecture, Athletics, Drama, 
 Dress, Engraving, Foods, Fuller's Art, 
 Home, Husbandry, Military Tactics, 
 Nature, Navigation, Physical World, 
 Physiology, Psychology, Rivers, Roads, 
 Surgery, Viticulture, Wounds, Zoology. 
 
 3. Didactic Comparisons, or Parallels. 
 
 A PrcEcedit similitude, res sequitur. 
 
 (a) Drawn from the proceedings of man. 
 Art, Athletics, Medicine, Military 
 
 Tactics, Palaestra. 
 
 (b) Drawn from animals without speech. 
 Bees. 
 
 (c) Drawn from inanimate objects. 
 Fencing, Husbandry, Manufactur- 
 ing, Medicine, Music. 
 
 B Res prcecedit, similitudo sequitur. 
 
 (a) Parallels drawn from the pro- 
 ceedings of man. 
 
 Archery, Athletics, Child-study, 
 Combats, Fortitude, Husban- 
 dry, Literature, Magistrates, 
 
CONTENTS vii 
 
 Medicine, Military Tactics, 
 Mythology, Navigation, Paint- 
 ing, Phenomena, Philosophy, 
 Sculpture. 
 
 (b) Drawn from animals without speech. 
 Birds, Wild-animals, 
 
 (c) Drawn from inanimate objects. 
 Architecture, Art, Food, Medicine, 
 
 Music, Plant-life. 
 C Parallels that are independent or separate. 
 
 (a) Drawn from man. 
 
 Agriculture, Athletics, Gladiatorial 
 Combats. 
 
 (b) Drawn from the lower animals. 
 Birds, Horses. 
 
 (c) Drawn from inanimate objects. 
 
 Arboriculture, Athletics, Music. 
 D Parallels in which the antapodosis is manifest. 
 
 (a) Drawn from man. 
 Military Tactics, Palaestra. 
 
 (b) Drawn from the lower animals. 
 Quadrupeds. 
 
 (c) Drawn from inanimate objects. 
 Athletics. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 OF THE CHIEF WORKS CONSULTED 
 
 BERNHARDY Grundriss der Romischen Literatur, 1872. 
 
 BOISSIER Tacite, 1905. 
 
 BONNELL Lexicon Quintilianeum, 1834. 
 
 CICERO Ad Herennium, De Inventione, De Oratore, Brutus, 
 
 Orator, Partitiones Oratoriae, Topica Ed. Muller, 1902. ' 
 DELAMARRE Tacite et la Litterature FranQaise, 1907. 
 ERNESTI Lexicon Technologiae Grsecorum Rhetoricae, 1795. 
 HALM Rhetores Latini Minores, 1863. 
 JEBB Attic Orators, 1876. 
 JUVENAL Satires Friedlander , 1 895 . 
 MARTIAL Epigrammata Ed. Gilbert, 1896. 
 MONROE History of Education, 1908. 
 MOORE Tropes and Figures of Virgil, American Journal 
 
 of Philology, 1891. 
 PLINY Epistles Ed. Muller, 1903. 
 QUINTILIAN Ed. Bonnell, 1903. 
 
 Ed. Halm, 1868. 
 
 SELLAR Roman Poets of the Augustan Age, 1883 
 SENECA Oratorum et Rhetorum Sententiae, Divisiones, 
 
 Colores Ed. Bursian, 1857. 
 SENECA Epistulag Morales, Ed. Hense, 1898. 
 SIHLER Testimonium Animae, 1908. 
 SPENGEL Rhetores Graeci, 1866. 
 Suvaywyr] TS^VWV, 1828. 
 
 SUETONIUS De Vita Caesarum Ed. Roth, 1898. 
 TACITUS Dialogus de Oratoribus Ed. Halm, 1897. 
 TEUFFEL History of Roman Literature, Vol. II. (Warr.), 
 
 1891. 
 
 VOLKMANN Die Rhetorik der Grieschem und Romer, 1901. 
 
 ix 
 
Quintilian's Didactic Metaphors 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 i. TENDENCY OF THE AGE 
 
 The object of this study is to learn to what extent Quin- 
 tilian was able to stem the tide that was fast sweeping Latin 
 literature to its decadence. 
 
 To do this, we must reinstate this great master of Latin 
 prose in his environment, as the epoch is an important factor 
 in elucidating the work of an author, but Quintilian is an 
 author incidentally, a modest schoolmaster in the main, 
 whose life work seemed to be to array all his forces against 
 the prevailing sententious style of his day; yet, he too, falls 
 at times into the epigrammatic fashion he so much deplored. 
 
 "Just as the severity and grandeur of the early art of the 
 Greeks gives place in the transitional period to a studied 
 grace, and when the ideas of the new period are Monroe, 
 fully triumphant, a perfection of the beauty of "History of 
 form in turn degenerates into a mere study of effect 
 and adornment," so the Latin literature passed from the 
 original, vigorous style of Cato, devoid of ornamentation, 
 through the inimitable fluency of the periodic structure of 
 Cicero down to the artificial and imitative efforts of the 
 Empire. 
 
 Seneca felt this decline and tried to account for it, from 
 a moral standpoint, by attributing it to the corruption of 
 public manners, "tails hominibus fuit oratio Seneca, 
 
 qualis vita . . . genus dicendi imitatur publicos p-> 114-2 
 mores ... argumentum est luxuriae publicse orationis las- 
 
2 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 civia." But he made no effort to check this movement 
 and even purposely steered away from the older and more 
 virile writers, according to Suetonius, "a cognitione veterum 
 Suet. Nero oratorum Seneca praeceptor (avertit) quo diutius 
 5 2 in admiratione sui detineret. " 
 
 No wonder that Quintilian, whose rhetorical ideal was 
 Cicero, felt a great antipathy to this popular and versatile 
 author whose books were so eagerly sought by the youth 
 of Rome. 
 
 "Vor alien trat er dem Seneca fest entgegen, dem eifer- 
 siitigen Tadler der Alten und wie es diesem gelang den Nero 
 
 vom Studium der Klassiker abzuziehen so hatte 
 JD ernna.rcly . 
 " Grundriss seine witzige Manier, welche mit der Form spielt 
 
 Und dem Genius des Moments. . . . Seit den 
 Tagen des Seneca der Stil von alien Einfacheit 
 abgewichen und zerruttet war. " 
 
 Tacitus likewise deplores the tendency of the age, and 
 connects it with its political status, dating from the time of 
 Augustus, the inevitable change from the independence and 
 initiative of speech under the Republic to the wordy display 
 of the imperial regime. 
 
 Tacitus "Dia- " e ^ maxime principis disciplina ipsam quoque 
 logusdeOra- eloquentiam sicut omnia pacaverat." 
 
 1 us> 3 He also attributes it to the educational me- 
 
 thods in vogue, and regrets the change from the old days 
 when boys were taught at home and were under the care 
 of members of their own kin, but now Greek slaves are em- 
 ployed, too little attention is paid to the preliminary 
 training in .fundamentals, and there is a premature hurry 
 to the rhetors. 
 
 1 ' Ein schlimmer Keim lag in der Eile der Erziehung welche 
 mit grosser Fluchtigkeit und ohne strenge Zucht betrieben 
 Bernhardy, wurde. Die Jugend begann vorzeitig in die Welt 
 p. 287 zu blicken und sturmte, kaum von den Gramma- 
 
 tikern vorbereitet in der Horsale der Rhetorik, wo die phan- 
 tastischen Uebungen der Deklamatoren bluhten. " 
 
 Pliny, too, censures this tendency as exemplified in the 
 self-conceit of the youthful pleaders in the centum viral courts. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 3 
 
 " Magna ex parte adulescentuli obscuri ad declamandum hue 
 
 transierunt, tarn inreverenter et temere, ut mihi 
 
 Atilius noster expresse dixisse videatur sic in 
 
 foro pueros a centum viralibus causis auspicari, ut ab Homero 
 
 in Scholis." 
 
 a. SILVER LATINITY FROM NERO TO DOMITIAN 
 
 Literature was cramped by the growth of despotism under 
 Tiberius, Nero, and Domitian. The interlude of the era of 
 Vespasian and Titus revived independent thought somewhat 
 but was too soon followed by the blighting influence of 
 Domitian to have a marked effect. 
 
 The time, 
 
 "cum iam semi-animum laceraret Flavius orbem 
 
 Juvenal, 
 ultimus, et calvo serviret Roma Neroni," 4. 37 
 
 was one when literature had either to be silent or servile. 
 
 Hypocrisy and affectation, a cloud of monotonous mechani- 
 cal rhetoric prevailed. 
 
 Men seemed to reverse Cato's dictum, u Rem tene, verba 
 sequentur." Simplicity and naturalness were considered 
 trivial and commonplace. There was a desire for pointed 
 and polished antitheses (e. g., Seneca and Lucan), for glittering 
 epigrams (Martial and Juvenal), ostentatious erudition 
 (Pliny the Elder and Celsus), brilliant sententiag (Tacitus and 
 Pliny). 
 
 All originality had departed, and with the decline of the 
 thought more and more importance was attached to form. 
 The key-note is sounded in a remark of Tacitus, T ac> >/ a ^ 
 "Cum de antiquis loquaris, utere antiqua liber- 27 
 
 tate, a qua vel magis degeneravimus quam ab eloquentia." 
 
 Poetry though widely cultivated was becoming more and 
 more an ornamental accomplishment. 
 
 Lucan's poetic genius excited the jealousy of Nero and was 
 the indirect cause of his death. 
 
 ' ' Sub Nerone, cum omme studiorum genus paulo 
 
 liberius et rectius periculosum servitus fecisset." 
 
4 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Teuffel, "Poetry became rhetorical and prose poeti- 
 
 vol. ii., p. 4 cal - 
 
 Quint, 10. Quintilian says of the poet Lucan, " Magis 
 
 * 9 oratoribus quam poetis imitandus. " 
 
 The Greek influence which during the Golden Age had had 
 such a vivifying effect upon Latin literature now seemed to 
 have exhausted itself, and the Romans of the Silver Age 
 selected their models from their own countrymen and in no 
 instance came up to the standard of their model. 
 
 Vergil had many followers, e.g., Statius and Silius, Italicus 
 and Columella. 
 
 Horace was lovingly imitated by Persius, Livy by Curtius, 
 and Quintilian, despite his overwhelming mass of Greek 
 erudition, acknowledged gratefully and affectionately the 
 inspiration of his ideal Cicero. 
 
 Martial constantly refers to Roman writers but seldom to 
 those of Greece. 
 
 As for oratory this inferior style began with Cassius 
 Severus whose manner changed deliberately, through his 
 conforming to changing taste, to escape the tedium on the 
 part of the hearers especially before certain judices who were 
 swayed by force and power, not by legal principles or statutes, 
 in arriving at their verdicts. 
 
 "praecurrit hoc tempore iudex dicentem, et nisi aut cursu 
 argumentorum aut colore sententiarum aut nitore et cultu 
 T . descriptionum invitatus et corruptus est, aver- 
 
 satur (dicentem) vulgus quoque adsistentium 
 . . . et vagus auditor adsuevit, iam exigere laetitiam et 
 pulchritudinem orationis . . . iam vero iuvenes, qui pro- 
 fectus sui causa, oratores sectantur non solum audire, sed 
 etiam referre, domum aliquid inlustre et dignum memoria 
 volunt." 
 
 They even send these bon-mots out into the colonies and 
 provinces. Poetical elements are demanded. 
 
 Vocabulary is taken from Horace, Vergil, and Lucan. So 
 this change was hardly a natural spontaneous development 
 but a yielding to extraneous pressure, to the demands of the 
 times. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 5 
 
 " On ne peut pas pretendre que 1'empire ait ete tout-a-fait un 
 regime de silence. . . . Au senat ou se decident Boissier, 
 de grandes affaires, la parole n'est pas libre, on Tacite 
 
 ne dit jamais toute sa pensee et Ton est souvent force de dire 
 le contraire de ce qu'on pense. " 
 
 The Romans ever a practical, utilitarian people gave what 
 the world wanted. 
 
 The elder Seneca said: " Schemata non decoris causa 
 invent a, sed subsidii, ut quod aures oifensurum Seneca 
 
 esset, si palam diceretur, id oblique et furtim Controv. 
 t , , prooem. 
 
 surreperet. 
 
 A similar opinion which seems, in a certain measure, to 
 account for the artificial adornments of the age is given by 
 Demetrius Phalereus (icspi sa/Y^aTta^svwv) xoXXa Be Rhetores 
 
 Tcapa TOI<; Tupavvot?, . . . TaiJTa 5'eTpYjxa IpupYJvac ^ r f? Spen- 
 TO Y6o TO - ge ' m> 
 
 Ernesti's application of this remark is particularly illumin- 
 ating," dicuntur tyranni maxime postulare Xoyov la^YjjjiaTtcrjjievov, 
 i.e., veluti coloratura et dissimulatum, ne quid Ernesti, 
 
 apertius et directe dictum eos oifendat. Nempe Lexicon 
 
 qui'scapham scapham dicunt non admodum illis Graccorum 
 grati sunt itaque per a^iq^aTa cum iis loquendum Rhetoricx, 
 est. Hinc et tails oratio dicitur X6yo<; aa^aXiq?, 
 oratio tuta, qua alios non oifendimus quamvis mentem nos- 
 tram significamus. " 
 
 Freedom and unfettered democracy stimulate oratory. 
 Sparta and Crete do not count any orators at all, Rhodes had 
 some, but Athens excels; cf . Pericles' Funeral Oration, Thucy- 
 dides, ii., 35-47, for a comparison of the governments of 
 Athens and Sparta. 
 
 "Vera eloquentia et libertatis socia et alumna est quae 
 si occiderit oratori provincia sua sublata est." Sicily iS the 
 fatherland of rhetorical oratory according to Spengel, 
 Aristotle. After the tyrants had been removed 
 
 and the democracy restored, private disputes TXVUV> pi 
 were brought to the law courts and a great interest in forensic 
 oratory ensued. Freedom of speech prevailed. Empedocles 
 
6 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 of Agrigentum (490-430) extolled by Lucretius (i., 716 ff.), 
 as the chief glory of that wonderful three-cornered Sicilian 
 isle, did not publish any treatise on the art of oratory, but 
 he it was who instructed Corax of Syracuse (fl. 470 B.C.) who 
 in turn taught Tisias, the reputed master of Isocrates and 
 Lysias. 
 
 Gorgias of Leontini (480-375), discipulus Empedoclis 
 (cf. Quintilian, iii., i, 8), acquired the greatest glory by 
 the brilliancy of his eloquence, and when sent on an 
 embassy to Athens (427), to crave assistance against the 
 Syracusans, so impressed the cultured Athenians that "be- 
 sides granting his request, they besought him to instruct their 
 children. 
 
 Fanciful writers have tried to give this Sicilian the credit 
 of having taught Pericles which could hardly be possible if 
 this embassy occurred in 427 and Pericles died in 429. Spengel 
 says that there was as much difference between the style of 
 Gorgias and that of his Athenian auditors as between the 
 orations of Cato and Cicero. 
 
 b. DIDACTIC WRITING SUITED TO THE PERIOD 
 
 During this period of oppression there were few outlets 
 of literary craving. Discouraged or embittered as the case 
 may be, by the state of society, men of position, debarred 
 from influence in the state, sought refuge in philosophy, in 
 the careful study and annotation of the writings of the 
 past, or in laborious investigation, but above all the study 
 of scholastic rhetoric seemed most satisfying and most safe; 
 but it, too, gradually lost all its vitality, through its unvarying 
 monotony, and finally degenerated into petty pedantry and 
 hair-splitting. 
 
 The natural genius of Rome, with its faculty of creating 
 and maintaining order and its reverence for law, was well 
 adapted to oratory, history, and didactic exposition, but 
 oratory especially under Domitian had degenerated into the 
 practice of the "delatores," chief among whom was Regulus 
 (cf. Pliny, Ep., 2, 20). 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 7 
 
 It had suffered, too, from the rise of the declamatores, a 
 product of the Silver Age (according to Seneca) . 
 
 " Facile est mihi ab incunabulis nosse rem Seneca, 
 
 post me natam, i.e., declamationem. " Controv. 12 
 
 In comparison with the orators of the Republic, e.g., 
 Antonius and Cassius, Cicero, Pollio, and Calvus, how ob- 
 scure are the names of the orators of this age. To be sure, 
 we have heard much of Domitius Afer through his disciple 
 Quintilian, but little of Marcus Aper and Julius Secundus 
 whom Tacitus took as models in his early youth, .and Vibius 
 Crispus, Eprius Marcellus, and Trachalus. 
 
 Historical writing suffered most of all and especially lan- 
 guished under the jealous censorship of the government. 
 
 Those whose natural proclivities led them to this dangerous 
 field felt the necessity of becoming imbued with rhetoric. 
 
 Cremutius Cordus paid dearly for his candor in TEC., An. iv., 
 calling Brutus and Cassius the last of the Romans. 34 
 
 Velleius Paterculus and Valerius Maximus held their own 
 by servile flattery, while Statius, choosing a theme quite 
 safe, from its remoteness, the "War on Thebes," yet spent 
 twelve years upon its elaboration. Did he fear that something 
 in it might offend? (Cf. Tacitus, Dialogus, 2.) "Curiatius 
 Maternus Catonem recitaverat cum offendisse potentium 
 animos diceretur. " 
 
 2. QUINTILIAN IN RELATION TO HIS TIMES 
 
 What Professor Delamarre says of Tacitus might with 
 equity be said of Quintilian: "Vivant dans un siecle ou la 
 vertu etait un crime et la complaisance servile Delamarre, 
 a 1'egard du pouvoir la condition meme de Literature 
 1' existence, il a le rare courage de garder sa dignite Francaise 
 et de demeurer honne~te." 
 
 Some, however, might take exception to this statement ^ 
 from the fact that Quintilian (x. i. 91) yielded to the 
 fashion of his times in indulging in fulsome praise of the 
 monstrous tyrant Domitian. 
 
 This one weakness, however, must not be censured too 
 
8 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 rigidly, considering that this valuable treatise might have been 
 consigned to oblivion had there been no mention whatever 
 made of this ruling monarch, and Quintilian may be pardoned 
 if he (who was by no means the pessimist that Tacitus was) , 
 fulfilled the duty imposed upon him as one of the penalties 
 for living in that age and generation by focussing his atten- 
 tion for a moment, with the aid of a rose-colored microscope, 
 on the sole features of Domitian's reign that could be made 
 to reflect the slightest credit on his name, viz., his military 
 \ adventures in Gaul and Germany and his interest (of short 
 \ duration) in letters. 
 
 "parum decore Domitianum confecto prope bello alienag 
 gloria interventurum " . . . ' ' simplicitatis ac modestiae im- 
 Tacitus, agine in altitudinem conditus studiumque lit- 
 Hist. iv. 85 terarum et amorem carminum simulans." 
 
 This seems to be the only blot on the escutcheon of the 
 teacher of the grandnephew of Domitian by whom he was 
 raised to consular rank, and, if we can trust Juvenal, w r as made 
 quite wealthy by his teaching. 
 
 Juvenal, u unde tot Quintilianus habit saltus?" 
 
 7. 196 also 197 " s i fortuna volet fies de rhetore consul. " 
 
 But when we consider with what extravagant language 
 Velleius Paterculus praised Tiberius and Sejanus when he 
 (Sejanus) was at the zenith of his power, how Statius prefixed 
 to his Thebaid a florid dedication to Domitian, the servile 
 eulogies of Martial, Pliny's tiresome panegyric of Trajan, 
 Quintilian's temporary aberration from his habitual veracity 
 does not seem so heinous in our sight. 
 
 "Modern criticism may partially explain, but it cannot 
 enable us to enter with sympathy into the peculiar phase of 
 Sellar, Roman tne latter days of paganism, the deification of the 
 Poets of the Emperors. In the pages of Tacitus, the worship 
 of the Emperors appears as an established cultus, 
 as the symbol and the instrument of Roman domination over 
 foreign nations. Yet to condemn them of a base servility 
 and hypocrisy would be to judge them altogether from a 
 modern standpoint." 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 9 
 
 "Ceterum tempora ilia adeo infecta et adulatione sordida 
 fuere ut non modo primores civitatis quibus claritudo sua 
 obsequiis protegenda erat, sed consulares, magna Tacitus, 
 pars eorum qui praetura functi . . . exsurgerent Annals iii. 65 
 foedaque et nimia censerent." 
 
 It is pleasant to turn to the other phase of his relation to 
 his times, to see how staunchly he set his pen against the 
 corruption of the day. 
 
 His simplicity and his sincerity stand out in bold relief in 
 contrast to the sham philosophers or professors, who adopted 
 a peculiarity of look, austerity of demeanor, and a dress dif- 
 ferent from that of other men as cloaks for the vilest im- 
 moralities. 
 
 This stricture can hardly be considered too severe since 
 Domitian felt impelled to pass an edict expelling philosophers, 
 just as in 161 B.C., when Valerius Messalla was Suet., De 
 consul, a senatus consultum was passed ejecting Rheioribus i 
 philosophers and rhetors, and in 92 B.C., L. Licinius Crassus, 
 as censor, considered the influence of the Latin rhetors per- 
 nicious and closed their schools. 
 
 "Quos ego censor edicto meo sustuleram, non quo, acui 
 ingenia adulescentium nollem, sed contra ingenia Cicero, De 
 obtundi nolui, corroborari impudentiam. " Oratore$. 93 
 
 But despite these edicts, the schools of the rhetors managed 
 to secure a firm footing in Rome and became immensely 
 popular even without much improvement in their moral 
 influence. Cf. Tacitus, Dialogus, 35, where he gives us a 
 very bad impression of the rhetors of Quintilian's time. 
 He says youths are placed with the schoolmen, the scho- 
 lastici, the so-called rhetors schools where there is little 
 but what is evil, where the earlier course is in the Sua- 
 sorise and the higher in the Controversial, and as these are 
 utterly fictitious, so is the elocution applied in grandiloquent 
 phrase. 
 
 Quintilian felt the need of exerting his powers to coun- 
 teract their evil influence and their superficial methods, 
 and to elevate the tone of the rhetor to as lofty a plane as 
 possible. 
 
io QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 We feel this in his oft -repeated insistence upon the necessity 
 of attention to preliminary studies, to the acquisition of as 
 thorough a knowledge as possible, but above and beyond all, 
 that an orator must be a good man. 
 
 He reverts to and upholds Cato's definition of an orator, 
 "vir bonus dicendi peritus. " 
 
 The very fact that he repeats this qualification so often 
 proves that it was not generally considered a necessity by his 
 contemporaries. 
 
 He puts himself on record as opposed to the music in the 
 
 1 io theatre of his day which is of so effeminate and 
 
 demoralizing a character that it destroys what 
 little of manly strength is left in them. 
 
 He insists that the teacher be of an unimpeach- 
 able moral character, "Ipse nee habeat vitia nee 
 ferat. " 
 
 He finds fault with the so-called courtesy in vogue in the 
 
 2 schools, where boys exchange extravagant lauda- 
 tions when their fellow pupils declaim, which 
 
 results in unbecoming and theatrical display most pernicious 
 to earnest study. 
 
 He is not in sympathy with those who are too slavish 
 
 admirers of the bristling and bare style of Cato 
 
 and the Gracchi, nor with the other extreme, of 
 
 those who are carried away with the up-to-date delight in 
 
 florid extravagance. 
 
 U A corruptissima quoque poetarum figuras 
 seu translationes (metaphors) mutuamur, turn 
 demum ingenuosi scilicet si ad intellegendos nos 
 opus sit ingenio." 
 
 " Veterum ilium horrorem dicendi malim quam 
 istam novam licentiam." 
 
 "Amisimus modum et gratiam rei nimia cap- 
 tatione consumpsimus. " 
 
 u Duram potius asperam compositionem malim esse quam 
 effeminatam et enervem, qualis apud multos, et 
 cotidie magis lascivimus syntonorum modis 
 saltitantes. " 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS u 
 
 One more quotation to show Quintilian's attitude to- 
 ward his times, "alios recens hsec lascivia deliciaeque et 
 omnia ad voluptatem multitudinis imperitae composita 
 delect ant." 
 
 a. QUINTILIAN'S EFFORT TO REHABILITATE THE CICERONIAN 
 
 MANNER AND TO MINIMIZE THE INFLUENCE OF SENECA 
 
 The repressive tyranny of Vespasian's son checked free 
 utterance of thought and stifled for the time the higher forms 
 of literature, but, with the exception of the protest uttered 
 (76 A.D.) in the Dialogus de Oratoribus by Tacitus which seems 
 to show the influence of his master Quintilian, it is in this reign 
 that we find the first strenuous attempt to arrest the decay of 
 style and to uphold as against the misleading tendency of 
 Seneca the standard of a purer taste. 
 
 Among the teachers whom Vespasian encouraged, and 
 endowed with a salary from his own privy purse was Quintil- 
 ian , and he it was who seized every opportunity to laud and 
 magnify the manner of Cicero, ever directing his hearers to 
 the true fountain-head of eloquence and turning them aside/ 
 from the enervating style of the day. 
 
 He recommends that boys read the old writers in preference 
 to the new : ' ' Qui omnium operum solam virtutem sententias 
 putaverunt. Sanctitas certe et virilitas ab iis i g 
 
 petenda est, quando nos in omnia deliciarum 
 vitia dicendi defluximus. " 
 
 ' ' Praecipuum lumen sicut eloquentiae ita prseceptis quoque 
 eius dedit, unicum apud nos specimen ornandi docendique 
 oratorias artes, M. Tullius; post quern tacere 3 i 20 
 
 modestissimum foret, nisi et rhetoricos suos ipse 
 adolescenti sibi elapsos diceret et in oratoriis hsec minora, quse 
 plerumque desiderantur, sciens omisisset." 
 
 Quintilian is such an admirer of Cicero that he won- 
 ders at times whether it is his affection for 633 
 the man that makes him see nothing but good 
 qualities : 
 
 " Mihi quidem sive id recte iudico sive amore immodico 
 
12 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 praecipui in eloquentias viri labor mira quasdam in eo videtur 
 fuisse urbanitas." 
 
 In the Introduction of the 8th Book, he sum- 
 s' 3* 3* 
 
 marizes the faults of his contemporaries. 
 
 It generally happens that the greater the attention paid 
 to artificialities of style the poorer oratory becomes, for the 
 best expressions are the least far-fetched those which betray 
 undue care appear artificial and studied. What can be said 
 simply is overwhelmed with a copiousness of words, and we 
 often think it better to hint our thoughts than to express them. 
 Yet Cicero plainly taught us that the greatest fault in orators 
 was to depart from the commonly accepted style of language. 
 
 "Est etiam in quibusdam turba inanium verborum, qui 
 
 dum communem loquendi morem reformidant, 
 8. 2. 17 
 
 ducti specie nitons circumeunt omma copiosa 
 loquacitate quae dicere nolunt." 
 
 "Alii brevitatem aemulati necessaria quoque orationi sub- 
 g trahunt verba, et velut satis sit scire ipsos quae 
 
 dicere velint, quantum ad alios pertineat nihil 
 putant." 
 
 The sententious epigrammatic style is scored, "Sed consue- 
 tudo iam tenuit, ut mente concepta sensus vocaremus, lumina 
 autem praecipueque in clausulis posita sententias, quae minus 
 celebratse apud antiques nostris temporibus modo carent." 
 It was this excess to which he objected: the feeling that it 
 was necessary to end every period with a fine quotable thought. 
 x Quintilian did not always resist the temptation himself, and 
 we can feel the influence of the age in the following didactic 
 epigrams. 
 
 Pro m i Facereenim optima quampromitteremaluerunt. 
 
 i. 2. 5. Non accipiunt ex scholis mala ista sed in 
 
 scholas afferunt. 
 
 (Note the chiastic order.) 
 i. 2. 1 6 Aliud est enim vitare eas, aliud eligere. 
 
 Necesse est enim nimium tribuat sibi, qui se 
 nemini comparat. 
 
 Frangas enim citius quam corrigas, quae in 
 pravum induruerunt. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 13 
 
 Ex quo mihi inter virtutes grammatici habe- 
 bitur ali qua nescire. 
 
 Nam si qua in his ars est dicentium, ea prima Im IT 3 
 est, ne ars esse videatur. 
 
 Nihil pot est placere quod non decet. i. n. n 
 
 Adeo facilius est multa facere quam diu. i. 12. 7 
 
 Stilo facultas contingit auditione iudicium. 2. 2. n 
 
 Vix autem dici potest, quanto libentius imi- 
 temur eos quibus favemus. 
 
 Erit ergo etiam obscurior, quo quisque deterior. 2. 3. 9. 
 
 Nam quid aliud agimus docendo eos, quam ne 
 docendi semper sint? 
 
 Nam in omnibus fere minus valent praecepta 2 - x - 
 quam experimenta. 
 
 Nimium enim risus pretium est, si probitatis 6 3 35 
 impendio constat. 
 
 Ubique ars ostentatur, veritas abesse videatur. 9. 3. 102. 
 
 Facient quidem natura duce melius quam arte ; 9 4 I20 
 sed naturae ipsi ars inerit. 
 
 Cito scribendo non fit, ut bene scribatur; I0 , I0 
 bene scribendo fit, ut cito. 
 
 Studendum vero semper et ubique. 10. 7. 27. 
 
 Vigilandae noctes et fuligo lucubrationum bi- n. 3. 23. 
 benda et in sudata veste durandum. 
 
 Non enim perfectum est quidquam, quo 12110 
 melius est aliud. 
 
 ' Plusque, si separes, usus sine doctrina quam I2 6 4 
 citra usum doctrina valet. 
 
 Denique mala multi probant, nemo improbat I2 I0 7 g 
 bona. 
 
 From the above citations, we catch the reflection of the 
 times, yet none of these epigrammatic truths can be considered 
 trifling, vapid, or impertinent, nor do they occur in profusion 
 or seem to be forced ; they are a natural and suitable summing 
 up of the thought of the paragraph. 
 
 In Book 10. i. 125, in his critical literary survey, in which 
 he shows that the two literatures (Latin and Greek) are on 
 a footing of substantial equality, and fixes a canon of Latin 
 
14 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 authors similar to the recognized canon (of long standing) 
 of the Greek authors, he purposely omits all mention of 
 Seneca, though he might have been placed in more than one 
 category, till the very end; and then he presents one of his 
 most searching and felicitous characterizations, giving the 
 reason for his antipathy to this man of ready and fertile 
 wit, of extraordinary application and extensive knowledge, 
 showing no personal animus but simply his concern for the 
 restoration of severer standards from the vitiated taste then 
 prevalent. 
 
 He felt that the youth were being harmed as Seneca was 
 almost the only writer in their hands, and in their efforts to 
 imitate his style, deteriorated from him as much as Seneca 
 had deteriorated from the older writers. 
 
 Boissier is not in entire sympathy with Quintilian here. 
 
 " Assurement Quintilien parait un fort petit esprit quand on 
 le compare a Seneque, mais il etait soutenu par un puissant 
 parti, et il tirait une autorite particulier des fonctions dont 
 1'empereur Vespasien venait de le revtir. Professeur public, 
 d' eloquence a Rome, il allait combattre Seneque dans le mi- 
 lieu meme ou il triomphait. On sent que le grand nom de 
 Seneque se gere un peu, il a soin de ne condamner en lui que 
 le chef d'une ecole nouvelle ennemie de Ciceron et des 
 orateurs anciens. Quintilien y representait le re tour aux 
 traditions anciennes et les protestations du passe contre les 
 doctrines nouvelles. " 
 
 b. QUINTILIAN, AN EXEMPLAR OF THE INFUSION OF NEW 
 BLOOD INTO ROME FROM THE PROVINCES 
 
 With the accession of Tiberius, Roman literary life was fast 
 becoming effete, and it would have suffered an earlier death 
 had it not been for the provinces which began to strengthen 
 and enrich the mistress of the world. 
 
 Not only were the provinces more virtuous, but they 
 were happier and were particularly eager for culture and self- 
 improvement. As Juvenal, 15. 112, says, when districts far 
 removed from the capital desired to become a part of the 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 15 
 
 civilized world, they straightway set about establishing schools 
 and sending for rhetors. 
 
 "De conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule." Juv., 15. 112 
 UT A. j iT^ -j. ' -. cf. Bcissier 
 
 La conquete de 1 Jbspagne avait coute pres 
 
 de deux siecles aux Romaines; c'est le pays qu' ils ont mis 
 le plus de temps a soumettre. Mais, si la resistance avait 
 ete longue, la soumission, une fois acceptee, fut complete. 
 Les haines s'apaiserent rapidement; il ne rest a plus de 
 souvenir des anciennes luttes. Les Espagnols adopterent tres 
 vite les opinions, les usages, et m&ne la langue de leurs vain- 
 queurs. . . . 
 
 "II n'y a pas de doute qu'en Espagne aussi bien qu'ailleurs 
 la conquete des classes elevees n'ait ete faite par 1'ecole et 
 comme 1'ecole romaine se composait presque uniquement de 
 grammariens et de rheteurs, c'est la grammaire et la rhetorique 
 qui ont conquis la barbaric a la civilisation. " 
 
 The enthusiasm with which the Spaniards de voted them.selvesX 
 to these studies is amazing, and from pupils they icon be- 
 came masters, as is evinced by the influence wielded at Rome, 
 by the elder Seneca, the rhetorician of proverbial memory, 
 and his still more illustrious son, in whose hands were the 
 affairs of state while he was preceptor and minister of Nero. 
 Lucan, his precocious nephew, adds lustre to their native 
 town, Corduba, the first Roman colony in Spain, and one 
 which figured largely in the Civil War between Caesar and the 
 sons of Pompey. (Cf. De Bello Hispaniensi, 32, 33.) 
 
 Vespasian, who had none of the narrow municipal pre- 
 judices of a native Roman, nor the class prejudices of an 
 aristocrat, which had hampered his predecessors in their 
 reforms, gave the senatorial rank to provincials (following 
 the policy of the great Julius), and he gave also 
 the rights of Latin citizenship, which carries Divus Julius 
 with it some of the privileges of Roman citizen- 76 
 
 ship, to the hitherto subject communities in 
 some of the provinces. He, too, was the first to establish a 
 public school at Rome, and chose for the head, Quintilian, - 
 a native of Calagurris, Spain, paying him an annual com- 
 pensation of over $4,000 from his own privy purse. 
 
1 6 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 The Spaniards who settled in Rome were quite numerous, 
 and according to custom, formed a colony in the great city, 
 \where the newcomer might find some support. Among the 
 leaders of this literary centre were Columella of Gades (famous 
 for his De Re Rustica), Pomponius Mela of Tingentera 
 (De Chorographia) , the epigrammatist Martial of Bilbilis, 
 Licinius Sura, his patron, whom he addressed as "doc- 
 torum Licini celeberrime Sura virorum, cuius prisca graves 
 lingua reduxit avos," Maternus also honored by Martial 
 his compatriot, "iuris et aequarum cult or sanctissime legum, 
 veridico latium qui regis ore frenum, " and the Stoic Herennius 
 Senecio of Hispania Bastica, who was put to death by Domi- 
 tian because he had published a book in praise of Helvidius 
 Priscus (cf. Tac., Agr.z). 
 
 Gaul furnished many orators and rhetoricians, e.g., Votienus 
 Montanus, Domitius Afer, instructor of Quintilian, Julius 
 Florus, Africanus, Sex. Julius Gabinianus, Ursulus, Rufus, 
 and Marcus Aper. 
 
 Africa is referred to by Juvenal ( 7. 148) as " Nutricula con- 
 sidicorum. " Among the Africans prominent at Rome was 
 the pleader Septimius Severus, probably the grandfather of 
 the later emperor of the same name (born in Africa in 146). 
 
 Much later, Sulpicius Apollinaris of Carthage, and Apuleius, 
 the platonic philosopher, flourished. 
 
Quintilian's Use of Metaphors, 
 Similes, and Comparisons 
 
 I. DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Due no doubt to the influence of Corax, Tisias, and Gorgias, 
 the Sicilians, who are credited with having founded the art 
 of rhetoric, a very large number of Greek rhetors arose, among 
 whom may be cited Isocrates, Aristotle, his pupil Theophrastus, 
 Theodectes, Hermagoras, Caecilius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 
 Longinus, Demetrius Phalereus, Apollodorus (the instructor 
 of Augustus while at Apollonia) , and Theodorus (under whom 
 Tiberius studied at Rhodes), to be balanced at Rome by an 
 equally long list of Latin rhetoricians, e.g., Cato and Antonius, 
 Cornificius (who lived in Sulla's time and wrote the technical 
 treatise Ad Herennium), Cicero, Rutilius Lupus, and Celsus 
 (contemporaries of Seneca), Cornutus and Aquila Romanus. 
 
 In consequence, there existed a great diversity Q uint 
 of opinion, an "infinita dissensio auctorum, " a 
 mass of categories and hairsplitting subtleties. 
 
 Quintilian aims at the simplification of technicalities and" 
 repeatedly opposes the "affectata subtilitas" of the ordinary 
 manuals on rhetoric. C/.Bk.I.Prooem,24,2.i5.37,and3. 11.21. 
 
 In the matter of the enthymeme he says, u de hoc parum 
 convenit"; with regard to the question of status, Q . 
 there are innumerable classifications, and likewise 
 the difficulties surrounding the matter of tropes (which point 
 appertains particularly to this paper) , constituted Q uint g 6 
 a "pugna inexplicabilis. " 
 
 2 17 
 
18 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Fortunately, we find the matter much simplified in the 
 modern English books on rhetoric; for example, they do not 
 adhere to that distinction felt by the ancients to be so neces- 
 sary, between tropes, on the one hand, and the two-fold division 
 of figures of language and figures of thought, on the other. 
 
 As a matter of fact we find, for the most part, instead of 
 the old tripartition, merely one general class known as Figures 
 of Speech, under which heading are treated, Simile, Metaphor, 
 Personification, Apostrophe, Metonomy, Synechdoche, Irony, 
 Hyperbole, Antithesis, Climax, and Interrogation; where- 
 as the majority of the ancient rhetoricians considered Simile 
 (etxwv), Metaphor (piTa9op3c), Metonomy (^eTwvupua), Synech- 
 
 T> T TUT /A doche (auvex-BoYij), and Hyperbole (uxsp^oXYJ) as 
 K..IV.IVI. (Aq. 
 
 Rom.), p. 22. tropes (-rpoxoc) mores, 1 motus 2 or modi, 3 i.e., the 
 R 1 ^^' ^ I 2 cnan S e f a word or expression from its- own 
 (Beda), peculiar signification into another, either from 
 
 p. 60. necessity or for the sake of ornament. 
 
 Personification (xpoawxoxotca), Apostrophe (axoaTpo?^), 
 Irony (stpwvsta), Interrogation (spwTY)|jia), were considered 
 figures of thought (oyri^xtz Stavotaq), figuras sententiarum, 
 mentis, or sensus. 
 
 Antithesis and Climax were classed as figures of words 
 (ap^a M wg), figurae verborum, elocutionis, sermonis, 
 dictionis, all of which expressions have crystallized into the 
 one common name of "figures of speech." 
 
 As the metaphor, the trope par excellence, ' ' f requentis- 
 simus et longe pulcherrimus, " has a wider range than any 
 O t 8 6 other, and its definition may readily include all 
 the other tropes as subdivisions, viz. : the transfer of 
 a word from its proper sphere into one not strictly appropriate, 
 we think it would be profitable to make a study of the meta- 
 phors and similes, and parallels of Quintilian, to point out the 
 many and various spheres from which he drew his comparisons, 
 in order to lend interest to his technical subject, as he says 
 in the procemium of Book III. "In ceteris enim admiscere 
 
 1 Mores name found in R.L.M. (Aq. Rom.), p. 22. 
 
 3 Motus name found in Quint., 9. I. 2. 
 
 3 Modi name found in R.L.M. (Beda), p. 60. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 19 
 
 aliquid nitons ut hoc ipso alliceremus magis iuventutem ad 
 cognitionem eorum, quas necessaria studiis arbitrabamur. " 
 
 This charm or grace of style (nitor) to a large extent re- 
 sults from a judicious application of the three- Q 
 fold use of "verba tralata," namely, simile (etxwv), 
 translatio (peTo^opa), and collatio (xapajioX^, i.e., parallel or 
 comparison, not the parable of Scripture). 
 
 To show the interrelation of these tropes, cf. Arist., Rhet., 
 3.4.: iffTi Bs XOH -f] ECXGJV ^sracpopa. Btacplpst yap (jiixpov. OTV [Jisv 
 yap s'txf) TOV 'A^cXXIa (b? Bs Xlwv Ixopsuasv, ecxwv ecrnv, OTOCV Be 
 "Xsa>v Ixopeuae," ^isTacpopd and Kokondrios xepi Tpoicwv, in 
 
 Rhetores Graeci (Spengel), p. 240 of Volume III.: 
 Tuapa^oXiQ sari xpay^aTOf; xpbq TO lupaypLa TuapaOsai? xaTa Ttva<; 
 avaXoyou? o^otdtYjTac; and similarly the example of icapagoXij 
 given by Quintilian, 8.3.77. 
 
 ''Ut cum carceribus sese effudere quadrigae, 
 Addunt in spatia, et frustra retinacula tendens 
 Fertur equis auriga, neque audit currus habenas." 
 Vergil, Georgics, I. 512-515. 
 
 Seneca (Ep., 59. 6) pointing out to his friend, Lucilius, the 
 features which pleased him in his style of composition, enu- 
 merates these three only : " Invenio translationes Cf. Arist., 
 verborum (metaphors) ut non temerarias ita quae Rbet., 3. 4 
 periculum sui fecerint, invenio imagines (similes), quibus si 
 quis non uti vetat et poetis illas solis iudicat esse concessas, 
 neminem mihi videtur ex an ti quis legisse, apud quos nondum 
 captabatur plausibilis oratio: illi qui simpliciter et demon- 
 strandae rei causa eloquebantur, parabolis referti sunt, quas 
 existimo necessarias, non ex eadem causa qua poetis, sed 
 ut inbecillitatis nostrae adminicula sint, ut et dicentem et 
 audientem in rem praesentem adducant." Cf. also Quintilian, 
 8. 6. 49. "Illud vero longe speciosissimum genus orationis in 
 quo trium permixta est gratia, similitudinis, allegoriae (con- 
 tinua metaphora), translationis." 
 
 The important r61e played by these tropes is constantly 
 urged by Quintilian and Cicero, e.g., "Oratio Quint., 12. 
 translationum nitore illuminanda" ... "praeclare I0 - 3<> 
 
20 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 vero ad inferendam rebus lucem repertae sunt similitudines " 
 
 . . . "tralatum quod maxime tarn quam stellis quibusdam 
 
 Cic., De. Or., notat et luminat orationem. " Cf. also Demetrius 
 
 3- i7o Phalereus: 
 
 Rh. Gr. III. Kp&ta '^v ouv \L&:xqopaii<; ^pr^Tsov. a5rai yap 
 
 ? 280 y.ai Y}BovY)v cujji^aXXovTai TOI? Xoyotq xat 
 
 Quintilian (8. 6. 9), following the practice of his predecessors 
 (e.g., Trypho), made a fourfold division of metaphors into: 
 Rh. Gr., III. I- When one thing with life is put for another 
 P- 192 thing with life. 
 
 II. When one thing without life is put for another without 
 life. 
 -!/ III. A thing without life for a thing with life. 
 
 IV. A thing with life for a thing without life. 
 
 Adopting this classification, we find : 
 
 A. ONE THING WITH LIFE is PUT FOR ANOTHER WITH LIFE: 
 (dhcb i{ 
 
 For the purpose of teaching that a thorough knowledge 
 of grammar (i.e., all that was included in the work of the 
 grammaticus) be considered as of the utmost importance: 
 
 Quo minus sunt ferendi, qui hanc artem ut tenuem atque 
 Architecture, ieiunam cavillantur, quse nisi oratoris futuri 
 i. 4- 5 fundamenta fideliter iecit quidquid superstrux- 
 
 eris, corruet. 
 
 To teach the need of caution and restraint after facility 
 of composition has been obtained by diligent practice in 
 reading, writing, and speaking: 
 
 Sed turn maxime, cum facultas ilia contigerit, resist amus 
 Chariot-race, et provideamus et f erentes equos frenis quibusdam 
 10. 3. 10. coerceamus; quod non tarn moram faciet quam 
 novos impetus dabit. 
 
 Witnesses should know all the facts of the case and be 
 drilled in the art of answering questions, before the trial: 
 
 Sic ut fit, ut aut const ent sibi, aut si quid titubaverint, 
 Child-Study, opportuna rursus eius, a quo producti sunt, 
 5-7- ii interrogatione velut in gradum reponantur. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 21 
 
 The epilogue suitable for the application of xaOoq and 
 amplification : 
 
 Tune est commovendum theatrum, cum ventum est ad 
 ipsum illud, quo veteres tragoediae comcediaeque Drama, 
 
 cluduntur, "Plodite." 6 - I - S 2 
 
 In praising the Attic style of oratory, but taking ex- 
 ception to those who imitated only the meagre, unemotional 
 type: 
 
 Quapropter mihi falli multum videntur, qui Dress, 
 
 solos esse Atticos credunt tenues et lucidos et I2 - I0 - 20 
 significantes et quadam eloquentise frugalitate contentos ac 
 semper manum intra pallium continentes. 
 
 In his critical survey of Greek and Roman authors, he 
 apologizes for leaving out some good writers: 
 
 Sunt et alii scriptores boni, sed nos genera Food, 
 
 degustamus non bibliothecas excutimus. I0< x * I0 4 
 
 The work of declaiming under the instruction of the 
 rhetors should better prepare for the actual practice at the 
 bar. 
 
 Quae -nos, quamlibit per alia in scholis ex- Military Tac- 
 ., , . , . r . tics, 2. 10. 10 
 
 ercitati sumus, triones in toro invemunt. 
 
 In defining the scope of Book III., he apologizes for the 
 lack of interest that may be found therein and for the fact 
 that it will contain theories that some will oppose : 
 
 Propterea quod plurimi auctores, quamvis eodem tenderent, 
 diversas vias muniverunt atque in suam quisque 
 induxit sequentes. UK autem probant qualecum- 
 que ingressi sunt iter. 
 
 Witnesses should be well-posted beforehand : 
 
 Turbantur enim et a patronis diversae partis, inducuntur 
 in laqueos et plus deprehensi nocent quam firmi 
 et interriti profuissent. 
 
 The pleader should be influenced in handling his case, by 
 the attitude and expression of the judge: 
 
 Et instare proficientibus et ab iis, quae non 6 4 10 
 
 adiuvent, quam mollissime pedemoportet referre. 
 
 To emphasize the importance of the work of an orator and 
 his need of preparation: 
 
22 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Nos vero armatos stare in acie et summis de rebus 
 10. i. 30 decernere et ad victoriam niti. 
 
 In speaking of the orator's need of a knowledge of civil law 
 despite the existence of "pragmatici, " men versed in law who 
 furnished orators and advocates with the principles on which 
 they based their speeches: 
 
 I2 ^ 4 Qui velut ad arculas sedent et tela agentibus 
 
 sumministrant. 
 
 In censuring the practice of embellishing trivial matters 
 with strong coloring, he draws his metaphor from the art of 
 smearing musical instruments with wax in order to produce 
 a deep tone: 
 
 At quidam, etiamsi forte susceperunt negotia paulo ad 
 Music, dicendum tenuiora, extrinsecus adductis ea rebus 
 
 12. 9. 8 circumliniunt. 
 
 In the prefatory note to the publisher, he compares him- 
 self, starting out on this, his first real literary venture, to a 
 sailor putting out to sea: 
 
 Navigation, Permittamus vela vehtis et oram solventibus 
 Preface precemur. 
 
 In the peroration vent may be given to the feelings : 
 6 T - Nam et si bene diximus reliqua, possidebimus 
 
 iudicum animos, et e confragosis atque asperis 
 evecti tot a pandere possumus vela. 
 
 If called upon suddenly to speak extempore, great care 
 and deliberation and coolness must be preserved : 
 
 Hoc, dum egredimur e portu, si. nos nondum aptatis satis 
 io armamentis aget ventus; deinde paulatim simul 
 
 euntes aptabimus vela et disponemus 'rudentes 
 et impleri sinus optabimus. Id potius, quam se inani ver- 
 borum torrenti dare quasi tempest atibus, quo volent, 
 auferendum. 
 
 In this his last book (i2th) Quintilian pauses to look 
 back upon his work, which has grown beyond his ex- 
 pectations : 
 
 12 Procem Mox velut aura sollicitante provecti longius, 
 
 . . . nee adhuc a litore procul videbamur. 
 Continuing this metaphor so that it develops into allegory : 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 23 
 
 Unum modo in ilia immensa vastitate cernere videmur M. 
 Tullium, qui tamen ipse, quamvis tanta atque ita instructa 
 nave hoc mare ingressus contrahitque vela inhibetque remos 
 et de ipso demum genere dicendi quo sit usurus perfectus 
 orator, satis habet dicere. 
 
 In comparing the relative advantages and disadvantages 
 of the Greek and Latin languages: 
 
 Ingenia Grascorum etiam minora suos portus habent: nos 
 plerumque maioribus velis moveamur, validior spiritus nostros 
 sinus tendat; non tamen alto semper feramur, 
 nam et litora interim sequenda sunt. Illis facilis 
 per quaelibet vada accessus; ego aliquid, non multo tamen, 
 altius, in quo mea cymba non sidat, inveniam. 
 
 In conclusion he advises the orator, upon seeing the ap- 
 proach of old age, to retire from active service, while still 
 in the possession of all his faculties : 
 
 Quare antequam in has aetatis veniat insidias, 
 receptui canet et in portum integra nave perveniet. 
 
 In advocating classes in preference to private instruction: 
 
 Deinde cum proferenda sunt studia, caligat in Physical 
 sole et omnia nova offendit. World, i. 2. 19 
 
 To illustrate his view that boys should not be detained too 
 long on fictitious cases : 
 
 Ne ab ilia, in qua prope consenuerint, umbra 
 vera discrimina velut quendam solem reformident. 
 
 That a child should acquire as much knowledge as possible 
 while young: 
 
 Erit illud plenius corpus, quod mox adulta aetas astringat. 
 Hinc spes roboris. Maciem namque et infirmita- Physiology, 
 tern in posterum minari solet protinus omnibus 2. 4. 6 
 
 membris expressus infans. 
 
 To explain the limitations of the rules of rhetoric and the 
 need of initiative at times : 
 
 Itaque et stratum militari labore iter saepe deserimus 
 compendio ducti ; et si rectum limitem rupti tor- Travel, 
 
 rentibus pontes inciderint, circumire cogemur, et 2. 13. 16 
 si ianua tenebitur incendio per parietem exibimus. 
 
 In tracing the origin and growth of rhetoric from Empedo- 
 
24 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 cles, through Gorgias, Corax, and Tisias to the two rivals, 
 Isocrates and Aristotle, he says: 
 
 Hinc velut diver sse secari coeperunt vise. 
 
 To encourage the student to keep on till he 
 has reached the top: 
 
 Desinit enim in adversa niti, qui pervenit in summum. 
 Travel, Scandenti circa ima labor est ; ceterum quantum 
 
 12. 10. 78 processeris, mollior clivus ac Isetius solum. 
 
 B. ONE THING WITHOUT LIFE FOR ANOTHER WITHOUT LIFE 
 
 (axb a6u/ou etc; 
 
 To explain his method of teaching a child to form its letters : 
 Agriculture, Cum iam ductus sequi cceperit, non inutile eas 
 * * 2 7 tabellas quam optime insculpi ut per illos velut 
 sulcos ducatur stilus. 
 
 A child should acquire as extensive knowledge as possible : 
 Facile remedium est ubertatis, sterilia nullo 
 labore vincuntur. 
 
 The pleader must study carefully the arguments presented 
 by the other side : 
 
 Rimandum erit diligentissime, quid sit in 
 quoque quod assumitur, dissimile. 
 
 In supporting his life-work: to repristinate a purer taste in 
 place of the vitiated one in vogue : 
 
 n Quod sensus obumbrant et velut laeto gramine 
 
 8. Procem.,24 
 
 sata strangulant. 
 
 Limitations of a teacher who has not advanced far in his 
 subject: 
 
 Architecture, Ex quibus si quis erit plane impolitus et ves- 
 x 5- 7 tibulum modo artis huius ingressus. 
 
 From what he has just said on the importance and difficulty 
 of acquiring a good style of expression, he hastens to counteract 
 the impression that might have been given, that undue 
 attention should be given to " words": 
 
 Occurram enim necesse est et, velut in vestibulo protinus 
 
 Q r> a apprehensuris hanc confessionem meam resistam 
 
 8. Prooem., 18 ^* 
 
 us, qui, omissa rerum (qui nervi sunt in causis) 
 diligentia, quodam inani circa voces studio senescunt. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 25 
 
 Continuity and unity in a speech necessary : 
 
 Unde soluta fere oratio et e singulis non mem- 
 bris sed frustis collata, structura caret, cum ilia 
 rotunda et undique circumcisa insistere invicem nequeant. 
 
 Referring to the advantages of keeping in mind many 
 "communes loci": 
 
 Ut quotiens esset occasio, extemporales eorum Art, 
 
 dictionis his velut emblematis exornarentur. 2 - 4- "" 
 
 In defining the scope of his work : 
 
 Non inu tiles fore libri videbantur, quos ab Dress, i. 
 ipsis discendi incunabulis ad summam. Prooem., 6 
 
 Excessive embellishment not suited to forensic oratory: 
 
 Nee versicolorem illam, qua Demetrius Phale- 
 reus dicebatur ubi, vestem bene ad forensem 
 pulverem facere. 
 
 To urge the necessity of extensive knowledge for children 
 to furnish material for the work of later years : 
 
 Multum inde decoquent anni, multum ratio limabit, aliquid 
 velut usu ipso deteretur, sit mo do unde excidi Engraving, 
 possit et quod exsculpi ; erit autem, si non ab 2> 4- 7 
 
 initio tenuem nimium laminam duxerimus et quam caslatura 
 altior rumpat. 
 
 The habit of composing a speech as quickly as possible 
 and then rewriting it, censured; it were better to use care 
 from the start: 
 
 Ut caelandum non ex integro fabricandum est. 10- 3- 18 
 
 In depicting the ideal pupil : 
 
 Hie erit alendus ambitu. Food, 
 
 To illustrate that instruction should be made 
 interesting for the young: 
 
 Quin ipsis doctoribus hoc esse curae velim, ut teneras 
 adhuc mentes more nutricum mollius alant et 
 satiari velut quodam iucundioris disciplines lacte 
 patiantur. 
 
 In taking up the parts of an oration : procemium, narratio, 
 confirmatio, refutatio, and peroratio, Quintilian says that 
 digressions may be inserted in the proofs, but care must 
 be taken lest they be extended and diffuse : 
 
26 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Ne . . . dilatis diutius dicendi voluptatibus oratio refri- 
 gescat. 
 
 To urge the value of reading history as a source 
 of strength to the author : 
 
 Historia quoque alere oratorem quodam uberi 
 10. i. 31 
 
 lucundoque suco potest. 
 
 To emphasize the need of keeping the voice in good condition 
 and the draw-backs to this : 
 IX Nobis fuligo lucubrationum bibenda est. 
 
 To show the value of securing the best possible 
 teachers for younger children : 
 
 Qua in re mihi non arbitror diu laborandum, ut ostendam, 
 Fuller's Art, quanto sit melius optimi inbui, quanta in eluendis 
 2 * 3< 2 quas semel insederint vitiis difficultas consequatur. 
 
 This excessive attention to choice of words will not be 
 necessary, provided: 
 
 Furniture, Lectione multa et idonea, copiosam sibi ver- 
 
 8 Prooem., 28 borum supellectilem compararit. 
 
 In the opening of the third book which deals with the tech- 
 nicalities of "status," constitutio, quaestio, ordatq (xapa 
 TO IxaTspov TWV dyam^opilvtov ifcrraaOat irepi o voyi^ei B(xaiov), he 
 says in chiastic phrase : 
 
 Medicine, Sed nos veremur, ne parum hie liber mellis 
 
 3' * 5 et absinthi multum habere videatur. 
 
 This metaphor is taken from Lucretius' lumen: 
 
 "ac veluti pueris absinthia taetra medentes, 
 cum dare conantur, prius oras pocula circum 
 inspergunt mellis dulci flavoque liquore. " 
 
 The use of procursiones is sometimes advantageous in 
 winning over the jurors: 
 
 his igitur velut fomentis, si quid erit asperum, praemollie- 
 o mus quo facilius aures iudicum quae post dicturi 
 
 admittant, ne ius nostrum oderint. 
 
 The value of preliminary training in declamatio to prepare 
 for the forum: 
 
 Military Tac- Nisi quibusdam pugnae simulacris ad verum 
 tics, 2. 10. 8 discrimen aciemque justam consuescimus. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 27 
 
 The energy and caution needed in combating testimony 
 presented in person: 
 
 Cum prassentibus vero ingens dimicatio est, ideoque velut 
 duplici contra eos proque iis acie confligitur ac- 
 tionum at interrogationum. 
 
 Witnesses must be well prepared to meet the cross- questions : 
 
 In iis quoque adhuc, qui constiterint sibi, 
 vitandas insidiae. 
 
 In refutation, the application of scorn, at times, helpful: 
 
 Fastidiendo calcemus (a term borrowed from the act of a 
 successful warrio'r in trampling upon the foe 
 he has overcome in battle) . 
 
 To impress upon the orator the need of constant read- 
 ing, writing, and speaking for the cultivation of facile 
 expression : 
 
 Neque ergo arma squalere situ ac rubigine Military 
 velim, sed fulgorem in iis esse qui terreat, qualis Weapons, 
 est ferri, quo mens simul visusque praestringitur, 
 non qualis auri argentique, inbellis et potius habendi peri- 
 culosus. 
 
 In removing the glamor enveloping precocity: 
 
 Non subest vera vis nee penitus immissis Nature, 
 
 radicibus nititur * 3- 5 
 
 In censuring the prevailing taste for artificial effects: 
 
 Ne recentis huius lascivias flosculis capti, vol- 
 uptate prava deleniantur. (Also 10. 5. 23.) 
 
 In defending the proposition that rhetoric is an art, and 
 after enumerating the points of the opposite side : 
 
 Hasc sunt prascipua, quas contra rhetoricen dicantur, alia 
 et minora et tamen ex his fontibus derivata. 
 -(Also 5. 10. 19; 6. 1.51.) 
 
 The. working up of proofs requires attention, but is neglected 
 by some : 
 
 Plerumque aut omnino neglegitur aut levissime attingitur 
 ab iis, qui argumenta velut horrida et confragosa g 
 
 vitantes amcenis locis desident. 
 
 A good impressive style needs a wide scope and originality 
 of treatment : 
 
28 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Feratur ergo non semitis sed campis . . . ac sibi viam, si 
 5. 14. 31 quando non acceperit, faciat. 
 
 A different style of speaking to be adopted on 
 different occasions, e.g., for a private assemblage: 
 
 3 * I4 Calculomm purus sermo magis decuerit. 
 
 The evil effect of shyness depicted : 
 
 Nature, Ut bona ingenii studiique in lucem non pro- 
 
 12. 5. 2 i a t a s j tu q uo dam secreti consumerentur (cf. 
 also i. 2. 18). 
 
 In describing the origin of the Rhodian type of oratory 
 (the mean between the terse Attic and the florid Asianic) : 
 
 ^schines enim, qui hunc exilio delegerat locum intulit eo 
 studia Athenarum, quae, velut sata quaedam caelo 
 terraque degenerant, saporem ilium Atticum pere- 
 grino miscuerunt. 
 
 In taking up the five duties of an orator: inventio, dis- 
 positio, elocutio, memoria, and pronuntiatio, having treated 
 at length, the matter of inventio, i.e., the art of discovering 
 the available resources of a theme, he lays great stress upon 
 the importance of the second point, dispositio (orderly ar- 
 rangement) : 
 
 Sic oratio carens hac virtute tumultuetur necesse est, et 
 Navigation, sine rectore fluitet velut nocte in ignotis locis 
 7. Procem. 3 errans . 
 
 In his famous literary survey, Quintilian delineates 
 Isocrates as : 
 
 Nitidus et comptus et palaestrae quam pugnas magis ac- 
 Palsestra, commodatus omnes dicendi Veneres (graces) 
 10. i. 79 sectatus est. 
 
 In mentioning the specific purpose of the book, for the in- 
 Physical st ruction of the son of his friend Marcellus Victor : 
 
 World, Cuius prima aetas manifestum iam ingenii 
 
 i. Prooem. 6 , .,., 
 
 lumen ostendit. 
 
 In advocating class instruction in preference to private 
 tutoring : 
 
 Sed etiamsi iungi non potest, lumen tamen 
 illud conventus honestissimi tenebris ac solitudini 
 praetulissem. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 29 
 
 This comparison of the assemblage of people to light and, on 
 the other hand, the solitude of individual instruction to 
 darkness appears later: 
 
 Ante omnia futurus orator, cui in maxima celebritate et 
 in media rei publicae luce vivendum est, assuescat 
 iam a tenero non reformidare homines neque 
 solitaria et velut (as it were) umbratica vita pallescere. 
 
 On the origin of technical grammar : 
 
 Non enim cum primum fingerentur homines, 
 analogia demissa caelo formamque loquendi dedit. 
 
 To illustrate the advantages of massing proofs : 
 
 Urgent universa, at si singula quaeque dis- 
 solveris, earn ilia flamma, quae magna congerie 
 convaluerat, diductis quibus alebatur concidet. 
 
 An oration should be expressed with perspicuity as the 
 juror is not always so keenly interested as: 
 
 Ut obscuritatem apud se ipse discutiat et 
 tenebris orationis inferat quoddam intellegentias 
 suae lumen. 
 
 The young declamator is not to be deceived by his own 
 dithyrambic effusions: 
 
 Alioqui tumor ille inanis primo cuiuscumque Physiology, 
 veri operis conatu deprehendetur. 2 - I0 - 7 
 
 Arguments to be presented in as pleasing a manner as 
 possible : 
 
 Ita et firmiora erunt ipsa et plus habebunt decoris, si 
 non nudos et velut carne spoliates artus osten- 
 derint. 5 " " I7 
 
 Concerning the veneer of embellishment: 
 
 Ita nos habitum ipsum orationis virilem et 
 illam vim stricte robusteque dicendi tenera 
 quadam elocutionis cute operimus. 
 
 To urge caution and restraint in the use of sententiae 
 (epigrammatic phrases) : 
 
 Ego vero hasc lumina orationis velut oculos 
 quosdam esse eloquentiae credo. Sed neque 
 oculos esse toto corpore velim, ne cetera membra officium 
 suum perdant. 
 
30 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC - METAPHORS 
 
 Digressions into the field of history to be permitted : 
 
 Dum meminerimus, non athletarum toros sed 
 militum lacertos esse. 
 
 In emulating others, we must needs look below the surface 
 to get at the root of their excellencies : 
 
 Nee sufficiat imaginem virtutis effingere et 
 solam cutem vel potius illas Epicuri figuras 
 quas e summis corporibus dicit eflhiere. 
 
 The development of the work of the grammaticus : 
 River Nam tenuis a fonte assumptis historicorum 
 
 2. i. 4 criticorumque viribus pleno iam satis alveo fluit. 
 
 A rhythmic and harmonious arrangement of words necessary : 
 Quod aures continuam vocem secutas ductaeque velut prono 
 decurrentis orationis flumine turn magis iudicant cum ille 
 impetus stetit et intuendi tempus dedit. 
 
 In his section on grammar, speaking of the purists, who 
 prefer to say conservavisse and face and dice, etc. : 
 Roads, Recta est haec via, quis negat? sed adiacet et 
 
 1. 6. 22 mollior et magis trita. 
 
 The art of speaking assisted by rules : 
 
 Si tarnen rectam vivam, non unam orbitam 
 
 monstrent; qua declinare qui crediderit nefas, 
 
 patiatur necesse est illam per funes ingredientium tarditatem. 
 
 In instructing the young on the subtle technicalities of 
 
 "status": 
 
 Sed instituentibus rudes non erit inutilis latius primo fusa 
 ratio et, si non statim rectissima linea tensa, 
 facilior tamen et apertior via. 
 
 The advantage to be derived from learning by heart 
 passages from eminent authors : 
 Treasury, Abundabunt autem copia verborum opti- 
 
 2. 7- 4 morum et compositione et figuris iam non quaesitis 
 sed sponte et ex reposito velut thesauro se offerentibus. (Also 
 Bk. 8 Prooem., 29; and 10. i. 3.) 
 
 Patient study and a diligent use of the pen necessary to 
 enduring success in oratory: 
 
 Treasury, * mc radices, illic fundamenta, illic opes velut 
 
 10. 3. 3 sanctiore aerario reconditae. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 31 
 
 Passages from the orators and historians, committed to 
 memory, are helpful: 
 
 Arma sunt haec quodammodo praeparanda Weapons, 
 semper, ut iis cum res poscet, utaris. 2 - r - I2 
 
 To illustrate the fact that digressions are 
 useful provided they are closely connected with the subject in 
 hand: 
 
 Si cohasret et sequitur, non si per vim cuneatur, Wedge, 
 
 et quae natura iuncta erant distrahit. 4- 3- 4 
 
 Precocity not to be desired: 
 
 Quare mihi ne maturitas quidem ipsa festinet, nee musta 
 in lacu statim austera sint, sic et annos ferent ^ine making, 
 et vetustate proficient. 2. 4. 9 
 
 C. ONE THING WITHOUT LIFE is PUT FOR ANOTHER WITH 
 
 LIFE 
 
 (axb s a^u^ou dq 
 
 To urge the necessity of a teacher being well-informed: 
 
 Quapropter in primis evitandus et in pueris Agriculture, 
 praecipue magister aridus. 2 - 4> 8 
 
 In denouncing artificialities of style: 
 
 Maiore animo adgredienda eloquentia est, quae si toto 
 corpore valet, unguis polire et capillum reponere Man, 
 
 non existimabit ad curam suam pertinere. 8> prooem -> 22 
 
 To teach the value of a knowledge of technique in arousing 
 the emotions: 
 
 Primum quia nihil intrare potest in adfectus, 
 quod in aure velut quodam vestibulo statim 
 offendit. 
 
 To illustrate the need of a rhythmic and harmonious balance 
 of periods in an oration : 
 
 Non igitur durum sit neque abruptum quo 
 animi velut respirant ac reficiuntur. 
 
 After treating at length of the matter of prosody : 
 
 Totus hie locus non ideo tractatur a nobis, ut 
 oratio, quae ferri debet ac fluere, dimetiendis 
 pedibus ac perpendendis syllabis consenescat. 
 
32 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 To prove the value of music as part of the curriculum: 
 Nature, Quid de philosophis loquor, quorum fons ipse 
 
 i. 10. 13 Socrates iam senex institui lyra non erubescebat. 
 
 In delineating the three styles of oratory, the Attic, 
 Asianic, and Rhodian, and criticising those imitators who 
 proudly called themselves "Atticists": 
 
 Quid est igitur, cur in iis demum qui tenui venula per cal- 
 
 culos fluunt, Atticum saporem putent, ibi demum thy mum 
 
 redolere dicant? Quos ego existimo, si quod in 
 
 iis finibus uberius invenerint solum fertilioremve 
 
 segetem, negaturos Atticam esse, quod plus quam acceperit, 
 
 seminis reddat. 
 
 In dedicating his work to his friend Marcellus Victor : 
 Ph sical Quod opus, Marcelle Victor, tibi dicamus 
 
 World, quern cum amicissimum nobis turn eximio litter- 
 
 1. Proo3m.,6 arum amor e flagrantem. 
 
 In speaking of the utility and glory of rhetorical 
 oratory : 
 
 Nonne pulchrum vel hoc ipsum est ex communi intellectu 
 
 verbisque, quibus utuntur omnes, tantum adsequi laudis et 
 
 glorias, ut non loqui et orare, sed, quod Pericli 
 
 2. ID. IQ 
 
 contigit, fulgurare ac ton are videaris? 
 
 The part TuaOo*; plays in an oration and its effect upon the 
 iudex: 
 
 River, ^Estu fertur, et velut rapido flumini obse- 
 
 6 - 2 - 6 quitur. 
 
 In describing the different natures of children, and how 
 they should be treated: 
 
 Sint quidam, nisi institeris, remissi, quidam imperia indig- 
 Sculpture, nantur: quosdam continet metus, quosdam de- 
 i- 3- 6 bilitat:. alios continuatio extundit, in aliis plus 
 
 impetus facit. 
 
 D. A THING WITH LIFE FOR A THING WITHOUT LIFE 
 
 (atb l^u^ou et'q 
 
 This style of metaphor was* conceded to be the most beauti- 
 ful of the four. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 33 
 
 Praecipue ex his oritur mira sublimitas, quae audaci et 
 proxime periculum translatione tolluntur, cum Quint., 
 
 rebus sensu carentibus actum quendam et & 6. n 
 animos damus. 
 
 "Die schonsten metaphern sind diejenigen, durch welche 
 empfindungslosen Dingen Leben und Bewus- v lk 
 stsein beigelegt wird." 
 
 In censuring the artificial subtility of the current manuals 
 on rhetoric : 
 
 Non plerumque nudas illas artes nimia subtilitatis affecta- 
 tione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in oratione 
 generosius et omnem sucum ingenii bibunt et Animals, 
 ossa detegunt, quag ut esse et astringi nervis suis * Prooem., 24 
 debent sic corpora aperienda sunt. (A two-fold metaphor 
 comparing, on the one hand, the dry rules of rhetoric 
 to some voracious bird, and on the other riand the style or 
 expression to a human frame.) 
 
 In speaking of the characteristics of an ideal pupil : 
 
 Hunc mor debit objurgatio. i- 3- 7 
 
 He taboos excessive attention to the choice of words: 
 
 Quas et cursum dicendi refrenat at calorem g p rooem 27 
 cogitationis extinguit mora et diffidentia. 
 
 There is a specific style adapted to each kind of com- 
 position. 
 
 Nee comcedia cothurnis assurgit, nee contra Drama, 
 
 tragoedia socculo ingreditur. I0 - 2 * 22 
 
 To inculcate the principle of education that instruction 
 for the young should be made brief, simple, and interesting: 
 
 Eo tempore, quo praecipue alenda ingenia atque indulgentia 
 quadam enutrienda sunt, asperiorum tract atu Food, 
 
 rerum atteruntur. 8 - pr oce m - 2 
 
 To illustrate the importance of memory : 
 
 Quare et pueri statim, ut praecepi, quam plurima ediscant, 
 et quaecumque aetas operam iuvandas studio memoriae dabit, 
 devoret initio taedium illudet scripta et lecta saspius Food, 
 
 revolvendi et quasi eundem cibum remandendi. " 2 * 4 1 
 
 The advantage of the use of "partitio" which, as a rule, 
 should not consist of more than three parts: 
 
34 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Military Quae sine dubio, si nimium sit multiplex, fugiet 
 
 Tactics, memoriam iudicis et turbabit intentionem. 
 
 On the expediency of massing at one time your 
 proofs, and at another time using them separately: 
 
 Plura simul invadimus, si aut tarn infirma ut pariter 
 
 s I3 impelli possint, aut tarn molesta ut pedem 
 
 conferre cum singulis non expediat; turn enim 
 
 toto corpore obnitendum et ut sic dixerim, directa fronte 
 
 pugnandum est. 
 
 There is one disadvantage in a preliminary statement of 
 proofs : 
 
 Nature, Propositis enim probationibus omnis in re- 
 
 4-5-4 liquum gratia novitatis prsecerpitur. 
 
 The importance of diligent writing and reading in producing 
 virility of style : 
 
 Nam neque solida atque robusta fuerit umquam elo- 
 Navigation, quentia, nisi multo stilo vires acceperit, et 
 10. i. 2 citra lectionis exemplum labor ille carens rectore 
 fluit. 
 
 To impress upon the future orator that constant use of the 
 pen is a great help to extemporaneous speaking : 
 
 Ita enim servabitur pondus et innatans ilia ver- 
 
 10. 7- 2o 
 
 borum f acilitas in altum reducetur . (Also 7 . 1 . 44.) 
 
 Again expressing himself as opposed to excessive ornamen- 
 tation: 
 
 Quare quidquid erit sententiis populare, verbis nitidum, 
 Trade, figuris iucundum, translationibus magnificum, 
 
 8. 3. 12 compositione elaboratum, velut institor quidam 
 eloquentiae intuendum et psene pertractandum dabit. 
 
 Simplicity preferred to subtility : 
 
 Hsec autem brevior et vel ideo lucidior multo via neque 
 Travel, discentem per ambages fatigabit nee corpus ora- 
 
 3- " 2 3 tionis in parva momenta ducendo consumet. 
 
 Limitations of poetry, owing to metrical exigencies : 
 
 Quod alligata ad certam pedum necessitatem 
 non semper uti propriis possit, sed depulsa recta 
 via necessario ad eloquendi quaedam deverticula confugiat. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 35 
 
 II. SIMILES 
 
 In regard to this trope, there seems to have been a great 
 diversity of opinion among the ancient rhetoricians. 
 
 By some it (et'xwv) was treated as one of the three sub- 
 divisions of 6^otG)(K<; together with xapapoXfj (comparison) 
 and TuapaBsty^a (exemplum). Cf. Rhetores Grczci, Spengel, 
 vol. iii., p. 106 and p. 200. This classification Cicero (De 
 Inventione, i., 307) follows exactly. Another (Greek) rhetor 
 increases the number of these subdivisions to six (Spengel, 
 iii., p., 239). 
 
 Still another does not differentiate etxwv from xapa^oXi} 
 Spengel, i., 419. 
 
 TQ Be ecxtov sari piev TQ OCUTY] Tfj xapa^oXfj, IvapyecTepov Be xotel TOV 
 Xoyov, waTe piY) IJLOVOV axouetv, aXXa xal opav Boxetv. 
 
 Quintilian has a still different classification and subjoins 
 simile to icapapoX-q which latter he has merged into the general 
 class xapaBeiy^a (exemplum). 
 
 Primas exemplo vires habet similitude prae- Quint., 
 
 cipueque ilia quae ducitur citra ullam transla- 5 * TI> 22 
 tionum mixturam ex rebus paene paribus. 
 
 Pragclare vero ad inferendam rebus lucem 
 repartae sunt similitudines : quarum alias sunt, 
 quae probationis gratia inter argument a ponuntur, aliae ad 
 exprimendam rerum imaginem compositae. 
 
 Cornificius (Ad Herennium, iv., 59) disregards these cate- 
 gories entirely and treats similitudo quite independently, 
 making a four-fold division: 
 
 (i) Ea sumitur aut ornandi causa; (2) aut probandi; 
 (3) aut apertius dicendi ; (4) aut ante oculos ponendi. 
 
 Et quomodo quattuor de causis sumitur, item quattuor 
 modis dicitur : per contrarium, per negationem, per brevitatem > 
 per collationem. 
 
 Following this treatment, we find : 
 
 A. ORNANDI CAUSA SUMITUR (PER CONTRARIUM) 
 Quintilian was a firm believer in the efficacy of class 
 
36 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 instruction as superior to individual or private tutoring, and 
 among the many arguments put forth to substantiate this 
 theory, is the following double simile, the first part of which 
 belongs to the first category (per contrarium) , but the second 
 part to the fourth category (per collationem) : 
 
 Food and ^ n emm vox ^ a praeceptoris ut ccena minus 
 Physical pluribus sufficit, sed ut sol universis idem lucis 
 ^ 2 rld calorisque largitur. 
 
 In teaching the five duties of an orator, viz. : 
 inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, pronuntiatio, and the 
 different views respecting them as expounded by Albutius, 
 Cicero, Dion, Hermagoras, and Theodorus: 
 Philosophy, Neque elementa recte quis dixerit, alioqui 
 3- 3- 13 tan turn initia erunt, ut mundi vel humor vel 
 ignis, vel materia vel corpora insecabilia. 
 
 B. PROBANDI CAUSA (PER NEGATIONEM) 
 
 Cornificius' example: "Neque equus indomitus, quamvis 
 natura compositus sit, idoneus potest esse ad eas utilitates, 
 quse desideratur ab equo; neque homo indoctus, quamvis sit 
 ingeniosus ad virtutem potest per venire. " 
 
 In the preface to the first book, Quintilian outlining the 
 purpose and content of his treatise, gives a preliminary 
 warning that rules and manuals on art are valueless unless 
 nature assist the youthful aspirant. 
 
 Agriculture, Quapropter ei cui deerit ingenium, non magis 
 Prooem., 26 ^^ scr ipta s j n t quam de agrorum cultu sterilibus 
 .terris. 
 
 To prove that the teacher can accomplish little for the 
 pupil, without the hearty co-operation of the latter : 
 
 Sicut frustra sparseris semina nisi ilia prae- 
 mollitus foverit sulcus, ita eloquentia coalescere 
 nequit nisi sociata tradentis accipentisque concordia. 
 
 In the interesting discussion as to which contributes the 
 more to proficiency in oratory, native ability or instruction, 
 Quintilian claims that both are necessary, but if one of the 
 two must needs be lacking, natural talent is the more useful, 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 37 
 
 yet the most perfect orator owes more to education than to 
 nature. To prove his point, he draws again from the culti- 
 vation of the soil : 
 
 Sicut terrse nullam fertilitatem habendi nihil optimus 
 agricola profuerit, e terra uberi utile aliquid 
 etiam nullo colente nascetur; at in solo fecundo, 
 plus cultor quam ipsa per se bonitas soli efficiet. 
 
 The two schools of oratory, the one giving almost exclusive 
 attention to the searching after brilliant sayings, the other 
 doffing all fine writing of stylistic purpose like a garment, 
 Quintilian censures equally. To him, whose motto might 
 have been \wf>kv ayav excess of lumina in an oration defeated 
 its own purpose: 
 
 Ut in satis omnibus fructibusque arborum 
 nihil ad justam magnitudinem adolescere potest, 
 quod loco, in quern crescat, caret. 
 
 To prove the importance of the second duty of the orator: 
 ' ' dispositio " (the orderly arrangement of the material of a 
 theme acquired by "Inventio") : 
 
 Ut opera exstruentibus satis non est, saxa atque materiam et 
 cetera asdificanti utilia congerere, nisi disponendis eis col- 
 locandisque artificum manus adhibeatur: sic in Architecture, 
 dicendo quamlibet abundansrerumcopiacumulum 7- Prooem., i 
 tan turn habeat atque congestum, nisi illas eadem dispositio 
 in ordinem digestas atque inter se commissas devinxerit. 
 
 In teaching the respective values to an orator of the three 
 divisions of philosophy: natural, moral, and dialectic, of the 
 last mentioned, he says that though it is extremely helpful 
 in definitions and in unravelling ambiguities, yet too great 
 absorption in this branch of philosophy will prevent the orator 
 from fulfilling gracefully his task, namely, to instruct, to move, 
 and to delight his audience. 
 
 Itaque reperias quosdam in disputando mire callidos, cum 
 ab ilia cavillatione discesserint, non magis Biology, 
 sufficere in aliquo graviore actu quam parvo I2 - 2 - J 4 
 quaedam animalia, quae in angustiis mobilia campo de- 
 prehenduntur. 
 
 To instruct the future orator in the correct use of the trope 
 
38 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 now under discussion (simile), he cites as a good example 
 Cicero, Pro Cluentio, 53: 
 
 Body, "Ut corpora nostra sine mente ita ci vitas sine 
 
 5. ii. 25 l e g e sin ' s partibus, ut nervis ac sanguine et mem- 
 bris, uti non potest. " 
 
 Again enforcing his statement that two many sententise 
 are not desirable in an oration : 
 Dress, Ut affert lumen clavus purpuras in loco in- 
 
 Q tf ^Q 
 
 sertus: ita certe neminem deceat intertexta 
 pluribus notis vestis. 
 
 To prove the importance of knowing just from what topics 
 arguments may be drawn : 
 
 Nam, ut in terra non omni generantur.omnia, nee avem aut 
 feram reperias uti quseque nasci aut morari soleat ignarus, 
 Nature, et piscium quoque genera alia planis gaudent 
 
 5. 10. 21 a }- a saxos j s> regionibus etiam litoribusque dis- 
 creta sunt, ita non argumentum undique venit ideoque non 
 passim quserendum est. 
 
 One of the proofs presented, that an orator must be a good 
 man, is that a mind tainted with evil and troubled by cares 
 and anxieties, by repentance or the expectation of punishment, 
 cannot at the same time give proper attention to letters: 
 
 Quis inter haec litteris aut nulli bonse arti locus? Non 
 I2 x hercule magis quam frugibus in terra sentibus 
 
 ac rubis occupata. 
 
 As a good example of a simile drawn from the proceedings 
 of men, Quintilian gives the following : 
 
 Navigation, Ut remiges sine gubernatore sic milites sine 
 5. ii. 26 imperatore nihil valere. 
 
 To prove that all previous study has been of little avail, 
 if it has not equipped the orator with the ability to speak 
 extemporaneously, and to be ready for any emergency: 
 
 Vix enim bonae fidei viro convenit auxilium in publicum 
 polliceri, quod praesentissimis quibusque peri- 
 culis desit; ut intrare portum navis nisi lenibus 
 ventis vecta non possit. 
 
 To show that the utmost care should be taken with the 
 training of the child in its earliest years as it is only the rare 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 39 
 
 exception that is incapable of being taught if proper care be 
 exercised : 
 
 Hebetes vero et indocilis non magis secundum naturam 
 homines eduntur quam prodigiosa corpora et Phenomena, 
 monstris insignia, sed hi pauci admodum. i. i. a 
 
 One of the three specific duties of an orator is to "move" 
 his audience ; that he cannot do successfully unless he himself 
 is stirred and filled with the emotions he wishes to arouse: 
 
 Nee incendit nisi ignis, nee madescimus nisi Physical 
 humore, nee res ulla dat alteri colorem, quern non World, 
 
 ipsa habet. 6 - 2 * * 8 
 
 To show that the brilliant passages so much sought after 
 in his age owe their effect to the dullness of their setting: 
 
 Quare, licet hasc et nitere et aliquatenus exstare videantur, 
 tamen et lumina ilia non flammae sed scintillis 
 
 O ^ 2O 
 
 inter fumum emicantibus similia dixeris; quae 
 
 ne apparent quidem, ubi tota lucet oratio, ut in sole sidera 
 
 ipsa desinunt cerni. 
 
 To teach that no amount of care bestowed upon "inventio" 
 will be of any value unless equal attention be given to "dis- 
 positio": 
 
 Neque enim quamquam fusis omnibus membris statua sit, 
 nisi collocetur, et si quam in corporibus nostris statuary, 
 aliorumve animalium partem permutes et trans- 7- Procem., 2, 
 feras, licet habeat eadem omnia prodigium sit 
 tamen. Et artus etiam leviter loco moti perdunt quo vigue- 
 runt, usum, et turbati exercitus sibi ipsi sunt impedimento. 
 
 In tracing the origin of oratory, to prove that it did 
 not arise with the first attempt of man to defend Military 
 himself, but rather that it started with an Tactics 
 
 accusation : 
 
 Cum praesertim accusatio praecedat defensionem; nisi quis 
 dicet, etiam gladium fabricatum ab eo prius, qui Weapons, 
 ferrum in tutelam sui quam qui in perniciem 3- 2. 2 
 
 alterius compararit. 
 
 C. APERTIUS DICENDI (PER BREVITATEM) 
 Cornificius' example: "In amicitia gerenda sicut in certa- 
 
40 QVINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 mine currendi, non ita convenit exerceri, ut quoad necesse sit, 
 venire possis sed ut productus studio et viribus ultra facile 
 procurras." 
 
 In his preface, Quintilian explains that he intends to com- 
 mence at the very beginning of the science of education, con- 
 trary to the practice adopted by the majority of writers 
 on subjects of this nature, who ignore the work of the gram- 
 maticus and deal exclusively with that of the rhetor, thinking 
 that the elementary work is necessary yet it affords too little 
 opportunity for the display of their talents: 
 Architecture, Ut operum fastigia spectantur, latent fun- 
 i.Procem.,4 damenta. 
 
 In teaching the three parts of language, the period 
 (xsptoBoq, circuitus), the member (xwXov, membrum), the 
 comma (xo^a, incision), to illustrate the relative importance 
 of the member: 
 
 Membrum, "O callidos homines," perfectum est sed remo- 
 Body, turn a ceteris, vim non habet, ut per se, manus, 
 
 9. 4. 123 e t p es e ca p u t. 
 
 The orator should aim to excel in all accomplishments 
 pertaining to his art. 
 
 Music, Nam sicut cithara ita oratio perfecta non est 
 
 2. 8. 15 n j s i a b i mo a( j summum omnibus intenta nervis 
 consentiat. 
 
 To confute the impression that the uneducated orator 
 speaks the more forcefully, and that education detracts: 
 
 Nihilominus confitendum est etiam detrahere doctrinam 
 Wine, 'aliquid, ut limam rudibus et cotes hebetibus 
 
 2. 12. 8 e t vino vetustatem, sed vitia detrahit atque eo 
 solo minus est, quod litterae perpolierunt, quomelius. 
 
 To illustrate the relative difficulties of accusatio and 
 def ensio : 
 
 Wounds, Quamquam ut, quod sentio, semel finiam, tanto 
 
 5- 13- 3 est accusare quam defendere, quanto facere 
 quam sanare vulnera facilius. 
 
 D. ANTE OCULOS PONENDI NEGOTII CAUSA (PER COLLATIONEM) 
 To make it perfectly apparent that the early years of a 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 41 
 
 child are not to be wasted but that the memory should be 
 stored with the elements of things that will prove helpful 
 in later years : 
 
 Atque eo magis, quod minora etiam facilius minores per- 
 cipiunt, et ut corpora ad quosdam membrorum Anatomy, 
 plexus formari nisi tenera non possunt: sic * * 22 
 animos quoque ad pleraque duriores robur ipsum facit. 
 
 With regard to dispositio, to make more clear the ne- 
 cessity of the logical arrangement of the points in an 
 oration : 
 
 Huius ipsius particular aliquod initium fecerit deinde 
 proxima subnectens struxerit orationem ut pars 
 hominis est manus, eius digiti, illorum quo- 
 que articuli. 
 
 To show the need of the employment, at times, of the trope, 
 hyperbaton (the violent displacement of words) : 
 
 Differenda igitur quasdam et prsesumenda, atque ut in 
 structuris lapidum impolitorum loco, quo con- Architecture, 
 venit, quodque ponendum. 8 - 6 - 6 3 
 
 To illustrate the advantage to the orator of reading poetry 
 for relaxation and refreshment: 
 
 Ne carmine quidem ludere contrarium f uerit ; sicut athletae, 
 remissa quibusdam temporibus ciborum atque Athletics, 
 exercitationum certa necessitate, otio et iucun- I0 ' 5- J 6 
 dioribus eduliis reficiuntur. 
 
 The element of -juaOo? should be used sparingly, and with 
 great care: 
 
 Nam in parvis quidem litibus has tragcedias movere tale 
 est, quasi si personam Herculis et cothurnos Drama, 
 
 aptare infantibus velis. 6. i. 36 
 
 Individuality to be encouraged and fostered : 
 
 Nam quid ilia miserius lege velut prseformatas infantibus 
 litteras persequentium, et ut Graeci dicere Dress, 
 
 solent, quern mater amictum dedit, sollicite 5 J 4- 3* 
 custodientium. 
 
 To bring vividly before the eye the incongruities re- 
 sulting from a disregard of the maxim to speak as befits the 
 occasion : 
 
42 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Ut monilibus et margaritis ac veste longa, quse sunt 
 H. !. 3 ornament a feminarum, deformentur viri; nee 
 habitus triumphalis, quo nihil excogitari potest 
 augustius, feminas deceat. 
 
 After defining the extensive scope of oratory, which has 
 been made by Aristotle to embrace the three classes, judicial, 
 deliberative, and demonstrative, he takes exception to the 
 expression (as used by some) of "instrument of oratory," as 
 a misnomer, since it is the artifex and not the art that needs 
 the tool (in the case of the orator, a well-stored mind, a good 
 memory, graceful delivery). 
 
 Engraving, Neque enim scientia desiderat instrumentum ; 
 2. 21.24 sed ille artifex, ut cselator cselum et pictor 
 penicilla. 
 
 , Reading, rereading, and reflection upon the writings of the 
 best authors, necessary to strengthen the judgment, taste, 
 and style of the youthful orator: 
 
 Repetamus autem et tractemus, et cibos mansos ac prope 
 Food, liquefactos demittimus, quo facilius digerantur: 
 
 TO. i. 19 ^ a i ec tj non cru( j a se d mult a iteratione mollita 
 et velut confecta memorias imitationique tradatur. 
 
 Quintilian, in his scheme of education, even gives instruction 
 as to the choice of the nurse, in whose presence, the young 
 child will naturally spend much of his time, and whose lan- 
 guage he will, of necessity, imitate: 
 
 Et natura tenacissimi sumus eorum, quse rudibus annis 
 Fuller's Art, percepimus, ut sapor, quo nova imbuas, durat, 
 * * 5 nee, lanarum colores, quibus simplex ille candor 
 
 mutatus est, elui possunt. 
 
 Et hssc ipsa magis pertinaciter haerent, quo deteriora 
 sunt. 
 
 To illustrate the advantage to beginners of diligent and 
 careful use of the pen: 
 
 Paulatim res facilius se ostendunt, verba respondebunt, 
 Home, compositio prosequetur, cuncta denique ut in 
 
 10. 3. 10 familia bene instituta in officio erunt. 
 
 In giving instruction in the use of similes : 
 
 Ut, si animum dicas excolendum, similitudine utaris terra 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 43 
 
 quae neglecta spinas ac dumos, culta frustus creat; aut 
 si ad cur am rei publicse horteris, ostendas, Husbandry, 
 apes etiam formicasque, non modo muta sed 5- " 24 
 etiam parva animalia, in commune tamen laborare. 
 
 Instead of having the exordium followed immediately by 
 the narratio, at times, it is well to answer certain charges 
 first, especially, 
 
 Quotiens non repellendum tantum erit crimen sed etiam 
 transfer endum, ut prius his defensis velut initium Military 
 sit alium culpandi narratio, ut in armorum ratione Tactics, 
 
 antiquior cavendi quam ictum inferendi causa est. 
 
 Quintilian records the psychological observation that the 
 pen rejoices in seclusion and shrinks from intruders, whereas 
 in extemporaneous speaking enthusiasm is kindled by a large 
 audience : 
 
 ut miles concentu signorum. 
 
 The orator should acquaint himself with the 
 other side of the case: 
 
 Debent ergo oratori sic esse adversariorum 
 nota consilia ut hostium imperatori. 
 
 Quintilian does not agree with those who say that it is a 
 waste of time and labor to attempt to teach the very young: 
 
 Nam contra plures reperias et faciles in excogitando et ad 
 discendum prompt os. Quippe id est homini naturale ; acsicut 
 aves ad volatum, equi ad cursum, ad saevitium Nature, 
 
 ferse gignuntur: ita no bis propria est mentis i. 1. 1 
 
 agitatio atque sollertia unde origo animi caelestis creditur. 
 
 In his valuable summary of the classes of literature, he 
 pays tribute to the "father of Roman poetry" : 
 
 Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos adoremus, in quibus 
 grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habent gg 
 
 speciem quant am religionem. 
 
 Skill in speaking extemporaneously absolutely necessary 
 to an orator, for often the entire case is suddenly changed: 
 
 Atque ut gubernatori ad incursus tempes- Navigation 
 tatum sic agenti ad varietatem causarum ratio J p- 7- 3 
 
 mutanda est. 
 
 Quintilian avails himself of every opportunity offered to 
 
44 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 censure the extravagant use of lumina so characteristic of 
 Silver Latinity : 
 
 Sententiae quoque ipsae quas solas petunt, magis eminent, 
 Physical cum omma circa illas sordida et abiecta sunt, 
 World, ut lumina non inter umbras quemadmodum 
 
 2. 12. 7 Cicero dicit sed plane in tenebris clariora sunt. 
 
 If the requisite amount of study has been expended, facility 
 of expression must needs follow: 
 
 Si praeparata vis dicendi fuerit : erunt in officio sic ut non re- 
 8 p quisita respondere sed ut semper sensibus inhaerere 
 
 videantur atque eos ut umbra corpus sequi. 
 
 Perspicuity necessary to the pleader, so that too great a 
 strain may not be put upon the judge's attention. 
 g Nisi tarn clara fuerint, quas dicemus, ut in 
 
 animum eius oratio, ut sol in oculos, etiamsi 
 in earn non intendatur, incurrat. 
 
 To teach that perspicuity is one of the first requisites of a 
 good style : 
 
 Nam tumidos et corruptos et tinnulos et quocumque alio 
 cacozeliae genere peccantes certum habeo non virium sed 
 Physiology, infirmitatis vitio laborare, ut corpora non robore, 
 2 ' 3- 9 sed valetudine inflantur, et recto itinere lassi 
 
 plerumque devertunt. 
 
 To illustrate the principle of education that instruction 
 should be made simple and interesting for the young. 
 
 Quin ipsis quoque doctoribus hoc esse curae velim, ut 
 
 teneras adhuc mentes nutricum mollius alant et satiari 
 
 velut quodam iucundioris disciplinae lacte pati- 
 
 antur, erit illud plenius interim corpus, quod 
 
 mox adult a aestas adstringat. 
 
 Instruction given should not transcend the powers of the 
 pupil, either in content or extent. 
 
 Nam ut vascula oris angusti superfusam humoris copiam 
 Psychology, respuunt, sensim autem influentibus vel etiam 
 i. 2. 28 instillatis complentur, sic animi puerorum quan- 
 
 tum excipere possint videndum est. 
 
 Again to prove that instruction should be adapted to con- 
 form to the mental equipment of the pupil : 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 45 
 
 Hunc disertum prseceptorem prudentem quoque et non 
 ignarum docendi esse opertebit summittentem se ad men- 
 suram discentis, ut velocissimus quoque, si 
 forte iter cum parvulo faciat, det manum et 2 - 3- 7 
 
 gradum suum minuat, nee procedat ultra quam comes possit. 
 
 The orator should strive, in his delivery, to maintain both 
 evenness and variation: 
 
 Ars porro variandi cum gratiam praebet ac renovat aures, 
 turn dicentem ipsa laboris mutatione reficit, ut 
 standi, ambulandi, sedendi; iacendi vices sunt 
 nihilque eorum pati unum diu possumus. 
 
 At times, it will be well to take up the arguments presented 
 by the opposite side singly and refute them one by one instead 
 of en masse: 
 
 Ut, si vel maxima flumina in rivos diducantur, Rivers, 
 
 qualibet transitum praebent. 5- 13- 13 
 
 To refute those who claim that the primitive style of ex- 
 pression, devoid of all art, is the more natural and forceful: 
 
 Ceterum quanto vehementior fluminum cursus est prono 
 
 alveo ac nullas moras obiciente quam inter ob- 
 
 o. 4. 7 
 stantia saxa fractis aquis ac reluctantibus, tanto, 
 
 qua? conexa est et totis viribus fluit, fragosa atque interrupta 
 melior oratio. 
 
 Dialectics must not figure too prominently in an oration 
 which needs rather vim, animation, and charm to interest, 
 move, and delight the hearer: 
 
 Ut vis amnium maior est altis ripis multoque 
 gurgitis tractu- fluentium quam tenuis aquae et 
 obiecta lapillorum resultantis. 
 
 After explaining the three kinds of style, subtile (ta^vov), 
 grande atque robustum (aSpdv), medium, or floridum 
 (av0Y]p6v), Quintilian, as usual, preferring the mediocritas 
 aurea, gives most praise to the middle style : 
 
 Medium hie modus et translationibus crebrior, et figuris 
 erit iucundior, egressionibus amcenus, composi- J2 JQ 6o 
 tione aptus, sententiis dulcis, lenior tamen ut 
 amnis lucidus quidem, sed virentibus utrimque ripis in- 
 ttmbratus (cf. Plato's Phaedrus and Cicero, De Oratore, 1. 29). 
 
46 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 In the narratio the golden mean must be preserved as 
 regards length and it must be made as interesting as possible : 
 
 Nam et fallit voluptas et minus longa quae delectant 
 Roads, videntur, ut amoenum ac molle iter, etiamsi 
 
 4. 2. 46 es t S p a tii amplioris, minus fatigat quam durum 
 
 aridumque compendium. 
 
 2 In some cases the partitio is effectual in adding 
 
 clearness and pleasure to the oration. 
 
 Reficit quoque audientem certo singularum partium fine, 
 non aliter, quam facientibus iter multum detrahunt fatiga- 
 tionis notata in inscriptis lapidibus spatia. 
 
 At other times, it is not expedient to set forth the several 
 topics to be discussed, beforehand: 
 
 Nam est non numquam dura propositio, quam iudex si 
 Surgery, providit non aliter prasformidat, quam qui 
 4- 5' 5 ferrum medici prius quam curetur aspexit. 
 
 To illustrate the principle of education : to proceed step by 
 step from the known to the unknown : 
 
 Vix enim se prima element a ad spem tollere effingendae, quam 
 Viticulture, summam put ant, eloquentiae audebunt: proxima 
 i. 2. 26 amplectuntur magis, ut vites arboribus applicitae 
 
 inferiores prius apprehendendo ramos in cacumina evadunt. 
 
 There can be given no definite rule for the treatment of the 
 narratio and the handling of proofs for the defense : 
 
 Ut erit volnus, ita vel curandum protinus, vel si curatio 
 Wounds, differri potest, interim deligandum. 
 4. 2. 84 j n trying to eradicate the taste for inordinate 
 
 display in composition : 
 
 Zoology, Lucent haec citra solem, ut quaedam exigua 
 
 12. 10. 76 animalia igniculi videntur in tenebris. 
 
 In all educational steps, follow Nature : 
 
 Nam ut aqua piscibus, ut sicca terrenis, circumfusus 
 nobis spiritus volucribus convenit ita certe facilius 
 esse^ oportebat secundum naturam quam contra 
 earn vivere. 
 
 III. COMPARISONS OR PARALLELS 
 Quintilian (5. n. i) makes very little difference between 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 47 
 
 similes and comparisons: nostri fere similitudinem vocare 
 maluerunt, quod ab illis TuapagoXi} dicitur: again (5. u. 23), 
 nam xapa(3o)oq, quam Cicero collationem vocat, longius 
 res quas comparentur repetere volet, neque hominum modo 
 inter se opera similia spectantur sed et a mutis atque etiam 
 inanimis interim comparatio huiusmodi ducitur. 
 
 As an example of this trope he cites : cuius est generis ilhid 
 Augusti, qui militi libellum timide porrigenti, "Noli," inquit, 
 "tarn quam assem elephanto des." 
 
 The categories of the ancient rhetoricians differ somewhat 
 on this point: Aristotle, considering it a species of exemplum 
 (xapaBsiy^a), Victorinus, Beda, and others treat it as one 
 of the three subdivisions of simile: sixwv, xapa^oXiq, xapdBeiYjjia. 
 This classification is the one adopted by Cicero in his torso 
 "De Inventione." 
 
 Following Quintilian (8. 3. 77), In omni autem parabole aut 
 (i) praecedit similitudo, res sequitur, aut (2) praecedit res 
 et similitudo sequitur, (3) sed interim libera et separata est, 
 (4) interim quod longe optimum est, cum re, cuius est imago, 
 connectitur, collatione invicem respondente, quod facit 
 redditio contraria, qua antapodosis dicitur, we find: 
 
 A. PR^CEDIT SIMILITUDO, RES SEQUITUR 
 
 (a) Hominum inter se opera similia spectantur. 
 
 To assist him in inculcating the principle that virility of 
 expression must be the aim of the orator : 
 
 An vero statuarum artifices pictoresque clarissimi, cum 
 corpora quam speciosissima fingendo pingendoque efficere 
 cuperent, numquam in hunc ceciderunt erro- Art, 
 
 rem, ut Bagoam aut Megabyzum aliquem in 5- 12- 2I 
 exemplum operis sumerent sibi, sed Doryphoron ilium aptum 
 vel militias vel palaestrae, aliorum quoque iuvenum belli- 
 cosorum et athletarum corpora decora vere existimarunt : 
 nos, qui oratorem studemus effingere, non arma, sed tympana 
 eloquentiae demus? 
 
 In accordance with the plan delineated in the Procemium 
 of Book I., in which he proposed to treat, in the first book, 
 of the matters preceding the work of the rhetor, in the second, 
 
48 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 the work of the rhetor (the elements of rhetoric), in the third, 
 fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh, inventio and dispositio, 
 in the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh, style, memory, 
 and delivery, and in the twelfth, the professional lawyer, 
 here, in the opening of the tenth book, he has reached that 
 point in his treatise where he feels that the orator has been 
 fully instructed, but now must be taught how to apply this 
 knowledge to the best advantage : 
 
 Nos non, quomodo sit instituendus orator, hoc loco dicimus 
 (nam id quidem aut satis aut certe uti potuimus dictus est) 
 Athletics, sed athleta, qui omnes iam perdidicerit a prae- 
 ceptare numeros, quo genere exercitationis ad 
 certamina prseparandus sit; igitur eum, qui res invenire et 
 disponere sciet, verba quoque et eligendi et conlocandi ra- 
 tionem perceperit, instruamus, qua ratione quod didicerit 
 facere quam op time, quam facillime possit. 
 
 To prove that the art of oratory arose from observation. 
 
 Homines enim sicut in medicina, cum viderent alia salubria 
 alia insalubria, ex observatione eorum effecerunt artem; ita 
 Medicine, cum in dicendo alia utilia, alia inutilia depre- 
 3* 2> 3 henderent, notarunt ea ad imitandum vitan- 
 
 dumque, et quasdam secundum rationem eorum adiecerunt 
 ipsi quoque: haec confirmata sunt usu, turn, quae sciebat 
 quisque docuit. 
 
 This parallel might be placed equally well in the fourth 
 category as the balance or correspondence (avTaxoBoatc;) is 
 clearly perceptible. 
 
 To prove that the orator must use the utmost caution 
 and keenness in cross-examining his opponent : 
 
 Nam ut medicis non apparentia modo vitia curanda sunt, 
 sed etiam invenienda quae latent saepe ipsis ea, 
 qui sanandi sunt, occulentibus, ita advocatus 
 plura, quam ostenduntur aspiciat. 
 
 To illustrate the necessity of earnestness of purpose on the 
 part of the orator, who is not to be led away by the desire of 
 praise : 
 
 Nam ut gerentibus bella non semper exercitus per plana 
 et amcena ducendus est, sed adeundi plerumque asperi col- 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 49 
 
 les, expugnandae civitates quamlibet praecisis impositae 
 rupibus aut operum mole difficiles, ita oratio Military 
 gaudebit quidem occasione laetius decurrendi et Tactics, 
 sequo congressa campo tctas vires populariter 
 explicabit. 
 
 To illustrate the relative value of dialectics to an orator : 
 Ut palaestrici doctores illos, quos numeros vocant, non 
 idcirco discentibus tradunt, ut iis omnibus ii qui didicerint 
 in ipso luctandi certamine utantur, sed ut subsit Palaestra, 
 copia ilia, ex qua unum aut alterum, cuius se 
 occasio dederit, efficiant ita haec pars dialectica est utilis 
 saepe et finitionibus, etc. 
 
 (b) Parallel drawn from animals without speech (a mutis). 
 To prove the need of a knowledge of many subjects to form 
 
 the perfect orator : 
 
 Muta animalia mellis ilium inimitabilem humanas ra- 
 tioni saporem vario florum ac sucorum genere Bees, 
 
 perficiunt: nos mirabimur, si oratio, qua nihil 1.10.7 
 
 praestantius homini dedit providentia, pluribus artibus 
 egeat ? 
 
 (c) Parallels drawn from inanimate objects (ab inanimis). 
 To illustrate the part that figurative language plays in an 
 
 oration : 
 
 Namque ut in armorum certamine adversos ictus et 
 rectas ac simplices manus cum videre turn etiam cavere ac 
 propulsare facile est, aversae tectaeque minus Fencing, 
 sunt observabiles, et aliud ostendisse, quam 9 * x * 20 
 
 petas, artis est: sic oratio quas astu caret, pondere modo et 
 impulsu proeliatur. Simulanti variantique conatus in latera 
 atque in terga incurrere datur et arma avocare et velut nutu 
 fallere. 
 
 To refute those who found fault with Cicero's style (notably 
 Brutus), who claimed that the pure so-called Attic oratory 
 was more natural and therefore preferable: 
 
 Cur vites coercemus manu? cur eas fodimus? rubos arvis 
 excidimus? terra et hos generat; mansuefacimus Husbandry, 
 animalia indomita nascuntur. 
 
 Verum id est maxime naturale, quod fieri natura optime 
 
50 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 patitur. Fortius vero quid incompositum potest esse quam 
 vinctum et bene collocatum? 
 
 To answer the question whether oratory is an art? 
 
 Nam qui est adeo non ab eruditione modo sed a sensu 
 remotus hominis, ut fabricandi quidem et texendi et e luto 
 Manufactur- vasa ducendi artem putet rhetoricen autem maxi- 
 ing, 2. 17. 3 mum ac pulcherrimum opus in tarn sublime 
 fastigium existimet sine arte venisse? 
 
 To illustrate the orator's need of extensive knowledge : 
 
 Antidotos quidem atque alia, quae oculis aut vulneribus 
 medentur, ex multis atque interim contrariis quoque inter 
 Medicine, se effectibus componi videmus, quorum ex 
 
 1. 10. 6 diversis fit una ilia mixtura, quae nulli eorum 
 similis est, quibus const at, sed proprias vires ex omnibus 
 sumit. 
 
 In an oration, attention should be paid to the proper appli- 
 cation of the rules of rhythm and to the appropriate modula- 
 tion of the voice : 
 
 In certaminibus sacris non eadem ratione concitant animos 
 ac remittunt; non eosdem modos adhibent, cum bellicum 
 Music, est canendum et cum posito genu supplican- 
 
 9. 4. ii dum est; nee idem signorum concentus est pro- 
 
 cedente ad prcelium exercitu, idem receptui carmen. Quodsi 
 numeris ac modis inest quaedam tacita vis: in oratione 
 vehementissima . 
 
 B. RES PR^CEDIT, SIMILITUDO SEQUITUR 
 
 (a) Parallels drawn from the proceedings of man. 
 
 In censuring jxaTaioTe^vta, the idle imitation of art, he uses, 
 to illustrate his point, what doubtless the ancient grammarians 
 would have called xocpaSsiypia (exemplum). 
 
 Qualis illius fuit, qui grana ciceris ex spatio distanti 
 Archery, missa in acum continue et sine frustratione in- 
 
 2. 20. 3 serebat, quern cum spectasset Alexander donasse 
 dicitur eiusdem leguminis modio, quod quidem prasmium 
 fuit illo opere dignissimum. 
 
 To illustrate how the teacher should study the various minds 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 51 
 
 of his pupils and develop them in accordance with their 
 natural proclivities: 
 
 Sic discernet haec dicendi magister, quomodo palaestricus 
 ille cursorem faciet aut pugilem aut lucta- Athletics, 
 torem aliudve quid ex his, quae sunt sacrorum 2 - 8 - 7 
 
 certaminum. (Olympian, Isthmian, and Delphian.) 
 
 Yet instruction should not be narrow and limited exclu- 
 sively to their particular abilities: but their weak points 
 with due care may be made equal to their strong ones : 
 
 Nam licet sit aliquam in partem pronior ut necesse est, 
 ceteris tamen non repugnabit, atque ea cura paria faciet 
 iis in quibus eminebat, sicut ille exercendi cor- g 
 
 pora peritus non si docendum pancratiasten 
 pugno ferire vel calce tantum aut nexus modo atque in his 
 certos aliquos docebit, sed omnia quae eius certaminis. 
 
 Among the instructions given for composition, Quintilian 
 advises rereading the last paragraph written, before jotting 
 down the new thought. 
 
 Quod in certamine saliendi fieri videmus, ut conatum 
 longius petant, et ad illud quo contenditur, Athletics, 
 spatium cursu ferantur; utque in iaculando 10.3.6 
 
 bracchia reducimus et expulsuri tela nervos retro tendimus. 
 
 Quintilian is very emphatic in his insistence upon the impor- 
 tance of training the memory (the fourth duty of an orator: 
 inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronuntiatio) , by 
 daily learning by heart passages from the best authors, gradu- 
 ally increasing in length. The passages set for practice should 
 be more difficult than any they might use in actual pleading : 
 
 Ut athletae ponderibus plumbeis assuefaciunt manus, 
 quibus vacuis et nudis, in certamine utendum n 2 42 
 est. 
 
 Citing the objection of the self-styled Atticists, to those 
 who have added something of eloquence to the natural style 
 of Cato and the Gracchi : 
 
 Sicut athletarum corpora, etiamsi validiora fiant exerci- 
 tatione et lege quadam ciborum non tamen esse J2 JQ 
 naturalia atque ab ilia specie, quas sit concessa 
 hominibus, abhor rere. 
 
52 QUINTILIAWS DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Quintilian, contrary to Rousseau, would have the child 
 learn in his tender years as much as possible of the mechani- 
 cal elements of studies, so necessary for maturer work: 
 
 Et patientior est laboris natura pueris quam iuvenibus. 
 Videlicet, ut corpora infantium nee casus, quo in terram 
 Child-Study, totiens deferuntur, tarn graviter afflictet nee ilia 
 
 1. 12. 10 p er manus et genua reptatio nee post breve 
 tempus continui lusus et totius diei discursus. quia pondus 
 illis abest nee sese ipsi gravant. 
 
 One of the several reasons alleged, why oratory cannot be 
 called an art is that it is arrayed against itself ; to confute this 
 statement, Quintilian refers to the gladiator, the pilot, and 
 the general : 
 
 Nee, si pugnent inter se, qui idem didicerunt idcirco ars, 
 quee utrique tradita est, non erit; alioqui nee armorum, 
 Combats, quia saspe gladiatores sub eodem magistro 
 2.17.33 eruditi inter se componuntur; nee gubernandi, 
 quia navalibus prceliis gubernator est gubernatori adversus; 
 nee imperatoria, quia imperator cum imperatore contendit. 
 
 To prove that oratory is a virtue despite the objection of 
 some that it is practised sometimes by wicked men : 
 
 Latro pugnabit acriter, virtus tamen erit fortitude; et 
 Fortitude, tormenta sine gemitu feret malus servus, toler- 
 
 2. 20. 10 antia tamen doloris laude sua non carebit. 
 
 To refute those who claim that young children should not 
 be taught several branches of learning at the same time : 
 
 Cur non- idem suademus agricolis: ne arva simul et 
 Husbandry, vineta et oleas et arbustum colant; ne pratis 
 i. 12. 7 e t pecoribus et hortis et alvearibus avibusque 
 
 accommodent curam? 
 
 To illustrate the principle that children's mistakes should 
 not be corrected with severity: 
 
 Quod etiam rusticis notum est, qui frondibus teneris 
 non putant adhibendam esse falcem, quia re- 
 formidare ferrum videntur et nondum cicatricem 
 pati posse. 
 
 To prove that imitation is a very important factor in the 
 development of the child: 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 53 
 
 Sic musici vocem docentium, pictores opera priorum, 
 rustici probatam experimento culturam in exem- 
 plum intuentur. 
 
 To improve the faculty of speaking extemporaneously, 
 a diligent use of the pen is necessary in order to foster depth 
 of thought and to remove trivialities: 
 
 Sicut rustici proximas vitis radices amputant, 
 quae illam in summum solum ducunt, ut inferiores 
 penitus descendendo firmentur. 
 
 Though imitation is necessary, yet no advance would be 
 made unless we aim to improve upon what we imitate : 
 
 Nihil in poetis supra Livium Andronicum, nihil in historiis 
 supra Pontificum annales haberemus; ratibus adhuc navi- 
 garetur; non esset pictura, nisi quae lineas modo Literature, 
 extremas umbrae, quam corpora in sole fecissent, I0 - 2 - 7 
 
 circumscriberet . 
 
 To answer the charges of those who deny that oratory 
 is useful inasmuch as it is used by some for evil purposes: 
 
 Quo quidem modo nee duces erunt utiles nee Magistrates, 
 magistratus nee medicina nee denique ipsa 2 - l6 - 5 
 
 sapientia. 
 
 Nam et dux Flaminius et Gracchi, Saturnini, Glauciae 
 gessere magistratus, et in medicis venena et in his, qui philo- 
 sophorum nomine male utuntur, gravissima non numquam 
 flagitia deprehensa sunt. 
 
 One of the assertions made by those who deny that oratory 
 is an art is that the pleader does not know whether the case 
 he is supporting is true or not : 
 
 Ne medicus quidem, an dolorem capitis habeat Medicine, 
 qui hoc se pati dicet; curabit tamen, tanquam id 2 - *7- 39 
 verum sit, et erit ars medicina. 
 
 In his handling of the case, the pleader should study the 
 countenance of the judex, and taking his cue from the ex- 
 pression proceed accordingly: 
 
 Faciunt hoc medici quoque, ut remedia proinde 6 4 10 
 
 perse verent adhibere vel desinant, ut ilia recipi 
 vel respui vident. 
 
 Judicious questioning and testing of the pupil to develop 
 
54 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 his powers of discrimination will be of more value than many 
 rules and manuals : 
 
 Sicut de re militari quamquam sunt tradita quaedam 
 Military praecepta communia, magis tamen proderit scire, 
 Tactics, qua ducum quisque ratione, in quali re, tempore, 
 
 loco sit sapienter usus aut contra. 
 
 In the "partitio" or summary of the headings to be treated 
 most advocates hestitate to set forth more than one phase 
 of the case to be defended, or attacked, or in other words, 
 to assume more than one position with regard to the facts 
 of the case. 
 
 Ut certa man us uno telo possit esse content a: in- 
 certa plura spargenda sunt, ut sit et fortunae locus. 
 Skill in "dispositio" or the logical arrangement of points in 
 an oration, the importance of which cannot be overestimated, 
 depends not upon precepts but upon the keenness of ob- 
 servation and natural ability of the orator. 
 
 Haec est velut imperatoria virtus copias suas partientis ad 
 casus prceliorum, retinentis partes per castella tuenda cus- 
 I0 todiendasve urbes, repetendos commeatus, obsi- 
 
 denda itinera, mari denique ac terra dividentis. 
 To illustrate the fact that a successful orator must have a 
 knowledge of civil law : 
 
 Nisi forte imperatorem quis idoneum credit in prceliis 
 I2 quidem strenuum et fort em et omnium, quae 
 
 pugna poscit, artificem, sed neque delectus agere 
 nee locum capere castris scientium. 
 
 While treating of the subject of argumentation, he criti- 
 cises those who neglect the use of proofs introduced according 
 to the rules of art. 
 
 Neque aliter quam ii, qui traduntur a poetis gustu cuius- 
 Mythology, dam apud Lotophagos graminis et Sirenum cantu 
 5-8.1 deleniti voluptatem saluti praetulisse. 
 
 To answer those denying that oratory is an art in that it 
 does not always gain its point or reach its goal, which, ac- 
 cording to their definition that the aim of oratory is to per- 
 suade, may be true, but according to Quintilian's that the 
 aim is to speak well, is not applicable: 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 55 
 
 Nam et gubernator vult salva nave in portum pervenire, 
 si tamen tempest ate fuerit abreptus non ideo Navigation, 
 minus erit gubernator dicetque no turn illud, 2 - J 7- 24, 
 " Dum clavum rectum teneam. " 
 
 Et medicus sanitatem aegro promittit ; si tamen aut valetu- 
 dinis vi aut intemperantia aegri aliove quo casu (Medicine), 
 summa non contingit, dum ipse omnia secundum 2> J 7- 25 
 rationem fecerit, medicinag fine non excidet. 
 
 A different style of composition is to be used in the several 
 parts of an oration; in the exordium the utmost care must be 
 exercised to have it simple, natural and fluent, for any con- 
 fusion or false step in the procemium is a most serious offense : 
 
 Pessimus certe gubernator, qui navem, dum Navigation, 
 portu egreditur, impegit. 4- i 61 
 
 Quintilian oddly justifies the orator for assenting to false 
 statements on the ground that he himself is undeceived, and 
 after citing two examples from history that of Hannibal's 
 deception when hemmed in by Fabius, and that of Theopom- 
 pus, the Spartan, who eluded his captors by donning his wife's 
 mantle compares the orator, who resorts to such a ruse, to 
 the artist : 
 
 Pictor, cum vi artis suae efficit, ut quasdam eminere in 
 opere, quaedam recessisse credamus, ipse ea plana Painting, 
 esse non nescit. 2. 17-21 
 
 Our author does not approve of the practice of writing the 
 procemkim last : 
 
 Nam nee pingere quisquam aut fingere coepit a pedibus, nee 
 denique ars ulla consummatur ibi, unde oriendum est. 
 
 It is impossible to teach all the niceties of arrangement; 
 these the orator must learn from his own observations, study, 
 and practice. 
 
 Nam quis pictor omnia, quae in rerum natura sunt, 
 
 adumbrare didicit ? sed percepta semel imitandi 
 
 7. 10. o 
 ratione assimulabit, quidquid acceperit. 
 
 Quis non faber vasculum aliquod, quale numquam viderat 
 fecit? 
 
 In taking up the last study of. the orator, pronuntiatio, 
 Quintilian warns against monotony in delivery : 
 
56 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Ut, qui singulis pinxerunt coloribus, alia tamen eminentiora 
 ii. 3 46 a ^ a re ductiora fecerunt, sine quo ne membris qui- 
 dem suas lineas dedissent. 
 
 In his arraignment of the current preference for distorted 
 and far-fetched figures of language : 
 
 Ilia vero, quae utcunque deflexa sunt tamquam exquisi- 
 tiora miramur; non aliter quam distortis et quocumque 
 Phenomena, modo prodigiosis corporibus apud quosdam 
 2. 5. ii maius est pretium quam his, quae nihil ex 
 
 communi habitu boni perdiderunt. 
 
 In reply to those who say that rhetoric is not an art because 
 it does not know whether what is asserted is true : 
 
 Ne hi quidem, qui ignem aut aquam aut quattuor elementa 
 aut corpora insecabilia esse, ex quibus res omnes initium 
 Philosophy, duxerint, tradunt, nee qui intervalla siderum 
 2.17.38 et mensuras solis ac terras colligunt; disciplinam 
 tamen suam artem vocant. 
 
 To substantiate his theory that the best possible teachers 
 should be procured for the youngest children, in contradiction 
 to those who claim that the best-equipped teachers are not 
 able to teach successfully the very young : 
 
 Nisi forte lovem quidem Phidias optime fecit, ilia 
 Sculpture, autem, quae in ornamentum operis eius acce- 
 2> 3- 6 dunt, alius melius elaborasset. 
 
 (b) Parallels drawn from animals without speech. 
 
 To illustrate his method of teaching how to compose by 
 both pointing out, by example, the right way to build up an 
 oration, and carefully correcting the efforts of the pupils. 
 They should be given every encouragement to do independent 
 work, always being gently led back when they have gone 
 astray. 
 
 Cui rei simile quiddam facientes aves cernimus, quae teneris 
 infirmisque fetibus cibos ore suo collates partiuntur; at cum 
 Birds, visi sun t adulti, paulum egredi nidis et circum- 
 
 2. 6. 7 volare sedem illam praecedentes ipsae decent, turn 
 
 expertas vires libero ccelo suaeque ipsorum fiduciae per- 
 mittunt. 
 
 The transition from the school of the rhetor to actual 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 57 
 
 pleading in the forum should be made as easy as possible 
 by starting with a very simple and favorable case : 
 
 Ferarum ut catuli molliore prasda sagi -Wild Animals, 
 nantur. I2 - 6 - 6 
 
 (c) Parallels drawn from inanimate objects. 
 
 To illustrate that change and recreation are absolutely 
 necessary in the instruction of the young: 
 
 Ea quoque , quag sensu et anima carent , ut servare Plant-Life, 
 vim suam possint,velut quiete alterna retenduntur. i. 3 8 
 
 To answer those who pride themselves on their preference 
 for the pre- Ciceronian style of oratory: 
 
 Quorum si fieri nihil melius licebat, ne domibus quidem 
 casas aut vestibus pellium tegmina aut urbibus Architecture, 
 montes ac silvas mutari oportuit. 9- 4- 4 
 
 In the arrangement of words in a Latin sentence, although it 
 is best to put the verb last, yet this practice must yield to the 
 necessities of rhythm, and all words must be placed where 
 they fit in most harmoniously: 
 
 Sicut in structura saxorum rudium etiam ipsa 
 
 9. 4. 27 
 
 enormitas invenit, cui apphcan et in quo possit 
 insistere. 
 
 To prove- the value of having at one's command a collection 
 of "communes loci " : 
 
 Quae qui pertinere ad orationem non putabit, is ne sta- 
 tuam quidem inchoari credet, cum eius membra Art, 
 
 fundentur. 2 - * I2 
 
 Although a knowledge of the rules of oratory is necessary, 
 yet these are not to be considered hard and fixed and not 
 to be deviated from; but two things must always be regarded, 
 what is becoming and what is expedient; and this often 
 demands a departure from the usual order. 
 
 Ut in statuis atque picturis videmus variari habitus, vultus, 
 status. Nam recti quidem corporis vel minima gratia est. 
 Here follows a very long and interesting digres- 
 sion on the subject ot art, commenting on the 
 beauty of Myron's discobolos and the tableau of the sacrifice 
 of Iphigenia at Aulis. 
 
 In discoursing on the material of oratory in answer to those 
 
58 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 who say that oratory has no specific material because it is 
 multiform : 
 
 Et alise quoque artes minores habent multiplicem materiam, 
 velut architectonice, namque ea in omnibus, quae sunt 
 Art, aedificio utilia, versatur, et caelatura, quas auro, 
 
 2. 21. 8 argento, aere, ferro opera efficit. Nam sculptura 
 
 eitam lignum, ebur, marmor, vitrum, gemmas, prasterea 
 quag supra dixi, complectitur. 
 
 In his literary critique, giving the reason why he omits so 
 many authors of note, he says that while the orator is in the 
 making, the mind is to be cultured and the matter and manner 
 of the best is to be caught by much reading rather than a 
 reading of many, and then when strength is assured, those 
 others may be reverted to. 
 
 Quod in ccenis grandibus saepe facimus, ut, cum optimis 
 Foods, satiati sumus, varietas tamen nobis ex vilioribus 
 
 10. i. 57 g m ta sit. 
 
 In answer to those who deny that oratory is an art because 
 it was in use before the art arose : 
 
 Aut tollatur medicina, quae ex observatione salubrium atque 
 his contrariorum reperta est, et, ut quibusdam placet, tota 
 Medicine, constat experimentis ; nam et vulnus deligavit 
 2. 17- 9 aliquis, antequam haec ars esset, et febrem quiete 
 
 et abstinentia, non quia rationem videbat, sed quia id vale- 
 tudo ipsa ccegerat, mitigavit. 
 
 Nee fabrica sit ars, casas enim primi illi sine arte fece- 
 
 runt ; nee musica, cantatur ac saltatur per omnes 
 Music v ., 
 
 gentes aliquo modo. 
 
 C. PARALLELS THAT ARE INDEPENDENT OR SEPARATE. 
 
 (a) Drawn from the proceedings of man: 
 
 To illustrate the relative parts that nature and education 
 play in the consummation of the orator : 
 
 Sicut terrae nullam fertilitatem habenti nihil optimus 
 Agriculture, agricola profuerit, e terra uberi utile aliquid 
 2. 19. 3 etiam nullo colente nascetur, at in solo fecundo 
 
 plus cultor quam ipsa per se bonitas soli efnciet. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 59 
 
 Quintilian has said so much against effeminate ornamenta- 
 tion that he fears lest some may count him a foe to all cultured 
 speaking, but it is the ornamentation which makes for strength 
 that he desires to teach : 
 
 Pulcher aspectu sit athleta, cuius lacertos exercitatio 
 expressit; idem certamini paratior. Numquam 
 mera species ab utilitate dividitur. 
 
 To prove that those are wrong who claim that the untrained 
 are more forceful orators than the educated: 
 
 Nam et gladiator, qui armorum inscius in rixam ruit, et lucta- 
 tor, qui totius corporis nisu in id, quod semel invasit, incumbit, 
 
 fortior ab his vocatur ; cum interim et hie frequenter 
 
 -, . . MI -i Gladiatorial 
 
 suis vinbus ipse prostermtur, et ilium vehementis Combats 
 
 impetus excipit adversarii mollis articulus. 2. 12. 2 
 
 (6) Parallels drawn from the lower animals: 
 To prove the utility of oratory and our duty in cultivating 
 this divine gift, Quintilian enters into a long digression, setting 
 forth the various characteristics in which the lower animals 
 excel man, and the purpose of the Great Designer in elevating, 
 by the faculty of speech alone, the human race above the 
 dumb creatures, which in certain respects are so intelligent : 
 
 Nam et mollire cubilia et nidos texere et educare fetus et 
 excludere quin etiam reponere in hiemen alimenta, opera qua3- 
 dam nobis inimitabilia (qualia sunt ceterarum ac Birds 
 
 mellis) efficere, nonnullius fortasse rationis est 2. 16. 16 
 sed quia carent sermone, qua? id faciunt, muta 
 atque irrationalia vocantur. 
 
 To illustrate that both beauty and strength of expression 
 are secured by removing all superfluous phrases : 
 
 Decentior equus, cuius astricta ilia, sed idem Horse, 
 
 velocior. 8. 3. 9 
 
 (c) Parallels drawn from inanimate objects : 
 Beauty, to appeal to Quintilian, must be coupled with utility : 
 An ego fundum cultiorem putem, in quo mihi quis osten- 
 derit lilia et violas et anemonas, fontes surgentes, quam ubi 
 plena messis aut graves f ructu vites erunt ? steri- Arboriculture, 
 lem platanum tonsasque myrtos quam maritam 8. 3. 8 
 
 ulmum et uberes oleas praeoptaverim ? 
 
60 QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 
 
 Nullusne ergo etiam frugiferis adhibendus est decor? 
 Quis negat? Nam et in ordinem certaque intervalla redigatn 
 meas arbores. Quid illo quincunce speciosius, qui, in quam- 
 cumque partem spectaveris, rectus est? Sed protinus in id 
 quoque prodest, ut terrae sucum aequaliter trahat. Surgentia 
 in altum cacumina olea v f erro coercebo ; in orbem se f ormosius 
 fundet et protinus fructum ramis pluribus feret. 
 
 Another illustration of his pet theory that charm or grace 
 always accompanies j strength or power: 
 
 An non earn, quae emissa op time est, hastam speciosissime 
 contortam ferri videmus; et arcu dirigentium tela, quo 
 Athletics, certior manus, hoc est habitus ipse formosior? 
 9* 4- 8 lam certamine armorum atque in omni palaestra 
 
 quid satis recte cavetur ac petitur, cui non artifex motus et 
 certi quidam pedes assint? 
 
 One of the replies to those archaistswho object to the applica- 
 tion of art to the primitive rugged style of oratory is that we 
 are naturally drawn toward rhythm and euphony of expression : 
 
 Neque enim aliter eveniret, ut illi quoque organorum soni, 
 Music, quamquam verba non exprimunt, in alios tamen 
 
 9. 4. 10 atque alios motus ducerent auditorem. 
 
 D. PARALLELS IN WHICH THE avTaxoBoais OR CORRESPON- 
 
 DENCE IS PARTICULARLY MANIFEST. 
 
 /- (a) Drawn from the proceedings of man : 
 
 Oratory is too hard and difficult a subject to admit of being 
 A constrained by any immutable laws and precepts ; therefore the 
 orator must have tact and skill in adapting himself to the inevi- 
 table changes in circumstances, attending the various cases : 
 
 Quid? si enim praecipias imperatori, quotiens aciem instruct, 
 dirigat frontem, cornua utrinque promoveat, equites pro 
 Military cornibus locet : erit haec quidem rectissima fortasse 
 Tactics, ratio, quotiens licebit; sed mutabitur natura loci, 
 
 2 ' I3 * 3 si mons occurret, si flumen obstabit, collibus, 
 
 silvis, asperitate alia prohibetur; mutabit hostium genus, 
 mutabit prassentis condicio discriminis; nunc acie directa 
 nunc cuneis, nunc auxiliis nunc legione pugnabitur, non- 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 61 
 
 numquam terga etiam dedisse simulata fuga proderit. Ita 
 prooemium necessarium an super vacuum, breve an longius, 
 ad iudicem omni sermone directo an .aliquando averse per 
 aliquam figuram dicendum sit, constricta an latius fusa 
 narratio continua an divisa, recta an ordine permutato, 
 causas docebunt. 
 
 Though Rousseau almost seventeen hundred years later 
 gained a great name for himself as the exponent of something 
 new, "Education according to nature," yet we find that this 
 was a favorite theory with Quintilian: 
 
 Ut si quis palaestrae peritus, cum in aliquod plenum puens 
 gymnasium venerit, expert us eorum omni modo corpus ani- 
 mumque discernat, cui quisque certamini prae- Palaestra, 
 parandus sit: ita praeceptorem eloquentiae, cum 2.8.6 
 
 sagaciter fuerit intuitus, cuius ingenium presso limatoque 
 genere dicendi, cuius acri, gravi, dulci, aspero, nitido, urbano 
 maxime gaudeat, ita se commodaturum singulis, ut in eo quo 
 quisque eminet, provehatur, etc. 
 
 (b) Parallel drawn from the lower animals: 
 
 On the practice of declaiming, Quintilian does not wholly 
 approve of the youthful orator handling a topic that is imagina- 
 tive and poetical, yet an occasional attempt of this sort may 
 do no harm : 
 
 Dum sciat, ut quadrupedes, cum viridi pabulo distentae 
 sunt, sanguinis detractione curantur et sic ad cibos viribus 
 conservandis idoneos redeunt: ita sibi quoque Animals, 
 tenuandas adipes, et quidquid humoris corrupti 2 - I0 - 6 
 
 contraxerit, emittendum, si esse sanus ac robustus volet. 
 
 (c) Parallel drawn from an inanimate object. 
 
 The voice, such an important factor in the success of an 
 orator, must be exercised to produce every variety of inflection, 
 and though care must be taken of it, yet it must not be 
 rendered sensitive and delicate by too much attention: 
 
 Ut assueta gymnasiis et oleo corpora, quamlibet sint in suis 
 certaminibus speciosa atque robusta, si militare iter fascemque 
 et vigilias imperes deficiant et quaerant unctores Athletics, 
 suos nudumque sudorem. Ita, si dicendum in " 3- 26 
 sole aut ventoso, humido, calido die fuerit, reos deseremus? 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
 Classifying Quintilian's use of metaphorical language 
 according to the various departments to which he resorted 
 in order to make his precepts either more clear or more 
 interesting, we find according to a quantitative basis, 
 
 Art 1 8 (including Architecture 7, Engraving i, Music 2, 
 Painting 3, Sculpture 5). 
 
 Athletics 19 (including Gladiatorial Combats 3, Chariot 
 racing i). 
 
 Drama 2. 
 
 Dress 4. 
 
 Food 7. 
 
 Fuller's Art 3. 
 
 Medicine 13. 
 
 Military Tactics 10. 
 
 Nature 68 (including Agriculture 22, Biology 12, Pheno- 
 mena 2, Physical World 18, Physiology 7, Rivers 7). 
 
 Mythology i. 
 
 Navigation 14. 
 
 Philosophy 2. 
 
 Psychology 7. 
 
 Travel (including Roads) 7. 
 
 Treasury 4. 
 
 Weapons 7. 
 
 Wine-making 2. 
 
 From this numerical statement, we see that Nature was the 
 favorite theme comprising .361 of the sum total of 1 88; 
 Athletics next, .101; Art .098; Navigation .079; Medicine 
 .074 constitute the bulk of the remaining. 
 
 From the preceding pages, it may be seen that, though these 
 
 62 
 
QUINTILIAN'S DIDACTIC METAPHORS 63 
 
 didactic principles were intended for the formation of a 
 Roman youth of the Empire, yet by their very breadth of 
 view, they are independent of time and country, and address 
 themselves no less applicably to us, of the modern world, 
 than they did to the humanists who hailed their resuscitation 
 with ecstasy, as one of the most important events of the 
 Renaissance. This is exemplified by the remark of Poggio 
 (1416) on hearing that Quintilian entire had been Sihler 
 
 at last regained, that he wished only to see the Testimonium 
 work before he died. Laurentius Valla (1406- Anim8e P- 3$ 
 J 457) the model of pure Latin writing for his generation, 
 owed more to his keen study of Quintilian than to Cicero. 
 Rabelais (1483-1553), in Gargantua's letter to 
 Pantagruel, cites Quintilian as his model. The tt *' p * 38 
 Port-Royalists (1644) and likewise Rollin (1664-1741) bor- 
 rowed much from this great Educator, the first of the 
 "Ciceronians." 
 
UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, 
 BERKELEY 
 
 expiration of loan period. 
 
 FEB 24 1931 
 
 FEB 28 1931 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 JAN25'65-2PM 
 
 75m-7,'30 
 
Syracuse, N. Y. 
 PAT. JAN. 21, 1908 
 
 U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES