LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Mrs. SARAH P. WALSWORTH. 
 
 Received October, 1894. 
 Class Afo. 
 
FIRST BOOK 
 
 OK 
 
 ANATOMY, 
 PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 Foa 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 
 
 WITH EIGHTY-THREE ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 BY CALVIN CUTTER, M. 1). 
 
 AUTHOR OF " ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, FOB COLLEGES. 
 ACADEMIES, AND FAMILIES;" "SECOND BOOK ON ANATOMY, PHYSI- 
 OLOGY AND HYGIENE, FOR ACADEMIES, SCHOOLS, AND FAMILIES;" 
 " VJfATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES FOK SCHOOLS," &C. 
 
 REVISED STEREOTYPE EDITION. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 CLARK, AUSTIN, MAYNARD & CO 
 
 CINCINNATI: W. B. SMITH <fe CO. 
 
 ST. LOUIS, MO.: KEITH & WOODS. 
 
 1862. 
 
BIOLOGY 
 LIBRARY 
 
 5P7JK>f 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER. M.D.. 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts 
 
 A. ALVORD, PKIWTB*, 
 
PREFACE 
 
 IN presenting this work to the public, the author 
 would indulge in a few prefatory suggestions. 
 
 Education, to be complete, must be not only moral 
 and intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the 
 mind and of the affections is the subject of systematic 
 attention in early life, should not the education of the 
 physical powers be commenced as early ? It will 
 demand no more maturity and thought to understand 
 me reasons for adequate clothing, bathing, the neces- 
 sity of an erect position in standing and sitting, regu- 
 larity in taking food, the supply of pure air to the 
 lungs, &c.. than to comprehend geographical details 
 or moral truths. Is not a knowledge of the laws upon 
 which health depends, as important to the develop- 
 ment of a vigorous physical constitution, as moral 
 instruction is to the formation of correct moral prin- 
 ciples ? Can any reason be given why both should 
 not be taught in the school-room? 
 
 A child should be taught to call each organ by its 
 correct name. No more effort is required to learn the 
 meaning of a proper, than an improper term. For 
 example : a child will pronounce the word as readily, 
 and obtain as correct an idea, if you say lungs, as 
 if you used the word lights. 
 
 In preparing this work, it has not been deemed 
 necessary to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of 
 being understood ; but such words have been selected 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 as good usage sanctions. Should the pupil meet with 
 any word he does not understand, let him consult his 
 dictionary, as he should do in perusing works upon 
 history, when a similar difficulty occurs. 
 
 To insure a correct pronunciation of the technical 
 words interspersed with the text, they have been 
 divided into syllables, and the accented syllables des- 
 ignated. An ample Glossary of technical terms has 
 also been appended to the work, to which reference 
 should be made. 
 
 To the teacher we would suggest the propriety of 
 c,alling on a pupil of the class, to describe the anatomy 
 of an organ from an anatomical outline plate ; after- 
 wards call upon another to give the physiology of 
 the part, while a third may state the hygiene ; after 
 which, the questions at the bottom of the page may 
 be asked promiscuously, and thus the detailed knowl- 
 edge which each pupil possesses of the subject will 
 be tested. 
 
 With advanced pupils, it is recommended that the 
 subject be examined in the form of topics. The ques- 
 tions in Italics are designed for this method of reci- 
 tation. 
 
 For a more full and complete explanation of Anato- 
 my, Physiology, and Hygiene, the pupil is referred to 
 the Author's treatise, of 450 pages, for Colleges, Acade- 
 mies, and Families, or to his second book, of 300 
 pages, for Academies, Schools, and Families. 
 
 To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of 
 education, this work is respectfully submitted. 
 
 WARRE.X, Mass., 1852. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter. p fa, 
 
 1. GENERAL REMARKS, y 
 
 2. ANATOMY OF THE BONES, 11 
 
 3. ANATOMY or THE BONES, CONTINUED, 16 
 
 4. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES, 21 
 
 5. HYGIENE QF THE BONES, 24 
 
 6. ANATOMY OF THE MCSCLES, .27 
 
 7. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES, 30 
 
 8. HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES, .36 
 
 9. ANATOMY OF THE TEETH, 43 
 
 10. ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 47 
 
 11. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 53 
 
 12. HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 56 
 
 13. ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS, 62 
 
 14. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS, 67 
 
 15. HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS, 70 
 
 16. ABSORPTION, 76 
 
 17. SECRETION, 82 
 
 18. NUTRITION, 86 
 
 19. ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, b-J 
 
 20. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, 9J 
 
 21. HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, 98 
 
VU1 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chaptei Page 
 
 22. ANIMAL HEAT, 106 
 
 23. ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS, 110 
 
 24. ANATOMY OF THE SKIN, 115 
 
 25. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN, 119 
 
 26. HYGIENE OF THE SKIN, 122 
 
 27. ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, 127 
 
 28. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, 131 
 
 29. HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, 134 
 
 30. SENSE OF TOUCH, 138 
 
 SENSE OF TASTE, 139 
 
 SENSE OF SMELL, 141 
 
 81. ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION, 143 
 
 32. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION, 149 
 
 33. ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING, 152 
 
 34. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING, 155 
 
 35. MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH, 158 
 
 36. DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES, 164 
 
 APPENDIX, 170 
 
 GLOSSARY, 176 
 
 INDEX, 181 
 
FIRST BOOK 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 1. ANATOMY is a description of the organs, or parts of a 
 body. 
 
 Examples. 1st. Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms. 
 These are their organs. 2d. The teeth, stomach, and heart, 
 are Some of the organs of the human body.* 
 
 2. PHYSIOLOGY is a description of the function, or use of an 
 organ. 
 
 Examples. 1st. The roots of flowers suck up water, to 
 make them grow. This is their function. 2d. The stomach, 
 in man, is one of the organs that prepare the food for his 
 growth. This is its function. 
 
 3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds, 
 namely, Animal and Vegetable. 
 
 * Where examples are given, let the pupil mention other analo - 
 gous ones. 
 
 1. What is anatomy ? Give examples. 2. What is physiology ? Give 
 examples. 3. How many kinds of anatomy and physiology are there ? 
 
10 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 4. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided into 
 Human and Comparative. 
 
 5. Human Anatomy and Physiology describe the structure 
 and functions of the organs of man. 
 
 6. Comparative Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc- 
 ture and functions of the organs of other animals than man. 
 
 Examples. As the horse, the monkey, and the whale. 
 
 7. Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc- 
 ture and functions of different parts of trees, shrubs, plants, and 
 flowers. 
 
 8. HYGIENE is the art of preserving health, or that depart- 
 ment of medicine which treats of the preservation of health. 
 
 9. All bodies in nature are divided into Organic and In- 
 organic. Organic bodies include animals and plants. Inor- 
 ganic bodies include earths, metals, and other minerals. 
 
 10. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, and 
 this period varies with every species. The duration of some 
 plants is limited to a single summer, as many garden flowers ; 
 while some trees, as the olive, live many hundred years. Some 
 animals live but a short time, while the elephant lives more 
 than a century. 
 
 11. The life of man is shortened by disease ; but disease is 
 under the control of fixed laws laws which we are capable 
 of understanding and obeying. How important, then, is the 
 study of physiology and hygiene ! For how can we expect to 
 obey laws which we do not understand ? 
 
 4. How are animal anatomy and physiology divided ? 5. What do 
 numan anatomy and physiology describe ? 6. What do comparative anat- 
 omy and physiology describe ? 7. What do vegetable anatomy and physi- 
 ology describe ? 8. What is hygiene ? 9. How are all bodies in nature 
 divided ? What bodies are called organic ? What bodies are called in- 
 organic ? 10. Have all animals and plants a limited period of life ? Does 
 this period vary witrf different species of animals -and plants ? Give some 
 examples. 11. How is life usually shortened ? Why is the studv of physi- 
 ology and hygiene important to every person ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. It 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE BONES. 
 
 12. THE bones are firm and hard, and of a dull white color. 
 In all the higher orders of animals, among which is man, they 
 are in" the interior of the body, while in lobsters, crabs, &c., 
 they are on the outside, forming a case, which protects the 
 movable parts from injury. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 
 
 13. There are two hundred and eight * bones in the human 
 body, beside the teeth. t 
 
 14. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts: 
 1st. The bones of thej&grf. 2d. The bones of the Trunk. 
 3d. The bones of the Upper Extremities. 4th. The bones of 
 the Lower Extremities. 
 
 15. The bones of the HEAD are divided into those of the 
 Skull, Ear, and Face. 
 
 16. The SKULL is formed of eight bones. These are joined 
 together by ragged edges, called sutures. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Observation. The sutures stop, in a measure, the jars 
 caused by external blows. Children should never strike each 
 
 * Some anatomists reckon more than this number, others less, for 
 the reason that, at different periods of life, the number of pieces of 
 which one bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in 
 infancy, has eight pieces ; in youth, three ; in old age, but one. 
 
 12. Describe the bones. 13. How many bones in the human body ? 
 14. How are they divided ? Name them. 15 18. Give the anatomy of the 
 bones of the head. 15. How are the bones of the head divided ? 16. How 
 many bones in the skull ? How are the bones of the skull joined together ? 
 
12 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGlLNi.. 
 
 other upon the head, because the bones of the skull in hem 
 are softer than in adults. 
 
 17. In each EAR are four small bones. They aid in hearing. 
 
 18. In the FACE are fourteen bones. They support the 
 softer parts outside of them. 
 
 19. The TRUNK has fifty-four bones twenty-four Ribs; 
 twenty-four bones in the Spi'nal Col'umn, (back-bone ;) four 
 in the Pelvis; the Ster'num, (breast-bone;) and one at the 
 root of the tongue. 
 
 20. All the RIBS are joined to the spinal column. "There 
 are twelve on each side. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2. The bones of the upper part of the skull. 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, The sutures that join 
 fiie bones. 
 
 21. The seven upper ribs are united in front to the sternum, 
 oy a yielding substance called car'ti-lage? (gristle.) The 
 
 * See paragraph 46. 
 
 17. What is the use ol sutures ? How many bones in each ear ? "What 
 is their use ? 18. How many bones in the face ? 19 29. Give the anato- 
 my of the bones of the trunk. 19. How many bones in the trunk ? Name 
 them. 20. To what are all the ribs joined ? How many on each side ? 
 What does fig. 2 represent? 21. How are the first seven ribs united in 
 front? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES 13 
 
 remaining five are not attached, directly, to the sternum. 
 Three are joined to each other by cartilage ; two are not con 
 fined ; hence they are called " floating ribs." 
 
 22. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal 
 column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, lungs, and 
 large blood-vessels. 
 
 23. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugai-!oaf. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 3 The form of the chest. 1, 2, 3, The sternum, (breast-bone.) 4, 5, The 
 epinal column, (bacl:-bone.) 6, 7, 8, 9, The first rib. 10, The seventh rib. 11, The 
 cartilage of the third rib. 12, The floating ribs. 
 
 Observation. The lower part of the chest is broader and 
 fuller than the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight 
 clothing. 
 
 The next three ? What are the last two called ? Why ? Describe fig. 3. 
 
 22. How is the chest formed ? What does it contain ? 23. What is the 
 shape of the chest ? How does the lower part of the chest compare ic 
 size with the upper ? 
 
14 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 24. The SPINAL* COLUMN is composed of twenty-four 
 pieces of bone. Each piece is called a vert'e-bra. 
 
 25. Between the pieces, or vertebrae, is a thick piece of car- 
 tilage, which is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not 
 only unites the vertebras, but permits them to move in different 
 ways. 
 
 26. There is an opening in each vertebra; By a union or 
 these openings, a canal is formed the whole length of the spinal 
 column, in which the spinal cord (pith of the back-bone) is 
 placed. 
 
 Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 4. The form of a vertebra of the neck. 1, The main portion of the bone 
 2, The spinal ranal, in which the spinal cord is placed. 4, 5, 7, 8, Points, or projec- 
 tions of the vertebra. 
 
 Fig. 5. 1, The cartilage -that connects the vertebra. 3, 4, 5, 6, Points, or pro- 
 jections of the vertebra. 7, The spinal canal. 
 
 Observation. A good idea of the structure of the vertebrae 
 maybe obtained, by examining the spinal column of a domestic 
 animal, as the dog, cat, or pig. 
 
 * From the Latin spi'na, a thorn ; so called from the points of the 
 vertebrae that are felt beneath the skin. 
 
 24. How many pieces of bone in the spinal column ? What is each 
 piece called ? 25. "What is placed between the vertebrae ? Give its use. 
 26. How is the spinal canal formed, and what does it contain ? Describe 
 fig. 4. Describe fig. 5. How may an idea of the structure of the verte 
 brae be obtained ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 15 
 
 27. The spinal column is a very curious and perfect piece 
 of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength and suf- 
 ficient movement or flexibility are combined. The vertebrae 
 are so firmly joined together, that dislocation of them, without 
 fracture, is very rare. 
 
 28. The PELVIS is composed of four bones. They are so 
 arranged as to form a bony basin. The spinal column rests 
 on these bones, and they also serve to support the lower 
 extremities. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig. 6. 1,1, The hip-bones. 2, The sacrum, upon which the spinal column 
 rests. 3, The extremity of the spinal column, named the coc'cyz. 4, 4, The cavities 
 for the head of the thigh bone. 
 
 29. In the sides of jhese bones is a deep, round cavity, 
 called a-ce-tab'u-lum, in which the head of the thigh-bone is 
 placed. 
 
 27. "What is said of the structure of the spinal column ? 28. Of how many 
 bones is the pelvis composed ? What is their use ? Describe fig. 6. 
 29. What is found in the sides of these bones ? 
 
]() ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE BONES, CONTINUED. 
 
 30. THE UPPER EXTREMITIES contain sixty-four bones 
 the Scap'u-la, (shoulder-blade ;) the Clav'i-cle, (collar-bone ;) 
 and the bones of the Arm, Fore-arm, Wrist, and Hand. 
 
 31. The SCAPULA is a broad, irregular bone, situated upon 
 the upper and back part of the chest. 
 
 32. The CLAVICLE is a thin bone at the base of the neck. 
 It is joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to 
 the scapula. 
 
 Observation. The use of the clavicle is to keep the arms 
 from sliding toward the breast. Children should frequently 
 throw their arms backward, as this exercise would tend to 
 increase the length of this bone, and also to enlarge the chest. 
 
 33. The ARM is formed of a single bone, called the hu'- 
 mer-us. 
 
 34. The FORE-ARM is formed of two bones the ul'na, on 
 the inner side, and the ra'di-us, on the outside, (the side on 
 which the thumb is placed.) By a beautiful arrangement of 
 these bones, the hand is made to rotate, or turn, permitting its 
 complicated and varied movements. 
 
 35. The WRIST is formed of eight irregular bones. They 
 move but little upon each other. 
 
 36. The HAND consists of nineteen bones five in the palm, 
 and fourteen bones in the fingers and thumb. 
 
 30 37. Give the anatomy of the bones of the upper extremities. 30. Name 
 the bones of the upper extremities. 31. Describe the scapula. 32. Where 
 is the clavicle situated ? What is the use of the clavicle ? 33. How is 
 the arm formed ? 34. The fore-arm ? 35. How many bones in the wrist ; 
 36. How many bones in the hand ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 17 
 
 37. Each finger is formed of three bones of different lengths , 
 the thumb has but two. Proofs of a designing Creator are 
 nowhere more manifest than in the simple but wonderful 
 structure and adaptation of the human hand. 
 
 38. The LOWER EXTREMITIES contain sixty bones the 
 Ftfrnur, (thigh-bone;) the Pa~tel'la, (knee-pan;) the Tib'i-a, 
 (shin-bone;) the FiVu~la, (small bone of the leg;) and the 
 bones of the Foot. 
 
 39 The FEMUR is the longest bone of the body. It sup- 
 ports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 7. u, The ulna. R, The radius, s, L, C, P, U, M, T, T, The eight bones o( 
 the wrist. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, The five bones of the palm of the hand. 
 
 Fig. 8. 10, 10, 10, The bones of the palm of the hand. 11, 12, 13, The bones of 
 the fingers. 14, 15, The bones of the thumb. 
 
 40. The TIBIA and the FIBULA are situated between the 
 knee and ankle. 
 
 37 What is said of the bones of the fingers and thumb ? 38 41. Give 
 the anatomy of the bones of the lower extremities. 38. Name the 
 bones of the lower extremities. 39. What is said of the femur? 
 Describe fig. 7. Fig 8. 40. What bones between the knee and 
 ankle ? 
 
 2* 
 
18 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYG1LNE. 
 
 41. The FOOT is formed of twenty-six bones seven in the 
 instep ; five in the middle of the foot ; and fourteen toe-bones. 
 
 Observation. The bones of the foot are so united as to give 
 it the form of an arch, convex on its upper surface, and con- 
 cave on the lower surface 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. 9. A view of the upper surface of the bones of the foot. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 8, The bones of the instep. 9, 9, 9, The bones of the middle of the foot. 10, 11, The 
 bones of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The bones of the small toes . 
 
 Fig. 10. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form. 1 ne arch 
 rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. 1, The lower part of the 
 tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the instep. 6, A bone of the middle of the foot. 7, 8, The 
 bones of the great toe. 
 
 42. The bones consist of animal matter, (jelly,) and earthy 
 matter, (phosphate and carbonate of lime.) 
 
 41. How many bones in the foot, and name them ? What is the form 
 of the foot? Describe fig. 9. Fig. 10. 42. Of what are the bones 
 composed ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 
 
 19 
 
 43. To show the animal without the earthy matter of the 
 bones, immerse a slender bone for a few days in a weak acid, 
 (one part muriatic acid and six parts water,) and it can then 
 be bent in any direction. 
 
 44. To show the earthy without the animal matter, burn a 
 bone in a clear fire for about fifteen minutes, and it becomes 
 while and brittle. 
 
 45. The JOINTS form an interesting part of the body. They 
 are composed of the extremities of two or more bones, Car'tr- 
 lages, (gristles,) Syn-o'vi-al membrane, and Lig'a-ments. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 11. The relative position of the bone, cartilage, and synovial membranfc, 
 1, 1, The extremities of two bones, to form a joint. 2, 2, The cartilage that covers 
 the end of the bone. 3, 3, 3, 3, The synovial membrane, which covers the cartilage 
 of both bones, and is then doubled back from one to the other ; it is represented by 
 the dotted lines. 
 
 Fig. 12. A vertical section of the knee-joint 1, The femur. 3, The patella. 
 5. The tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the patella. 6. Cartilage of the tibia. 12, The 
 cartilage of the femur. * * * *, The synovial membrane, 
 
 46. CARTILAGE is* a smooth, solid, elastic substance, that 
 covers the ends of the bones that form a joint. It prevents 
 the ends of the bones from wearing off, and also diminishes 
 the jar that the joint receives, in walking or leaping. 
 
 43. How can the animal matter be shown ?. 44. The earthy ? 4o 48. De- 
 scribe the parts that form a joint. 45. "What is said of the joints ? Of what 
 are they composed ? What is represented by fig. 11 ? Fig. 12? 46. Define 
 cartilage. What is its use ? 
 
20 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 47. The SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE is a thin, membranous layer 
 which covers the cartilages, and is thence bent back, or reflected 
 upon the inner surfaces of the ligaments which surround and 
 enter into the composition of the joints. This membrane 
 forms a closed sac. (Fig. 11.) 
 
 48. The LIGAMENTS are strong, inelastic substances ; the> 
 serve to connect and bind together the bones of the body. 
 
 Fig. 13 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Fig. 13. 8, 9, The ligaments that extend from the hip-bone (6) to the thigh- 
 bone, (5.) 
 
 Fig. 14. 2, 3, The ligaments that extend from the collar-bone (1) to the shoulder- 
 blade, (4.) The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the shoulder-blade to the first bone 
 of the arm. 
 
 Observation. The joints of the domestic animals, are similar 
 in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this part of 
 the body, a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be used. 
 
 47. Define synovial membrane. 48. "What are ligaments ? What is 
 their use ? What is represented by fig. 13 ? Fig. 14 ? How can the struc- 
 ture of the joints be illustrated ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. '41 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 
 
 49. THE bones are the framework of the body. They sup- 
 port all the soft parts, as the flesh and vessels, and likewise 
 afford a firm surface for the attachment of the ligaments. 
 
 50. The use of the various bones is different. Some protect 
 organs, as those of the skull and chest, while others are used 
 when we move, as those of the extremities and spinal column. 
 
 51. The bones are covered with a firm mem'brane, or skin, 
 called per-i-os'te-um. This membrane and the bones, when 
 healthy, give us but little pain if wounded ; but, if diseased, as 
 in " felons," the pain is very severe. 
 
 52. The joints are constantly supplied with a fluid called 
 syn-o'vi-a. This operates like oil on the joints of a machine. 
 By the smooth cartilages and synovia, the joints are enabled 
 to bear all the motion required of them during a great number 
 of years. 
 
 53. The joints vary in their functions. Some are movable, 
 as the finger-joints ; while others are immovable, as the sutures 
 of the skull. 
 
 54. The union of the spinal column with the skull exhibits 
 one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with in the 
 body. 1st. It permits the backward and forward movement, 
 as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d. The motion which 
 is made in turning the head from side to side. 
 
 49 51. Give the physiology of the bones. 49. What is the use of the 
 bones ? 50. Give the function of some of the bones. 51. "With what are 
 the hones covered ? 52 56. Give the physiology of the joints. 52. With 
 what are the joints constantly supplied ? What is the use of this fluid 
 an I the cartilages? 53. Mention some of the functions of the joints. 
 54 W at is said of the union of the spinal column with the skull ? 
 
29, 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 55. This admirable piece of mechanism affords great pro- 
 tection to the spinal cord, at the top of the neck ; this being, 
 perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to 
 it, or pressure upon it, is instantly fatal. 
 
 56. Some joints move but in one direction, like a hinge of a 
 door. These are called Hing&Joints ; as the ankle and the 
 knee-joint. Some joints move in different directions, like a ball 
 in a socket. These are called Ball and Socket Joints ; as the 
 shoulder and the hip-joint. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16 
 
 Fig. 15. The knee-joint. 1, The lower extremity of the thigh-bone. 3, 5, The 
 two rounded extremities that rest upon the upper extremity of the tibia, (shin-bone.) 
 2, Two ligaments within the knee-joint. 6, 7, The cartilage that tips the up;ier 
 extremity of the tibia, (4.) 
 
 Fig. 16. 2, The deep socket of the hip-joint. 5, The round head of the thigh- 
 uone, which is lodged in the socket. 3, The ligament within the socket. 
 
 Observation. The more movable a joint, the less firm it is, 
 and the more frequently dislocated., or " put out." It is for this 
 reason that the shoulder-joint is more frequently displaced than 
 any other in the body. 
 
 55. What is protected by this admirable piece of mechanism ? 56. What 
 ate hinge joints ? What are ball and socket joints ? Why is the shoulder- 
 ioint more frequently dislocated than any other in the body ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 21 
 
 Fig. 17. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, The skull. 3, The lower jaw. 4, The sternum 
 5 The ribs. 6, 6, The cartilages of the ribs. 7,.The clavicle. 8, Tne humerus. 9, Th* 
 shoulder-joint. 10, The radius. 11, The ulna. 12, The elbow-joint 13, The wrist. 
 14, The hand. 15, The haunch-bone. 16, The sacrum. 17, The hip-joint. 18, The 
 thigh-bone. 19, The patella. 20, The knee-joint. 21, The fibula. 22, The tibia. 
 S3, The ankle-joint. 24, The foot. 25, 26, The ligaments of the clavicle, sternum, 
 anil ribs. 27, 28, 29, The ligaments of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. 30, The large 
 rrteryof the arm. 31, The ligaments of the hip-joint. 32, The large blood-vessels of the 
 
 *igh. 33, The artery of the leg. 34, 35, 36, The ligaments of the patella, knee, and ankle. 
 
 .Vote. Let the pupil, in form of topies, review tho anatomy and physiology of the 
 
 mes from fig. 17, or from anatomical outline plates 1 and 2. 
 
24 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 
 
 57. The "bones require exercise to make them healthy. By 
 use they are increased in size and strength to a limited extent 
 while inaction or disease weakens them. Exercise favors the 
 deposition of the substances of which they are composed. 
 
 58. The exercise or labor should be adapted to the condition 
 of the bones. The bones of a child contain more of the animal 
 than the earthy matter, and are consequently weak ; though 
 the child is able to exercise, its bones are not adapted to severe 
 toil. On the other hand, the bones of the aged man contain 
 more earthy than animal matter. This causes them to be brit- 
 tle and unfit for labor. But in middle age, the proportions of 
 animal and earthy matter are, usually, such as to give the 
 proper degree of flexibility and strength for labor, with little 
 liability to injury. 
 
 Observation. The difference in the structure of the bones 
 at different ages may be seen, by comparing the rib of a calf 
 or lamb, with the rib of an ox or sheep. 
 
 59. The clothing should be loosely worn. The ribs and 
 bones of the spinal column are soft and yielding in childhood. 
 A small amount of pressure on the walls of the trunk will 
 lessen the size of the chest, and thus injure the lungs, stomach 
 and heart. 
 
 60. In sitting, the feet of the child should be supported. If 
 
 57 63. Give the hygiene of the bones. 57. What effect has exercise 
 upon the bones ? 58. Give the reasons why the amount of labor should be 
 adapted to the condition of the bones. How can the difference in the 
 structure of the bones at different ages be illustrated ? 59. Give a reason 
 why the clothing should be loosely worn. 60. Why should the feet of 
 thildren, when sitting, be supported ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 26 
 
 the stool is so high as not to permit the feet to rest upon the 
 floor, the weight of the limbs below the knee may cause the 
 flexible bone of the thigh to become curved. When the feet 
 are not supported, the child is inclined to lean forward, contract- 
 ing an injurious and ungraceful position. 
 
 Observation. The seats in school-rooms should not only b 
 of such height as to enable the pupil to rest the feet on the 
 floor, but they should have properly-constructed backs. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Fig. 18. The position assumed when the seat is of proper height, and the feel 
 supported. 
 
 Fig. 19. The position a child naturally assumes when the seat is so high that the 
 feet ate not supported. 
 
 61. Children should stand and sit erect. This position tends 
 to keep the spinarcolumn erect and healthy When a slight 
 curvature of the spine exists, it can be improved by walking 
 with a book, or a heavier weight, upon the top of the head ; to 
 
 Should seats in a school-room have backs ? 61. Why should children 
 stand and sit erect ? 
 
 a 
 
26 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 balance which, the spine must be nearly erect. Those people 
 that carry their burdens upon their heads seldom have crooked 
 spines. 
 
 62. Pupils, while writing, drawing, and sometimes while 
 studying, frequently incline the spinal column to one side, in 
 order to accommodate themselves to the desks at which they 
 ire seated. This position elevates one shoulder, while it de- 
 Dresses the other. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Fig. 20. A representation of a deformed spinal column- A well-formed spinal 
 column has three curves, two forward and one backward, (2, 2, 2, fig. 25,) but no 
 nteral curvature, (1, 1, fig. 17.) 
 
 63. One shoulder may be thus elevated for a short time, and 
 no injurious results follow, provided care is taken not to keep it 
 in the raised position too long, or if the opposite shouldeR is 
 elevated for the same period of time. 
 
 What is the effect of carrying burdens upon the head ? 62. What is the 
 effect of pupils using desks that are too high or improperly constructed ? 
 63. How can one shoulder be elevated, and no injurious results follow ? 
 
A.NATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 27 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 64. AIL the great motions of the body are caused by the 
 movement of some of the bones which form the framework of 
 the body ; but these, independently of themselves, have not the 
 power of motion, and only change their position through the 
 action of other organs attached to them, which, by contracting, 
 or shrinking, draw the bones after them. In some of the slight 
 movements, as the winking of the eye, no bones are displaced, 
 or moved. These moving, contracting organs are the Muscles, 
 (lean meat.) 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 65. A MUSCLE is composed of many little strings, called 
 fibres. Some of these fibres run in straight lines; others 
 spread like a fan ; while some are inclined like the feathery 
 part of a quill. (Fig. 21.) 
 
 66. Toward the extremities of a muscle the fibres unite, and 
 form a substance of a whitish color, harder and tougher than 
 the muscle. This is called ten 1 don, (cord, sinew.) 
 
 Observation. The pupil can examine a piece of boiled 
 beef, or the leg of a fowl, and see the structure of the fibres 
 and tendons of a muscle, with the attachment of the tendons 
 to the bones. 
 
 67. Tendons have various shapes. Sometimes they are 
 
 64. How are all the great motions of the body produced ? What are 
 these moving, contracting organs called ? 65 72. Give the structure of the 
 muscles. 65. Of what is a muscle composed ? 60. What is a tendon ? 
 How can the structure of a muscle be shown ? 67. What is the shape of 
 tendons ? 
 
28 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 long, slender strings ; sometimes they are shon arid thick ; 
 again, in some situations, they are thin and broad. They serve 
 to fasten the muscles to the bones, or to each other. 
 
 Observation. In some instances, the synovial membrane, 
 which forms the sheath of the tendons, is ruptured, and the 
 synovial fluid escapes. This forms a tumor, called a gan'gli-on^ 
 (weeping sinew.) It is called a wind-gall when on the limbs 
 of a horse. 
 
 68. In the description of a muscle, its attachments are ex- 
 pressed by the terms origin and insertion. The term origin is 
 generally applied to the more fixed or central attachment, or to 
 the points toward which motion is directed ; while insertion is 
 assigned to the more movable point, or to that most distant from 
 the centre. The middle, fleshy portion, is called the " belly," 
 or swell 
 
 Fig. 21. 1, Represents the fibres of a rnusclo running in straight lines. 2, The 
 fan-shaped fibres. 3, 4, Fibres inclined like the plumes of a quill. A, , Tendons at 
 vhe extremities of the muscle, 1. 
 
 69. In some parts of the body, there is but one layer of 
 muscle over the bones; in other parts, there are five or six 
 
 How are the tumors formed, called weeping sinews ? 68. How are the 
 attachments of muscles expressed ? What is the middle portion called? 
 69. How many layers of muscles are there around the bones ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. '2iJ 
 
 layers, one muscle being placed over another. They are sepa- 
 rated by a thin, whitish membrane, called fas'ci-a. 
 
 Observation. An instance is seen in the membrane which 
 envelops a leg of beef, and which is observed on the edges 
 of a slice when it is cut for broiling. 
 
 70. In general, the muscles form about the bones two 
 layers, called the superficial, or external muscles ; and the 
 deep-seated, or those nearest the bone. 
 
 71. There are more than four hundred muscles in the 
 human body. To these, and a yellow substance, called fat, 
 that surrounds and fills the spaces in the muscles, the child 
 and youth are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their 
 limbs. 
 
 Observation. When we are sick, and cannot tak^ food, the 
 body is fed with this fat. The removal of it into the blood 
 causes the sunken cheek, hollow eye, and prominem. appear- 
 ance of the bones, after a severe sickness. 
 
 72. When we look at this " harp of thousand string," and 
 notice the varied, rapid, complicated, yet accurate movements 
 it performs in a single day, our thoughts are lost in wonder, in 
 contemplating this superb and intricate machine, framed and 
 finished by the divine Architect. 
 
 How are they separated from each other ? Give an instance where this 
 membrane may be seen. 70. How many layers of muscles generally around 
 the bones, and what are they called ? 71. How many muscles in the hu- 
 man body ? Why are the limbs of a child more round and full than an 
 aged person's ? How is the body nourished when we cannot take food ? 
 
 3* 
 
30 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER VTI. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 73. EVERY motion of the body is made by the contraction 
 of the fibres of the muscles ; from the awkward movement 
 of the boy's first effort at penmanship, to the delicate and 
 graceful sweeps of the pianist ; from the firm, the stately tread 
 of the soldier, to the light, fairy-like step of the danseuse 
 
 Illustration. The muscles and f endons are to the bones 
 what the ropes are to the sails and yards of a ship. By their 
 action, the direction of the sails and yards is changed. So, by 
 the action of the muscles, the position of the bones of the body 
 is changed. 
 
 74. Each fibre of the several muscles receives from the 
 brain, through the nervous filament appropriated to it, a certain 
 influence called nervous fluid, or stimulus. It is this that in- 
 duces contraction, while the suspension of this stimulus causes 
 relaxation of the fibres. 
 
 75. Muscles remain contracted but a short time ; then they 
 relax, or lengthen, which is their rest. When the muscles are 
 in a state of contraction, they are full, hard, and more prom- 
 inent than when relaxed. 
 
 76. The alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles 
 may be shown by the following experiment : 
 
 Experiment. Clasp the fore-arm about three inches below 
 the elbow, then open and shut the fingers rapidly, and the 
 
 73 99. Give the physiology of the muscles. 73. How is every motion of 
 the body produced ? 74. With what is each muscular fibre supplied ? 
 What effect has this stimulus on the muscles ? 75. Do muscles remain 
 contracted a long time ? What is their appearance when in a state of con- 
 tract ion? 76. How can the alternate contraction and relaxation of the 
 muscles be shown ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 31 
 
 swelling and relaxation of the muscles on the opposite sides of 
 the arms, alternately with each other, will be felt correspond- 
 ing with the movement of the fingers. While the fingers are 
 bending, the inside muscles swell and the outside ones become 
 flaccid and, while the fingers are extending, the inside mus- 
 cles relax and the outside ones swell. The alternate swelling 
 and relaxation of opposing muscles may be felt in all the move- 
 ments of the limbs. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 2 4 
 
 A representation of the manner in which all of the joints of the body are moved 
 
 Fig. 22. 1, The bone of the arm above the elbow. 2, One of the bones below the 
 elbow. 3, The muscle that bends the elbow. This muscle is united, by a tendon, to 
 the bone below the elbow, (4 ;) at the other extremity, to the bone above the elbow, 
 (5.) 6, The muscle that extends the elbow. 7, Its attachment to the point of the 
 elliow. 8, A weight in the hand, to be raised. The central part of the muscle (3) 
 contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The bones below the elbow 
 are brought to the lines shown by 9, JO, 11. The weight is raised in the direction of 
 the curved line. When the muscle (6) contracts, the muscle (3) relaxes, and the el 
 bow is extended. 
 
 77. The eyebrows are elevated, or raised by the contraction 
 of the muscles on the forehead, 1, fig. 23. 
 
 78. The eyes are closed by the contraction of the muscles 
 that surround them, 2, fig. 23. 
 
 Explain fig. 22. 
 
 Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the muscular system be re- 
 viewed, in form of topics, from figs. 23, 24, or from the outline anatomical 
 plates 3 and 4. 
 
32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 79. The upper lip is elevated by the contraction of the mus 
 cles, 3, 4,5, 6, fig. 23. 
 
 80. The mouth is closed by the contraction of a muscle tha* 
 surrounds it, 7, fig. 23. 
 
 81. The lower lip is drawn down, or depressed, by the con- 
 traction of muscles on the lower part of the face, 8, fig. 23. 
 
 82. The head is bent forward, as in nodding, by the contrac- 
 tion of muscles on the front part of the neck, 9, fig. 23. 
 
 83. The chin is raised, and the head is brought erect by the 
 contraction of muscles on the back part of the neck, 5, 6, fig. 24. 
 
 84. The body is bent forward, and the ribs brought down, 
 by the contraction of muscles on the front and lower part of 
 the trunk, 22, 23, fig. 23. 
 
 85. The spinal column is kept erect by the muscles at the 
 lower and back part of the trunk, 24, 25, 26, fig. 24. 
 
 86. The shoulders are brought forward by the muscles upon 
 the upper and front part of the chest, 11, fig. 23. 
 
 87. The shoulders are brought back by the contraction of the 
 muscles upon the upper and back part of the chest, 7, fig. 24. 
 
 88. The arm is elevated by a muscle upon the shoulder, 10, 
 fig. 23 ; and 8, fig. 24. 
 
 89. The arm is brought to the side by muscles, 11, fig. 23; 
 and 24, fig. 24. 
 
 90. The elbow is bent by the contraction of the muscles on 
 the upper and front side of the arm, 14, fig. 23. 
 
 91. The elbow is extended by a muscle on the back part of 
 the arm, 10, fig. 24. 
 
 92. The wrist and fingers are bent by the muscles on the 
 front part of the arm, below the elbow, 16, 18, fig. 23. 
 
 93. The muscles on the back part of the arm, below the 
 elbow, extend the wrist and fingers, 21, 22, 23, fig. 24. 
 
 94. The muscles that bend the lower limbs, at the hip, are 
 situated at the lower and front part of the trunk, and the uppei 
 and front part of the thigh, 25, 26, 27, 28, fig. 23. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES, ;J3 
 
 95. The lower limbs are extended at the hips by the 
 muscles on the lower and back part of the trunk, and the upper 
 and back part of the thigh, 27, 28, fig. 24. 
 
 96. The muscles upon the front part of the thigh extend the 
 leg at the knee, 29, 30, fig. 23. 
 
 97. The knee is bent by the muscles upon the back part of 
 the thigh, 29, 30, fig. 24. 
 
 98. The muscles upon the fore part of the leg, below the 
 knee, bend the foot at the ankle, and extend the toes, 34, 35, 
 36, fig. 23. 
 
 99. The muscles upon the back part of the leg, below the 
 knee, extend the foot at the ankle, and bend the toes, 31, 32 
 33, fig. 24. 
 
 Observation. It would be a profitable exercise for pupils to ^ 
 press their fingers upon prominent muscles, and, at the same f 
 time, vigorously contract them, not only to learn their situations, \ 
 but their use ; as the one that bends the arm, 14, fig. 23. 
 
 [Pig. 23. A front view of the muscles of the body. 1, The frontal swells of tlie 
 occipito-frontalis. 2, The orbiciilaris palpebrarum. 3, The levator labii superioris 
 alxque nasi. 4, The zygomaticus major. 5, The zygnmaticus minor. 6, Tlie 
 masseter. 7, Theorbicula-isoris. 8, The depressor labii inferioris. 9, The platysma 
 myoides. 10, The deltoid, li; The pectoralis major. 12, The latissimus dorsi 
 13, The serratus major anticus. 14, The biceps flexor cubiti. 15, The triceps ex- 
 tensor cubiti. 16, The supinator radii longns. 17, The pronator radii teres. 18, The 
 extensor carpi radialis longior. 19, The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 20, The 
 annular ligament 21, The palmar fascia. 22, The obliquus externus abdominis. 
 23, The linea alba, 24, The tensor vaginae femoris. 26, The ;so:is magnus, 
 27, The abductor longus. 28, The sartorius. 29, The rectus femoris. 31), The 
 vastus externus. 31, The vastus internus. 32, The tendo patellae. 33, The gas- 
 trocnemius. 34, The tibialis anticus. 35, The tibia. 36, The tendons of the ex 
 tensor communis. 
 
 Fig. 24. A back view of the muscles of tlie body. 1, The temporal. 2, The 
 occipito-frontalis. 3, The complexus. 4, The splcnius. 5, The masseter. 6, The 
 sterno-cleido mastoideus. 7, The trapezius. 8, The deltoid. 9, The infra spinatus. 
 10, The triceps extensor. 11, The teres minor. 12, The teres major. 13, The 
 tendinous portion of the triceps. 14, The anterior edge of the triceps. 15, The 
 supinator radii longus. 16, The pronator radii teres. 17, The extensor comnmnis 
 digitorum. 18, The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 19, The extensor communis 
 digitormn tendons. 20, The olecranon and insert:on of the triceps. -21, The exten- 
 sor carpi ulnaris. 22, The auricularis. 23. The extensor communis. 24, The latis- 
 simus dorsi. 25, Its tendinous origin. 25, Ti:c obliquus externus. 27, The gluten* 
 medius. 28, The gluteus magnus. 29, The biceps flexor cruris. JO, The sen; .tea- 
 dinosus. 31,3 s ?, The CH-slrornemiiis. 33, The tendo-/ chillis.] 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 Fig. 23. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 
 Fig. 24. 
 
3fi ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK. 
 
 i 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 100. The muscles should le used and then rested. This 
 vill increase their size and strength, by increasing the flow of 
 blood to the parts called into action. A muscle should not be 
 used too long, or remain at rest too long ; both are alike 
 injurious. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. The blacksmith uses and rests the mus- 
 cles of his arm when striking upon the anvil. They not only 
 become large, but very firm and hard. 
 
 2d. The student uses the muscles of the arm but little, in 
 holding his books and pen ; they are not only small, but soft. 
 
 3d. Let the student leave his books, and wield an iron sledge, 
 and the muscles of his arm will increase in size and firmness. 
 On the other hand, let the blacksmith assume the student's 
 vocation, and the muscles of his arm will become soft and 
 less firm. 
 
 101. Exercise should be regular and frequent. The sys- 
 tem needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it does 
 new supplies of food. It is no more correct that we devote 
 several days to a proper action of the muscles, and then 
 spend one day inactively, than it is to take a proper amount 
 of food for several days, and then withdraw this supply for 
 a day. (See note A. page 42.) 
 
 102. Every part of the muscular system should have its 
 appropriate share of exercise. Some employments call into 
 
 100 118. Give the hygiene of the muscles. 100. Why should every mus- 
 cle be used ? "What is injurious to muscles ? How is the effect of using 
 muscles illustrated ? 101. Why should the exercise of the muscles be 
 regular and frequent ? 102. What employments and amusements are best 
 for the health ? 
 
OF THE MUSCLKS. 37 
 
 exercise the muscles of the upper limbs, as shoe-making ; others 
 the muscles of the lower limbs ; while some the muscles of both 
 upper and lower limbs, with those of the trunk, as farming. 
 Those trades and kinds of exercise are most salutary, in which 
 all the muscles have their due proportion of action, as this tends 
 to develop and strengthen them equally. 
 
 103. The proper time for exercise should be observed. This 
 is modified by many circumstances. As a general rule, the 
 morning, when the air is pure and the ground dry, is better than 
 the evening; for then, the powers of the body are greatest. 
 We should avoid severe exercise and labor immediately before 
 and after eating a full meal, for the energies of the system are 
 then required to perform the digestive function. 
 
 104. The muscles should be used in pure air. The purer 
 the air we breathe, the longer can the muscles be used in labor, 
 walking, or sitting, without fatigue and injury ; hence the bene- 
 fit derived in thoroughly ventilating all inhabited rooms. 
 
 Observation. It is a common remark that sick persons 
 will sit up longer when riding in a carriage, than in an easy 
 chair in the room where they have lain sick. In the one 
 instance, they breathe pure air, in the other, usually, a con- 
 fined, impure air. 
 
 105. The muscles should be exercised in the light. Light, 
 particularly that of the sun, exercises as great an influence on 
 man as it does on plants. Both require the stimulus of this 
 agent. Students should take their exercise during the day, 
 rather than in the evening, and the farmer and the mechanic 
 should avoid night toil, as it is much more exhausting than the 
 same eifort during daylight. 
 
 Illustrations. Plants that grow in the shade, as under a 
 board, are of lighter color and more feeble than those that are 
 
 Why ? 103. What time, in general, is best for exercise ? What should be 
 avoided ? 104. Why should the muscles be used in pure air ? Give obser- 
 vation. 105. Why should students take their exercise in the daytime ? 
 What should farmers and mechanics avoid ? Why ? How is the influence 
 of solar light illustrated ? 
 4 
 
38 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 exposed to the light of the sun. Persons that dwell in dark 
 rooms, are paler and less vigorous than those who inhabit 
 apartments well lighted, and exposed to solar light. 
 
 106. Every muscle should move freely. Compression by 
 any means, lessens the size and strength of the muscle. 
 
 Illustration. Let a surgeon bandage a limb for some weeks, 
 when a bone is broken, and when the bandage is removed, the 
 limb will be found smaller than when the accident occurred. 
 The compression by close dresses produces similar effects upon 
 the muscles of the body. 
 
 107. The state of the mind affects muscular contraction. A 
 person who is cheerful and happy will do more work, and with 
 less fatigue, than one who is peevish and unhappy. 
 
 Illustration. A sportsman will pursue his game miles with- 
 out fatigue, while his attendant, not having any mental stimu- 
 lus, will become weary. 
 
 108. The erect attitude lessens the exhaustion of the muscles 
 A person will stand longer, walk farther, and do more work, 
 when erect, than in a stooping posture ; because the muscles 
 of the back, in stooping, are in a state of tension, or stretching, 
 to keep the head and trunk from falling forward. In the erect 
 position, the head and trunk are nicely balanced and supported 
 by the bones of the spinal column, and the muscles of the back 
 are called but slightly into action. 
 
 Experiment. Hold in each hand a pail of water, or equal 
 weights, in a stooping posture, as long as it can be done with- 
 out much suffering and injury. Again, when the muscular 
 pain has ceased, hold the same weights, for the same length of 
 time, in an erect posture, and note the difference in the fatigue 
 of the muscles. 
 
 Observation. The attitude of children in standing has been 
 
 106. "Why should every muscle move freely ? How is the effect of com 
 pression illustrated ? 107- Does the mind affect the action of the muscles ? 
 How is this illustrated ? 108. "What attitude lessens the exhaustion of the 
 muscles? "Why? How is the effect of position shown by exp*nment J 
 VVhat is said respecting the attitude of children ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 39 
 
 much neglected both by parents and teachers. Let a child 
 acquire the habit of inclining his head and shoulders, and the 
 chest will become contracted, the muscles of the back enfeebled, 
 and the deformity thus acquired will progress to advanced age. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Fig. 25. 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet to the upper extrein 
 ity of the spinal column, where the head rests. 2, 2,2, The spinal column, with its 
 three natural curves. Here the head and body are balanced upon the spinal column 
 and joints of the lower extremities, so that the muscles are not kept in a state of ten- 
 sion. This erect position of the body and head is always accompanied with straight 
 lower limbs. 
 
 Fig. 26. 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet. 2, Represents the un 
 natural curved spinal column, and its relative position to the perpendicular, (1.) Tho 
 lower limbs are seen curved at the knee, and the body is stooping forward. While 
 standing in this position, the muscles <. f the lower limbs and back are in continued 
 tension, which exhausts and weakens them. 
 
 "What is represented by figs. 25 and 26 ? 
 
40 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 109. While study ing , drawing, writing, and sewing, the 
 body should be kept erect. This attitude favors a healthy action 
 of the various organs of the body, and conduces to beauty and 
 symmetry of form. On the contrary, narrow chests, " hollow 
 stomachs," " round shoulders," and ill health, follow a viola- 
 tion of this rule. 
 
 Fig. 28 
 
 Fig. 27. An improper, but not an unusual position in sitting. 
 Fig. 28 A proper position in sitting. 
 
 110. Muscles should be gradually called into action. When 
 the muscular system has been in a state of rest, it should not 
 suddenly be called into vigorous action. On arising from a 
 bed, lounge, or chair, the first movements of the limbs should 
 be slow, and then, if necessary, gradually increased. 
 
 109. What is one ^ cause of narrow chests and round shoulders? 
 110. What caution is given in using the muscles when they have been in 
 a state of rest ? What does fig. 27 show ? Fig. 28 ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 4J 
 
 Observation. If a man has a certain amount of work to be 
 performed in nine hours, and his muscles have been in a state 
 of rest, he will do it with less fatigue by performing half the 
 amount of* the labor in five hours, and the remainder in four 
 hours. The same principle should be regarded in driving 
 horses and other beasts of burden. 
 
 111. Muscles should be rested gradually, when they have 
 been vigorously used. If a person has been making great 
 muscular exertion in cutting wood, or any other employment, 
 instead of sitting down to rest, he should continue muscular 
 action by some moderate labor, or amusement. 
 
 112. When the skin is covered with perspiration, (sweat,) 
 from muscular action, avoid sitting down " to cool " in a current 
 of air ; rather put on more clothing, and continue to exercise 
 moderately. 
 
 113. In cases when severe action of the muscles has been 
 endured, bathing and rubbing the skin over the joints that have 
 been used, are of much importance. This will prevent soreness 
 of the muscles and stiffness of the joints. 
 
 114. In labor, or exercise, the muscles should be relaxed. 
 In walking, dancing, and learning to write, there will be less 
 fatigue, and the movements will be more graceful, when the 
 muscles are slightly relaxed, than when rigidly contracted 
 The same principle applies to most of the mechanical em- 
 ployments. 
 
 Experiments. Attempt to bow with the muscles of the 
 limbs and trunk rigid, and there will be a stiff bending of the 
 body only at the hip-joint. On the other hand, attempt to bow 
 with the muscles moderately relaxed ; the ankle, the knee, and 
 
 Give observation. Should the same principle be observed in driving 
 horses ? 111. How should muscles be rested when they have been vigor- 
 ously used ? 112. "When the skin is covered with perspiration from muscu- 
 lar action, how should it be " cooled" ? 113. How can soreness of the mus- 
 cles be prevented ? 114. In what state should be the muscles of the arm i 
 writing or performing most employments ? How is this principle shown by 
 experiments ? 
 
42 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the hip-joint will slightly bend, accompanied with an easy aH 
 graceful curve of the body. 
 
 115. When riding in cars and coaches, the system will not 
 suffer so severely from the jar if the muscles are slightly 
 relaxed. When riding over uneven' places in roads, rising 
 slightly upon the feet diminishes the shock occasioned by the 
 sudden motion of the carriage. The muscles, under such 
 circumstances, are to the body what elastic springs are to a 
 carriage. 
 
 116. In jumping or falling from a carriage, or any height, 
 t/ie shock to the organs of the body may be obviated in the 
 three following ways. 1st. Let the muscles be relaxed, not 
 rigid. 2d. Let the limbs be bent at the ankle, knee, and hips ; 
 the head should be thrown slightly forward, with the trunk a 
 little stooping. 3d. Fall upon the toes, not the heel. 
 
 117. Repetition of muscular action is necessary. To render 
 the action of the muscles complete and effective, they must be 
 called into action repeatedly and at proper intervals. This 
 education must be continued until not only each muscle, but 
 every fibre of the muscle, is fully under the control of the will. 
 In this way, persons become expert penmen, "singers, and 
 skilful in every employment. 
 
 118. In training the muscles for effective action, it is very 
 important that correct movements be adopted at the com- 
 mencement. If this is neglected, much power will be lost. 
 
 Note A. The custom among farmers of enduring severe and un- 
 due toil for several successive days, and then spending one or two 
 days in idleness, to rest, is injudicious. It would be far better to do 
 less in a day, and continue the labor through the period devoted to 
 idleness, and then no rest will be demanded. 
 
 115. "What suggestion when riding in cars or coaches ? 116. In jumping 
 from a carriage, in how many "ways can the shock to the organs of the body 
 be obviated ? Give the 1st. The 2d. The 3d. 117. How do persons be- 
 come expert penmen, singers, or skilful in any employment ? 118. What 
 is necessary in training the muscles for effective action ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE TEETH. 
 
 43 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE TEETH. 
 
 119. THE teeth are firmly fixed in the sockets of the upper 
 and lower jaw. The first set, which appear in infancy, is 
 called tem'po-ra-ry, or milk-teeth. They are twenty in num 
 her; ten in each jaw. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Fig. 29 The permanent teeth of the upper and lower jaw. a, 6, The incisors 
 e, The cuspids, d, t, The bicuspids. /, g, The molars, (double teeth.). A, The 
 wisdom teeth. 
 
 120. Between six and fourteen years of age, the temporary 
 teeth are removed, and the second set appears, called per'ma- 
 nent teeth. They number thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. 
 
 121. The four front teeth in each jaw are called in-ci'sors^ 
 
 119123. Give tJie anatomy of the teeth. 119. In what are the teeth 
 placed ? What is the first set called ? How many in number ? Describe 
 fig. 29. 1.20. When are these teeth removed ? What is the second set 
 called ? How many in each jaw ? 121. What are the teeth in front called ? 
 
44 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 (cutting teeth ;) the next tooth on each side, the cus'pid, (eye 
 tooth ;) the next two, bi-cus'pids, (small grinders ;) the next two. 
 mo'lars, (grinders.) The last one on each side of the jaw, is 
 called a wisdom tooth, because it does not appear until a person 
 is about twenty years old. 
 
 122. Each tooth is divided into two parts ; namely, crown 
 and root. The crown is that part which protrudes from the 
 jaw-bone and gum. The root, or "fang," is placed in the 
 sockets of the jaw. 
 
 Pig. 30. Kg. 31. 
 
 Fig. 30. A side view of the body and enamel of a front tooth. 
 
 Fig. 31. A side view of a molar tooth. 1, The enamel. 2, The body of the tootli 
 3, The cavity in the crown of the tooth. 4, A nerve that spreads in the pulp of the 
 tooth. 5, An artery that ramifies in the pulp of the tooth. 
 
 123. The crowns of the teeth are covered with a very hard 
 substance, called en-am 1 el. The roots consist of bony matter. 
 
 PHYSl'OLOGY OF THE TEETH. 
 
 124. The use of the teeth is twofold. 1st. By a rutting 
 and grinding movement, they divide the masses of food into 
 
 The next ? The next two ? Those next the bicuspids ? The last that 
 appear in the jaw ? 122. How is each tooth divided ? Which part of the 
 tooth is the crown ? Which the root ? 123. With what are the crowns 
 of the teeth covered ? Of what does the root consist ? Describe fig. 31. 
 124 126. Give the physiology of 'the teeth. 124. What is one use of the teeth? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE TEETH. 45 
 
 smaller pieces, so that they are more easily and readily changed 
 in the stomach. 
 
 125. 2d. The teeth aid us in speaking with distinctness 
 ^rtain letters and words. An individual who has lost his front 
 oth cannot pronounce distinctly certain lexers, called dental. 
 
 126. The teeth also give beauty to the lower part of the 
 face. When they are removed, the lips and cheeks sink in, as 
 is frequently seen in old age. Consequently, those simpie 
 observances that tend to the preservation of the teeth, are of 
 practical interest to all persons. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE TEETH. 
 
 127. To preserve the teeth, they must be kept clean. After 
 eating food, they should be cleaned with a brush and water, or 
 rubbed with a piece of soft flannel, to prevent the tartar col 
 lecting, and to remove the pieces of food that may have lodged 
 between them. 
 
 128. Tooth-picks may be useful in removing any particles 
 inaccessible to the brush. Thry may be made of bone, ivory, 
 or the common goose-quill. Metallic tooth-picks should not be 
 used, as they injure the enamel. 
 
 129. The whole mouth should be washed with pure, tepid 
 water, at night, as well as in the morning, after which the teeth 
 should be brushed upward and downward, both on the posterior 
 and anterior surfaces. It may be beneficial to use refined 
 soap once or twice every week, to remove any corroding sub- 
 stance that may exist around the teeth, care being taken to 
 thoroughly rinse the mouth after its use. 
 
 12-5. Give another use of these organs. 126. Do they contribute to the 
 symmetry of the lower part of the face ? 127 132. Give the hygiene of the. 
 tteth. 127. By what means can the teeth be preserved ? 128. What is said 
 of the use of tooth-picks ? 129. How often should the teeth be brushed : 
 
46 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 130. Food or drink should not be taken into the mouth when 
 very hot or very cold. Sudden changes of temperature will 
 rrack the enamel, and, finally, produce decayed teeth. 
 
 Observation. On this account, smoking is pernicious, be- 
 cause the teeth are Subjected to an alternate inhalation of both 
 cold and warm air. 
 
 131. Care should be taken, in childhood, that the temporary 
 teeth be removed as soon as they become loose, in order that the 
 second set of teeth may present a regular and beautiful appear- 
 ance. If a permanent tooth makes its appearance before the 
 first is removed, or has become loose, the milk-tooth, although 
 not loose, should be removed without delay. 
 
 132. If the teeth are crowded and irregular, in consequence 
 of the jaw being narrow and short, or when they press so hard 
 upon each other as to injure the enamel, remove one or more, 
 to prevent their looking unsightly and irregular, and in a few 
 months, the remaining teeth, with a little care, will fill the 
 spaces. 
 
 Observations. 1st. It is not always necessary to have teetft 
 extracted when they ache. The nerve may be diseased, and 
 the tooth still be sound. 
 
 2d. When it is necessary to have decayed teeth filled, it is 
 better for the health of the person and durability of the teeth, 
 to have them filled with gold foil. 
 
 130. What is the cause of decayed teeth ? Why is smoking injurious 
 to the teeth? 131. What remarks respecting the temporary teeth? 
 132. Give other remarks in regard to the temporary teeth. Give obser- 
 vation 1st. Observation 2d. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 47 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 133. THE food, whether animal or vegetable, has no resem- 
 blance to the bones, muscles, and other parts of the body to 
 which it gives sustenance. It must undergo certain essential 
 alterations before it can become a part of the different struc- 
 tures of the body. The first change is effected by the action 
 of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Fig 32. A view of the salivary glands in their proper situations. 1, The pmrotid 
 gland. 2, Its duct. 3, The submaxillary gland. 4, Its duct. 5, The sublingual 
 gland, brought to view by the removal of a section of the lower jaw. 
 
 133. Has animal or vegetable food any resemblance to the different parts 
 of the body to which it gives sustenance ? By what organs is the first 
 ehange in the food effected ? Describe fig. 32 
 
48 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 134. The DIGESTIVE ORGANS are the Mouth, Teeth, Sal i 
 va-ry Glands, Phar'ynx, (E-soph'a-gus, (gullet,) Stomach 
 ln-tes' tines, (bowels,) Lac'te-als, (milk or chyle vessels,) 
 Tlio-rac'ic Duct, Liv'er, and the Pan'cre-as, (sweetbread.) 
 
 135. The MOUTH is an irregular cavity, which contains the 
 teeth and the organs of taste. 
 
 136. The SALIVARY GLANDS* are six in number; three 
 on each side of the jaw. They are called the pa-rot 1 id 
 the sub-max'il-la-ry, and the sub-lin' gual. (Fig. 32.) 
 
 137. The PHARYNX is a muscular, membranous sac, that leadg 
 to the oesophagus. 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 Pig. 33. A side view of the face, oesophagus, and trachea. 1, 2, The trachea 
 (wind-pipe) and larynx. 3, The oesophagus. 4, 4, 4. The muscles of the upper por 
 lion of the oesophagus, forming the pharynx. 5, The muscles of the cheek. 6, The 
 muscle that surrounds the mouth. 7, The muscle that forms the floor of the mouth 
 
 See paragraph 234. 
 
 134 147. Give the anatomy of the digestive organs. 134. Name the 
 digestive organs. 135. Describe the mouth. 136. Describe the salivaiy 
 glands. 137. What is the pharynx ? What does fig. 33 represent ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE OBGA-NS 4U 
 
 138 The CESOPHAGTJS is a. large, membranous tube, through 
 which the food and drink pass into the stomach. 
 
 139. The STOMACH* is in the left side of the body, below 
 the lungs and heart. It is composed of three coats, or mem- 
 branes, which are thin and yielding. The external is called 
 the se'rons ; the middle, mus'cu-lar ; the inner, mu'cous. 
 
 Illustration. The three coats of the stomach (anatomically 
 resemble tripe, which is a preparation of the largest stomach 
 of the cow or ox. The outer coat is smooth and highly 
 polished. The middle coat is composed of minute threads, 
 which are arranged in two layers. The fibres of these layers 
 cross each other. The inner coat is soft, and presents many 
 Mds, usually called " the honey-comb." 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Fig. 34. The inner surface of the stomach and duodenum. 1, The lower portion 
 of the oesophagus. 2, The opening through which the food is passed into the stomach 
 3, The stomach. 9, The opening through which the food passes out of the stomach 
 into the duodenum, or upper portion of the small intestine. 10, 11, 14, The duode- 
 num. 12, 13, Ducts through which bile and pancreatic fluid pass into it. , , , The 
 three coats of the stomach. 
 
 * For situation of the stomach, &c., see fig. 53. 
 
 138. What is the oesophagus ? 139. Where is the stomach situated? 
 How many coats has it ? Name them. What article prepared for fooct 
 does the stomach resemble in structure ? Explain fig. 34. 
 5 
 
50 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 140. The INTESTINES, or alimentary canal, are divided ink' 
 two parts, the small and large. The small intestine is about 
 twenty-five feet in length. The upper and most important 
 division is called the Du-o-de'num. The large intestine is 
 about five feet in length. The largest division is called the 
 'Co'lon. 
 
 9 141. The DUODENUM (called by nurses the second stomach) 
 is the most essential part of the small intestine. It is about 
 twelve inches in length, and commences at the lower orifice of 
 the stomach. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Fig 35. 1, 1, The duodenum. 2, 2, The small intestine. 3, The connection i 
 Ihe small and large intestine. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, The large intestine. 6, 7, 8, 9, TL. 
 
 14 A How are the intestines divided ? What is the length of the small 
 intestine ? What is its largest division called ? What is the length of the 
 large intestine ? What is its largest division called ? 141 Describe the 
 duodenum. Explain fig. 35. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 61 
 
 142. The LACTEALS are minute vessels, which open upon the 
 mucous surface of the small intestine. From the intestine 
 they pass through small glands, (mes-en-ter'ic,) to the thoracic 
 duct. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 30. A portion of the small intestine, lacteal vessels, mesenteric gland:?, and 
 thoracic duct. 1, The ir.iestine. 2, 3, 4, Mesenteric glands, through which the 
 ! n - i!s pass to the Iho-icic ducL 5, 6, The thoracic duct. 7, The point in the neck 
 win-re it turns down to enter the vein at 8. 9, JO, The aorta. 11, 12, Vessels of the 
 n- < k. 13, 14, 15. The large veins that convey the blood and chyle to tlie In-art 
 17, 17, The spinal column. 18, The diaphragm, (midriff.) 
 
 1*2. What are lacteals ? Through what do they pass as they proceed tc 
 the thoracic duct ? Describe fig. 36. 
 
i>2 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 143. The THORACIC DUCT commences behind the liver, and 
 ascends in front of the spinal column. At the lower part of 
 the neck, it turns downward and forward, and pours its con- 
 tents into the vein behind the collar-bone. (8, fig. 36.) This 
 duct is equal in diameter to a goose-quill. 
 
 144. The LIVER is in the right side of the body, below the 
 right lung. On the under side of this organ is a small sac, 
 which contains a yellow, bitter fluid, called bile, (gall.) 
 
 Observation. The bile does not flow into the healthy stomacK 
 but into the duodenum. With many persons, the imagination is 
 bilious, not the stomach. 
 
 145. The -PANCREAS is a long, flattened organ, situated be- 
 hind and below the stomach. From it there flows a fluid into 
 the duodenum, called pan-cre-at'ic juice. 
 
 Observation. A good idea of the liver, pancreas, and intes- 
 tines can be obtained by examining these parts of a pig. In 
 this animal, the sacs or pouches of the large intestine are well 
 defined. 
 
 146. The SPLEEN, (milt,) so called because the ancients 
 supposed it to be the seat of melancholy, is an oblong, flattened 
 organ, situated in the left side, in contact with the stomach and 
 pancreas. Its use is not well determined. 
 
 147. The OMENTTJM (caul) is composed of adipose matter, 
 (fat,) deposited between layers of serous membrane. It is 
 attached to the stomach, and lies on the anterior surface of the 
 intestines. In some persons of gross habits, this deposit is very 
 great. 
 
 143. Describe the course of the thoracic duct. What is its size ? 
 144. Describe the liver. What is found upon its under surface ? Give ob- 
 servation. 145. Describe the pancreas. How may an idea of the liver be 
 obtained ? 146. Describe the spleen. Is its use well known ? 147. De- 
 scribe the ornentum. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 53 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 
 
 148. SUBSTANCES received into the stomach as food, mus\ 
 necessarily undergo many changes before they are fitted to 
 form part of the animal body. The solid portions are reduced 
 to a fluid state, and those parts that will nourish the 'body are 
 separated from the waste material. 
 
 149. The first change in the food is made in the mouth, by 
 the teeth, and the sa-li'va (spittle) from the salivary glands. 
 The teeth divide, while the saliva moistens and softens the food, 
 so that, when carried into the pharynx, it is passed, with ease, 
 through the oesophagus into the stomach. 
 
 150. In swallowing, the food is pressed by the contraction 
 of the muscles 5, 6, 7, (fig. 33,) into the pharynx, from which 
 it is carried into the oesophagus, by the contraction of the 
 muscles 4, 4, 4. As soon as the food is received into this tube, 
 its muscular coat contracts upon it successively from above 
 downward, and the alimentary ball is pressed onward into the 
 stomach. 
 
 Observation. The process-of swallowing, or deglutition, is 
 easily observed, when a person passes either, liquid or solid 
 food into the stomach. 
 
 151. The next change in the food is in the stomach. The 
 coats of the stomach contract, and the food is moved around, 
 while, at the same time, a peculiar fluid is supplied by the 
 
 148 159. Give the use of the digestive organs. 148. What is necessary 
 before food can nourish the body ? 149. Describe the first change in the 
 food. 150. Give the process by which the food is passed into the stomach. 
 How may the process of swallowing be observed ? 151. Where is the 
 second change in the food effected ? How is it done ? 
 r, * 
 
54 ANATOMY ; PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEN*, 
 
 stomach, called gastric juice, which mixes with the food, and 
 reduces it to a soft, pulpy mass, called chyme. 
 
 152. This pulpy, grayish substance is passed into the duo- 
 denum, and, by the action of the bile and pancreatic juice, it is 
 changed into two parts a milk-like substance, called chyle ; 
 and re-sid'u-um, or waste matter. 
 
 153. The chyle and residuum pass from the duodenum into 
 the remaining portion- of the small intestine, and are moved 
 along by a worm-like action of its parts. 
 
 154.- As these two substances are moved along the intestine, 
 the chyle is sucked up by the lacteal vessels,* that pass through 
 the small intestine, and the residuum is carried into the large 
 intestine, and excreted from the system. 
 
 155. To recapitulate : In the adaptation of the food to the 
 wants of the body, it is subjected to five different changes. 
 1st. It is changed in the mouth, by the action of the teeth and 
 saliva. This is called mastication. 
 
 156. 2d. By the action of the stomach and gastric juice, it 
 is changed into a pulpy, homogeneous mass. This is called 
 chymification. 
 
 157. 3d. In the duodenum, the bile and pancreatic juice 
 change the chyme into chyle. This is called chylijication. 
 
 158. 4th. By the action of the lacteal vessels and thoracic 
 duct, the chyle is poured into a vein behind the collar-bone, 
 and passes through the heart to the lungs ; here, by the action 
 of the air, it becomes Hood. (See Chap XX.) 
 
 159. 5th. The separation and excretion of the residuum. 
 
 * The chyle is changed by the lacteals and mesenteric glands, but 
 the nature of this change is not, as yet, well defined or understood. 
 
 152. What becomes of this pulpy substance ? What change is effected 
 in the duodenum ? 153. Where do the chyle and residuum then pass r 
 154. What becomes of the chyle ? Of the residuum ? 155. Recapitulate 
 the five changes in the digestive process. 
 
 Note. Let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the digestive 
 organs, from figs. 36 and 37, or from outline anatomical plate 5. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Fig. 37. An ideal view of the organs of digestion, opened nearly the whole lengtli. 
 I, The upper jaw. 2, The lower jaw. 3, TJie tongue. 4, The roof of the mouth. 
 5 The oesophagus. 6, The trachea. 7, The parotid gland. 8, The aublingual gland. 
 9, The stomach. 10, 10, The liver. 11, The gall-cyst, or sac. 12, The duct thai 
 conveys the bile to the duodenum, (13, 13.) 14, The pancreas. 15, 15, 15, 15, The 
 small intestine. 16, The opening of the small intestine into the large intestine 
 17, 18, 19, 20, The large intestine. 21, The spleen. 22, The upper part of the spinal 
 column. 
 
56 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 f 
 
 HYGIENE OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 160. THE perfection of the digestive process, as well as the 
 health of the body, requires the observance of certain condi- 
 tions. These will be considered under four heads. 1st. The 
 quantity of food that should be taken. 2d. Its quality. 
 3d. The manner in which it should be taken. 4th." The con- 
 dition of the system when food is taken. 
 
 161. The QUANTITY of food necessary for the system varies. 
 Although many things may aid us in determining the quantity 
 of food proper for an individual, yet there is no certain guide* 
 in all cases. Age, occupation, habits, temperament, tempera- 
 ture, health, and disease, all exert an influence. 
 
 162. The child and youth require food to promote the 
 growth of the bones, muscles, and the different parts of the 
 body. The more rapid the growth of the child, the greater the 
 demand for food. This accounts for the keen appetite and 
 vigorous digestion in childhood. 
 
 163. Food is necessary to repair the waste which attends 
 the functions of the different organs. The waste is greatest 
 when we exercise most. For this reason, when we increase 
 our exercise or labor, the quantity of food may be increased; 
 while, on the other hand, when we change from an active em- 
 
 160186. Give the hygiene of the digestive organs. 160. What does the 
 perfection of the digestive process require ? 161. Can the quantity of 
 food proper for an individual be determined in all cases ? What exert an 
 influence on the quantity necessary for the body ? 162. At what age is the 
 appetite keen and the digestion vigorous ? Why ? 163. Give another de- 
 mand for food. When is the waste greatest ? When should the amoun' 
 of food be lessened ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 57 
 
 ployment to one less active in character, the food should be 
 diminished in nearly the same degree that the exercise is 
 lessened. 
 
 164. When the girl leaves the active household employ- 
 ments for the shop of the dress-maker, when the boy leaves 
 the farm for the school-room, the amount of food should 
 be diminished as soon as the sedentary employment is com- 
 menced ; for, under such circumstances, the appetite will not 
 guide correctly. 
 
 Observation. It is a common observation, that in academies 
 and colleges, the older students from the country, who have 
 been accustomed to hard manual labor, suffer more frequently 
 from defective digestion and impaired health than the younger 
 and feebler students from the larger towns or cities. 
 
 165. The food aids in supporting the warmth of the body. 
 This is the reason why the appetite for food is keener in the 
 winter than in the summer. It follows, then, that the system 
 reqoires more food in cold than in hot weather. 
 
 Observatio?is. 1st. Well-clothed children require less food 
 in cold weather than those thinly dressed. 2d. Flocks and 
 herds that are sheltered in winter, will eat one third less than if 
 exposed to the inclemency of the weather ; hence it is true 
 economy to keep the inferior animals warm, as well as children. 
 
 166. In all instances, the quantity of food should have 
 reference to the present condition of the digestive organs. 
 If they are weakened or diseased, so that but a small quantity 
 of food can be properly digested or changed, that amount only 
 should be taken. Food does not invigorate the system, except 
 it is changed, as has been described in Chap. XI. 
 
 167. The QUALITY of the food best adapted to the wants of 
 
 164. When will not the appetite guide correctly ? What observation re- 
 specting those students that have been accustomed to hard manual labor ? 
 165. Why is the appetite for food keener in the winter than in the summer ? 
 Give observation 1st. Observation 2d. 166. Why should the present 
 condition of the digestive organs be regarded in reference to the quantity 
 of food? 167. On what does the quality of food adapted to the wants of 
 f .he system depend * 
 
b8 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the system depends upon the season, climate, age, &c., of 
 a person. Like the quantity necessary for an individual, there 
 can be no fixed law. 
 
 168. The kind of food which is eaten should be adapted to 
 the distensible character of the stomach and alimentary canal. 
 Hence the food should contain nutritious and innutritious mat- 
 ter nutritious, to promote the growth and repair the waste of 
 the system ; and innutritious, to distend both the stomach and 
 alimentary canal. Consequently, hot flour bread, rich pies, and 
 jellies, are not so good articles for food, as the unbolted wheat 
 bread, ripe fruits, and berries. 
 
 169. The influence of season and climate should be consid* 
 cred in selecting food. Food of a highly stimulating character 
 may be used almost with impunity, during the cold weather of 
 a cold climate, but in the warm season, and in a warm climate, 
 it would be very injurious. Animal food, being more stimu- 
 lating than vegetable, can be eaten in the winter ; but vegetable 
 food should be used more freely in the spring and sum me*. 
 
 Observation. By abstaining from meats and stimulating 
 drinks in warm weather, and living on nutritious, unstimulating 
 food, the " season " or bowel complaints may be, in a great 
 degree, prevented. 
 
 170. The age of persons modifies the influence of food on the 
 system. The organs of a child are more sensitive and excita- 
 ble than those of a person advanced in years. Therefore 
 a vegetable diet would be most appropriate for a child, while 
 stimulating animal food might be conducive to the health of an 
 aged person. 
 
 . 171. The MANNER in which food should be taken is of much 
 practical importance ; upon it the health of the digestive 
 organs depends. 
 
 168. What should all substances used for food contain ? Why ? 
 169. Should the season of the year influence us in selecting food ? Give 
 observation. 170. What kind of food is adapted to* the organs of the child ? 
 Why ? What kind to a person advanced in life ? Why ? 171. What is 
 said of the manner of taking food ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE OBJAN3. 59 
 
 172. Food should be taken at regular periods. The interval 
 between meals should be regulated by the kind of food, the 
 age, health, exercise, and habits of the individual. Children re- 
 quire food more frequently than adults ; yet, strict regularity and 
 punctuality should be observed in regard to their times of eating. 
 173. Food should not be taken too frequently. If food is 
 taken before the stomach has regained its tone and energy by 
 repose, or before the digestion of the preceding meal has been 
 completed, not only will the action of the stomach be imperfect, 
 but the food partially digested becomes mixed with that last taken, 
 inducing irritation or disease. In general, an adult should allow 
 six hours to intervene between meals. 
 
 174. Food should be well masticated, or chewed. All- solid 
 food should be reduced to a state of comparative fineness, by the 
 teeth, before it is swallowed ; the gastric fluid of the stomach 
 will then blend with it more readily, and act more vigorously 
 in reducing it to chyme. 
 
 175. Mastication should be moderate, not rapid ; for the 
 salivary glands are excited to action in chewing, and some time 
 must elapse before they can secrete saliva in sufficient quantities 
 to moisten the food. 
 
 176. Food should be masticated and swallowed without 
 drink. As the salivary glands supply fluid to moisten the dry 
 food, the use of tea, coffee, water, or any other fluid, is not 
 demanded by nature's laws while taking a meal. 
 
 Observation. Were it customary not to place drinks on the 
 table until the solid food is eaten, the evil arising from drinking 
 too much at meals would be obviated. 
 
 177. The CONDITION of the system should be regarded 
 when food is taken. 
 
 172. How should food be taken? How should the intervals between 
 meals be regulated ? What should be observed in giving food to children ? 
 173. What is the effect if food is taken too frequently ? 174. Why should 
 food be well masticated ? 175. Why should we not eat rapidly ? 176. Why 
 do we not require drink while chewing our food ? 177. Should the con- 
 dition of the system be regarded when food i<* taken ? 
 
O'O ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 178. Food should not be taken immediately after severe exer 
 lion, either of the body or mind ; for all organs in action require 
 and receive more blood and nervous fluid, than when at rest. 
 
 Observation. The practice of students and accountants 
 going immediately from severe mental labor to their meals, is 
 a pernicious one, and a fruitful cause of indigestion. and metftal 
 debility. The custom of farmers and mechanics hurrying 
 from their toil to the dinner-table, " to save time," which, to 
 say the least, is poor economy, does much to cause dyspepsia 
 among these classes in community. 
 
 179. Severe mental or physical labor should not be entered 
 upon immediately after eating. The amount of blood and 
 nervous fluid supplied to the stomach and alimentary canal 
 during the digestion of food is increased, and a deficiency con- 
 sequently exists in other organs. If the blood is diverted from 
 the stomach to the limbs or brain by active exertion, it will not 
 only cause disease of the digestive organs, but chyle will not be 
 formed, to nourish the system. , 
 
 180. Pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and vigor- 
 ous digestion. The digestive organs not only need the stimulus 
 of blood, but they absolutely need the influence of pure blood 
 which cannot exist in the system, except when we breathe 
 pure air. 
 
 Illustration. A manufacturer stated before a committee of 
 the British parliament, that he removed an arrangement for 
 ventilating his mill, because he noticed that his men ate much 
 more after his mill was ventilated than previous to admitting 
 fresh air into the rooms. The apology for removing the venti- 
 lators was, that he could not afford to have them breathe 
 oure air. 
 
 178. Why should not food be taken after severe exertion ? What is one 
 cause of indigestion among students and accountants ? What is said o 
 farmers and mechanics hurrying from their toil to the dinner-table ? 
 179. Why should not severe exertion be made immediately after eating f 
 ISO. What effect has pure air on digestion ? Give illustration. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGAN b. 61 
 
 181. Persons should abstain from eating, at least three 
 hours before retiring for sleep. It is no unusual occurrence 
 for those persons who have eaten heartily immediately before 
 retiring for sleep, to have unpleasant dreams, or to be aroused 
 from their unquiet slumber by colic pains. 
 
 Illustration. A healthy farmer, who was in the habit of 
 eating one fourth of a mince pie immediately before going to 
 bed, became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, and, among the 
 varied images of his fancy, he saw that of his deceased father. 
 Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physician, who, after a 
 patient hearing of the case, gravely advised him to eat half of a 
 mince pie, assuring him that he would then see his grandfather. 
 
 182. When the general system and digestive organs a*e 
 enfeebled, mild, ujistimulating food, in small quantities, should 
 be given. In the instance of a shipwrecked and famished 
 mariner, or a patient recovering from disease, but a small 
 quantity of nourishment should be given at a time. 
 
 183. Water and most fluids are removed from the stomach 
 in a very few minutes, by the action of the veins. In instances 
 of great feebleness, the body can be strengthened sooner by 
 liquid than by solid food. 
 
 184. When travelling in coaches or cars, the stomach is not 
 in a state to digest large quantities of food. When food is 
 taken, it should be of the mildest character, and small In 
 quantity. 
 
 185. To prevent disease, it is as necessary that the alimen- 
 tary canal be evacuated regularly, as that we take food into 
 the stomach at regular periods. 
 
 186. Sitting, standing, and walking erect, aid in keeping the 
 digestive organs healthy. 
 
 181. What is the effect gf eating immediately before retiring for sleep ? 
 How is this illustrated in the case of a healthy farmer ? 182. How should 
 food be given when both the digestive organs and general system are c n 
 feebled ? 183. Which are introduced into the system soonest, fluids or 
 solid food ? 184. What is said in regard to food while we are travelling 
 18*3. What position of the body aids digestion > 
 
 6 
 
62 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 187. THE blood is distributed to every part of the system. 
 There is no part so minute, that it does not receive this circu- 
 lating fluid. This distribution is effected by the agency of the 
 Hearty Ar'te-ries, Veins, and Cap'il-la-ries. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 * 
 
 188. The HEART is situated in the chest, between the lungs. 
 (Fig. 53.) It is a double organ, or has two sides, called right 
 and left, which are separated by a muscular sep'tum, or 
 partition. 
 
 189. Each side of the heart has two cavities. The upper 
 cavity is called the au'rl-de, (deaf ear.) The lower cavity is 
 calfed the ven'tri-cle. These cavities are separated from each 
 other by folds of membrane, called valves. (Fig. 38.) 
 
 190. Between the auricle and ventricle of the right side of 
 the heart, there are three valves, called tri-cus'pid. Between 
 the auricle and ventricle of the left side of the heart, there are 
 two valves, called mi'tral. 
 
 Observation. To obtain a clear idea of the heart and its 
 valves, it is recommended to examine this part of an ox or 
 calf. In order that each ventricle be opened without muti- 
 
 187. What is said of the distribution of the blood ? How is it effected > 
 188 196- Give the anatomy of the circulatory organs. 188. Describe the 
 heart. 189. How many cavities has it ? What is the upper cavity called ? 
 What is the lower cavity called? How are, these cavities separated: 
 190. How many valves between the right auricle and ventricle, and what are 
 they called ? How many valves between the left auricle and ventricle, and 
 what are they called ? How can an idea of the heart be obtained ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. M 
 
 iating the parts that compose its internal structure, cut on each 
 side of the septum parallel to it. This may be easily found 
 between the ventricles, as they differ in thickness. 
 
 191. The ARTERIES are the vessels that carry the blood from 
 the heart. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to the 
 pul'mo-na-ry artery ; the left ventricle to a large artery, called 
 the a-ort'a. At the commencement of both of these vessels 
 are valves, and from their shape, they are called sem-l-lu'nar 
 
 Fig. 38. 1, The descending vein. 2, The ascending vein. 3, The right auricle. 
 4, The opening between the right auricle and the right ventricle. 5, The right ven- 
 tricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 8, The branches ol 
 the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of 
 the pulmonary artery. 10, The division between the two ventricles of the heart. 
 11, 11, The pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. 13, The opening between the 
 left auricle and ventricle. 14, The left ventricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The 
 a rta. 17, The semilunar valves of the aorta. 
 
 Observation. The parts of the circulatory organs most liable 
 to disease are the valves of the heart, particularly the mitral. 
 
 191. What are arteries ? Where does the pulmonary artery take its 
 rise ? The aorta ? What valves at the commencement of these vessels ? 
 Describe fig. 38. What parts of the circulatory organs are most liable to 
 disease ? 
 
tvl ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 When these membranous folds become ossified or ruptured, 
 the blood regurgitates, and causes great distress in breathing. 
 
 192. The PULMONARY ARTERY commences in front of the 
 aorta. It ascends obliquely to the under surface of the arch of 
 the aorta, where it divides into two branches, one of which 
 passes to the right, the other to the left lung. This artery 
 conveys the dark-colored or "venous" blood to the lungs, and, 
 with its corresponding veins, establishes the pulmonic circu- 
 lation. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 Fig. 39. t, The windpipe. A, The heart, a, The aorta, p, The pulmonary 
 artery. 1, The branch of the pulmonary artery that divides in the left lung. 2, The 
 nranch that divides in the right lung. 
 
 The divisions of this artery continue to divide and subdivide, until they become no 
 larger than hairs in size. These minute vessels pass over the air-cells, represented by 
 small dark points around the margin of the lungs.. 
 
 192. Describe the pulmonary artery. What is the function of this 
 artery ? Explain fig. 39. What is said of the divisions of the pulmonary 
 artery ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 65 
 
 193. The AORTA proceeds from the left ventricle of the 
 heait r and contains te pure or "arterial" blood. This vessel 
 gives off branches, which divide and subdivide as they advance, 
 until they are distributed to every part of the body. This 
 artery, with its corresponding veins, establishes the systemic 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 Fi<_'. 40. The aorta and its branches, a, The commencement 01 the aoita. 
 
 193. Describe the aorta. What is represented by fig. 40 ? 
 6* 
 
66 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 194. The VEINS are the vessels which return the blood to 
 the auricles of the heart, after it has been circulated by the 
 arteries through the lungs -and other parts of the body. At 
 certain intervals, they are furnished with valves, which allow 
 the blood to flow toward the heart only. In general, they are 
 nearer the surface of the body than the arteries. 
 
 195. The CAPILLARIES constitute a microscopic net-work, 
 and are so distributed through every part of the body as to ren- 
 der it impossible to introduce the smallest needle beneath the 
 skin without wounding several of these fine vessels. They 
 establish the communication between the termination of the 
 arteries and the beginning of the veins. 
 
 196. The relation of the capillaries to the arteries and 
 veins, is illustrated by figs. 41 and 42. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 Fig. 41. An ideal view of a portion of the pulmonic circulation. 1, 1, A brancn 
 of the artery that carries the impure blood to the lungs. 3, 3, Capillary vessel*. 
 2, 2, A vein through which the red blood is returned to the left side of the heart. 
 
 Fig. 42. An ideal view of a portion of the systemic circulation. 1, 1, A branch 
 of the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries 3, 3. 2, 2, A vein through which 
 the impure blood is carried to the right side of the heart. 
 
 194. What are veins ? "With what are they furnished ? 195. What do 
 the capillaries constitute ? What do they establish ? What does fig. 41 
 represent? Fig. 42? 
 
PHYSIOLOGX OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 67 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 197. THE walls of all the cavities of the heart are composed 
 of muscular fibres, which are endowed with the property of con- 
 tracting and relaxing, like other parts of the muscular system. 
 The contraction and relaxation of the muscular fibres of the 
 heart increase and diminish the size of its cavities. 
 
 198. The two auricles dilate at the same instant, and also 
 contract at the same instant. The two ventricles contract, while 
 the auricles dilate. Thus the blood is forced from the heart to 
 every part of the body, and received again on its return. 
 
 199. The course of the blood through the heart, arteries, 
 and veins, may be easily comprehended by attention to fig. 43, 
 which gives an ideal view of the circulation of the blood. 
 
 200. The heart aids in forcing the blood through the arte- 
 ries, to the different parts of the body. Every time the heart 
 contracts, there is a " pulse," or " pulsation," in the arteries. 
 
 Experiment. Apply the fingers upon the artery at the wrist, 
 at two different points, about two inches apart ; if the pressure 
 be moderately made, the "pulse" will be felt at both points. 
 Let the upper p'oint be pressed firmly, and there will be no 
 pulsation at the lower point; but make strong pressure upon 
 the lower point only, and the pulsation will continue at the 
 upper point; proving that the blood flows from the heart, in 
 the arteries, to different parts of the system. 
 
 197 203. Give the physiology of the circulatory organs. 197 What do 
 the contractic a and relaxation of the muscular walls of the heart produce ? 
 198. "What if said of the contraction and dilatation of the auricles ? Of 
 the ventricles ? 200. What causes the "pulse," or "pulsation," in the 
 arteries? How is it proved that the blood flows from the Ixeart in the 
 arteries ? 
 
fo'8 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 201. The frequency of the pulse varies according to the 
 age, sex, and degree of health. In adults, it is usually from 
 seventy to seventy-five "beats" in a minute. 
 
 202. There is no pulsation in the veins, and the return of 
 the blood to the heart through them can be shown by the fol- 
 lowing experiments. 
 
 Experiments. 1st. Press firmly on one of the veins upon 
 .he back of the hand, carrying the pressure toward the 
 fingers ; for a moment the vein will disappear. On removing 
 the pressure of the finger, it will reappear, from the blood 
 rushing in from below. 
 
 2d. If a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow, the 
 ^eins below will become larger and more prominent, and also a 
 greater number will be brought in view. At this time, apply 
 the finger at the wrist, and the pulsation of the arteries still 
 continues, showing that the blood is constantly flowing from 
 the heart, through the arteries, into the veins ; and the increased 
 size of the veins shows that the pressure of the tape prevents 
 its flowing back to the heart. 
 
 203. From the right ventricle of the heart, (2, fig. 43,) the 
 dark, impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery, (3 ;) 
 and its branches (4, 5) carry the blood to the left and right 
 lung. In the capillary vessels (6, 6) of the lungs, the blood 
 becomes pure, or of a red color, and is returned to the left auri- 
 cle of the heart, (9,) by the veins, (7, 8.) From the left auri- 
 cle the pure blood passes into the left ventricle, (10.) By a 
 forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, the blood 
 is thrown into the aorta, (11.) Its branches (12, 13, 13) carry 
 the pure blood to every organ, or part of the body. The 
 divisions and subdivisions of the aorta terminate in capillary 
 vessels, represented by 14, 14. In these hair-like vessels 
 the blood becomes dark-colored, and is returned to the right 
 auricle of the heart, (1,) by the ve'na ca'va de-scen'dens (15) 
 and ve'na ca'va as-cen'dens, ( 16.) The tricuspid valves ( 17) pre- 
 vent the reflow of the blood from the right ventricle to the right 
 
 201. "What -varies the frequency of the pulse ? 202. Is there pulsation 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. t'w 
 
 aide. The semilunar valves (18) prevent the blood passing 
 horn the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. The mitral 
 valves (19) prevent the flow of blood from the left ventricle to 
 (he left auricle. The semilunar valves (20) prevent the reflow 
 of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 
 bete. From fig. 43, give the course of the blood thiough the heart, arto 
 ries, and veins, or from anatomical outline plates 6 and 7. 
 
7U ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 204. The clothing should be loosely worn. To have good 
 health, the blood must circulate freely. Consequently, no arti- 
 cle of apparel should be worn so as to prevent a free flow of 
 blood through every organ of the body. 
 
 205. Strings, bands, or belts, however narrow, should not 
 be worn so tightly as to cause an indentation of the skin of the 
 trunk, or extremities. 
 
 Observations. 1st. Inelastic bands, worn upon the lower 
 extremities, are a frequent cause of enlarged veins and painfu' 
 limbs. 2d. The fulness and the crimson tint of the face, gid 
 diness, fainting, and many derangements in the functions of 
 different organs, are produced by pressure upon the blood 
 vessels of the trunk. 
 
 206. The skin should be kept clean, and every part of an 
 equal temperature. These conditions favor free and vigorous 
 circulation. 
 
 Observation. When intending to ride in a cold day, wash 
 the face, hands, and feet, in cold water, and rub them smartly 
 with a coarse towel. This is far better than to take spirits into 
 the stomach, to keep the extremities warm. 
 
 207. Muscular exercise is important in maintaining a 
 
 204 214. Give the hygiene of the circulatory organs. 204. Why should 
 the clothing be loosely worn ? 205. What is said of bands or belts ? What 
 is the effect of wearing inelastic bands upon the lower extremities ? What 
 is a frequent cause of giddiness, faintness, and derangement of the func- 
 tions of many organs ? 206. In what condition should the skin be kept ? 
 Give observation. 207. What is the effect of muscular exercise upo:i the 
 circulation of blood ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 71 
 
 kca'thy circulation. The muscles, when used, force the 
 blood more rapidly to and from the heart. 
 
 Illustration. The coach-driver and teamster throw their 
 arms around their bodies to warm them, when cold ; because 
 the muscles that are called into action in swinging the arms, 
 force a greater quantity of blood into the chilled parts, and 
 more heat is produced. 
 
 208. Idle men and women, who complain of cold feet, and 
 take " warming bitters " to quicken the blood, would find them- 
 selves warmer and more invigorated by calling the muscles into 
 action in the mechanic's shop, or the kitchen, or in some active 
 employment. 
 
 Observation. In cold weather, when travelling in cars, the 
 feet will not become chilled so readily when standing as when 
 sitting. Again, the feet will be warmer by allowing them to 
 swing, instead of being supported the whole time, because the 
 muscles, called into action in swinging them, increase the cir- 
 culation of the blood. 
 
 209. The quality and quantity of the blood modify the action 
 of the heart and blood-vessels. If this fluid is abundant and 
 pure, the circulatory vessels act with more energy than when 
 it is deficient in quantity or defective in quality. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. In an athletic man, whose heart beats 
 forcibly, and whose pulse is strong, if a considerable quantity of 
 blood is drawn from a vein, as in bleeding, the heart will beat 
 feebly, and the pulse will become weak. 
 
 2d. When the blood is made impure by inhaling vitiated air, 
 the action of the heart and arteries is diminished, which pro- 
 duces an effect similar to that which takes place when blood is 
 drawn from a vein. 
 
 210. When large blood-vessels are wounded or cut, the 
 
 Give illustration. 208. What is better for cold feet and hands than 
 " warming bitters " ? Give observation. 209. What effect have the quantity 
 and quality of the blood upon the circulatory vessels ? Give illustration 
 1st. Illustration 2d. 210. What is necessary when large blood-vessels are 
 vrnunded or cut ? 
 
72 ANATOMY., PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 
 
 flow of blood must be immediately stopped, or the persou 
 vrill soon die. If a large artery is wounded, the blood will be 
 thrown out in jets, or jerks, every time the pulse beats. The 
 flow of blood can be stopped until a surgeon arrives, either by 
 compressing the vessel between the wound and. the heart, or by 
 compressing the end of the divided artery in the wound. 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 Fig. 44. The track of the large artery of the arm. 1, The collar-bone. 9, 10, The 
 arge artery of the arm. 
 
 F'ig. 45. B, The manner of compressing the artery near the collar-bone. A, The 
 manner of compressing the large artery of the arm, with tho fingers. C, The manner 
 of compressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound, with a finger. 
 
 211. After making compression with the fingers, as described 
 and illustrated, take a piece of cloth or handkerchief, twist it 
 eornerwise, and tie a hard knot midway between the two ends. 
 
 What is shown by fig. 44 ? By fig. 45 ? 211. What is to be done afte.- 
 compressing the wound, as before described ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGAWS. 
 
 73 
 
 This knot should be placed over the artery, between the wound 
 and the heart, and the ends carried around the limb and loosely 
 tied. A stick, five or six inches long, should "be placed under 
 the handkerchief, which should be twisted until the knot has 
 made sufficient compression on the artery to allow the removal 
 of the fingers without a return of bleeding. Continue the 
 compression until a surgeon can be called. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Fi2. 4G. The method of applying the knotted handkerchief to make compression on 
 J> is artery. A, B, The track of the large artery of the arm. 
 
 Fig. 47. A, C, The track of the large artery of the thigh. B, The method of apply- 
 ing the knotted handkerchief to compress this artery. In practice, the twisting stick B 
 should be placed opposite the knot over the artery A, C. 
 
 Observation. When an artery of the arm is cut, elevating 
 the wounded limb above the head will tend to arrest the flow of 
 blood. In a wound of a lower limb, raise the foot, so that it 
 shall be higher than the hip, until the bleeding ceases. 
 
 Illustration. On one occasion, the distinguished Dr. Nathan 
 Smith was called to a person who had divided one of the large 
 arteries below the knee. After trying in vain to find the bleed- 
 ing vessel, so as to secure it, he caused the foot to be elevated 
 
 What is shown by figs. 46, 47? Give observation. Relate a simple 
 operation by Dr. Nathan Smith. 
 7 
 
74 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 higher than the hip. At the first instant, the blood was forced 
 from the wound about twelve inches; in u minute, it was dimin- 
 ished to three or four ; and, in a short tim<j, the bleeding ceased. 
 This Dr. S. called his "great" operation; and it was truly 
 great in simplicity and science. 
 
 212. In "flesh wounds," when no large blood-vessel is 
 divided, wash the part with cold water, and, when bleeding 
 has ceased, draw the wound together, and retain it with narrow 
 strips of adhesive plaster. These should be put pn smoothly, 
 and a sufficiont number applied to cover the wound. In most 
 instances of domestic practice, the strips of adhesive plaster are 
 too wide. Thejr should not exceed in width one fourth of an 
 inch. Then appiy a loose ba.idago, and avoid all " healing 
 salves," ointments, and washes. 
 
 Tig. 48. 
 
 Fig. 48. The manner in which strips of adhesive plaster are applied to wound? 
 
 213. The union of the divided parts is effected by the action 
 of the divided blood-vessels, and not by salves and ointments. 
 The only object of the dressing is to keep the parts together, 
 and protect the wound from air and impurities. Nature, in all 
 cases of wounds, performs her own cure. Such simple incisions 
 do not generally require a second dressing, and should not be 
 opened till the parts are healed. In removing the dressing 
 from a wound, both ends of the strips of plaster should be 
 raised and drawn toward the incision. The liability of the 
 wound re-opening is thus dimLished. 
 
 * How should " flesh wounds " be dressed ? 213. How is the union of 
 4ivided parts effected ? What should be avoided ? How should the 
 trips of plaster be removed from a wound 't 
 
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 75 
 
 214. The proper position of the limbs favors the union of 
 wounds. If the wound be upon the front part of the leg, 
 between the knee and ankle, extending the knee and bending 
 the ankle will aid its closing. If the wound be upon the back 
 part of the leg, by extending the foot and bending the knee, 
 the gaping of the wound will be diminished. When wounds 
 occur upon the trunk, let the position of the person be regarded. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Fig. 40. a, a, Wounds on the back part of the arm and fore-arm, b, b, Wounda 
 on the front part of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elbow and wrist, the 
 wounds at a, a, are opened, while the wounds at ft, ft, are closed. Were the arm ex 
 tended at the elbow and wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those at ft, ft 
 would be opened. 
 
 215. In wounds made by pointed instruments, as a nail, or 
 in lacerated wounds, as those made by forcing a blunt instru- 
 ment, as a hook, into the soft parts, there will be no direct and 
 immediate union. In these cases, apply a soothing poultice, as 
 one made of linseed meal, and also keep the limb still. It is 
 judicious to consult a physician immediately, in punctured or 
 lacerated wounds, because they often induce the most danger 
 ous diseases. 
 
 214. Does the proper position of the limbs favor the union of wounds I 
 215. How should punctured and lacerated wounds be dressed ? 
 
76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 ABSORPTION. 
 
 216. ABSORPTION is the process by which the nutrient por- 
 tion of the food is removed from the alimentary canal to be 
 conveyed into the circulatory vessels. It is likewise the process 
 by which the particles of matter that have become injurious or 
 
 iseless, are removed from the mass of fluids and solids of 
 which the body is composed. Thesff renovating and remov- 
 ing processes are performed by two sets of vessels. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 217. The vessels that act exclusively for the growth and 
 renovation of the system, are found only in the alimentary 
 canal. They are called lac'te-als* 
 
 218. The vessels whose sole function is to remove particles 
 of matter already deposited, are called lym-pliat'ics. The 
 radicals, or commencement of the veins, in many, and it may 
 be in all parts of the body, perform the office of absorption. 
 
 Fig. 50. A representation of the lymphatic vessels and glands. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,. 6, The 
 lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The 
 commencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The lymphatics of the kidney. 10, Of the 
 stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, The lungs. 13, 14, 15, The lymphatics and 
 glands of the arm. 16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19, 20, Large veins. 21, The 
 thoracic'duct. 26, The lymphatics of the heart 
 
 See paragraph. 142. 
 
 216, What is absorption ? 217. What are those vessels called that act 
 exclusively for the growth and renovation of the body ? 218 221. Give 
 the anatomy of the lymphatic vessels. 218. Name those vessels that remove 
 the atoms already deposited. What other vessels perform the office of 
 \hsorption ? What does fig. 50 represent ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 15 
 
7 AN ATOM *, PHYSIOLUG1, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 219. The LYMPHATIC VESSELS are very minute at their com- 
 mencement; so much so, that they cannot be seen without 
 the aid of a magnifying glass. As they proceed, they unite 
 and form larger trunks, that open into the veins. 
 
 220. Lymphatic vessels are found in every part of the 
 body, except the brain, yet, it is supposed they exist in this or- 
 gan. The knotted appearance of these vessels is owing to 
 the arrangement of their internal coats, to form valves. 
 
 221. In certain parts of the body, as the neck, these ves- 
 sels pass through small, soft bodies, called lymphatic glands, 
 which are to these vessels what the mesenteric glands are to 
 the lacteals. 
 
 Observation. Sometimes, when we are afflicted with a 
 cold, these glands in the neck enlarge ; they are usually 
 called "kernels." 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 222. Though the lacteals and lymphatics resemble each 
 other in their structure and termination, yet they differ as to the 
 nature of the fluids which they convey, as well as the nature of 
 their functions. The lacteals open into the small intestine, 
 and possess the power of rejecting all substances in the passing 
 food but the chyle. 
 
 223. The lymphatics, on the contrary, not only imbibe, or 
 suck up, all the various constituents of the body, both fluid and 
 solid, when their vitality has ceased, but they absorb foreign 
 and extraneous substances when presented to their mouths. 
 
 Observations. 1st. When little or no food is taken into the 
 stomach, life is supported by the lymphatic vessels imbibing 
 
 219. Describe the lymphatic vessels. 220. Where are they found ? To 
 what is the knotted appearance of these vessels owing ? 222 224. Give 
 the use of tJie lymphatic vessels. 221. What are lymphatic glands ? Give 
 observation. 222. What is said of the lacteals and lymphatics ? Give 
 the function of the former. 223. Give the use of the lymphatics. How 
 Is life supported when little or no food is eaten ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 79 
 
 <he fat, and reconveying it into the circulatory vessels. It is 
 the removal of this substance which causes the emaciation of 
 the face and limbs of a person recovering from a fever. In 
 consumption, the extreme attenuation of the limbs is caused by 
 the absorption, not only of the fet, but also of the muscles and 
 more solid parts of the body. 
 
 2d. Animals which live in r half torpid state during the 
 winter, derive their nourishmenv from the same source. In 
 other words, we may say the starving animal lives for a time 
 upon itself, eating up, by intern?! absorption, such parts of the 
 body as can be spared, under urgent necessity, to feed these 
 organs, and continue those functions that are absolutely essen. 
 tial to life. 
 
 224. The most important absorbing surfaces are the 
 stomach, intestines, lungs, anc? skin. Through the lungs, 
 absorption is not only very greit, but extremely rapid. 
 
 Illustration. In inhaling sulphuric ether, or letheon, it is 
 introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor, 
 and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, and thus 
 influences the nervous system. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 225. By the action of the lymphatics, substances of an inju- 
 rious, as well as of a beneficial character may be conveyed 
 into the system. These vessels, under certain conditions, are 
 more active in their office than at other periods ; and it is of 
 practical utility to know what influences their action. 
 
 226. The function of t/iese vessels is increased by moisture, 
 
 What causes the extreme attenuation of the limbs in consumption ? How 
 do those animals derive their nourishment that live in a half torpid state 
 during winter ? 224. What are the most important absorbing surfaces ? 
 How is letheon introduced into the svstem ? 225 229. Give the hygiene 
 of the lymphatic vessels. 225. What is said respecting the action of the 
 lymphatic vessels ? 226. What influences the function of these vessels ? 
 
b'O ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and lessened by an inactive state of the lacteals. Obser- 
 vation shows that the ill-fed, and those persons that live in 
 marshy districts, contract contagious diseases more readily than 
 those individuals who are well fed, and breathe a dry and 
 pure air. 
 
 227. The skin and the apparel of nurses and watchers 
 should be clean, and as free of perspiration as possible. The air 
 of the sick-room should also be dry. The observance of these 
 conditions tends to prevent the absorption of the poisonous 
 matter of contagious diseases, as small-pox, measles, &c. 
 
 Observation. When we have been visiting, or attending on 
 a sick person, it is judicious to change the apparel worn in the 
 sick-room, and also give the skin a thorough bathing. The out- 
 side garments, also, should be aired, as poisonous matter may 
 have penetrated the meshes of the cloth. 
 
 228. The stomach should be supplied with food of a nutrient 
 and digestible character, in proper quantities, and at stated 
 periods. The chyle formed from the food stimulates the 
 lacteals to activity, which activity is attended with aji inactive 
 state of the lymphatics of the skin and lungs. Thus due at- 
 tention should be given to the food of the attendants on the 
 sick, and the children of the family. 
 
 Observation. Many individuals, to prevent contracting dis- 
 ease that may be communicated from one person to another, 
 use tobacco, either chewed or smoked; and sometimes alco- 
 hol, with decoctions of bitter herbs. These substances do not 
 diminish, but tend to increase the activity of the lymphatics. 
 Thus they make use of the means by which the poisonous 
 matter formed in the system of the diseased person, may be 
 more readily conveyed into their own. 
 
 "What does observation show ? 227. Why should the skin and apparel 
 of nurses and watchers be as free of perspiration as possible ? What sug- 
 gestion when we have been visiting or attending on the sick ? 228. Why 
 should the stomach be supplied with food of a nutrient and digestible 
 character ? What is said of the use of alcohol or tobacco, in preventing th<= 
 introduction of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE LVMPHATIC VESSELS. 81 
 
 229. Absorption by the skin is most vigorous when the ex- 
 ternal layer is removed by ves'cation, or Blistering. Then, 
 external applications, as ointments, are brought in immediate 
 contact with the orifices, or mouths, of tne lymphatics of the 
 skin, and by them rapidly imbibed and circulated through the 
 system. The same results follow, if the skin is only punctured. 
 
 Observation. 1st. In case of an accidental wound, it is best 
 immediately to bathe the part thoroughly in pure water, and to 
 avoid all irritating applications. In some instances, it would be 
 well to apply lunar caustic immediately. 
 
 2d. When shrouding dead bodies, or removing the skin 
 from animals that have died of disease, it would be well to 
 lubricate the hands with olive-oi 1 or lard. This affords pro- 
 tection to the minute portions of the skin from which the 
 external layer may be removed 
 
 3d. In all cases where there is an ulcer, or sore, the part 
 should be covered with something impervious to fluids, as 
 court-plaster, before exposing the system to any animal, vege- 
 table, or mineral poison. 
 
 229. When is absorption by the skin most vigorous ? Give observation 
 1st. Observation 2d. Observation 3d. 
 
82 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 SECRETION. 
 
 230. IN the human body are found many fluids and solids of 
 dissimilar appearance and character. These are produced by 
 the action of organs called Se'cre-to-ry. Some of these organs 
 are of simple structure, while others are very complicated in 
 their arrangement. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 
 
 231. The SECRETORY ORGANS are of three kinds, namely, 
 the Ex-ha!lents, Fol'll-cles, and the Glands. 
 
 232. The EXHALENTS are supposed to be terminations of the 
 arteries, or capillaries. They are of two kinds, external and 
 internal. The latter terminate on the surfaces Vithin the body, 
 and the former upon the outside. 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 Fig. 51. A secretory follicle. An artery is seen, which supplies the material for its 
 secretion. Follicles are also supplied with veins and organic nerves. 
 
 233. The FOLLICLES are small bags, or sacs, in the deeper 
 layer of the skin and mucous membrane. The pores seen on 
 the skin are the outlets of these bodies. 
 
 230. How are the fluids and solids of the body produced? 231234. Give 
 the anatomy of the secretory organs. 231. Name the secretory organs. 
 232. Describe the exhalents. What does fig. 51 represent ? 233. Define 
 follicles. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 83 
 
 234. The GLANDS are the chief agents of secretion in the 
 body. They are formed of minute arteries, veins, and tubes, 
 wound together. These organs vary in size from a mustard- 
 seed to that of the liver, which weighs from two to four pounds. 
 Every gland, however minute, has a small duct for collecting 
 and carrying off the secreted fluid. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 
 
 235. SECRETION is one of the most obscure and mysterious 
 functions of the body. It has the same meaning (physiologi- 
 cally) as separation. Not only is the process by which sub- 
 stances are separated from the blood, called secretion^ but the 
 same term is also applied to substances thus separated. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 Fig. 52. a, a, A secretory gland. 6, b, Minute ducts that are spread through tho 
 glands. These coalesce to form the main duct, c. 
 
 236. Ail the fluids of the body are deriveo from the blood, 
 and this element, when distributed to the different glands and 
 follicles, is similar in composition and character; but the fluids 
 secreted by them, vary in appearance in a remarkable degree. 
 The office of the glands is principally to form different secre 
 
 234. What is said of the glands ? Explain fig. 52. 235237. Give the 
 physiology of the secretory organs. 235. "WTiat is secretion ? 236. From 
 what are all the fluids of the body derived ? "WTjat is the principal office 
 of the glands 5 
 
HI ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 tions. Thus the salivary glands secrete the insipid saliva ; the 
 liver, the yellow, ropy bile ; and the kidneys, the acrid urine. 
 
 237. When any substance which is not demanded for nutri- 
 tion, or does not give nourishment to the system, is taken up by 
 the lymphatic vessels and conveyed into the blood, it is dis- 
 charged by secretions. 
 
 Illustration. A few years since, a poor inebriate was carried 
 to a London hospital in a state of intoxication. He lived but a 
 few hours. On examining his brain, nearly half a gill of fluid, 
 strongly impregnated with gin, was found in the cavities of this 
 organ. This was secreted from the vessels of the brain. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 
 
 238. Unless the secretions are regularly maintained, dis- 
 ease will be the ultimate result. Let the secretions from the 
 skin be suppressed, and fever or some internal inflammation 
 will follow. If the bile is impeded, digestion will be impaired. 
 If any other secretion is suppressed, it will cause a derange- 
 ment of the various internal organs. 
 
 Observation. Ardent spirits derange the secretions, and 
 change the structure of the brain. This is one reason why 
 inebriates do not live to advanced age. 
 
 239. The quantity of blood influences ike character of the 
 secretions. If it is lessened to any great extent, the secretions 
 will be lessened, as well as changed in character. 
 
 Illustration. When a person has lost a considerable quantity 
 of blood, there is a sensation of thirst in the throat, attended 
 with a cold, pale, dry skin. When reaction comes on, the 
 
 237. What becomes of those substances which are taken up by the 
 lymphatics, and do not nourish the body ? How is this illustrated ? 
 238 241. Give the hygiene of the secretory organs. 238. What is the effect 
 n the system if the secretions are not regularly maintained ? What is 
 & reason that inebriates do not live to an advanced age ? 239. What effect 
 on the secretions when the quantity of blood is lessened? How is this 
 Plustrated ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS *#> 
 
 perspiration is cold, attended with nausea, and sometimes 
 vomiting. 
 
 240. The amount of action modifies the condition of the 
 secretory organs. When a secretory organ is excessively 
 stimulated, its vigor and energy are reduced. The subsequent 
 debility may be so great as to suppress or destroy its functional 
 power. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. In those sections of the country where flax 
 is spun on a " foot-wheel," the spinners sometimes moisten the 
 thread with saliva. This seems to operate economically for a 
 time, but debility of the salivary organs soon follows, and they 
 are incapable of supplying saliva sufficient to moisten the food, 
 producing, in a short time, disease of the digestive organs. 
 
 2d. The habit of continual spitting, which attends the chew- 
 ing of tobacco and gums, induces debility, not only of the 
 salivary glands, but of the system generally. 
 
 241. The secretions are much influenced by mental emo- 
 tions. If we smell savory food, there will be an increased flow 
 of saliva ; if we hear the intelligence of the death of a cherished 
 friend, the tear will quickly course down the cheek. 
 
 Observation. Such is the nice sympathy which exists be- 
 tween different parts of the body, that in the evenings of the 
 warm season, a chill upon the impressible skin that suppresses 
 the perspiration, is frequently followed by a diarrhoea, dysen- 
 tery, or cholera morbus. These can be prevented by avoiding 
 the chill. An efficient means of relief, is, immediately to 
 restore the skin to its proper action. 
 
 240. What is the effect if a secretory organ is excessively stimulated ? 
 How is this effect illustrated by the use of the salivary glands ? 241. Does 
 the state of the mind influence the secretions ? What is said of the sym- 
 pathy between different parts of the body ? 
 8 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XYIII. 
 
 NUTRITION. 
 
 242. THE BLOOD is the nutritive fluid of animals. It is com- 
 posed of two parts a watery fluid, called serum, and a solid 
 portion, called co-ag'u-lum, (clot.) 
 
 Observation. That portion of the serum which remains fluid 
 after coagulation by heat has taken place, is called se-ros'i-ty. 
 It is more abundant in the blood of old, than in that of young 
 animals ; and it forms the " red gravy " in roasted meats. 
 
 243. The blood is not necessarily red. It may be white, as 
 in the fish ; transparent, as in the insect ; or yellowish, as in 
 the reptile. There is no animal in which the blood is red in all 
 parts of the body. The ligaments and tendons, in man, are not 
 supplied with red, but with white blood. 
 
 244. NUTRITION is the vital act by which the different parts 
 of the body renew the materials of which they are composed. 
 Digestion, circulation, absorption, and respiration, are but sepa- 
 rate links in the chain of nutrition, which would be destroyed 
 by the absence of any one of them. 
 
 245. The nutritive process is a kind of secretion, by which 
 particles of matter are separated from the blood, and conveyed 
 with wonderful accuracy to the appropriate textures, or parts 
 of the body. 
 
 246. The function of the nutrient vessels antagonize those 
 of absorption ; while one system is constructing, with beautiful 
 
 242. What is the nutritive fluid of animals ? Of what is it composed ? 
 What forms the red gravy in roasted meat ? 243. What is said of the color 
 of the blood? 244 248. What .remarks respecting nutrition? 244. WliD' 
 is nutrition ? 245. What is said of the nutritive process ? 246. What cau 
 you say of the function of the nutrient vessels ? 
 
NUTRITION. 87 
 
 precision, the animal frame, the other is diligently employed 
 in pulling down this complicated structure. But amid this 
 simultaneous renovation and decay, the form and beauty of the 
 organs are preserved. 
 
 Observation. This ever-changing state of the body is shown 
 by giving animals colored matter, mixed with their food, which 
 in a short time tinges their bones with the same color as the 
 matter introduced. Let it be withdrawn, and in a few days 
 the bones will assume their former color evidently from the 
 effects of absorption. The changeful state of the body is fur- 
 ther shown, by the losses to which it is subjected ; by the 
 necessity of aliment; by the emaciation which follows absti- 
 nence from food. 
 
 247. The renewal of every part of the body is not perfected 
 merely by the passage of the blood through the arteries of the 
 systemic circulation, but by .the smallest capillary vessels, 
 called the vessels of nutrition. 
 
 248. " As the blood goes the round of the circulation, the 
 nutrient capillary vessels select and secrete those parts which 
 are similar to the nature of the structure, and the other portions 
 pass on ; so that every part takes up and converts to its own 
 use the very principles which it requires for its growth ; or, in 
 other words, as the vital current approaches each organ, the 
 particles appropriate to it feel its attractive force, obey it, 
 quit the stream, mingle with the substance of its texture, 
 and are changed into its own true and proper nature." 
 
 Illustration. When a bone is broken, or a nerve wounded, 
 minute vessels shoot out from the living parts, and immediately 
 commence their operations, by depositing bony matter, where it 
 is required to unite fractured bones, and nervous substance to 
 heal the wounded nerve. 
 
 Give a proof of the ever-changing state of the hody. Give other instances 
 illustrative of the changeful state of the body. 247. By what vessels is the 
 renewal of every part of the body perfected ? 248. What is said of the 
 office of the nutrient capillary vessels ? When a bone is fractured, by what 
 process is it healed ? 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 53. A front view of the organs within the chest and abdomen. 1, 1, 1, 1. The 
 muscles of the chest. 2,2,2,2, The ribs. 3,3,3, The upper, middle, and lower 
 lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. 5, The right ventFicle of 
 the heart. 6, The left ventricle. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The left auri- 
 cle. 9, The pulmonary artery. 10, The aorta. 11, The vena cava descenden.-i. 
 12, The trachea. 13, The oesophagus. 14, 14, 14, 14, The pleura. 15, 15, 15, The 
 diaphragm. 16, 16, The right and left lobe of the liver. 17, The gall-cyst. 18, The 
 stomach. 26, The spleen. 19, 19, The duodenum. 20, The ascending colon. 
 21, The transverse colon. 25, The descending colon. 22, 22, 22, 22, The small in- 
 testines. 23, 23, The abdominal walls turned down. 24, The thoracic duct,onenins 
 into the left subclavian vein, (27 "> 
 
ANATOMY OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 89 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 249. THE nutrient portion of the food is poured into the 
 vein at the lower part of the neck, and is carried to the right 
 cavities of the heart. The fluid in these cavities consists of the 
 chyle mixed with the venous blood. Neither cf these two 
 elements is fitted to promote the growth or repair the waste of 
 the body. They must be subjected to a process, by which the 
 first can be converted into blood, and the second freed of its 
 impurities, (carbonic acid and water.) This is effected by 
 the Respiratory Organs. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 250. The ORGANS OF RESPIRATION are the Lungs, (lights; ; 
 the Tra'che-a, (wind-pipe ;) the Bronch'i-a, (subdivisions of 
 the trachea ;) and the Air Ves'i-cles, (air-cells at the extrem- 
 ities of the bronchia.) The Di'a-phragm, (midriff;) ribs, and 
 several muscles, also aid in the respiratory process. 
 
 251. The LUNGS are conical organs, one on each side of the 
 chest, embracing the heart, and separated from each other by a 
 membranous partition. The color of the lungs is a pinkish gray, 
 mottled, and variously marked *with black. They are com- 
 posed of air-cells and tubes, beside many small blood-vessels. 
 
 252. Each lung is surrounded by a membrane, called the 
 
 249. What fluids are conveyed into the right cavities of the heart ? What 
 is necessary before they can be adapted to the wants of the body ? By what 
 organs are these changes effected ? 250 256. Give the anatomy of the 
 respiratory organs. 250. Name the respiratory organs. What organs also 
 aid in the respiratory process ? 251. Describe the lungs. 252. Describe 
 the pleura. 
 
 8* 
 
90 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 pleu'ra, which not only surrounds these organs, but is reflected 
 upon the walls of the chest. The lungs, however, are on the 
 outside of the pleura, in the same way as the head is on the 
 outside of a cap doubled upon itself. 
 
 Observation. When this membrane, that covers the lungs, 
 and also lines the chest, is inflamed, the disease is called 
 " pleurisy." 
 
 253. The TRACHEA is situated in the front part of the neck, 
 and extends from the mouth to the lungs. It is composed of 
 cartilaginous rings, which are very elastic. 
 
 254. The BRONCHIA are the divisions of the trachea at its 
 lower extremity, behind the upper part of the heart. One 
 branch passes to the right lung, and the other to the left. 
 These branches, upon entering the lung, divide into an almost 
 infinity of smaller branches. 
 
 Illustration. The trachea may be compared to the trunk of 
 a tree ; the bronchia to two large branches ; the subdivisions of 
 the bronchia to the branchlets and twigs ; the air-cells to the 
 buds seen on the twigs in the spring. 
 
 255. The AIR-CELLS are very small sacs, or bladders, at the 
 end of the minute divisions of the bronchia. Their walls are 
 extremely thin, the interior of which, as well as the trachea 
 and bronchia, are lined by mucous membrane. These cells 
 are variable in size, and are most numerous in the middle and 
 lower part of the lungs. 
 
 Observation. When the mucous membrane of a few of the 
 larger branches of the wind-pipe is slightly inflamed, it is called 
 a " cold ; " when the inflammation is greater, and extends to the 
 lesser air-tubes, it is called bronchitis. Coughing is a violent 
 expulsory effort, by which air is suddenly forced through the 
 bronchia and trachea to remove offending matter. 
 
 "What is the disease called when this membrane is inflamed ? 253. De- 
 scribe the trachea. 254. "What are the broncnia ? To what may the 
 trachea and branches be compared ? 255. Describe the air-cells, "Where 
 are they the most numerous ? Mention some diseases of the membrane 
 that lines the bronchia. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 91 
 
 Observation. The structure of the trachea and lungs may 
 be illustrated by taking these parts of a calf or sheep, and 
 inflating the bronchial tubes by forcing air into the wind-pipe 
 with a pipe or quill. The internal structure may then be 
 seen by opening the different parts. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Fig. 54. A representation of the larynx, trachea, bronchia, and air-cells. 1,1,1, An 
 outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 3, The larynx 
 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchial tube. 6, The left bronchial tube. 7, 7, 7, 
 8, 8, 8, Bronchial tubes of right and left lung. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. 
 
 256. The DIAPHRAGM is a flexible, circular partition, that sep- 
 arates the respiratory from the digestive organs, and the chest 
 
 How can the stn^ure of the trachea and lungs be illustrated ? 256. De- 
 scribe the diaphragm 
 
92 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 from the abdomen. Its margin is attached to the spinal column 
 the sternum, and cartilages of the lower ribs. In a state of re< 
 pose, its centre rises into the chest m the form of an arch. 
 When air is forcibly expelled from the lungs, its upper point 
 reaches as high as the fourth rib. It is depressed as low as the 
 seventh rib, when air is drawn into the lungs. 
 
 Kt?. 55. 
 
 Kg. 56. 
 
 T\g. 55. A section of the chest when the lungs are inflated. 1, The diaphragm. 
 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen. 
 
 Fig. 56. A section of the chest when the lungs are contracted. 1, The diaphragm, 
 in common expiration. 2, 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen. 3, The position 
 of the diaphragm in forced expiration. 
 
 These engravings show the diaphragm to be more convex, and the walls of the 
 abdomen more flattened, when the lungs are collapsed, than when they are inflated. 
 
 "What is its form when not in action ? How high does its central portion 
 rise in forced expiration ? How low does it descend when air is drawn into 
 tne lungs ? What do figs. 55 and 56 illustrate ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 93 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY 
 ORGANS. 
 
 257. RESPIRATION, or breathing, is that process by which 
 air is drawn into the lungs and expelled from them. The prin- 
 cipal object in breathing, in animals, is to free the dark blood 
 of one of the principal substances that compose the old and 
 useless particles of the body. 
 
 258. When air is drawn into the lungs, the muscular margin 
 of the diaphragm contracts, which depresses its central portion ; 
 the chest is then enlarged at the expense of the abdomen. At 
 the same time that the diaphragm is depressed, the ribs are 
 thrust forward and upward by means of muscles placed be- 
 tween and on them. Thus the chest is enlarged in every 
 direction. 
 
 259. The lungs follow the variations of capacity in the chest, 
 expanding their air-cells when the latter is enlarged, and con- 
 tracting when the chest is diminished. Thus, when the chest 
 is expanded, the lungs follow, and consequently a vacuum is 
 produced in their air-cells. The air then rushes through the 
 mouth and nose into the trachea and its branches, and fills the 
 vacuum as fast as it is made. This mechanical process 
 constitutes inspiration. 
 
 260. After the expansion of the chest, the muscles that ele- 
 vated the ribs relax, together with the diaphragm. The elas- 
 ticity of the cartilages of the ribs depresses them, and the 
 
 2-57 266. Give th-e use of the respiratory organs. 2-57. What is respira- 
 tion ? What is the principal object in breathing ? 258. Describe how the 
 chest is en] irged in respiration ? 259. Do the lungs follow the variation? 
 of capacity in the chest ? What constitutes inspiration ? 260. How is tht- 
 air expelled from the lungs ? 
 
94 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 cavity of the chest is diminished, attended by the expulsion of 
 a portion of the air from the lungs. At the same time, the 
 muscles that form the front walls of the abdominal cavity, con- 
 tract and press the alimentary canal, stomach, and liver, up- 
 ward against the diaphragm ; this, being relaxed, yields to the 
 pressure, rises upward, and presses upon the lungs, which re- 
 ireat before it, and another portion of air is expelled from these 
 organs. This process is called expiration. 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 Fig. 57. A front view of the chest and abdomen in respiration. M 1, The position 
 of the walls of the chest in inspiration. 2, 2, 2, The position of the diaphragm in 
 inspiration. 3, 3, The position of the walls of the chest in expiration. 4, 4, 4, The 
 position of the diaphragm in expiration. 5, 5, The position of the walls of the abdo- 
 men in inspiration. 6, 6, The position of the walls of the abdomen in expiration 
 
 261. Thus it is obvious that the enlargement of the chest. 
 or inspiration, is produced in two ways 1st. By the depres- 
 
 What does this constitute ? Explain fig. 57. 261. In how many ways is 
 the chest enlarged ? Name them. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 95 
 
 aion of the central, arched portion of the diaphragm. 2d. By 
 the elevation of the ribs. On the contrary, the contraction of the 
 chest, or expiration, is produced by the depression of the ribs, 
 and elevation of the central part of the diaphragm. These 
 movements are successive during life, and constitute res- 
 piration. 
 
 Experiment. Place the ear upon the chest of a person, and 
 a murmuring sound will be heard, somewhat like the soft sigh- 
 ings of the wind through forest trees. This sound is caused 
 by the air rushing in and out of the lungs, and is peculiarly 
 distinct in the child. 
 
 262. As before mentioned, the dark, impure blood, that 
 passes from the heart to the lungs, is unfit to sustain the vital 
 action of the various organs of the body. Its impurities must 
 be removed. When this is done, the blood loses its blackish 
 red color, and becomes of a bright scarlet red. 
 
 263. The dark color of the blood is owing to the presence 
 of carbonic gas. This is formed in the blood-vessels by the 
 union of carbon (the principal element of the dead, waste 
 atoms) and oxygen. 
 
 264. There is also, mixed with the dark blood, hydrogen, 
 which, when united with oxygen, forms water. Both carbon and 
 hydrogen are supplied to the blood through the food. They 
 are carried out of the system not only by the lungs, but by the 
 skin and other organs. 
 
 Observation. The presence of carbonic acid and watery\\x 
 vapor in the expired air, can be proved by the following / 
 experiments. 1st. Breathe into lime-water, and in a few r 
 minutes it will become of a milk-white color. This is owing ' 
 to the carbonic acid of the breath uniting with the lime, 
 forming the carbonate of lime. 
 
 How is it contracted ? What do these successive movements con- 
 stitute ? Give an experiment. 262. What change must be made in the 
 blood before it can sustain life ? 263. To what is the dark color of the 
 blood owing ? Where is this gas formed ? 264. What element beside 
 carbon Is found in the blood ? What does it form when united with oxygrn ' 
 
0b ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 2d. Breathe upon a cold, dry mirror, for a few minutes, and 
 it will be covered with moisture. This is condensed vapor 
 from the lungs. In warm weather, this watery vapor is invisible 
 in the expired air ; but, in a cold, dry morning in winter, the suc- 
 cessive jets of vapor issuing from the mouth and nose are 
 sufficiently obvious. 
 
 265. Atmospheric air, or that which fills the air-cells of the 
 lungs, is composed of two gases, ox'y-gen and ni'tro-gen. Oxy- 
 gen has the property of supporting life, while nitrogen alone 
 would destroy it. But combined with the former gas, it serves 
 to neutralize the otherwise irritating action of the oxygen. 
 
 Fig. 58. 1, A bronchial tube divided into three branches. 2, 2, 2, Air-ctslls. 
 
 3, Branches of the pulmonary artery, that spread over the air-cells. Through the 
 pulmonary artery, the dark, impure blood is carried to the air-cells of the lungs. 
 
 4, Branches of the pulmonary vein, that commence at the minute terminations of the 
 pulmonary artery. Through the pulmonary vein, the red blood is returned to the heart 
 
 266. We will now pass to the change which the air effects 
 when it comes in contact with the blood in the lungs. As the 
 impure blood is passing in th* minute vessels over the air-cells, 
 the oxygen passes through the extreme thin coats of the air- 
 cells and blood-vessels, and unites with the blood. At the same 
 time, the carbonic acid and watery vapor leave the blood, and 
 pass througn the coats of the blood-vessels and air-cells, and 
 mix with the air in the cells. "These are expelled from the air- 
 How are these elements supplied to the blood ? How may the presence 
 of carbonic acid in the expired air be proved ? The presence of watery 
 vapor ? 265. Of what is the air composed ? What property has oxyynn ? 
 Has nitrogen ? 206. Explain how the blood is changed by the action of 
 the air. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 97 
 
 cells every time we breathe. This interchange of gases pro- 
 ducer the change in the color of the blood. 
 
 Experiment. To show that gases may be interchanged 
 through membranes, fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from 
 any animal. Tie the bladder closely, and suspend it in the 
 aur. In a few hours, the blood next the membrane will have 
 become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxygen 
 from the air passing through the bladder, and uniting with the 
 blood, while the carbonic acid has escaped through the mem- 
 
 brano 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 2 
 
 Fig. 59. An ideal view of the pulmonary circulation. 1, 1, The right lunu 
 J, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, The fight bronchial tube. 5, The IH'i 
 bronchial tube. G, f>, C, C, Air-cells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right ventric! 
 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 11, The branch to the TIIL 
 lung. 12, The branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, Tin- 
 left puknonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 1G, The left ventricle. 17, The 
 mitral valves. 
 
 Note. Let a review of the anatomy and physiology of the respirator 
 organs be given from figs. 53, 59, or from outline anatomical plates 5 an;: 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS* 
 
 267. FOR man to enjoy the highest degree of health, it >* 
 necessary that the impure "venous" blood be properly changed. 
 As this is effected in the lungs by the action of the air, it follows 
 that this element, when breathed, should be pure, or contain 
 twenty-one per cent, of oxygen to about seventy-nine per 
 cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 268. The quality or purity of the air is affected by every 
 respiration. The quantity of nitrogen is nearly the same in 
 the expired, as in the inspired air. But the quantity of oxygen 
 is diminished, and that of carbonic acid is increased. Thus, 
 every time we force air from the lungs, it becomes unfit to be 
 breathed again. 
 
 Experiment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock, or one 
 with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is expelled 
 from the jar. Fill the lungs with air, and retain it in the chest 
 a short time, and then breathe into the jar, and instantly close 
 the stop-cock. Close the opening of the jar that is under the 
 water with a piece of paper laid on a plate of sufficient size to 
 cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink into it a lighted candle 
 The flame will be extinguished as quickly as if put in water.* 
 
 * As a substitute for a jar with, a stop-cock, take a piece of lead 
 pipe bent in the form of a siphon, and insert it in the mouth of a 
 reversed jar. This experiment is as conclusive whether the air is in- 
 kpled once only, or breathed many times. 
 
 267 285. Give the hygiene of the respiratory organs. 267. What is ne- 
 cessary that man may enjoy the highest degree of health ? What propor- 
 tion of oxygen and nitrogen should the inspired air contain ? 268. What 
 is the difference between inspired and expired air ? How can this difTrr- 
 <-mce Ixj shown ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 99 
 
 Remove the carbonic acid by inverting the jar, and place a lighted 
 candle in it, and the flame will be as clear as when out of the jar. 
 
 Observation. It is familiarly known that a taper will not 
 burn where carbonic acid exists in any considerable quantity, 
 or when there is a marked deficiency of oxygen. From this 
 originated the judicious practice of sinking a lighted candle into 
 a well or pit before descending into it. If the flame is extin- 
 guished, respiration cannot there be maintained, and life would 
 be sacrificed should a person venture in until the noxious air 
 is removed. 
 
 269. Air, in which lamps will not burn with brilliancy, is 
 unfitted for respiration. In ci T vded rooms, which are not 
 ventilated, the air is vitjted, not on./ by a decrease of oxygen 
 and an increase of carbo/iic acid, but by the waste, injurious 
 atoms thrown out from the lungs and skin of the audience. 
 The burning lamps, under such circumstances, emit but a feeble 
 light. Let the oxygen gas be more and more expended, and 
 the lamps will burn more and more feebly, until nearly ex 
 tinguished. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. The effects of breathing the same air 
 again and again, are well illustrated by an incident that occurred 
 in one of our halls of learning. A large audience had assembled 
 in an ill-ventilated room, to listen to a lecture ; soon the lamps 
 burned so dimly that the speaker and audience were nearly en- 
 veloped in darkness. The oppression, dizziness, and faintness, 
 experienced by many of the audience, induced them to leave ; 
 and in a few minutes after, the lamps were observed to rekindle, 
 owing to the exchange of pure air on opening the door, which 
 supplied to them oxygen. 
 
 2d. The " Black Hole of Calcutta " received its name from 
 the fact, that one hundred and forty-six Englishmen were shut 
 
 Why should a lighted candle be sunk in a well or pit before a person 
 descends into it ? 269. How is the air of crowded, unventilated roomj 
 vitiated ? What effect has such air upon the burning lamps ? Give an 
 incident that illustrates the effects of impure air upon burning lamps. 
 
100 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 up in a room eighteen feet square, with only two small windows 
 on the same side to admit air. On opening this dungeon, ten 
 Hours after their imprisonment, only twenty-three were alive. 
 The others had died from breathing impure air, that contained 
 animal matter from their own bodies. 
 
 270. Churches* concert-halls, and school-rooms should be 
 well ventilated. If they are not, the persons assembled in them 
 will be restless, and complain of languor, and perhaps head- 
 ache. These unpleasant sensations are caused by a want, of 
 pure air, to give an adequate supply of oxygen to the lungs. 
 
 Observation. In all school-rooms, where there is not ade- 
 quate ventilation, it is advisable to have a recess of five or ten 
 minutes each hour. During this time^ let the pupils breathe 
 fresh air, and open the doors and windows, so that the air of the 
 room shall be completely changed. 
 
 271. While occupying a room, we are insensible to the grad- 
 ual vitiation of the air. This is the result of the diminished 
 sensibility of the nervous system, and gradual adaptation of the 
 organs to blood of a less stimulating character. 
 
 272. In the construction of every inhabited room, there 
 should be adequate means of ventilation, as well as warming. 
 No room is well ventilated, unless as much pure air is brought 
 into it, as the occupants vitiate at every respiration. This can 
 be effected by making an aperture in the ceiling of the room, 
 or by constructing a ventilating flue in the chimney. This 
 should be in contact with the flues for the escape of smoke, but 
 separated from them by a thin brick partition. 
 
 273. Provision should also be made, by which pure air 
 may be constantly coming into the room, as the crevices of the 
 
 Of the effects of breathing impure air. 270. Why should churches and 
 school-rooms be well ventilated ? What suggestion when a school-room is 
 not well ventilated ? 271. Why are we insensible of the vitiation of the 
 lir of the room in which we are seated ? 272. What is very important in 
 .he construe tion of every inhabited room ? How can a room be n-ell venti- 
 ated ? 273 Should provision be made to have pure air introduced into 
 room ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 10) 
 
 doors and windows are not sufficient. There should be ai 
 aperture at or near the floor, to connect with the outer walls of 
 the building or external air. 
 
 274. The sick-room, particularly, should be so arranged that 
 the impure air may escape, and pure air be constantly coming 
 into the room. Curtains around the bed, and the sheet over the 
 face, are injurious. The effect is similar to that produced by 
 sleeping in a small, unventilated room. 
 
 275. The change that is effected in the blood while passing 
 through the lungs, not only depends upon the purity of the air, 
 but the amount inspired. The quantity varies according to the 
 size of the chest, and the movement -of the ribs and diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 Fig. 60. The skeleton of a deformed cliest. 
 Fig. 61. The skeleton of a well-formed chest. 
 
 276. The size of the chest and lungs can "be diminished ly 
 moderate and continued pressure. This is most easily done in 
 infancy, when the cartilages and ribs are very pliant ; yet it 
 can be effected at more advanced periods of life. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The Chinese, by compressing the feet of 
 female children, prevent their growth ; so that the foot of a 
 
 274. What rooms particularly should be well ventilated ? Why are cur 
 tains around abed injurious ? 275. What vaiies the amount of air received 
 into the lungs ? 276. How can the size of the chest be diminished ? What 
 does fig. 60 represent ? Fig. 61 ? Give observation 1st. 
 
 9* 
 
102 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Chinese belle is not larger than the foot of an American gin of 
 five years. 
 
 2d. The American women compress their chests, to prevent 
 their growth ; so that the chest of an American belle is not 
 larger than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. Which 
 country, in this respect, exhibits the greater intelligence ? 
 
 3d. The chest can be deformed by making the linings of the 
 waists of the dresses tight, as well as by corsets. Tight vesta, 
 upon the same principle, are also injurious. 
 
 Fig. 62. Fig. 63. 
 
 Fig. 62. A correct outline of "the Venus de Medici, the beau ideal of female sym- 
 metry. 
 
 Fig. 63. An outline of a well-corseted modern beauty. One has an artificial, 
 insect waist ; the other, a natural waist. One has sloping shoulders, while the shoul- 
 ders of the other are comparatively elevated, square, and angular. The proportion of 
 the corseted female below the waist, is also a departure from the symmetry of nature. 
 
 277. In children, who have never worn close garments, the 
 circumference of the chest is generally about equal to that of 
 
 Give observation 2d. How may the chest be deformed as given by obser- 
 vation 3d ? 277. What is the size of the chest of a child that has always 
 worn loose clothing 1 ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 10^ 
 
 me body at the hips; and similar proportions would exist 
 through life, if there were no improper pressure of the clothing. 
 Those persons that have large, full chests, particularly at the 
 lower part, are not so liable to diseases of the lungs, as those 
 who have narrow, contracted chests. 
 
 278. A contracted chest, caused either by injudicious dress- 
 ing, or by any other means, can be enlarged, although the 
 person is thirty years of age, by permitting the muscles that 
 elevate the ribs and diaphragm to perform their proper function. 
 
 Observation. Scholars, and persons who sit much of the 
 time, should frequently, during the day, breathe full and deep, 
 so that the smallest air-cells maybe fully filled with air. While 
 exercising the lungs, the shoulders should be thrown back and 
 the head held erect. 
 
 279. When the lungs are properly filled with air, the chest 
 is enlarged in every direction. If any article of apparel is 
 worn so tight as to prevent the full expansion of the chest and 
 abdomen, the lungs, in consequence, do not receive air suffi- 
 cient to purify the blood. The penalty for thus violating a 
 law of our being, is disease and suffering. 
 
 Observation. Many individuals do not realize the small 
 amount of pressure that will prevent the enlargement of the 
 chest. This can be shown by drawing a tape tightly around 
 the lower part of the chest of a vigorous adult, and confining it 
 with the thumb and finger. Then endeavor fully to inflate the 
 lungs, and the movement of the ribs will be much restricted. 
 
 280. The position in standing and sitting influences the 
 movement of t/ie ribs and diaphragm. When the shoulders are 
 thrown back, and when a person stands or sits erect, the dia- 
 
 What persons are most free from diseases of the lungs ? 278. . Can 
 narrow, contracted chests be enlarged ? How ? What practice is recom- 
 mended to scholars and sedentary persons ? 279. What is the effect if the 
 apparel is worn so tight as to prevent the full expansion of the chest ? How 
 can the_amount of pressure necessary to prevent the enlargement of the 
 chest be shown ? 280. Show the effect of position on the movement of the 
 ribs and diaphragm. 
 
104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 phragm and ribs have more freedom of mot-ion, and the abdomi 
 nal muscles act more efficiently ; thus the lungs have broadei 
 range of movement, than when the shoulders incline forward 
 and the body is stooping. 
 
 281. The state of the mind exercises a great influence upon 
 respiration. If we are depressed by grief, or feel anxious 
 about friends or property, the diaphragm and muscles that ele- 
 vate the ribs will not contract with the same energy as when the 
 mind is influenced by joy, mirth, and other enlivening emotions. 
 Consequently, our breathing is not as frequent and full in the 
 former as in the latter condition. 
 
 282. To recover persons apparently drowned, it is necessary 
 to press the chest, suddenly and forcibly, downward and back- 
 ward, and instantly discontinue the pressure. Repeat this 
 without intermission, until a pair of bellows can be procured. 
 When the bellows are obtained, introduce the nozzle well upon 
 the base of the tongue, and surround the mouth and nose with 
 a towel or handkerchief, to close them. Let another person press 
 upon the projecting part of the neck, called "Adam's apple," 
 while air is introduced into the lungs through the bellows. Then 
 press upon the chest, to force the air from the lungs, to imitate 
 natural breathing. 
 
 283. Continue the use of the bellows, and forcing the air out 
 of the chest, for an hour at least, unless signs of natural breath- 
 ing come on. Wrap the body in warm, dry blankets, and place 
 :t near the fire, to preserve the natural warmth, as well as to 
 impart artificial heat. Every thing, however, is secondary to 
 filling the lungs with air. Avoid all friction until breathing is 
 restored. Send for medical aid immediately. 
 
 284. In cases of apparent death from hanging or stran- 
 gling, the knot should be untied or cut immediately ; then use 
 artificial respiration, or breathing, as directed in apparent death 
 
 281. Does the state of the mind influence our breathing ? 2S.2. How 
 should persons apparently drowned be treated ? 284. How should appa 
 '*nt death from strangling be managed ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105 
 
 from drowning. In asphyxia from electricity, (lightning,) arti- 
 ficial respiration should be resorted to. 
 
 Observation. It is a common impression, in many sections 
 of the country, that the law will not allow the removal of the* 
 cord from the neck of a body found suspended, unless the cor- 
 oner be present. It is therefore proper to say, that no such 
 delay is necessary, and that no time should be lost in attempting 
 to resuscitate the strangled person. 
 
 285. When life is apparently suspended, from breathing 
 carbonic acid gas, the person should be carried into the open 
 air. The head and shoulders should be slightly elevated, the 
 face and chest should be sponged or sprinkled with cold water, 
 or cold vinegar and water. Apply friction to the skin, with a 
 coarse cloth or flesh-brush, and resort to artificial respiration. 
 
 Observation. 1st. Many persons have died from breathing 
 carbonic acid that was formed by burning charcoal in an open 
 pan or portable furnace, for the purpose of warming their 
 sleeping-rooms. 
 
 2d. In resuscitating persons apparently dead from the already 
 mentioned causes, if a pair of bellows cannot be procured im- 
 mediately, let their lungs be inflated by air expelled from the 
 lungs of some person present. To have the expired air as pure 
 as possible, the person should quickly inflate his lungs, and in- 
 stantly expel the air into those of the asphyxiated person. Place 
 the patient in pure air, admit attendants only into the apartment , 
 and send for a physician without delay. 
 
 What treatment should be adopted in asphyxia from lightning? What 
 is said of the impression, common in some sections of the country, \vhen 
 a body is found suspended ? 285. What should be done when carbonic 
 acid has been inhaled ? What sad results frequently follow the burning of 
 charcoal in a close room? Give the 2d observation. 
 
106 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 286. THE true sources of animal heat are still imperfectly 
 known. We see certain phenomena, but the causes are hidden 
 from our view. Its regular production, to a certain degree, is 
 essential both to animal and vegetable life. 
 
 287. The temperature of the human body is about ninety- 
 eight degrees, whether we examine it in the Icelander in his 
 snowy hut, or the Negro under an equatorial sun. 
 
 288. To enable man to maintain an equilibrium of temper- 
 ature under such extremes of heat and cold, naturally suggests 
 two inquiries. 1st. By what organs is animal heat generated ? 
 2d. By what means is its uniformity maintained ? 
 
 289. In combustion, or burning of wood, coal, oil, &c., the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere unites with the carbon and hydrogen 
 of these substances, and carbonic acid and watery vapor are 
 produced. This process is attended with the disengagement 
 of heat. 
 
 290. The quantity of heat disengaged in combustion is 
 always in proportion to the amount of carbon and hydrogen 
 consumed ; thus a piece of wood weighing one pound, in 
 burning slowly, would give out the same quantity of heat as a 
 pound of shavings of the same wood, in burning rapidly. Upon 
 the principle of combustion, the production of animal heat may 
 be understood. 
 
 286 296. What is said respecting animal heat? 286. Is the true source 
 of animal heat known ? 287. What is the temperature of the human body ? 
 288. What inquiries are naturally suggested ? 289. What takes place in the 
 combustion, or burning of wood, oil, &c. ? 290. Upon what does the quan 
 vity of heat disengaged in combustion depend ? How is this illustrated ? 
 
ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 107 
 
 291. As before mentioned, the food contains carbon and 
 hydrogen. These exist in the chyle. The old and waste 
 atoms of the body, likewise, contain the same elements. It is 
 now supposed that the oxygen of the inspired air enters the. 
 capillary vessels of the lungs, and mingles with the blood, with 
 which it is carried to the heart, and from thence to the nutrient 
 capillary vessels of every part of the system. 
 
 292. In the capillary vessels, the oxygen of the arterial 
 blood unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the waste atoms, 
 (which are conveyed into the blood by the lymphatics,) and 
 carbonic acid and water are formed. 
 
 293. This change of state among the particles of bodies 
 is attended with the disengagement of heat. The carbonic 
 acid and water are returned to the lungs in the blood, and car- 
 ried out of the body by the expired air. The inference is, that 
 heat is generated in every part of the body. 
 
 294. Our next inquiry is, by what means is the uniformity 
 of temperature in the body maintained ? It has been ascer- 
 tained that the principal agent in keeping the body at a uni- 
 form temperature, is the immense evaporation that takes place 
 from the skin and lungs. 
 
 295. When cold air comes in contact with these membranes, 
 heat is given off to restore the equilibrium. The quantity de- 
 pends somewhat on the rapidity of the change of air. And 
 this is greatest when we are in a current of dry air, or a brisk 
 wind is blowing upon us. 
 
 296. The skin, in an ordinary state, is constantly giving out 
 a watery fluid, which is converted into vapor and carried off by 
 the surrounding air. To effect this, heat is taken from the 
 system, and the conversion of the perspiration into vapor 
 
 291. From what source are the carbon and hydrogen in the body derived ? 
 The oxygen ? 292. Show how heat may be produced in every part of the 
 oody. 294. What is the principal agent by which a uniform tempera- 
 ture of the body is maintained ? 295. What is the effect when cold air 
 comes in contact with these membranes ? When is the greatest amount 
 of heat given off? 296. How is the surplus heat of the body removed. 
 
108 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 conveys a large proportion of the surplus heat from the body ; 
 and In consequence, the temperature is maintained at ninety- 
 eight degrees. 
 
 Observations. 1st. In all ages and climes, it has been 
 observed, that the increased temperature of (he skin and 
 system in fevers, is abated as soon as free perspiration is 
 restored. 
 
 2d. In damp, close weather, as during the sultry days of 
 August, we feel a disagreeable sensation of heat, because the 
 saturation of the air by moisture prevents the escape of heat 
 through the lungs and skin. 
 
 HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 297. The amount of heat generated in the human system 
 depends upon the quantity and quality of the food, ag-% exer- 
 cise, the amount and character of the inspired air, condition of 
 the brain, skin, and general system. 
 
 298. Animal heat is modified by the proportion of carbon 
 which the food contains, and by the quantity consumed As 
 the kind of fuel that contains the greatest amount of combus- 
 tible material gives off the most heat when burned, so those 
 articles of food that contain the greatest quantity of carbon pro- 
 duce the most heat when converted into blood. 
 
 299. Age is another influence that modifies the generation 
 of animal heat. The vital forces of the child being feeble, less 
 heat is generated in its system than in that of an adult. Hence 
 the young child, and the enfeebled, aged person, need more 
 clothing than the vigorous individual of middle age. 
 
 What has been observed in all ages and climes ? Why do we feel a dis- 
 agreeable sensation of heat in the sultry days of August ? 297 304. Give 
 the hygiene of animal heat. 297. On what does the amount of heat gener- 
 ated in the human system depend ? 298. What element of the food in- 
 fluences the generation of heat ? 299. Does age modify the generation of 
 'ioat ? What persons need the most clothing ? 
 
HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 109 
 
 300. Exercise is an influence that modifies the generation 
 of animal heat. Whatever increases the flow of blood in the 
 system, increases also the deposition of new atoms of matter 
 and the removal of the waste particles. This change among the 
 particles of matter is attended with an elevation of temperature. 
 For this reason, a person in action is warmer than in a state 
 of repose. 
 
 301. The amount and character of the air which is breathed, 
 modify the heat of the system. In the generation of heat in 
 a stove, air, or oxygen, is as essential as the wood or coal. It 
 is equally so in the production of animal heat. The oxygen 
 of the inspired air should be in proportion to the carbon and 
 hydrogen to be consumed. This requires capacious lungs, to- 
 gether with free movements of the ribs and diaphragm. 
 
 302. The condition of the brain and nervous system affects 
 the generation of animal heat. If the mind is aroused from 
 fear, the breathing becomes slow, and a chilliness pervades the 
 body, particularly the extremities ; while, on the other hand, 
 joyous and agreeable emotions quicken the circulation of the 
 blood, and this increases the generation of heat. 
 
 303. During sleep, when the brain is partially inactive, less 
 heat is generated than when awake. This is one reason why 
 an individual who sleeps in "the same clothing that was ade- 
 quate to prevent chills while awake, contracts a cold, unless he 
 throws over him an additional covering. 
 
 304. The system suffers less when the change of tempera- 
 lure is gradual. The change in the production of heat, as 
 well as in the evaporation of fluids from the system, is gradual, 
 when not influenced bv foreign causes. By this means, the 
 body is enabled to endure tropical heat and polar cold. 
 
 300. What effect has exercise on animal heat ? 301. To what should the 
 oxygen of the inspired air be proportional ? 302. Mention the effects of 
 some of the emotions on animal heat. 303. Why do we need more cloth- 
 ing when asleep than when awake ? 304 How is the body enabled to en- 
 dure tropical heat and polar cold ? 
 
 10 
 
10 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE VOICE. 
 
 305. THE beautiful mechanism of the vocal instrument, 
 which produces every variety of sound, from a harsh, un- 
 melodious tone, to a soft, sweet, flute-like sound, can never be 
 imitated by art. It has been compared, by many physiologists, 
 to a wind, reed, and stringed instrument. This inimitable, yet 
 simple instrument, is the Lar'ynx. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 306. The LARYNX (Adam's apple) is a kind of cartilaginous 
 tube, which, taken as a whole, has the general form of a hollow 
 reversed cone, with its base upward toward the tongue, in the 
 shape of an expanded triangle. 
 
 307. It is composed of several pieces of cartilage, that 
 not only connect with each 6ther, but with the tongue, 
 lower jaw, and trachea. 
 
 308. There are stretched across the cavity formed by 
 these cartilages, four folds of membrane, two on each side, 
 called vocal cords. 
 
 309. The space between the cords on each side is called 
 the glot'lis, or chink of the glottis. The cavity between the 
 upper and lower vocal cords is called the ventricle of the 
 larynx. 
 
 305 310. Give the anatomy of the vocal organs. 305. What is said of the 
 structure of the vocal instrument ? What instruments have physiologists 
 compared it with ? What is the vocal instrument called ? 306. Describe 
 the larynx. 307. Of what is it composed ? 308. Describe the vocal cords 
 309. What is the space between these cords called ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 310. Behind the base of the tongue, is a piece of car 
 tilage, resembling a leaf of parsley, called the ep-i- glottis. 
 The duty of this sentinel is to keep the food and drink 
 rom passing into the air-passage, or trachea.* 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 311. In the formation of the voice, each part already de- 
 scribed performs an important office. The cartilages give form 
 and stability to the larynx, and by the action of muscles attache'! 
 to them, the width of the glottis is varied. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 Fig. 62. A side view of the cartilages of the larynx. 1, The bone at the root of 
 the tongue. 3, 4, 5, 6, Cartilages of the larynx. 7, The trachea. 
 
 Fig. 63. A section of the larynx. 1, 1, The upper vocal cords. 2, 2, The lower 
 vocal cords. 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx. 
 
 312. When air is forcibly driven from the lungs through 
 the glottis, it causes a vibration, or trembling of the vocal 
 cords. This produces sound ; and it is varied hy the tongue, 
 the teeth, and the lips. 
 
 310. "SVhere is the epiglottis situated? 311, 313. Give the function of 
 the vocal organs. 311. Of what use are the cartilages of the larynx ? 
 What does fig. 62 represent ? Fig. 63 ? 312. How is sound produced ? 
 
112 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 313. The size of the larynx, the capacity and health of the 
 ungs, the condition of the throat and nasal passages, the eleva- 
 tion and depression of the chin and tongue, and the state of the 
 mind, influence the modulations of sound. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 314. Common observation shows that the voice can be 
 changed and modified by the habits; sailors, smiths, and 
 others, who are engaged in noisy occupations, exert their 
 vocal organs more strongly than those of more quiet pursuits. 
 This not only affects the structure of the vocal organs, but 
 varies the intonations of the voice. 
 
 315. The voice is strong in proportion to the development 
 of the larynx, and the capacity of the chest. Singing and 
 reading aloud, improve and strengthen the vocal organs, and 
 give a healfhy expansion to the chest. The enunciation of the 
 elementary sounds of the English language, aids in developing 
 the vocal organs, as well as preventing disease of the throat 
 and lungs, (laryngitis and bronchitis.) 
 
 316. The attitude also affects the modulation of the voice. 
 When an individual stands or sits with the head and trunk erect, 
 the movements of the whole respiratory apparatus are most 
 free and effective. Sound, in consequence, is more clear and 
 distinct. 
 
 Experiment. Head with the head bowed forward and the 
 chin depressed ; then read with the head erect and the chin ele- 
 vated, and the difference in the movement of the vocal organs, 
 together with the difference in the voice, will be manifest. 
 
 313. What influences the modulation of sound ? 314 321. Give the 
 hygiene of the vocal organs. 314. What does observation show in reference 
 to the voice ? 315. How may the voice be strengthened ? 316. Wh;>( 
 effect has the erect attitude upon the modulations of the voice ? Sia%j 
 the oxperiment. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL OK(!AN>. 
 
 Fig. 64. Fig. 65. 
 
 113 
 
 Fig. 64. An improper position, but one not unfrequently seen in some of our com- 
 mon schools, and in some of our public speakers. 
 Fig. 65. The proper position for reading, speaking, and singing. 
 
 317. TJie muscles of the neck should not be compressed. 
 If the muscles of the neck and larynx are compressed by a 
 high cravat, or other close dressing, not only will the free and 
 forcible use of these parts be impeded, but the tones, instead of 
 being clear and varied, will be feeble and ineffective. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The loss of voice which is prevalent 
 among public speakers, may be ascribed in part to the in- 
 
 What is represented by fig. 64 ? By fig. 65 ? 317. "Why should not the 
 muscles of the neck be compressed ? What is a common cause of loss of 
 TO ice : 
 
 10 * 
 
114 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 judicious dressing of the neck, and improper position when 
 standing. 
 
 2d. When individuals have been addressing an audience in 
 a warm room, or engaged in singing, they should avoid all 
 impressions of a cold atmosphere, unless adequately protected 
 by an extra garment. 
 
 318. The opening of the jaws, and condition of the nasal 
 passages and throat, modify the voice. The enunciation of 
 words is rendered more or less distinct, in proportion as the 
 jaws are separated in speaking, and the throat and nasal pas- 
 sages are free from obstruction. 
 
 319. Repetition is essential to distinct articulation of 
 words. In teaching a child to articulate a letter or word, in 
 the first instance, make an effort to induce a proper state of 
 the vocal organs by which the particular sound is produced. 
 Repeat the letter or word again and again, until it can be 
 uttered with accuracy. 
 
 Observation. The drawling method of talking to young 
 .hildren, as well as using words that are not found in any 
 written language, (called baby talk,) is decidedly wrong. A 
 child will pronounce and understand the application of a cor- 
 rect word as quickly as an incorrect one. 
 
 320. When foreign bodies, such as cherry-stones, buttons, 
 &c., get into the throat, they cause excessive irritation, and 
 sometimes death. It is not necessary to ascertain which pas- 
 sage the foreign body is in, for the immediate treatment ought 
 in either case to be the same. 
 
 321. Some person should place one hand on the front of 
 the chest of the sufferer, and, with the other, give two or three 
 smart blows upon the back, allowing a few seconds to inter- 
 vene between them. 
 
 Give 2d observation. 318. Does the condition of the throat and nasal 
 passages modify the voice ? 319. Is repetition essential to distinct articu- 
 lation ? "What method is suggested in teaching a child to articulate letters 
 or words ? Give observation. 320. What should be done when foreign 
 bodies get into the throat ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN 115 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE SKIN. 
 
 322. THE skin is a membranous covering, enveloping the 
 bones and other parts of the system. In youth, and in females 
 particularly, it is smooth, soft, and elastic. In middle age, and 
 in males, it is firm, and rough to the touch. In old age, in 
 persons who are emaciated, and about the flexions of the joints, 
 it is thrown into folds. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 323. The skin of the human body is composed of two 
 layers of membrane, namely, the cu'ti-cle, and the cu'tis ve'ra, 
 or true skin. 
 
 ' 324. The CUTICLE, or that part of the skin which is seen by 
 the eye, is,%t first, a fluid thrown out by the blood-vessels over 
 the internal %yer of this membrane. 
 
 325. While layere of this fluid are continually forming 
 on the upper surface of the true skin, the external layers of 
 the fluid become dry, and resemble small scales. 
 
 Illustrations. The cuticle is that part of the skin which is 
 raised by a blister. Sometimes from disease, as erysipelas, or 
 fever, it comes off from the surface of the body in pieces of 
 considerable size. 
 
 322. What is the skin ? Mention its different appearances in its differ- 
 ent conditions in the human frame. 323 336. Give the anatomy of the 
 skin. 323. How many layers of membrane has the skin ? What are they 
 called ? 324. How is the cuticle first formed ? 325. What is the appear- 
 ance of the external layers ? Give illustration 
 
116 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 326. The arrangement of the cuticle, in different parts of 
 the human body, is worthy of notice. Where feeling is most 
 acute, the cuticle is delicate and thin. Where there is motion, 
 as over the joints, it is lax and movable. Where it is in con 
 slant use, it becomes harder and thicker. 
 
 Illustration. The soles of the feet and the pa* .us of the 
 hands afford good examples of the cuticle thickened by use. 
 
 327. This part of the skin has no blood-vessels or nerves , 
 consequently, a needle may be passed under it, to some extent 
 and cause no pain, nor will any blood ooze from it. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 Fig. 66. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, The colored layer of the cuticle. 4, 4, The net 
 work of nerves. 5, 5, The true skin. 6, 6, 6, Three nerves that divide to form the 
 net-work, (4, 4.) 
 
 328. The cuticle, when clean, looks like a thin shaving of 
 soft, clear horn ; but when filled with dust and other foul 
 matter, it becomes dark-colored. 
 
 Observation. The hair and nails, also the hoofs of animals, 
 
 326. Mention the arrangement of the cuticle in different parts of the 
 body. What parts of the body afford examples of the cuticle thickened by 
 use ? 327. Has the cuticle blood-vessels or nerves ? 323. What is the 
 general appearance of the cuticle ? Give observation 
 
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. 117 
 
 e appendages of the skin. They are so connected with the 
 .uticle, that by scalding they come off with this tissue. 
 
 329. In the inner and newly-formed layers of the cuticle, 
 there exists a peculiar kind of paint. This colored layer, in the 
 Negro, is black ; in the Indian, copper-colored ; in the Euro- 
 pean, it is very light, differing, however, in different persons. 
 
 330. The CUTIS VERA, or true skin, is so called, because 
 it is the most essential of the two layers of the skin. It 
 contains several sets of vessels, namely, Arteries, Veins, and 
 Lymphatics. Beside these vessels, there are found both Oil 
 and Perspiratory (sweat) Glands, and Nerves. . 
 
 331. The ARTERIES and VEINS form a net- work upon the 
 surface of the true skin ; hence, cut any part of this layer of the 
 skin, and it will bleed. By the arteries the skin is nourished. 
 
 Observation. When this layer of the skin is descroyed by 
 cuts or burns, it is never formed again, and produces scars 
 which do not disappear. 
 
 332. The NERVES, like the blood-vessels, are very numer- 
 ous, for no part of the skin can be pricked or cut without 
 giving pain. The minute extremities of these nerves, together 
 with the capillary vessels, form small, conical prominences, 
 called pa-pil'lcR. (Fig. 68.) 
 
 Observatio7i. These prominences can be seen in the palm 
 of the hand and sole of the foot. On the ends of the fingers 
 they are curiously arranged ; some in concentric ovals ; others 
 pursue a serpentine course. 
 
 333. The LYMPHATICS are those small vessels which open 
 upon the inner layers of the cuticle. These vessels are called 
 
 329. What is found in the inner and newly-formed layers of the cuticle ? 
 WTiat color is it in the Negro ? Indian ? European ? 330. Why is the cuds 
 vcra so called ? What does it contain ? What vessels exist in this layer 
 beside the last mentioned ? 331. What do the arteries and veins form 
 upon the true skin ? By what vessel is the skin supplied with blood ? 
 What is formed when the true skin is destroyed by cuts or burns ? 
 332. What is said of the nerves of the true skin ? How are the papillae 
 formed ? Where may they be seen ? 333. What are the lymphatics of the 
 skin ? 
 
118 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 into action when ointments are rubbed on the skin ; i.nd also in 
 vaccination, to prevent the small-pox. 
 
 334. The PERSPIRATORY APPARATUS consists of minute tubes, 
 which pass inward through the cuticle, and terminate in the 
 deeper meshes of the true skin. In their course, each little 
 tube forms a beautiful spiral coil ; and, on arriving at its desti- 
 nation, coils, upon itself in such a way as to constitute an oval- 
 shaped, or globular ball, called the perspiratory gland. * 
 
 335. The OIL-GLANDS are small bodies embedded in the true 
 skin. They connect with the surface of the skin by small 
 tubes, which traverse the cuticle. In some parts these glands 
 are wanting; in others, where their office is most needful, 
 
 are abundant ; as on the nose, the head, e\:d the ears. 
 
 Fig. 67. 1, 2, 3, Oil-glands and tubes from different parts of the body. A, A, & 
 Glanu>. B, B, B, The ducts of these glands. 4, An oil-gland, and tube from th 
 scalp. The glands (A) form a cluster around the tube of the hair, (C.) These dnct 
 open into the sheath of the hair, (B.) The figures, from 1 to 4, are magnified thirty 
 eight diameters. 
 
 Observation. When there is an unnatural accumulation of 
 on in the tubes, it produces the " worm," or " grub." 
 
 334. Of what does the perspiratory apparatus consist? 335. Describe 
 the oil-giands. What is said of their distnoution ? Explain fig. 67 
 What does an unnatural accumulation of this oily matter produce ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. 119 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 336. THE skin invests the whole of the external surface of 
 tne body, following all its prominences and curves, and gives 
 protection to all the organs it encloses, while each of its several 
 parts has a distinct use. 
 
 337. The cuticle is insensible, and serves as a sheath of pro- 
 tection to the highly sensitive skin (cutis vera) situated beneath 
 it. The latter feels; but the former blunts the impression 
 which occasions feeling. 
 
 338. The cuticle, also, prevents disease, by impeding the 
 evaporation of the fluids of the true skin, and the absorption of 
 the poisonous vapors, which necessarily attend various employ- 
 ments. It, however, affords protection to the system only when 
 unbroken, and then to the greatest degree, when covered with 
 a proper amount of oily secretion from the oil-glands. 
 
 339. The nerves of the skin are the organs of the sense ol 
 touch and feeling. Through them we receive many impressions 
 that increase our pleasures ; as, the grateful sensations imparted 
 by the cooling breeze in a warm day. In consequence of their 
 sensitiveness, we are individually protected, by being warned 
 of the nearness of destructive agents. 
 
 340. A large proportion of the waste of the body passes 
 through the outlets of the skin ; some portions in the form of 
 oh 1 - others in the form of watery vapor and carbonic acid. 
 
 336 346. Gire the physiology of the skin. 336. "What is said of the skin r 
 337. Mention a function of the cuticle. 338. Give another use of the 
 cuticle. 339. Of what use are the nerves of the skin ? 340. Through 
 what membrane does a large proportion of the waste atoms of the body pass ? 
 
120 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYCJIENE. 
 
 341. The oily fluid with which the skin is bedewed, is sep 
 urated from the blood by means of the oil-glands. This secre- 
 tion is spread over those parts of the skin most exposed to the 
 changes of temperature and moisture. The action of these 
 glands renders the skin soft, and it is also one source by 
 which the blood is purified. 
 
 342. The perspiratory glands separate from the blood the 
 perspiration, or sweat. There are more than two thousand of 
 these glands, with ducts, in every square inch of skin, and more 
 than five million of them in this natural covering of the body. 
 
 F:V. 68. 
 
 i g. 08. 1, 1, The lines or ridges of the cuticle, cut perpendicularly 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, The 
 fun ws or wrinkles ot the same. 3, The cuticle. 4, 4, The colored layer of the 
 cuticle. 5, 5, The cutis vera. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Th3 papillae, each of which answers to 
 the lines on the external surface of the skin. 7,7, Small furrows between the pa- 
 pillae. 8, 8, 8, 8, The deeper furrows between each couple of the papilla;. 9, 9, Cells 
 filled with fat. 10, 10, 10, The adipose layer, with numerous fat vesicles. 12, Two 
 hairs. 13, A perspiratory gland, with its spiral duct. 14, Another perspiratory pland, 
 with a duct less spiral. 15, 15, Oil-glands with ducts opening into the sheath of the 
 hair, (12.) 
 
 341. "What is the use of the oil-glands ? 342. What is the use of the 
 perspiratory glands ? How many of these glands with ducts uj>cn rverv 
 squar inch of skin ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. % 121 
 
 343. In health, these glands are in constant action, and the 
 skin is moist. When this moisture cannot be seen, it is called 
 insensible perspiration. When it can be seen in drops, it is 
 called sensible perspiration. 
 
 Experiment. Put the hand into a cold, dry, glass jar, or any 
 glass vessel, and wind around the wrist and mouth of the jar a 
 handkerchief. In a few minutes, the inside of the jar will be 
 covered with moisture from the hand. 
 
 344. The function of these glands is very necessary to 
 aealth. During twenty-four hours, from twenty to thirty ounces 
 of waste, useless matter passes out of the body by these ducts, 
 or through the pores of the skin. 
 
 345 If perspiration is suppressed from disorder of the skin 
 or cold, the whole of this injurious matter is circulated through 
 the system by the blood, disturbing the action of the lungs, 
 stomach, and other organs. 
 
 346. Many cases of chronic coughs, headache, dyspepsia, 
 and diarrhoea, originate in this way. If any one organ of the 
 system has been weakened, this organ is more susceptible of 
 disease than others. In persons whose lungs are weak or 
 diseased, a chill will immediately cause an irritation and often 
 inflammation of these organs. If an individual is predisposed 
 to stiffness of the joints and rheumatic pains, a chill will affect 
 these diseased parts. 
 
 343. When is perspiration called insensible ? When sensible ? 344. How 
 many ounces of waste matter pass through the skin in twenty-four hours ? 
 34-5. What is the effect if perspiration is "checked"? 346. What is the 
 result if any organ of the body is weakened or diseased ? 
 
 Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the skin be reviewed from 
 fig. 68, or from anatomical outline plate 9 
 11 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 
 
 347. THE sensibility of the skin, and the activity of the oil 
 and perspiratory glands, are modified by the condition of the 
 cuticle, the temperature of the skin and body, the purity ind 
 warmth of the air, and the character of the light to which the 
 body is exposed. 
 
 348. To maintain a healthy action of every part of this 
 membrane, attention to clothing, bathing, light, and air, is of 
 great practical importance. 
 
 349. CLOTHING, in itself, does not bestow heat, but is chiefly 
 useful in preventing the escape of heat from the body, and in 
 defending it from the temperature of the atmosphere. In select- 
 ing and applying clothing to our persons, the following sugges- 
 tions should be observed. 
 
 350. The material for clothing should be a bad conductor of 
 heat ; that is, it should have little tendency to conduct, or remove 
 heat from the body. This depends on the property possessed 
 by the material in retaining atmospheric air in its meshes. 
 
 351. Moisture renders clothing a good conductor of heat. 
 Thus all articles of apparel should not only be non-conductors 
 of heat, but should not possess the property of absorbing and 
 retaining moisture. 
 
 347 373. Give the hygiene of the skin. 347. What influences modify 
 the action of-the oil and perspiratory glands ? 348. To what must atten- 
 tion be given to maintain a healthy action of the skin ? 349. Does clothing 
 bestow heat ? What is its use ? 350. Mention a property that the material 
 for clothing should possess ? 351. What property in the selection of 
 clothing should we avoid ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 123 
 
 352. Woollen cloth retains more air in its meshes than any 
 other article except furs, and it absorbs but very little moisture. 
 Consequently, it is an excellent article for clothing. 
 
 353. Cotton contains less air in its meshes than woollen, but 
 much more than linen. In texture, it is smoother than wool, 
 and less liable to irritate the skin. This fabric absorbs moisture 
 in a small degree. In all respects, it is well adapted for gar- 
 ments worn next the skin. 
 
 354. The clothing should be of a porous cJiaracter. The 
 skin is not only an important agent in separating from the blood 
 those impurities that otherwise would oppress the system and 
 occasion death, but it exercises great influence in respiration. 
 C^psequently, the apparel should be made of a material thnt 
 will permit the air to pass through its meshes. 
 
 355. The clothing should be not only porous, but fitted 
 loosely. The garments should retain a layer of air between 
 them and the body. Every one is practically aware that a 
 loose dress is much warmer than one which fits closely ; that 
 a loose glove, boot or shoe, afford greater warmth than those of 
 smaller dimensions. 
 
 356. More clothing is necessary when a vital organ is 
 diseased. When vital organs, as the lungs, heart, &c., are 
 diseased, less heat is generated in the body. For this reason, 
 in consumption, dyspepsia, and even headache, the skin is pale 
 and the extremities cold. 
 
 357. More clothing is required in the evening than during 
 'the day. In the evening we have less vital energy, and, there- 
 fore, less heat is generated in the system, than in the early part 
 of the day ; beside, the atmosphere is damp, the skin has 
 become moist from perspiration, and heat, in consequence, is 
 rapidly removed from the body. For this reason, when re 
 
 352. Give the properties of woollen cloth. 353. What are the quali- 
 ties of cotton as an article of dress ? 354. Why should the material i'oi 
 clothing be porous ? 355. Why should garments be fitted loosely : 
 
 356. Why do we need more clothing when the lungs or brain is diseased ? 
 
 357. Why do we need more clothing in the evening than during the day ? 
 
124 ANATOMY, PHY&iOLOUrY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 turning from crowded assemblies, we should be provided witb 
 an extra garment. 
 
 358. A person of active habits requires less clothing than 
 one of sedentary employments ; for exercise increases the cir- 
 culation of the blood, which is always attended with the disen- 
 gagement of a greater quantity of heat; consequently, an 
 increase of warmth is felt throughout the system. 
 
 359. An excessive, as well as an insufficient, amount of 
 clothing is alike injurious. The custom of wearing an undue 
 amount on some parts of the body, and leaving exposed the 
 arms and upper part of the chest, cannot be too highly 
 censured. 
 
 360. The clothing should be kept clean. No article of ap- 
 parel is entirely free from absorption ; even wool and cotton 
 possess it in a small degree. They take up a portion of the 
 perspired fluids, and thus the fibres of the cloth become covered 
 with the waste matter contained in the perspiration. A neglect 
 of a frequent change of apparel, is one cause of disease with 
 many persons, particularly the poorer classes in the community. 
 
 361. The clothing in which we sleep, as well as beds and 
 bed-clothes, should be aired every day. if this is not done, the 
 moist bedding will cause a chill, and the perspired matter may 
 De carried into the system of the next occupant. Many dis- 
 eases are thus contracted. 
 
 362. When Hie clothing has become wet, it is best to change 
 It immediately. The skin should then be rubbed with a dry, 
 crash towel, until reaction, indicated by redness, is produced. 
 If the garments are not changed, the person should exercise 
 moderately, so that sufficient heat may continue to be generated 
 in the system to dry the clothing and skin without a chill. 
 
 ,358. Why does the active laborer require less clothing than a person of 
 sedentary employment ? 3-59. Is too much as well as too little clothing 
 injurious? 360. Why should the clothing be kept clean? What arises 
 from neglect of a frequent change of apparel ? 361. Why should beds and 
 
 ed-clothes that are used be aired every day ? 362. What is necessary 
 
 - h^n the clothing has become wet ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. l!> 
 
 363. Changes of dress, from thick to thin, should always he 
 made in the morning, for then the vital powers are in full play. 
 Sudden changes in wearing apparel, as well as in food and 
 general habits, are attended with hazard ; and this is propor- 
 tionate to the weakness or exhaustion of the body when the 
 change is made. 
 
 364. BATHING is necessary, in order that the perspirable 
 matter may pass freely through . the ' pores " of the skin. 
 The whole body should be bathed frequently, as perspira- 
 tion is not confined to the face and hands. 
 
 365. Cold water or water at about seventy degrees in 
 summer, and eighty degrees in winter is more strengthening 
 to the system than water that is warmer. 
 
 366. No person should bathe when the body is fatigued, 
 either by mental or physical labor, or immediately after a 
 meal. The best time for bathing, particularly for sick per- 
 sons, is about two hours after breakfast. Persons in health 
 may bathe in the morning, or in the evening. 
 
 367. The sponge bath is, perhaps, the simplest and best 
 method of bathing. In this but a small portion of the surface 
 of the skin is exposed to the air, and the brisk rubbing that 
 immediately follows the wet sponge, prevents a chill of the 
 skin. No colds would be contracted in bathing, if persons 
 would wipe dry, and use friction with a coarse towel or flesh- 
 brush, until redness or warmth of the skin is produced. 
 
 368. The AIR is an agent of importance in the functions of 
 the skin. It imparts to this membrane oxygen, and receives 
 from it carbonic acid. It also removes from it a large portion 
 of the perspiration and the more fluid portions of the oily mat- 
 ter. In order that the air may accomplish these ends, it is 
 
 363. When should changes in dress from thick to thin be made ? Why ? 
 364. What is said of the necessity of bathing ? 36-5. What temperature of 
 water is best for the system ? 366. When should persons not bathe ? 
 When is the best time for bathing ? 367. What method is the simplest 
 for bathing ? How are colds prevented when bathing ? 368. What i 
 of the influence of the air on the functions of the sftin ? 
 11 * 
 
126 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 necessary that it come in contact with the body. This is one 
 of the many reasons why we should wear loose and porous 
 clothing. 
 
 369. LIGHT exercises a salutary influence upon the skin. 
 Thus we see, that those individuals who labor in low, damp, 
 dark rooms, are pale and sickly. The light, permeating the 
 skin, not only exercises a salutary influence upon this mem- 
 brane, but upon the blood, and, through this fluid, upon the 
 whole system. 
 
 370. This established fact shows how important it is that 
 school-houses, mechanics' shops, kitchens, and sitting-rooms, 
 be not only well ventilated, but favorably situated to receive 
 light. For the same reasons, the kitchen and the sitting-room, 
 which are the apartments most used by ladies, should be se- 
 lected from the most pleasant and well-lighted rooms in the 
 house. 
 
 371. When any portion of the skin has been frozen, apply 
 ice, snow, or cold water. The fire and a warm room should 
 be avoided. If the frozen j,.>rts blister, treat them as you 
 would burns. 
 
 372. In scalds and burns, when the-re is no blister, or if one 
 is formed, and the external skin :s not broken, apply cold water, 
 as long as the smarting pain continues. After the pain has 
 subsided, cover the blistered part with a patch of cotton or linen 
 cloth, on which is spread lard and bees-wax. 
 
 373. If the external skin is removed, apply lime-water 
 mixed with " sweet oil," fresh cream, or lard arid bees- wax. 
 When the dressings are applied, they should not be removed 
 until they become dry and hard. 
 
 369. Show the effect of light on the skin. 370. What is said of the se- 
 lection of those rooms that are the most used? 371. What should be 
 applied when the skin is frozen ? What should be avoided ? 372. In 
 scalds or burns, what is necessary if a blister is formed ? 373. What is 
 necessary if the external skin is removed ? How often should the dres- 
 sings be removed ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 127 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. * 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 374. IN the preceding chapters, the structure and use of the 
 bones and muscles have been explained, the process by which 
 the food is converted into chyle and mixed with the blood, 
 together with the manner by which this fluid is conveyed to 
 every part of the body, has been described. 
 
 375. It has also been shown, that lymphatic absorption com- 
 mences as soon as nutrition is completed, and conveys the 
 useless, worn-out particles of the different parts back into the 
 circulating fluid ; while the respiratory organs and secretory 
 glands perform the work of preparing the waste atoms to be 
 conveyed from the body. These functions must succeed each 
 other in proper order ; and such is the mutual dependence of 
 these processes, that a medium of communication is necessary 
 from one organ to another. This is effected by means of the 
 Nervous System. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 376. The NERVOUS SYSTEM is composed of the Brain, 
 Cranial Nerves, Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and the Sym- 
 pathetic Nerve. 
 
 377. The BRAIN is a pulpy organ within the skull-bones. 
 The upper and front portion is called the Cer'e-brum. The 
 lower portion, situated at the back part of the skull, is called 
 the Cer-e-bel'lum. 
 
 374. What has been described in the preceding chapters ? 375. WTiat 
 has also been shown ? 376 388. Give the anatomy of the nervous system. 
 37fi. Of what is the nervous system composed ? 377. Describe the brain. 
 
12* 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 378. The CEREBRUM, or larger portion of- the brain, is com- 
 posed of a whitish substance, with an irregular border of gray 
 matter around its edges. 
 
 379. The CEREBELLUM is also composed of white and gray 
 matter, but the latter constitutes the largest portion. The white 
 matter is so arranged, that when cut vertically, the appearance 
 of the trunk and branches of a tree (ar'bor vi'ta) is presented 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Fig. 69. a, a, The scalp turned down, fr, ,fe, b, The cut edges of the bones of the 
 skull, c, The external membrane of the brain suspended by a hook, d, The left side 
 of the brain, showing its convolutions. 
 
 380. The brain is surrounded by three membranes. The 
 external membrane is thick and firm ; the middle membrane is 
 thin, and looks somewhat like a spider's web ; the inner mem- 
 brane consists of a net- work of blood-vessels. 
 
 378. Describe the cerebrum. 379. Describe the cerebellum. 380. What 
 is said of the membranes of the brain ? What does fig. 69 represent t 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 1^9 
 
 381. On removing the upper part of the skull-bones and 
 membranes, the brain presents an undulating, folded appear 
 ance. These ridges are called con-vo-lu' lions. 
 
 382. The SPINAL CORD is composed of a whitish substance, 
 similar to that of the brain. It is covered with a sheath, or 
 membrane, and extends from the brain through the whole 
 length of the spinal column. Th upper portion, within the 
 skull-bones, is called the me-dul'la ob-lon-gn'la. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Fig. 70. A section of the brain and spinal cord, showing the relation of the crunial 
 nerves to these organs. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum, with its arbor vita 
 n.-pn-^rnted. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, The spinal cord. 6, The first pair, or 
 nerve of smell. 7, The second pair, or nerve of sight. 9, 10, 12, Tue third, fourth, 
 and <i.\th pairs of norves. These pass to the muscles of the eye. 11, The fifth pair 
 or nerve of taste, and also the sensitive nerve of the teeth. 13, The seventh pair 
 Thi. passes to the muscles of the face. 14, The eighth pair, or nerve of hearing. 
 15, 16, 18, 19, The ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth pairs. These pass to the tongue, 
 larynx, and neck. 20, Two spinal nerves. 
 
 381. "What is the appearance of the brain when the skull-bones and mem 
 branes are removed ? What are they called ? 382. Describe the spinal 
 rord What is the medulla oblongata ? Explain fig. 70. 
 
130 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 383. The NERVES are small, white cords, that pass from the 
 brain and spinal cord. They are distributed to every part of 
 the human system. 
 
 384. The CRANIAL nerves, that connect with the base of the 
 brain, are arranged in twelve pairs. They are generally dis- 
 tributed to the parts about the face. 
 
 385. The SPINAL nerves*, that connect with the spinal cord, 
 are arranged in thirty-one pairs, each arising by two roots ; an 
 anterior, or motor root ; and a posterior, or sensitive root. 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 Fig. 71. A, The spinal cord, surrounded by its sheath, (E, E.) B, A spinal nerve, 
 formed by the union of the motor root, (C,) and the sensitive not, (D.) At D, the 
 ganglion, or knot, upon this root is seen. 
 
 386. Every nerve, however small, contains two distinct cords 
 of nervous matter. One gives feeling, while the other is used 
 in the motion of the part to which they are distributed. 
 
 387." The SYMPATHETIC nerve consists of a series of 
 garigli.-a, or knots, extending each side of the spinal column, 
 forming a chain its whole length. It communicates with both 
 the cranial and spinal nerves, and likewise distributes branches 
 to all the internal organs. 
 
 383. What are nerves ? 384. What is said of the cranial nerves ? 
 38o. What is said respecting the spinal nerves ? 386. What does every 
 nrrve contain? Describe fig. 71. 387- Describe the sympathetic nervp 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 13J 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 388. THE brain is the organ of the mind. To. the cerebrum, 
 or large brain, the faculties of thinking, memory, and the will, 
 are ascribed. In the human body, this part of the brain extends 
 so far backward as to cover the whole of the cerebellum. Tc 
 the cerebellum, or little brain, is ascribed the seat of the animal, 
 or lower propensities. 
 
 389. The brain is the seat of sensation. It perceives the 
 impressions made on all parts of the body, through the medium 
 of the sensitive nerves. That the impressions of external 
 objects, made on these nerves, be communicated to the brain, 
 where sensation is perceived, it is necessary that they be not 
 diseased or injured. 
 
 390. There is a plain distinction between sensations and im- 
 pressions ; the latter are the changes produced in the extremities 
 of the nerve ; the former, the changes produced in the brain 
 and communicated to the mind. 
 
 391. What part of the brain receives the impressions, or has 
 the most intimate relation with the intellectual faculties, is un- 
 known. Some portions, however, are of greater importance 
 than others. Pieces of both the white and gray matter, have 
 been removed by injuries without impairing the intellect or 
 destroying life. 
 
 388394. Give the functions of the brain. 388. "What is said of the brain ? 
 What is ascribed to the cerebrum ? To the cerebellum ? 3S9. Where is 
 sensation perceived ? Through what medium are the impressions of exter 
 tial objects conveyed to the brain ? 390. What is the difference between 
 lensations and impressions ? 391. Is it known what part of the brain has 
 the most intimate relation w th the intellectual faculties ? 
 
132 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 392. This organ, although it takes cognizance of every sen- 
 sation, is, of itself, but slightly sensible. It may be cut or 
 removed without pain, and the individual, at the same time, 
 retain his consciousness. The medulla oblongata, unlike the 
 brain, is highly sensitive ; if slightly punctured, convulsions 
 follow; -if much injured, respiration, or breathing, immediately 
 ceases. 
 
 393. The brain is the seat of the will. The contraction, or 
 movement of the muscles, is caused by an influence sent from 
 the brain by the act of the mind, or the will. The medium of 
 communication from this organ to the muscles, is the motor 
 nerves. If the brain is in a state of repose, the muscles are at 
 rest; if, by an act of the will, the brain sends a portion of 
 nervous influence to a muscle, it immediately contracts, and 
 those parts to which the muscle is attached, move. 
 
 394. The sympathetic nerve, although it confers neither 
 sensibility nor power of movement, yet it gives vitality, or life, 
 to all the important parts of the system. Every portion of the 
 body is, to a certain extent, under its influence, as filaments 
 from this system of nerves accompany the blood-vessels through- 
 out their course. This establishes a union, or sympathy, with 
 the different organs of the body. 
 
 Illustration. When the brain is jarred by a blow, nausea 
 and vomiting follow. Again, when food is taken that irritates the 
 nerves of the stomach, it produces headache, from the sympathy 
 of the brain with the stomach, through this system of nerves. 
 
 Fig. 72. A back view of the brain and spinal cord. 1, The cerebrum. 'J, The 
 cerebellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, The brachial plexus, ot 
 union of nerves. 6, 7, 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass under the ribs 
 11, The lumbar plexus of nerved. 12, The sacral plexus of nerves. 13, 14, 15, .(>, 
 Nerves of the lower limbs. 
 
 392. What is said of the sensibility of this organ ? Of the medulb 
 oblongata ? 393. Describe how the contraction of a muscle is effected. 
 394. "What is said of the sympathetic nerve ? Explain fig. 72. 
 
 Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of 'the nervous system be re 
 viewed from fig. 72, or Hiiatomical outline plate 8. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 IT? 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
134 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 395. As the different organs of the system are dependent on 
 the brain and spinal cord for efficient functional action, and as 
 the mind and brain are closely connected during life, the former 
 acting in strict obedience to the laws which regulate the latter, 
 it becomes an object of great importance in education to dis- 
 cover what these laws are, and escape the numerous evils con- 
 sequent on their violation. 
 
 396. For healthy and efficient action, the brain should be, 
 primarily, sound ; as this organ is subject to the same general 
 laws as other parts of the body. If the brain of the child is 
 free from defects at birth, and acquires no improper impressions 
 in infancy, it will not easily become diseased in after life. 
 
 397. The brain requires a due supply of pure blood. It is 
 estimated that one tenth of all the blood sent from the heart 
 goes to this organ. If the arterial blood be altogether with- 
 drawn, or a person breathes air that is filled with carbonic gas, 
 the brain ceases its proper action, and sensibility with con- 
 sciousness become extinct. The effects of slight differences in 
 the quality of the blood upon the action of the brain, are not so 
 easily recognized. 
 
 Illustration. Let a person remain, for a time, in a crowded, 
 ill-ventilated hall or church, and headache or faintness is gen- 
 erally produced. This is caused by the action of impure blood 
 upon the brain. 
 
 395 408. Give the hygiene of the nervous system. 395. Why is it im- 
 portant to know the laws which regulate the action o f the brain ? 396. What 
 is necessary that the action of the brain be healthy a id efficient ? 397. Why 
 does the brain require a due supply of pure blood ? How is this ill us 
 trated ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 135 
 
 Observation. If a school-teacher wishes to have his pupils, 
 on the day of examination, appear creditably, he will be care- 
 ful to have the room well ventilated. Ventilating churches 
 might prevent the inattention and sleepiness that are observed 
 during the afternoon service. 
 
 398. The brain should be called into action. This organ, 
 like the muscles, should be used, and then allowed to rest, or 
 cease from vigorous thought. When the brain is properly 
 called into action by moderate study, it increases in size and 
 strength ; while, on the other hand, if it is not used, the action 
 of this organ is enfeebled, thereby diminishing the function of 
 all parts of the body. 
 
 399. The number of hours that the brain should be vigor- 
 ously used, depends on its development, and the general 
 health of the body. The child with a large brain and an active 
 mind, should not be induced to pursue studies above the 
 capacity of children generally. On the other hand, children 
 of sluggish minds, particularly if they have good health, should 
 be incited to study. 
 
 400. Excessive and continued mental exertion is injurious 
 at any time of life ; but in infancy and early youth, when the 
 structure of the brain is still immature and delicate, permanent 
 injury is more easily produced by incorrect treatment than at 
 any subsequent period. 
 
 Observation. It is no unusual occurrence, that on " exam- 
 ination day," the best scholars appear indifferently. This is 
 the result of nervous exhaustion, produced by extra mental 
 effort in preparing for the final examination. Such pupils 
 should divert their minds from study, for a few days previous 
 to examination. During this time, indulge in light reading and 
 physical recreation. 
 
 Give a practical observation. 398. Why should the brain be called into 
 action ? What is the effect if the brain is not used ? 399. How long should 
 the brain be actively used ? What is said respecting the child with a large 
 brain ? Those of sluggish minds ? 400. WTien is excessive and continued 
 mental exertion particularly injurious ? Give observation. 
 
136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 401. We should not enter upon continued mental exertion, 
 or arouse deep feeling, immediately after a full meal. Such 
 is the connection between the mind and body, that even in a 
 perfectly healthy person, unwelcome news, sudden anxiety, or 
 mental excitement, occurring soon after eating, will impede 
 digestion, and cause the stomach to loathe the masticated food. 
 
 402. We should engage in intense study in the early part 
 of the day. Studies that require close application should be 
 pursued in the morning. The evening should be devoted 10 
 entertaining conversation, music, and light reading. This will 
 fit the system of the student for quiet and refreshing sleep. 
 
 Observation. The idea of gathering wisdom by burning the 
 " midnight oil " is more poetical than profitable. The best time 
 to use the brain is during the day. 
 
 403. Those whose employment is arduous, and the grousing 
 child, need more sleep than the idler or the adult. As sleep is 
 the natural repose of all organs, it- follows that the more all the 
 organs of the system are employed, the more repose they 
 require. The organs of the child, beside sustaining their proper 
 functions, are busy in promoting its growth. This nutritive 
 process is attended with a certain degree of exhaustion. 
 
 404. The condition of the brain is modified by changing 
 (he action of the mind. If we think intensely of a subject, 
 the face will become flushed, and dizziness or pain of the 
 head will be induced. Change our thoughts to something 
 of a more trifling character, and these peculiar sensations 
 will cease. 
 
 405. The brain can exercise its full power upon only one 
 object at a time. If its energies are directed to two or more 
 operations, neither will receive that full power of exertion that 
 it would, if only one object had engaged the mind. 
 
 401. Why should we not arouse deep feeling immediately after a full 
 meal ? 402. When should we engage in intense study? Gi- e observation. 
 403. What persons require the most sleep ? 404. Show how the action of 
 the mind modifies the condition of the brain. 405. Why cannot the brain 
 exercise its full powers on more than one object at a time ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 13"? 
 
 406. Regularity is of great importance in calling the brain 
 into action. Let us take our dinner at a certain hour for sev- 
 eral successive \veeks > and we at last find our appetites indi- 
 cating its approach with the greatest regularity. The same is 
 true of the nervous system ; call it into action at regular periods, 
 and without previous thought, we enter upon that mode of 
 action when the time approaches. The formation of " habits " 
 are promoted by this principle. 
 
 407. Repetition is necessary to make a durable impression 
 on the mind. Repetition of mental action is as important as 
 repetition of muscular action. It is by this means that thoughts 
 are durably impressed upon the brain. This principle has been 
 too much neglected in the moral and intellectual education of 
 children. 
 
 408. In injuries of the brain, the person is generally insen- 
 sible, the extremities are pale and cold, the pulse feeble, and 
 the breathing is less frequent and full. When these symptoms 
 exist, the patient should be placed in pure air. Friction, with 
 dry warmth, should be applied to the extremities, to restore 
 proper circulation in the blood-vessels. There should be no 
 bleeding until the skin of the extremities becomes warm. 
 
 406. Should the brain be called into action at regular periods ? 407. Why 
 is repetition of mental action necessary ? 408. What is the effect on the 
 system when the brain is injured ? What is necessary to be done when 
 su-:h symptoms exist? 
 
138 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 SENSE OF TOUCH. 
 
 409. SENSATION is an impression made upon the mind 
 through the medium of the senses. There are five senses, 
 namely, Touch, Taste, Smell, Hearing, and Vision. 
 
 410. TOUCH is the sense that enables us to tell whether a 
 body is rough or smooth, cold or hot, sharp or blunt. This 
 sense and feeling reside in the nerves of the skin. 
 
 411. The nerves that contribute to the sense of touch, pro- 
 ceed from the anterior half of the spinal cord. Where sensa- 
 tion is most acute, we find the greatest number of nervous 
 filaments, and those of the largest size, as at the ends of the 
 fingers and lips. 
 
 Observation. The sense of touch varies in different persons, 
 and also in individuals of different ages. Thus the sensibilities 
 of the child are more acute than those of the adult. 
 
 412. This sense is modified by the condition of the brain 
 and nerves ; by the quantity and quality of the blood supplied 
 to the skin ; by the thickness of the cuticle ; and by cultivation. 
 
 Observation. Blind persons, by whom the beauties of the 
 external world cannot be seen, cultivate this sense to such a 
 degree that they can distinguish objects with great accuracy ; 
 and the rapidity with which they read books prepared for their 
 use, is a convincing proof of the niceness and extent to which 
 the cultivation of this sense can be carried. 
 
 409. Through what medium are sensations received ? Name the senses. 
 410- -412. What is said of the sense of touch? 410. What is touch? 
 411. Why is sensation acute at the ends of the fingers and lips: What 
 is said respecting the sense of touch in different persons ? 412. What 
 modify this sense ? What is said of blind persons ? 
 
SENSE OF TASTE. 139 
 
 SENSE OF TASTE. 
 
 413. TASTE is the sense by which we perceive the flavor or 
 relish of a thing. The tongue is the principal organ of taste, 
 though the sides of ihe cheeks, and upper part of the throat 
 share in this function. 
 
 414. The surface of the tongue is thickly studded with 
 papillae, or points ; these give this organ a velvety appearance. 
 T j these points the gust'a-to-ry, or nerve of taste, is distributed. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 73. The distribution of the fifth pair of nerves. 1, The orbii for the eye 
 2, The upper jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The fifth pair of nervea. 
 6, The first branch of this nerve, that passes to the eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Divis- 
 ions of this branch. 7, The second branch that passes to the teeth of the upper jaw. 
 15, Ifi, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of this branch. 8, The third branch that is distributed 
 to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw. 23, Tne division of this branch, called 
 gustatory. 24, The division that is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw. 
 
 413 419. What is said respecting ike sense of taste t 413. Define taste. 
 What is the principal organ of taste ? 414. Where is the nerve of taste 
 distributed ? Explain fig. 73. 
 
140 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Observation. By applying strong acids, as vinegar, to the 
 tongue, with a hair-pencil, these points will become curiously 
 lengthened. 
 
 415. Substances, to be tasted, must be either naturally fluid, 
 or partially dissolved by the saliva. When fluids are taken into 
 the mouth, the papillae dilate and erect themselves, and tho 
 particular sensation excited is carried to the brain by the nerve 
 of taste. But if dry, solid food is token, it must be acted upon 
 by the saliva before the impression is perceived. 
 
 416. The use of taste is to guide men and animals in the se- 
 lection of their food, and to warn them against the introduction 
 of injurious articles into the stomach. This sense has been made 
 to vary more than any other by the refinements of social life. 
 
 417. The Indian's like or dislike to particular kinds of food, 
 generally extends to every person of the same tribe ; but among 
 civilized men, no two individuals can be found alike in all their 
 tastes. 
 
 418. This sense is modified by habit, and not unfrequently 
 those articles which at first were disgusting, become highly 
 agreeable, by persevering in the use of them ; as in learning to 
 chew tobacco, &c. 
 
 419. Taste, as well as touch, may be improved in acuteness. 
 Those persons whose business leads them to judge of the quality 
 of an article by their taste, can discriminate shades of flavor 
 not perceivable by ordinary persons. Epicures, and tasters of 
 wines and teas, afford examples. 
 
 Observation. Many persons impair their taste by bad habits, 
 as chewing or smoking tobacco, and using stimulating drinks, 
 &c. These indulgences lessen the sensibility of the nerve, and 
 destroy the natural relish for food. 
 
 How can these points upon the tongue be seen ? 415. How must sub- 
 stances be, in order to be tasted ? Show how the taste of substances is 
 perceived by the brain. 416. What is the use of taste ? What is said of 
 the difference among persons as regards taste ? 418. What effect has habit 
 on this sense ? 419. What effect has cultivation ? Give illustrative ex- 
 amples. How may the taste be impaired ? 
 
SENSE OF SMELL. J41 
 
 SENSE OF SMELL. 
 
 420. SMELL is the sense that enables us to discern the odor, 
 01 scent, of a thing. This sense is located in the air passages 
 of the nose. 
 
 421. The air passages, or nostrils, are lined by mucous 
 membrane, which is continuous wkh the skin externally, and 
 with the lining membrane of other cavities which communicate 
 with them. To this membrane the ol-fact'o-ry, or nerve of 
 smell, is distributed. 
 
 422. To protect the delicate filaments of the nerve of smell, 
 thus freely exposed to the air and to the painful stimulus of 
 sharp, pungent odors, the membrane is kept constantly mos. 
 bv a fluid secreted by the glands, with which it is provided. 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 ) 74. A side view of the passages of the nostrils, and the distribution of the firs; 
 p;iii <f nerves. 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The fine and curious divisions of this 
 nerv on the membnne of the nose. 
 
 423. When substances are presented to the nose, the air 
 that is passing through the nostrils brings the odoriferous parti- 
 
 420 427. What is said in reference to smell? 420. "WTiut is smell ? "\Vhere 
 is this sense located ? 421. Describe the air passages of the nose. 422. How 
 are the filaments of the nerve of smell protected from pungent odors ? 
 What does fig. 74 represent ? 423. How is the odor of substances carried 
 tr> the brain ? 
 
142 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 cles of matter in contact with the filaments of the nerve of 
 smell, that are spread upon the membrane that lines the air 
 passages, and the impression is then carried to the brain. 
 
 424. This sense is closely connected with that of taste, and 
 aids man, as well as the inferior animals, in selecting proper 
 food. It also gives us pleasure by the inhalation of agreeable 
 odors. 
 
 425. The sense of smell, like taste and touch, may be im- 
 proved by cultivation. Thus the North American Indians can 
 easily distinguish different tribes, and different persons of the 
 same tribe, by the odor of their bodies. 
 
 426. This sense is seen to be remarkably acute in the dog ; 
 he will trace his master's footsteps through thickly-crowded 
 streets, and distinguish them from thousands of others ; he will 
 track the hare over the ground for miles, guided only by the 
 odor that it leaves in its flight. 
 
 427. Acuteness of smell requires that the brain and nerve 
 of smell be healthy, and that the membrane that lines the nose 
 be thin and moist. Any influence that diminishes the sensibility 
 of the nervous filaments, thickens the membrane, or renders it 
 dry, impairs this sense. 
 
 Observation. Snuff, when introduced into the nose, not only 
 diminishes the sensibility of the nerve, but thickens the lining 
 membrane. This thickening of the membrane obstructs the 
 passage of air through the nostrils, and thus obliges " snuff- 
 takers" to open their mouths when they breathe. 
 
 424. What is the use of this sense ? 425. What is said of this sense 
 among the North American Indians ? 426. In the dog ? 427. What does 
 acuteness of smell require? What will impair this sense? What effect 
 has snuff upon the nasal organ ? 
 
SENSE OF VISION. ^ HAJJ 113 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 SENSE OF VISION. 
 
 428. THIS sense contributes more to the enjoyment and hap^ 
 piness of man than any of the other senses. By it, we per- 
 ceive the form, color, size, and position of objects that surround 
 us. The beautiful organ of vision, or sight, is the Eye. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 429. The EYE is shaped like a globe, and is placed in a 
 cavity in front of the skull. The sides of the globes are com- 
 posed of three coats, or membranes. The interior of the globe 
 is filled with certain substances called Hu'mors. 
 
 430. The COATS are three in number : 1st. The Scle-rot'ic 
 and Corn'e-a, 2d. The Cho'roid, I'ris, and Oil 'ia-ry processes. 
 3d. The Ret'i-na. 
 
 431. The HUMORS are also three in number: 1st. The 
 A'que-ous, or watery. 2d. The Crys'tal-line. 3d. The 
 Vit're-ous, or glassy. 
 
 432. The SCLEROTIC coat is firm, and its color white ; hence, 
 it is frequently called the " white of the eye." From its tough- 
 ness, it forms the principal support to this organ. This mem- 
 brane, with the cornea in front, encloses the eye. 
 
 433. The CORNEA is the transparent part of the eye in front, 
 which projects more than the rest of the globe. It is shaped 
 like the crystal of a watch, and, in health, gives the eye its 
 sparkling brilliancy. 
 
 428-449. Give the structure of the different parts of the eye. J29. De- 
 scribe the eye. 430. Name the coats of the eye. 431. Name the humors 
 of the eye. 432. Describe the sclerotic coat. 433. Where is the cornea 
 situated ? 
 
144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 434. The CHOROID coat is of a dark color upon its inner 
 surface. It contains a great number of blood-vessels, which 
 give nourishment to different parts of the eye. 
 
 435. The IRIS is situated a short distance behind the cornea. 
 It is the most delicate of all the muscles of the body. This 
 part gives the blue, gray, or black color to the eye. 
 
 436. In the centre of the iris is an opening called the pu'pil* 
 which enlarges or contracts, according to the quantity of light 
 thai falls upon the eye. 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 A section of the eye, seen from within. 1, The divided edge of the three 
 coats. 2, The pupil. 3, The nis. 4, The ciliary processes 5, The scolloped border 
 of the retina. 
 
 437. On v'ewing the part of the eye near the pupil, small 
 lines, of a .ighter color, will be seen passing to the outer part of 
 the iris ; these are called ciliary processes. They are about 
 sixty in number. 
 
 438. The RETINA is the innermost coat of the eye. It is 
 
 * From pu'pa, Latin, a babe ; because it reflects the diminished 
 image of the person who looks upon it. 
 
 434. Describe the choroid coat. 4C5. Where is the iris situated ? What 
 is said of this coat ? 436. Where is the pupil of the eye ? Explain ng. 
 75. 437. Describe the ciliary processes. 438. Gi^e the structure of the in 
 n^rmost coat of the eve. 
 
SENSE OF VISION. 145 
 
 formed, in part, by an expansion of the optic nerve over the 
 bottom of the eye, where the sense of vision is first received. 
 
 439. The AQUEOUS humor occupies the space between the 
 cornea and crystalline humor, both before and behind the iris. 
 
 440. The CRYSTALLINE humor (lens) lies behind the aque- 
 ous humor and pupil. Its form is different on the two sides. 
 When boiled, it may be separated into layers like those of an 
 onion. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The lens in the eye of a fish is round, 
 like a globe, and when boiled, it may be separated into layers, 
 resembling those of the human eye. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 Fig. 70. A section of the globe of the eye. 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, The cornea. 
 This connects with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled edge. 3, The choroid coat. 6, 6,- The 
 iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Chambers, or cavities of the eye that 
 contain the aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humo- 
 i5, The optic nerve. 14, 16, One of the arteries of the eye. 
 
 2d. When the crystalline lens, or the membrane which sur- 
 rounds it, is changed in structure, so as to prevent the rays of 
 light passing to the retina, the affection is called a cataract. 
 
 441. The VITREOUS humor is situated in the back part of 
 
 439. Where is the aqueous humor found ? 440. The crystalline humor ? 
 How can the structure of this lens be seen ? Explain fig. 76. 441. Whc n 
 is the vitreous humor situated ? 
 13 
 
f 
 146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 (he eye. It occupies more tnan two thirds of the whole inte' 
 nor of the globe of the eye. 
 
 Observation. The structure of this organ can be seen, by 
 arst freezing the eye of a sheep, or an ox ; it then can be cut 
 in various directions, and each part separately examined. 
 
 442. The OPTIC NERVE, or nerve of vision, extends from 
 the brain to the back part of the eye, where it expands on a 
 portion of the choroid coat. On this expansion the image of 
 objects are first formed. 
 
 K- 77. 
 
 Fig. 77. The second pair of nerves. 1, 1, The globe of the eye. The one on the 
 left is perfect, but the sclerotic coat has been removed from the one on the right, to 
 ehow the retina. 2, The crossing of the optic nerve. 3, 4, The brain. 5, 6, The 
 commencement of the spinal cord. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, The cranial nerves. 
 
 443. The EYEBROWS and EYELIDS protect the eye from too 
 strong impressions of light, and also prevent particles of dust 
 and perspiration from falling into it. 
 
 How can the structure of the eye be seen ? 442. What is said of the 
 , tic nerve ? "What is represented by fig. 77 ? 443. What is the use of the 
 eyebrows and eyelids ? 
 
SENSE OF VISION. 147 
 
 444. The EYELASHES are attached to the eyelids ; and when 
 the eye is closed, they interlace, and thus prevent particles of 
 matter from injuring this delicate organ. They add very 
 greatly to the expression of the eye. 
 
 445. The eyelids not only protect the eye, by closing it in 
 front, from too brilliant rays of light and from dust, but dis- 
 tribute equally over the globe of the eye a watery fluid secreted 
 by glands, with which they are provided. 
 
 446. Beside this, there is another fluid, (tears,) secreted by 
 the lach'ry-mal, or tear-gland, above the eye. The tears flow to 
 the eye by several minute ducts. As this fluid passes over the 
 eye, the small atoms of dust are swept away, by the process 
 of "winking," and with the tears pass into two ducts at the 
 inner corner of both eyelids. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Fig. 78. 1, The tear-gland. 2, The ducts that pass from this gland to the eye 
 j, 3, Duct:- it the inner corner of the eyelids. 4, The duct that opens into the nose. 
 
 .447. These small ducts usually convey the tears away as quick- 
 ly as they are formed ; but when the eye is irritated, or the mind 
 
 444. What is the use of the eyelashes ? 445. Give another use of these 
 protecting parts of tho eye. 446. Where are tears formed ? What is tho 
 use of tears ? What does fig. 78 represent ? 447. What is the effect whrn 
 thi eye is irritated ? 
 
148 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 aflected by various emotions, they flow to the eye too rapidly to 
 be conveyed to the nose, and they* then course down the cheek. 
 
 448. The ORBIT, or bony cavity, in which the globe of the 
 eye is placed, is lined with a thick cushion of fat, in order that 
 the eye may move in all directions, with perfect freedom and 
 without friction. 
 
 449. The eye is moved by six muscles, one extremity of 
 which is attached to the bones of the orbit ; the other extrem 
 itv to the globe of the eye. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 Fig. 79. A view of the eye and its muscles, a, i, c, d, e, Five of these muscles. 
 /, The optic nerve. The bone is seen above and below the eye 
 
 Observation. If the external muscle is too short, the eye is 
 turned out, producing the ''wall eye." If the internal muscle 
 is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the nose. It is 
 then called a " cross eye." 
 
 448. How are the movements of the eye facilitated ? 449. How manj 
 muscles move the eye ? What is the effect if the external muscle is con 
 railed ? The internal muscle ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE OBGANS OF VISION. 
 
 149 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 450. As the eye is strictly an optical instrument, it is neces- 
 sary to know the laws that regulate the transmission of light, 
 before the use of the different parts of this organ can be 
 understood. 
 
 451. It is a law of optics, that the rays of light, while passing 
 through the same medium, proceed in straight lines ; but that 
 they are turned out of their course when they pass from one 
 medium to another of different density. They are then said to 
 be refracted. 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 Fig. 80. The course of the rays of light coming from an object and passing through 
 Ihe eye. A, A pen, an inverted image of which is painted^on the retina uf the eye, 
 at B. 
 
 452. Another law is, that the rays of light, as they become 
 more distant from the luminous body, diverge, or extend farther 
 from each other. We would also add, that the rays of light 
 from an object, in passing through the eye, cross each other. 
 Hence, the image of the object is inverted on the retina. 
 
 450454. Give the physiology of the organs of vision. 450. What i.<? 
 
 necessary before the use of the different parts of the eye can be understood ''. 
 
 451. Give the first law in reference to light. What is represented by fig. 80 : 
 
 152. The second law. Why is the image of objects inverted on the ret'na f 
 
 13* 
 
150 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 453. We will now pass to the use of the different parts of 
 the eye. The eyebrows, eyelids, and eyelashes, are pro- 
 tecting organs to this delicate instrument ; while the coats give 
 form and protection to the more delicate parts within. 
 
 454. The transparent cornea and humors are mediums of 
 different density ; so that the direction o"f the rays of light that 
 leave the object at which we look, are refracted and form upon 
 the retina a small, but clear image of that object. The im- 
 pression of the image upon the retina, is then carried to the 
 brain by the optic nerve. 
 
 Observations. 1st. When the cornea and crystalline lens 
 become flattened, as in old age, the image is formed beyond 
 the retina. This defect is remedied by wearing convex glasses. 
 
 2d. When the cornea and crystalline lens are too convex, 
 an image of the object will be formed before the retina. This 
 defect of the eye is called wear-sighted ness. To give such 
 persons longer vision, it is necessary to wear concave glasses. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 455. The eye, like other organs of the body, should be used, 
 and then rested. If we look intently at an object for a long 
 time, the eye becomes wearied, and the power of vision dimin- 
 ished. On the contrary, if the eye is not called into action, its 
 functions are 'enfeebled. 
 
 456. Sudden transitions of light should be avoided. The 
 iris enlarges or contracts, as the light that falls upon the eye is 
 faint or strong; but the change is not instantaneous. Hence the 
 
 453. What parts of the eye are used to protect this delicate organ ? 
 To give it form ? 454. What is said of the use of the cornea and humors ? 
 When do persons need convex glasses ? When concave ? 455 461. Give 
 the hygiene of the orgam of vision. 455. How should the eyp be used ? 
 What is the effect of using the eye too long ? Of not calling it into action ? 
 456. What should be avoided in using the eye ? 
 
 Note. Review the anatomy and physiology of the eye from fig. 76. 
 or from anatomical outline plate 10. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 151 
 
 jmperfect vision in passing from a strong to a dim light, and the 
 overwhelming sensation experienced on going from a dimly 
 lighted room to one brilliantly lighted. 
 
 457. As far as possible, avoid all oblique positions of the 
 eye, when viewing objects. If the eye is turned obliquely in 
 viewing objects, it may produce an unnatural contraction of the 
 muscle called into action. This contraction of the muscle is 
 called strabismus, or cross-eye. 
 
 458. Children sJwuld be trained to use the eye upon objects 
 at different distances. This is necessary, in order that the 
 vision may be correct when objects at various distances are 
 viewed, as the eye accommodates itself to receive impressions 
 from objects remote as well as near. 
 
 459. When particles of dust get upon the eye, the individual 
 should be placed before a strong light, the lids held open, and 
 the particles removed with the corner of a fine linen or silk 
 handkerchief. Sometimes the substance is concealed under 
 the upper eyelid, and it may be then exposed by turning back 
 the lid in the following manner. 
 
 460. Take a knitting-needle, or small, slender piece of stick, 
 which is perfectly smooth, and place it over the upper lid, in 
 contact with and just under the edge of the orbit ; then, holding 
 it firmly, seize the lashes with the fingers of the disengaged 
 hand, and gently turn the lid back over the stick. 
 
 461. Too many trials ought not to be made, if unsuccessful, 
 as much inflammation may be induced ; but a surgeon ought 
 to be consulted as soon as possible. Eye-stones ought never 
 to be placed in the eye, as they often cause more irritation 
 than the evil which they are intended to remedy. 
 
 457. What should be avoided in viewing objects ? 458. Why should we 
 view objects at different distances ? 459. What should be done when 
 particles of dust get upon the eye ? 460. How can particles of dust be 
 removed from the upper eyelid ? 461. What should be avoided ? 
 
&&5 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 SENSE OF HEARING. 
 
 462. THE sense of hearing is next in importance to that of 
 vision. Through this sense we are enabled to perceive sounds 
 that not only subserve to our comfort and pleasure, but are 
 instrumental to our intellectual enjoyments. The organ of 
 hearing, or the Ear, is one of the most complicated in the 
 human body. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 
 
 463. The EAR is composed of three parts : 1st. The Ex- 
 ter'nal ear. 2d. The Tym 'pan-urn, or middle ear. 3d. The 
 Lab'y-rinth, or internal ear. 
 
 464. The EXTERNAL ear presents many ridges and furrows, 
 arising from the folds of the cartilage that form it. A funnel- 
 shaped tube extends from the external to the middle ear. 
 
 Observation. Many animals have small muscles that move 
 the external ear, in order to catch sounds from every direction 
 The hare, rabbit, and horse, afford good examples. 
 
 465. At the internal extremity of the tube, is a thin, semi- 
 transparent membrane, that separates the external from the 
 middle ear. It is called mem'bra-na tym'pan-i, or drum of 
 the ear. This and the bitter wax found around the hairs in the 
 tube, prevent insects from entering the head. 
 
 466. The MIDDLE ear is connected with the internal and 
 
 462. What is said of the sense of hearing ? 463 476. Give the anatomy 
 of the organs of hearing. 463. Name the parts of the ear. 464. Describe the 
 external ear. What is said of the ears of horses, rabbits, &c. ? 465. De- 
 scribe the drum of the ear. 466. How is the middle ear connected with 
 the internal cavity ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. lOrf 
 
 most important cavity, by four small bones, which are the 
 most delicate and beautifully shaped bones in the body. 
 These are so arranged, as to form a chain from the mem- 
 brana tympani of the ear to the labyrinth. 
 
 467. From the middle ear, a tube opens into the back part 
 of the throat, called Eu-sta'chi-an, which admits air into tnis 
 part of the ear. If this tube is closed by disease of the throat, 
 hearing is impaired. 
 
 Fig. 81. a, The external ear. c, The tube that leads to the middle ear. g, The 
 membrana tympani. e, k, The middle ear. &,/, A, The internal ear. , The tube that 
 leads to the throat cf, The auditory nerve. 
 
 468. The INTERNAL ear is very intricate, and the uses of 
 its various parts are not well known. It is called the labyrinth, 
 from its many windings. This part of the ear is composed of 
 a three-cornered cavity, called the ves'ti-bule, the coch'le-a, 
 (from its resembling a snail-shell,) and the sem-i-cir 'cu-lar canals. 
 
 467. What tube opens into the middle ear ? What is its use ? Explain 
 fig. 81. 468. Describe the internal ear. 
 
154 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 469. The internal ear is the only part that is absolutely 
 essential in hearing. Other parts, already described, may be 
 .'cmoved, and yet the person may hear. 
 
 Fig. 82. A "View of the labyrinth laid open. This figure is highly magnified 
 
 I, 1, The cochlea. 2, 2, 3, 3, Two channels, that wind two and a half turns around 
 a central point, (5.) 7, The central portion of the labyrinth, called the vestibule. 
 
 II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The semicircular canals. The cochlea and semicircular 
 canals open into the vestibule. 
 
 470. The AUDITORY nerve, or nerve of hearing, proceeds 
 from the brain, and expands upon the membrane that lines the 
 internal ear, similar to the expansion of the optic nerve. 
 
 4G9. What part of the ear is absolutely essential in hearing ? What doe 
 fig. 82 represent ? 470. Describe the auditory nerve. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING 
 
 471. HEARING is that function by which we obtain a knowl- 
 edge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which constitute 
 sounds. The precise function of all the different parts of the 
 ear are not known. 
 
 472. The function of the external ear, is to collect sounds 
 and reflect them into the tube that connects the external with 
 the middle ear. The " membrana tympani " receives all the 
 impressions of the air which enter the tube, and conveys them 
 to the bones of the ear. It also serves to moderate the in- 
 tensity of sound. 
 
 473. The supposed office of the middle ear, is to carry the 
 vibrations made on the membrana tympani to the internal ear. 
 This is effected by the air which it contains, and by the chain 
 of small bones that are enclosed in this cavity. 
 
 474. But little is known of the functions of the internal ear ; 
 its parts are filled with a watery fluid in which the filaments of 
 the auditory nerve terminate. 
 
 475. The auditory nerve, like the optic, has but one function, 
 that of special sensibility, or transmitting sound to the brain. 
 The nerves which furnish the ear with ordinary sensibility, 
 proceed from the fifth pair. 
 
 476. The transmission of sound through the different parts 
 
 471 476. Give the use of the organs of hearing. 471. What is hearing r 
 
 472. What is the function of the external ear ? Of the drum of the ear ? 
 
 473. What is the use of the middle ear ? 474. What is said of the func- 
 tions of the internal ear ? 475. Of the auditory nerve ? 
 
156 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND Hi'GJENJE. 
 
 of the ear, will now be explained by the aid of fig. 83. The 
 vibrations of the air are collected by the external eav, an<i 
 conducted through the tube (1) to the membrana tympani, (2.) 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 Fig. 83. A view of all the parts of the ear. 1, The tube that leads to the interml 
 ear. 2, The membrana tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central part 
 of the labyrinth named the vestibuie. 8, 9, 10, The semicircular canals. !1, 12, The 
 channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The channel from the mid- 
 dle ear to the throat, (eustachian tube.) 15, The chorda tympani nerve. 16, The 
 styloid process. 17, The seventh pair of nerves, (facial.) 18, The mastoid process 
 of the temporal bone. 
 
 From the membrana tyrnpani the vibrations pass along the 
 chain of bones, (3, 4, 5.) The bone (5) communicates with 
 the internal ear, (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12.) From 
 the internal _ear the impression is carried to the brain by the 
 auditory nerve, (13.) 
 
 Note. Let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the ear from 
 rig. 83, or from inatomical outline plate 10. 
 
KYCJIENE OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 157 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 
 
 477. Hearing, like the other senses, is capable of very great 
 improvement. By cultivation, the blind are enabled to judge 
 with great accuracy the distance of bodies in motion. It is also 
 capable of improvement when all the other senses are perfect. 
 Thus the Indian will distinguish sounds that cannot be heard 
 by the white man. 
 
 478. If this sense is destroyed in early life, the person 
 also loses the power of articulating words. Hence a man 
 born deaf is always dumb. 
 
 479. Acute hearing requires perfection in the structure and 
 functions of the different parts of the ear, and that portion of 
 the brain from which the auditory nerve proceeds. 
 
 480. The common causes of impaired hearing, are a thick- 
 ening of the membrana tympani of the ear, an accumulation 
 of wax upon its exterior surface, a closure of the eustachian 
 tube, disease of the brain, palsy of the auditory nerve, and 
 destruction of the middle and internal ear. 
 
 481. It is injurious to put the heads of pins into the ear, as 
 they frequently cause inflammation. The wax can be softened 
 by dropping into the tube some oil, and in a few hours remove 
 it, by ejecting warm soap-suds into the ear. 
 
 Observation. When worms and insects find their way into 
 the tube of the external ear, they can usually be driven out, by 
 dropping in warm olive-oil. 
 
 477 481. Give the hygiene of the organs of hearing. 477. Show how the 
 faculty of hearing is capable of improvement. 478. What follows the loss 
 of hearing in early life ? 479. On what does acute hearing depend ? 
 480. State some of the causes of impaired hearing. 481. What caution is 
 given respecting the use of pins in the ear ? How can insects be removed 
 from the ear ? 
 
156 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH. 
 
 482. OUR bodies are constituted according to certain laws, 
 and every person should learn these, in order to regulate his 
 actions and duties, so that the health may be unimpaired, and 
 the power of enjoyment, activity, and usefulness continue while 
 life lasts. 
 
 483. It is a law of the muscles, that they should either be 
 used in some occupation, or called into action by some social 
 play and active sport. (See Chap. V11I.) 
 
 484. All admit that food is necessary to sustain life; and 
 unless it be of a proper quality, taken in proper quantities, and 
 at proper times, the Sanctions of the digestive organs will be 
 deranged, and disease produced. (See Chap. XII.) 
 
 485. Pure air is essential to the full enjoyment of health. 
 The close, impure air of heated rooms and crowded assemblies 
 may be breathed, and the effect be so gradual as not to arrest 
 attention ; yet it is a violation of the physical laws. (See 
 Chap. XXI.) 
 
 486. The body also requires sleep ; and if it is not taken at 
 the right time, or with regularity, we do not feel a full refresh- 
 ment from " tired nature's sweet restorer." Let youth be taught 
 that " early to bed and early to rise " gives him health and its 
 attendant blessings. The brain, like other organs of the body, 
 should be called into action at proper times. (See Chap. XXIX.) 
 
 482. Why is it incumbent on every person to learn the laws of health ? 
 483. Give a law of the muscles. 484. In preserving the health, why is it 
 necessary to give attention to the food which is oaten ? 485. What beside 
 food is essential to the full enjoyment of health ? What is said of the im- 
 pure air of heated rooms and crowded assemblies ? 486. What should be 
 observed in regard to sleep ? 
 
REMOVAL OF DISEASE 159 
 
 487. From the extent of the surface of the skin, and the 
 close sympathy that exists between it and those organs whose 
 office is to remove the waste particles of matter from the body, 
 it is, therefore, very important in the preservation of the health, 
 that the functions of this membrane be properly maintained 
 (See Chap. XXVI.) 
 
 REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 
 
 
 
 488. It is seldom that a physician is called in the first stages 
 of disease. At this period, the treatment adopted should be 
 proper and judicious, or the sufferings of the patient are in- 
 creased, and life, to a greater or less degree, is jeopardized. 
 Hence the utility of knowing what should be done, and what 
 should not be done, in order that the health may be rapidly 
 regained. 
 
 489. In al/ instances of acute disease, it is proper to rest, 
 not only the body, but the mind. To effect this, the patient 
 should cease from physical exertion, and also withdraw his 
 thoughts from study and business operations. This should be 
 done, even if the person is but slightly indisposed. 
 
 490. Select a room for a sick person that is exposed to as 
 little external noise as possible, as impressions made on the 
 ear greatly influence the nervous system. Likewise select a 
 spacious, well-ventilated apartment, that has no superfluous 
 furniture. The practice of placing a sick person in a small, 
 ill-arranged sleeping-room, when a more spacious room can be 
 used, is poor economy, not to say unkind. 
 
 491. Care is necessary in regulating the light of a sick-room. 
 While a strong light would produce an increased action of the 
 vessels of the brain, on the contrary, a moderate light would be 
 
 487. Why should the functions of the skin be properly maintained ? 
 488. What is important in the first stages of disease ? 489. What is proper 
 in all instances of acute disease ? How can it be effected ? 490. What 
 rooms should be selected for the sick ? Why ? 491. What is said in refer- 
 ence to the quantity of light admitted into a sick-room ? 
 
160 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYG. ENE. 
 
 an appropriate stimulus to this organ. It is seldom necessary 
 to exclude all light from the sick chamber. 
 
 492. A sick person, whether a child or an adult, should not 
 be disturbed by visitors, even if their calls i short. The ex 
 citement of meeting them is followed by pression of the 
 nervous system. The more dangerous and apparently nearer 
 death the sick person is, the more rigorous should be the obser- 
 vance of this suggestion. 
 
 493. Nor should the sick-room be opened to privileged 
 classes ; for the excitement caused by a visit from relations 
 and the virtuous, will do as much injury to the sick, as that 
 produced by strangers and the vicious. The custom of visiting 
 and conversing with sick friends during the intervals of daily 
 labor, and particularly on Sunday, is a great evil. No person 
 will thus intrude herself in the sick chamber, who cares more 
 for the welfare of the suffering friend than the gratification of 
 a sympathetic curiosity. Inquiries can be made of the family 
 respecting the sick, and complimentary or necessary messages 
 can be communicated through the nurse. 
 
 Illustration. While attending a Miss B., of N. H., sick of 
 fever, I pronounced her better, withdrew medicine, directed 
 a simple, low diet, and the exclusion of all visitors. In the 
 evening, I was sent for, to attend her. There was a violent 
 relapse into the disease, which continued to increase in severity 
 until the fourth day, when death terminated her sufferings. 1 
 learned that, soon after I gave directions that no visitors be ad- 
 mitted into her room, several particular friends were permitted 
 to enter the chamber and talk with the sick girl. Their conver- 
 sation produced a severe headache ; and, to use the language 
 of the patient, " it seemed as if their talk would kill me';" and 
 it did kill her. 
 
 494. No solid food should be taken in the first stages of dis- 
 
 492. What effect have calls on the sick ? 493. What is said of the cus- 
 tom of calling and conversing with the sick during the intervals of daily 
 labor ? Give an illustration. 494. What suggestions relative to food, in 
 the first stages of disease ? 
 
REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 161 
 
 ease, even if the affection is slight. The thirst can be allayed 
 by drinking cold water, barley-water, and other preparations of 
 an unstimulating character. It is wrong to tempt the appetite 
 of a person who is indisposed. The cessation of a desire for 
 food, is the warning of Nature, that the system is in such a state 
 that it cannot be digested. 
 
 495. When a patient is recovering from illness, the food 
 should be simple, and in quantities not so great as to oppress 
 the stomach. It should also be given with regularity. " Eat 
 little and often," with no regard to regularity, is a bad practice. 
 
 496. When a physician attends a sick person, he should 
 have the special management of the food, particularly after the 
 medicine has been withdrawn and the patient is convalescent. 
 The prevailing idea that every person may safely advise rela- 
 tive to food, or that the appetite of the convalescing person 
 will guide correctly, is dangerous, and cannot be too much 
 censured. 
 
 Illustration. In 1832, I attended a Miss M., sick of fever. 
 After an illness of a few days, the fever abated, and I directed 
 a simple, unstimulating diet. Business called me from the town 
 two days. During my absence, an officious matron called ; 
 found her weak, but improving ; and told her she needed food 
 to strengthen her ; and " it would now do her good." Accord- 
 ingly, a piece of beefsteak was prepared, and given to the con- 
 valescent girl. She ate heartily, and the result was, a relapse 
 into a fever more violent than the first attack. 
 
 497. It is very important in disease that the skin be kept 
 clean. A free action of the vessels of this part of the body 
 exerts a great influence in removing disease from the internal 
 organs, as well as keeping them in health. If the thirty ounces 
 
 495. When the patient is convalescent, how should the food be given ? 
 What is said of the practice of eating " little and often " ? 496. Who 
 should have the special management of food when medicine is withdrawn ? 
 What idea prevails in the community ? Give an illustration of the evil 
 effects attending such an idea. 497. Does the skin exert a great influence 
 in removing disease from the internal organs, as well as in keeping thero 
 in health ? 
 
 14* 
 
162 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 of waste, hurtful matter, that passes through the " pores" of the 
 -.kin in twenty-four hours, is not removed by frequent bathing 
 and dry rubbing, the action of these vessels is deranged, which 
 increases the disease of the internal organs. 
 
 Illustration. Mrs. M. R., of N., Mass., was afflicted with 
 disease of the lungs and cough. This was accompanied with a 
 dry, inactive condition of the skin. As medicine had no salu- 
 tary effect in relieving her cough, she was induced by the 
 advice of the clergyman of the parish to enter upon a system- 
 atic course of bathing twice every day. Soon the skin became 
 soft, its proper functions were restored, the disease o^ .ne lungs 
 yielded, and the cough disappeared. 
 
 498. The sick-room should be kept very cleart, and in per- 
 fect order. When a sick person sees every thing neat and in 
 its proper place, a feeling of comfort is induced, which aids in 
 the recovery of the health ; while filth and disorder are objects 
 of annoyance, and tend to depress the nervous system. 
 
 499. Every sick person should breathe pure air. The purer 
 the blood that courses through the body, the greater the energy 
 of the system to remove disease. The confined, vitiated air of 
 the sick-chamber not unfrequently prolongs disease ; and in 
 many instances, the affection is not only aggravated, but even 
 rendered fatal, by its injurious influences. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. In 1833, I was called, in consultation 
 with another physician, to Mr. II., who was much debilitated 
 and delirious. For several successive days he had not slept. 
 His room was kept very warm and close, for fear he would 
 " take cold." The only change that I made in the treatment, 
 was to open the door and window, at a distance from the bed. In 
 a short time, the delirium ceased, ai.J he fell into a quiet slum- 
 ber. From this time he rapidly recovered, and I have no doubt 
 that the delirium was the result of breathing impure air. 
 
 498. How should the sick-room be kept ? 499. Why should every sick 
 person, particularly, breathe pure air ? Are not diseases prolonged, and 
 even rendered fatal, from breathing the impure, vitiated air of the sick 
 chamber ? Give illustration 1st. 
 
REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 163 
 
 2d. Formerly, every precaution was used to prevent persons 
 sick of the small-pox from breathing fresh air. When Mrs. 
 Ramsay had this disease in Charleston, S. C., her friends, sup- 
 posing that life was extinct, caused her body to be removed 
 from the house to an open shed. The pure air revived the vital 
 spark, and she lived to be an ornament to her sex. 
 
 500. MEDICINE is sometimes necessary to assist the natural 
 powers of the system to remove disease ; but it is only an assis- 
 tant. While emetics are occasionally useful in removing food 
 and other articles from the stomach, that would cause disease 
 if suffered to remain, and cathartics are valuable, in some in- 
 stances, to relieve the alimentary canal of irritating residuum, 
 yet the frequent administration of either will cause serious dis- 
 ease. 
 
 501. Although medicine is useful in some instances, yet, in 
 a great proportion of the cases of disease, including fevers and 
 inflammations of all kinds, attention to the laws of health will 
 tend to relieve the system from disease, more certainly and 
 speedily, and with less danger, than when medicines are 
 administered. 
 
 502. Thomas Jefferson, in writing to Dr. Wistar, of Phila 
 delphia. said, I would have the physician learn the limit of lib, 
 an. ' 1 would say, Have those who are continually advising 
 " herb teas, p^is, bitters," and other " cure-alls," for any com- 
 plaint, labelled with some popular name, learn the limits of 
 their duty, namely, attention to the laws of health. The rule 
 of every family, and each individual, should be, to touch not, 
 taste not, of medicine of any kind, except when directed by 
 a well-educated and honest physician, (sudden disease from 
 accidents excepted.) 
 
 Give illustration 2d. 500. What is said of the use of mediciue ? 
 
 501. What is said of its use in fevers and many other cases of disea.se ? 
 
 502. What remark by Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Wistar ? What should be 
 the nde of every person in regard to taking medicine ? What exception ? 
 
164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 
 
 503. THE nurse requires knowledge and practice to enable 
 her to discharge aright her duty to the patient, as much as 
 .he physician and surgeon do to perform what is incumbent 
 on them. Woman, from her constitution and habits, is the 
 natural nurse of the sick ; and, in general, no small portion 
 of her time is spent in ministering at. the couch of disease and 
 suffering. 
 
 504. As the young and vigorous, as well as the aged and 
 the infirm, are liable to be laid upon the bed of sickness, by an 
 epidemic, or imprudent exposure, or by some accident, it is 
 therefore necessary that the girl, as well as the matron, may 
 know how she can render service^ in an efficient and proper 
 manner. No girl should consider her education complete who 
 is not acquainted with the principles of the duties of a general 
 nurse and a temporary watcher. 
 
 505. It is to be regretted, that, while we have medical 
 schools and colleges to educate physicians, there is no institu- 
 tion to educate nurses in their equally responsible station. In 
 the absence of such institutions, the defect can be remedied, to 
 some extent, by teaching every girl hygiene or the laws of 
 health. To make such knowledge more available and com- 
 plete, attention is invited to the following suggestions relative 
 to the practical duties of a nurse. 
 
 506. BATHING. The nurse, before commencing to bathe 
 
 503. Does the nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment, 
 as well as the physician ? 504. Who is the natural nurse of the sick ? 
 What, then, is incujnbent on every girl ? 505. Should there be schools tc 
 educate nurses, as well as physicians and surgeons ? 506. What should ? 
 nurse provide herself with, before bathing a patient ? 
 
BISECTIONS FOR NURSES. 165 
 
 the patient, should provide herself with water, two towels, a 
 sponge, a piece of soft flannel, and a sheet, aftd also notice 
 the temperature of the room. 
 
 507. When the patient is feeble, use tepid or warm water. 
 Cold water should only be used when the system has vigor 
 enough to produce reaction upon the skin. This is shown 
 by the increased redness of the skin, and a feeling of warmth 
 and comfort. Before using the sponge to bathe, a sheet, or 
 fold of cloth, should be spread smoothly over the bed, and un- 
 der the patient, to prevent the bed-linen on which the patient 
 lies from becoming damp or wet. 
 
 508. Apply the wet sponge to one part of the body at a 
 time ; as the arm, for instance. By doing so, the liability of 
 contracting chills is diminished. Take a dry, soft towel, wipe 
 the bathed part, and follow this by vigorous rubbing with a 
 crash towel, or, what is better, a mitten made of this material ; 
 then use briskly a piece of soft flannel, to remove all moisture 
 that may exist on the skin, and particularly between the fingers 
 and the flexions of the joints. In this manner bathe the entire 
 body. 
 
 509. The sick should be thoroughly bathed, at least twice 
 in twenty-four hours. Particular attention should be given to 
 the parts between the fingers and toes, and about the joints, as 
 the accumulation of the waste matter is most abundant on these 
 parts. In bathing, these portions of the system are very gen- 
 erally neglected. The best time for bathing, is when the 
 patient feels the most vigorous, and freest from exhaustion. 
 The practice, of daubing the face and hands with a towel 
 dipped in hot rum, camphor, and vinegar, does not remove 
 the impurities, but causes the skin soon to feel dry, hard, 
 and uncomfortable. 
 
 507. When should cold water be used ? 508. How should the bathing 
 then be performed, so that the patient may not contract a cold ? 509. How 
 often should a sick person be bathed ? What is said of daubing the face 
 and hands merely with a wet cloth ? 
 
i6'6 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 510. FOOD. It is the duty of every woman to know how 10 
 make the simplest preparations adapted to a low die^t, in (he 
 most wholesome and the most palatable way. Water-gruel,* 
 which is the simplest of all preparations, is frequently so ill 
 made as to cause the patient to loathe it. Always prepare the 
 food for the sick in the neatest and most careful manner. 
 
 511. When the physician enjoins abstinence from food, the 
 nurse should strictly pbey the injunction. She should be as 
 particular to know the physician's directions about diet, as in 
 knowing how and when to give the prescribed medicines, and 
 obey them as implicitly. 
 
 512. When a patient is convalescing, the desire for food is 
 generally strong, and it often requires firmness and patience, 
 together with great care, on the part of the nurse, that the food 
 is prepared suitably, and given at proper times. The physician 
 should direct how frequently it should be taken. 
 
 513. PURE AIR. It is the duty of the nurse to see that not 
 only the room is well ventilated in the morning, but that fresh 
 air is constantly coming in during the day. Great care must 
 be taken, however, that the patient does not feel the current. 
 
 514. Bed-linen, as well as that of the body, should be aired 
 every day, and oftener changed in sickness than in health. 
 All clothing, when changed, should be well dried, and warmed 
 by a fire previous to its being put on the patient or the bed. 
 
 515. TEMPERATURE. The warmth of the chamber should 
 be carefully watched by the nurse. The feelings of the patient 
 
 * Directions for making the simple preparations for the sick are 
 found in almost every cook-book. 
 
 510. Should every woman know how to make the simple preparations 
 adapted to a low diet ? 511. Should the nurse strictly obey the injunctions 
 of the physician relative to food ? 512. What period of a person's illness 
 requires the most care in regard to the food ? 513. Give another duty ot 
 the nurse. 514. What directions respecting the bed-linen of the patient ? 
 What is necessary when there is a change of clothing ? 515. Why should 
 there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-chamber ? 
 
REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 1(>7 
 
 or nurse are not to be relied on, as an index of the temperature 
 of the room. Thefe should be a well-adjusted thermometer in 
 every sick-room. This should be frequently consulted by the 
 nurse. 
 
 516. The temperature of the sick-chamber should be mod- 
 erate. If it is so cold as to cause a chill, the disease will be 
 aggravated. If, on the other hand, it is too warm, the patient 
 is enfeebled and rendered more susceptible to cold on leaving 
 the sick-chamber. The Latin maxim, "7w media tutissimus 
 ibis" (in medium there is most safety,) should be regarded in 
 the rooms of the sick. 
 
 517. QUIET. The room of the patient should be kept free 
 of noise. The community should be guided by this rule, that 
 no more persons remain in the room of the sick, than the wel- 
 fare of the patient demands. It is the duty of the physician to 
 direct when visitors can be admitted or excluded from the 
 sick-room, and the nurse should see that these directions are 
 enforced. 
 
 518. The movements of the attendants should be gentle and 
 noiseless. Shutting doors violently, creaking hinges or shoes, 
 and all unnecessary noise, should be avoided. Most persons 
 refrain from loud talking in the sick-chamber, but are not 
 equally careful to abstain from whispering, which is often 
 more trying than a common tone. 
 
 519. The deportment and remarks of the nurse to the patient 
 should be calm and encouraging. The illness of a friend, or 
 persons who have recently died, should not be alluded to in the 
 sick-room. No doubts or fears of the patient's recovery, either 
 by a look or by a word, should be communicated* by the nurse 
 in the chamber of the sick. 
 
 516. What is said of the temperature of the sick-chamber ? 517. Should 
 the sick-room be kept quiet? 518. "What is said of noise in the sick- 
 chamber? Of whispering? 519. What should be the deportment of the 
 nurse toward the patient ? Should doubts and fears of the patient's 
 recovery be communicated in the sick-room ? 
 
108 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 520. When such information is necessary to be communi- 
 cated, it is the duty of the physician to impart it to the sick 
 person. 
 
 521. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick-room 
 more than six hours at a time. She should eat her food regu- 
 larly, sleep at regular periods, and take exercise daily in the 
 open air. To do this, let her quietly leave the room when the 
 patient is sleeping. A watcher, or temporary nurse, may supply 
 her place. There is but little danger of contracting disease, if 
 the nurse attends to the simple laws of health, and remains not 
 more than six hours at a time in the sick-room. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 
 
 522. These necessary assistants, like the nurse, should have 
 knowledge and practice. They should ever be cheerful, gentle, 
 firm, and attentive, in the presence of the patient. 
 
 523. A simple, nutritious supper should be eaten before 
 entering the sick-room; and it is well, during the night, tc 
 take some plain food. 
 
 524? When watching in cold weather, a person should be 
 warmly dressed, and furnished with an extra garment, as a 
 cloak or shawl, because the system becomes exhausted toward 
 morning, and less heat is generated in the body. 
 
 525. Whatever may be wanted during the night, should be 
 brought into the sick-chamber, or the adjoining room, before 
 the family retires for sleep, in order that the slumbers of the 
 patient be not disturbed by haste, or searching for needed 
 articles. 
 
 -520. When necessary to impart such intelligence, on whom does it de- 
 pend ? 521. How long should a nurse remain in the sick-chamber at a 
 time ? 522. What qualifications are necessary in a watcher ? 523. What 
 directions in regard to the food of the watcher ? 524. When watching in 
 cold weather, what precaution is necessary ? 525. What suggestion U 
 watchers ? 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 169 
 
 526. The same general directions should be observed by 
 watchers, as are given to the nurse ; nor should the watcher 
 deern it necessary to make herself acceptable to the patient by 
 agreeable conversation. 
 
 527. It can hardly be expected that the farmer, who has 
 been laboring hard in the field, or the mechanic, who has toiled 
 during the day. is qualified to render all those little attentions 
 that a sick person requires. Hence, would it not be more 
 benevolent and economical to employ and pay watchers, who 
 are qualified by knowledge and training, to perform this duty 
 in a faithful manner, while the kindness and sympathy of 
 friends may be practically manifested by assisting to defray 
 the expenses of these qualified and useful assistants ? 
 
 626. What should watchers observe ? 527. What is said of employing 
 tnose persom to watch who labor hard during the dav e 
 15 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 * 
 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTEb. 
 
 628. POISONING, either from accident or design, is of such frequency and 
 danger, that it is of the greatest importance that every person should know 
 the proper mode of procedure in such cases, in order to render immediate 
 assistance when within his power. 
 
 529. Poisons are divided into two classes mineral i which will include 
 the acids) and vegetable. 
 
 530. The first thing, usually, to be done, when it is ascertained that a 
 poison has been swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, unless vomit- 
 ing takes place spontaneously. Emetics of ground mustard, or the sul- 
 phate of zinc, (white vitriol,) or ipecacuanha, (ipecac,) or the wine >f 
 antimony, should be given. 
 
 531. When vomiting has commenced, it should be aided by large and 
 frequent draughts of the following drinks : flaxseed tea, gum-water, slip- 
 pery-elm tea, barley-water, sugar and water, or any thing of a mucilaginous 
 or diluent character. 
 
 MINERAL POISONS. 
 
 532. AMMONIA. The water of ammonia, if taken in an over-dose, and 
 in an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive poison. 
 
 533. The best and most effectual antidote is vinegar. It should be ad- 
 
 528. Is it useful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison? 529. Into how many 
 classes are poisons divided ? 530. What is the first thing to be done when it is ascor- 
 taim that poison has been swallowed ? 531. What should be taken after the vomit 
 ing has commenced' 532. What effect has an over-dose of ammonia? 533. The 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ministered in water, without delay. It neutralizes the ammonia, and ren- 
 ders it inactive. Emetics should not be given. 
 
 534. ANTIMONY. The toine of antimony and tartar emetic, if taken in 
 over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addition to the diluent, mu- 
 cilaginous drinks, give a tea-spoonful of the sirup of poppies, paregoric, or 
 twenty drops of laudanum, every twenty minutes, until five or six doses 
 have been taken, or the vomiting ceases. 
 
 535. The antidotes are nut-galls and oak bark, which may be administered 
 in infusion, or by steeping in water. 
 
 536. ARSENIC. When this has been taken, administer an emetic of 
 ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the stomach-pump as soon 
 as possible. 
 
 537. The antidote is the hydrated peroxide of iron. It should be kept 
 constantly on hand at the apothecaries' shops. It may be given in any 
 quantity, without injurious results. 
 
 538. COPPER. The most common cause of poisoning from this metal, 
 is through the careless use of cooking utensils made of it, on which the 
 acetate of copper ( verdigris) has been allowed to form. When trfls has been 
 taken, immediately induce vomiting, give mucilaginous drinks, or the 
 v/iite of egys, diffused in water. 
 
 539. The antidote is the carbonate of soda, which should be administered 
 without delay. 
 
 510. LEAP. The acetate (sugar) of lead is the preparation of this metal 
 which is liable to be taken accidentally, in poisonous doses. Induce imme- 
 diate vomiting, by emetics and diluent drinks. 
 
 541. The antidote is diluted sulphuric acid. When this acid is not to be 
 obtained, either the sulphate of magnesia, (epsom salts,) or the sulphate 
 of soda, (glauber's salts,) will answer every purpose. 
 
 542. MERCURY. The preparation of this mineral by which poisoning is 
 
 Should an emetic be given for this poison ? 534. What effect has an over-dose of 
 the wine of antimony or tartar emetic? 535. What is the antidote' 536. What 
 should immediately be done when arsenic is swallowed? 537. What is the anti- 
 dote? Can any quantity of this preparation of iron be given without injurious nv 
 suits? 538. What should be given when verdigris has been taken into the stomach: 
 539. What is the antidote? 540. What should immediately be given when suga: 
 of 1-ad is taken 1 541. What is the antidote? 
 
172 APPENDIX. 
 
 commonly produced, is corrosive sublimate. The mode of treatment to he 
 pursued, when this poison has been swallowed, is as follows : The whites 
 of a dozen eggs should be beaten in two quarts of cold water, and a tum- 
 bler-full given every two minutes, to induce vomiting. When the whites 
 of eggs are not to be obtained, soap and water should be mixed with 
 wheat flour, and given in copious draughts, and the stomach-pump in- 
 troduced as soon as possible. Emetics or irritating substances ought not 
 -i je given. 
 
 543. NITKE Saltpetre. This, in over-doses, produces violent poison- 
 ous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately induced by large doses 
 of mucilaginous, diluent drinks ; but emetics, which irritate the stomach, 
 ought not to be given. 
 
 544. ZINC. Poisoning is sometimes caused by the sulphate of zinc, 
 (white vitriol.) "When this takes place, vomiting should be induced, 
 and aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks. Use 
 the stomach-pump as soon as possible. 
 
 545. The antidote is the carbonate or super-carbonate of soda. 
 
 546. NITRIC, (aqua fortis,) MURIATIC, (marine acid,) or SULPHTJRIC 
 (oil of vitriol) ACIDS, may be taken by accident, and produce poisonous 
 effects. 
 
 547. The antidote is calcined magnesia, which should be freely admin- 
 istered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. When magnesia 
 cannot be obtained, the carbonate of potash (salseratus) may be given. 
 Chalk, powdered and given in solution, or strong soap suds, will answei 
 a good purpose, Avhen the other articles are not at hand. It is of vejy 
 great importance that something be given speedily to neutralize the acid. 
 One of the substances before named should be taken freely, in diluent and 
 mucilaginous drinks ; as gum-water, milk, flaxseed or slippery-elm tea. 
 Emetics ought to be avoided. 
 
 548. OXALIC ACID. This acid resembles the sulphate of magnesia, 
 (epsom salts,) which renders it liable to be taken, by mistake, in poison- 
 ous doses. Many accidents have occurred from this circumstance. 
 They can easily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity. Epsom 
 
 542. Give the treatment when corrosive sublimate has been swallowed. 543. What 
 effect has an over-dose of saltpetre ? What treatment should be adopted ? 544. What 
 is the treatment and antidote for white vitriol ? 547. What is the antidote for aq la 
 fortis and oil of vitriol ? Should emetics be avoided ? 548. How can oxalic acid be 
 distinguished from epsom salts? 
 
APPENDIX. 173 
 
 talti, when applied to the tongue, have a very bitter taste, while oxalic 
 acid is intensely sour. 
 
 549. The antidote is magnesia, between which and the acid a chemical 
 action takes place, producing the oxalate of magnesia, which is inert. 
 When magnesia is not at hand, chalk, lime, or carbonate of potash, 
 (salaeratus,) will answer as a substitute. 
 
 550. Give the antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks before named. 
 No time ought to be lost, but the stomach-pump should be introduced as 
 soon as a surgeon can be obtained. 
 
 551. LEY. The ley obtained by the leaching of ashes may be taken 
 by a child accidentally. The antidote is vinegar, or oil of any kind. The 
 vinegar neutralizes the alkali by uniting with it, forming the acetate of 
 potash. The oil unites with the alkali, and forms soap, which is less 
 caustic than the ley. Give, at the same time, large draughts of muci- 
 laginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, &c. 
 
 VEGETABLE POISONS. 
 
 552. The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many of them 
 equally as violent, as any in the mineral kingdom. We shall describe the 
 most common, and which, therefore, are most liable to be taken. 
 
 553. OPIUJC. This is the article most frequently resorted to by those 
 wishing to commit suicide, and, being used as a common medicine, is 
 easily obtained. From this cause, also, mistakes are very liable to be 
 made, and accidents result from it. Two of its preparations, laudanum 
 and paregoric, are frequently mistaken for each other ; the former being 
 given when the latter is intended. 
 
 554. Morphia, in solution, or morphine, as it is more commonly called 
 by the public, is a preparation of the drug under consideration, with 
 which many cases of poisoning are produced. It is the active narcotic 
 principle of the opium ; and one grain is equal to six of this drug in its 
 usual form. 
 
 555. When an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, has been 
 
 549. What is the antidote for an over-dose of oxalic acid ? When magnesia can 
 not be obtained, what will answer as a substitute ? 551. What is the antidote 
 when ley is swallowed ? 552. Are vegetable poisons as numerous and as violen 
 .n their effects as mineral .' 553. What is said of opium and its preparations ' 
 555, 556. What treatment should be adopted when an over-dose of opium or any 
 of iis preparations is taken ? 
 
 15* 
 
174 APPENDIX. 
 
 swallowed, the stomach should be evacuated as speedily as possible. To 
 effect this, a teaspoonful of ground mustard seed, or as much tartar emetic 
 as can be held on a five cent piece, or as much ipecacuanha as can be held 
 on a twenty-five cent piece, should be dissolved in a tumbler of warm 
 water, and one half given at once, and the remainder in twenty minutes, 
 if the first has not, in the mean time, operated. In the interval, copious 
 draughts of warm water, or warm sugar and water, should be drank. 
 
 556. The use of the stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the greatest 
 importance, and should be resorted to without delay. After most of thu 
 poison has been evacuated from the stomach, a strong infusion of coffee 
 ought to be given ; or some one of the vegetable acids, such as vinegar 
 or lemon-juice, should be administered. 
 
 557. The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary etfects will 
 often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on the head. Artifi- 
 cial respiration ought to be established, and kept up for some time. If 
 the extremities are cold, apply warmth and friction to them. After the 
 poison has been evacuated from the stomach, stimulants, as warm wine 
 and water, or warm brandy and water, ought to be given, to keep up and 
 sustain vital action. 
 
 558. STRAMONIUM Thorn-Apple. This is one of the most active 
 narcotic poisons, and when taken in over-doses, has, in numerous in- 
 stances, caused death. 
 
 559. HYOSCIAMUS Henbane. This article, which is used as a medi- 
 cine, if taken in improper doses, acts as a virulent irritating and nar- 
 cotic poison. 
 
 560. The treatment for the two above-mentioned articles is similar ' > 
 that of poisoning from over-doses of opium. 
 
 561. CONIUM Hemlock. Hemlock, improperly called, by many, cicuta, 
 when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic poison. It was by this 
 narcotic that the Athenians used to destroy the lives of individuals 
 condemned to death by their laws. Socrates is said to have been put 
 to death by this poison. When swallowed in over-doses, the treatment 
 is similar to that of opium, stramonium, and henbane, when over-doses 
 are taken. 
 
 557. Should the person be kept in motion? What is said of artificial respira- 
 tion, warmth, friction, and stimulants? 560. What should be the treatment when 
 an over-dose of stramonium or henbane is taken? 561. What name is some- 
 times improperly given to conium, or hemlock? How was this narcotic poison used 
 fiv the Athenians? How are the effects of an over-dose counteracted ? 
 
APPENDIX. 175 
 
 562. BELLADONNA Deadly Nightshade. CAMPHOR. ACONITE - 
 Monkshood, Wolfsbane. BRYONY Bryonia. DIGITALIS Foxglove 
 DL-LCAMARA Bitter-sweet. GAMBOGE. LOBELIA Indian Tobacco. 
 SAXGVINAB.IA Bloodroot. OIL OP SAVIN. SPIGELIA Piakroot. 
 STUYCJINIXE Nux vomica. TOBACCO. All of these, when taken in 
 over-doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment of 
 poisoning, by the use of any of these articles, is similar to that pursued 
 in over-doses of opium. (See Opium, page 173.) 
 
 563. In all cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as possible. 
 
 MEANS OF DISTINGUISHING DEATH FllOM 
 ASPHYXIA. 
 
 564. It is no uncommon occurrence, that persons considered dead, havp 
 been restored to life at the moment when a post mortem examination was 
 to have been made, or even when they were in the coffin or tomb. This 
 mistake arises from the difficulty of distinguishing real from apparent 
 death. 
 
 565. In death, although the limbs are stiff, their position is easily 
 changed, but they remain where last placed. When a limb is stiff from 
 convulsions or asphyxia, its position is changed with difficulty, and it im 
 mediately returns to its former state. Cessation of breathing, or the 
 " beating " of the heart, coldness, or insensibility, are no certain indica- 
 tions of death. The sign most certain, is well-marked putrefaction ; but it 
 does not belong to the unprofessional to decide whether putrefaction has 
 commenced ; the physician alone can establish the fact. 
 
 5Ti2. What is the treatment when an over-dose of deadly nightshade, monks- 
 h(H>d, foxglove, hitter-sweet, gamboge, lobelia, bloodroot, tobacco, &.C., is taken? 
 503. Should a physician be called in all cases when poison i3 swallowed ? 565. Ho* 
 ca\ Jt-ath be distinguished from aspnyxia.' 
 
 to* 
 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 \B SORP'TIOIC. From the Latin ab- 
 sorbere, to suck up. 
 
 A-CE-TAB'U-LUM. From the Latin ace- 
 tum, vinegar. The cavity in the hip- 
 bone, so called from its resemblance to 
 the ancient Greek vinegar vessel. 
 
 A-NAT 0-MY. From the Greek ana, 
 through, and tcmnd, I cut. A descrip- 
 tion of the structure of animals. 
 
 A-ORT'A. From the Greek aorte, to keep 
 in air. The large vessel that carries 
 blood from the heart. 
 
 AP-PA-RA'TUS. From the Latin ad, for, 
 and parare, to prepare. A collection of 
 organs. 
 
 AP-PEND'IX. From the Latin ad, to, 
 and pendere, to hang. Something 
 added. 
 
 A'QUE-ous. From the Latin aqua, water. 
 A numor of the eye. 
 
 AR'TE-RY. From the Greek arteria, 
 formed from a#r, air, and tercin, to 
 keep. The ancients believed that the 
 arteries were filled with air, like the 
 wind-pipe. 
 
 AS-PHYX'I-A. From the Greek a, priva- 
 tive, and sphuxis, pulse. Suspended 
 animation. 
 
 AT'MOS-PHERE. From the Greek atmos, 
 vapor, and sphaira, a sphere. The air 
 which surrounds the eaith. 
 
 \UD'IT-O-RY Belonging to the sense 
 tf nearing. 
 
 AU'RI-CLE. From the Latin aunt, an 
 ear. The two cavities of the heart 
 derive the name from their resemblance 
 to ears. 
 
 Bl-CUS'PlDS. From the Latin bis, two, 
 and citspis, a point. The name of cer- 
 tain teeth. 
 
 BILE. A yellow, bitler, nauseous fluid, 
 secreted by the liver. 
 
 BRAIN. The pulpy mass enclosed in 
 the cranium, or skull-bones. 
 
 BRONCH'I-A. From the Greek brogchos, 
 the throat. The two branches of the 
 wind-pipe. 
 
 CAP'IL-LA-RY. From the Latin capillus, 
 hair. The capillary vessels are the ex- 
 tremely minute terminations of the ar- 
 teries, and commencing branches of the 
 veins. 
 
 CAR'BON. From the Latin carbo, a coal 
 An elementary combustible substance. 
 
 CAR-BON'IC. Containing carbon. 
 
 CAR'PUS. From the Greek karpos, the 
 wrist. There are eight bones in the 
 wrist. 
 
 CAR'TI-LAGE. Gristle ; a part of the 
 animal body, softer than bone, l>ut 
 harder than ligament. 
 
 CA'VA. Latin. Hollow. Vena Cora, the 
 hollow, or deep-seated vein. 
 
 CER-E-BEL'LUM. The lower and small 
 er portion of the brain. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 177 
 
 rER'E-BRUM. The upper and larger 
 portion of the brain. 
 
 CHEST. The part of the body between 
 the neck and the belly. 
 
 CHO'ROID. From the Greek ehorion, the 
 skin, and eidus, resemblance. A coat 
 of the eye. 
 
 CHYLE. From the Greek chulos, nutri- 
 tious juice. 
 
 CHYME. From the Greek chumos, a 
 grayish juice. 
 
 Cn 'IA-RY. Latin. Relating to the eye- 
 lid. 
 
 CLAV'I-CLE. From the Latin davis, a 
 key. The collar-bone. 
 
 Coc'CYX. Latin. The lower extremity 
 of the spinal column. 
 
 Cocil'LE-A. Latin. A snail-shell. A 
 name given to one of the three cavities 
 of the internal ear. 
 
 CO'LOX. Greek. A portion of the large 
 intestine. 
 
 CON'CAVE. Hollow ; as the inner sur- 
 face of a spherical body. 
 
 CON'VEX. Bulging ; as the external sur- 
 face of a spherical body. 
 
 CORN'E-A. From the Latin cornu, a 
 horn. One of the coats of the eye. 
 
 ORYS'TAL-LINE. A humor, or lens of 
 the eye. It serves to transmit and re- 
 fract the rays of light. 
 
 Cus'PID. From the Latin cuspis, a point 
 The name of certain teeth. 
 
 Cu'Tl-CLE. The external layer of the 
 skin. 
 
 CU'TIS VE'RA. Latin. The true skin. 
 The internal layer of the skin. 
 
 DI'A-PHRAGM. From the Greek dia- 
 phragma, a partition. The muscle that 
 separates the lungs and heart from the 
 stomach, liver, and intestines. 
 
 DI-GES'TION. The process of dissolving 
 food in the stomach, and preparing it 
 for circulation and nourishment. 
 
 DU-O-DE'NUM. The first of the small 
 
 intestine, being about twelve fingers' 
 breadth. 
 
 EN- AM 'EL. The smooth, hard substance 
 which covers the crowns of the teeth. 
 
 EP-I-GLOT'TJS. From the Greek epi, 
 upon, and glottis, the glottis. A kind 
 of cartilaginous valve at the upper 
 part of the larynx, behind the base of 
 the tongue. 
 
 EU-STA'CHI AN TUBE. So called from 
 
 its discoverer, Eustachiua. A tube that 
 
 connects the middle ear with the 
 
 throat. 
 EX-HA'LENT. From the Latin exholore, 
 
 to throw out. 
 EX-TREM'I-TIES. The limbs ; as the 
 
 legs and arms. 
 FAS'CI-A. Latin. A thin membrane that 
 
 surrounds the muscles and tendons. 
 FE'MUR. Latin, The thigh-bone. 
 FI'BRE. An organic filament, or thread, 
 
 of a solid consistence, which enters 
 
 into the composition of every animal 
 
 and vegetable texture. 
 FIB'U-LA. Latin. A clasp. The outei 
 
 and lesser bone of the leg. 
 FlI/A-MENT. From the Latin Jilum, a 
 
 thread. A small fibre. 
 FOI/LI-CLE. From the Latin follis, a 
 
 bag. Very minute secreting avities. 
 FORE-ARM. That part of the t rm be- 
 tween the elbow and wrist. 
 FUNC'TION. From the Latin fvngor^ I 
 
 act, I perform. The action of organs ; 
 
 as the function or action of the eye is to 
 
 see, the ear to hear. 
 GAN'GLI-ON. From the Greek gaggbon, 
 
 a knot An enlargement upon a nerve 
 
 or tendon. 
 GUST'A-TO-RY. From the Latin gustus, 
 
 the taste. Belonging to the sense of 
 
 taste. 
 
 GAS'TRIC JUICE. From the Greek gut- 
 ter, the stomach. The fluid secreted bp 
 
 the stomach. 
 
178 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 GLOT'TIS. A small, oblong opening at 
 
 the upper part of the larynx. 
 GLANDS. From the Latin glans, a nut. 
 
 Soft, fleshy organs, of various sizes. 
 HEART. A muscular organ, situated in 
 
 the left side of the chest. 
 IIu'MER-us. The bone of the arm, sit- 
 
 uated between the shoulder-joint and 
 
 elbow. 
 HU'MOR. Every fluid substance of an 
 
 organi/.edbody ; as the chyle, the blood. 
 HY'DRO-GEN. From the Greek hydro, 
 
 water, and geinomai, I engender. A 
 
 gas which constitutes one of the ele- 
 
 ments of water. 
 HY-GI-ENE'. The science of preserving 
 
 the health 
 IN-CI'SOR. From the Latin incido, I cut. 
 
 The fore-teeth. 
 
 Latin. The alimentary 
 
 canal. 
 I'Ris. Latin. The rainbow. The col- 
 
 ored membrane around the pupil of 
 
 the eye. 
 LAB'Y-RINTH. From the Greek laburin- 
 
 thos, a place full of turnings. A name 
 
 given to the windings of the internal 
 
 ear. 
 LACH'RY-MAL. From the Latin lachry- 
 
 ma, a tear. 
 LAC'TE-AL. From the Latin lac, milk. 
 
 The vessels that convey the chyle, or a 
 
 milk-like substance, into the veins. 
 
 LAR'YNX. From the Greek larugx, a 
 
 whistle. The upper part of the wind- 
 
 pipe. 
 LIG-A-MENT. From ligo, I bind. A 
 
 strong, fibrous substance, which binds 
 
 bones, &c., together. 
 LJV'ER. A large gland situated below 
 
 the right lung. 
 LYM-PHAT'ICS. Vessels that perform 
 
 the office of absorption. 
 
 ME-DUL-'LA. From the Latin medulla, 
 marrow. 
 
 ME-DUL'LA OB-LON-GA'TA. The SDI- 
 nal cord that is situated within the 
 skull-bones. 
 
 MEM'BRANE. From the Latin mcmbra- 
 na, a film, a delicate web. A name 
 given to different thin organs. 
 
 MES'EN-TER-Y. From the Greek mesos, 
 in the middle, and enteron, an intestine. 
 A membrane in the middle of the intes- 
 tines, by which they are attached to the 
 spinal column. 
 
 MET-A-CAK'PUS. From the Greek meta, 
 after, and karpos, the wrist. That part 
 of the hand between the wrist and fin- 
 gers. 
 
 MET-A-TAR'SUS. From the Greek meta, 
 after, and tamos, the instep. That part 
 of the foot between the instep and toes 
 
 MID'RIFF. The diaphragm. 
 
 MI'TRAL. Resembling a mitre, or bishop's 
 bonnet. The name of two valves of 
 the heart. 
 
 Mo'LAR. From the Latin molo, I grind. 
 The name of certain teeth. 
 
 Mu'cus. A viscid fluid secreted by the 
 mucous membrane, which it serves to 
 moisten, and also to defend. 
 
 MUS'CLE. A bundle of fibres enclosed in 
 a sheath. 
 
 NERVE. An organ of sensation and 
 motion in animals. 
 
 Nl'TRO-GEN. From the Greek nitron, 
 nitre, and gcimad, I beget. One of the 
 gases that compose atmospheric air. 
 
 NU-TRI'TION. The act or process of pro- 
 moting the growth, or repairing the 
 waste of the system. 
 
 CE-SOPii'A-GUS. From the Greek old, 
 I carry, and phago, 1 eat. The tube 
 that leads from the mouth to tha 
 stomach. 
 
 OL-FACT'O-RY. From the Latin olfac- 
 tus. Belonging to the sense of smell. 
 
 O-MEN'TUM. Latin. The caul, so called 
 because the ancient priests prophesied 
 from an inspection of this membrane 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 r/y 
 
 OR'GAN. From the Greek organon, an 
 instrument. A part of the system des- 
 tined to exercise some particular func- 
 tion. 
 
 Ox V-GEX. From the Greek OJTU.I, acid, 
 and ffeinomai, I engender. A gas which 
 constitutes about one fifth of our atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 PAN'CRE-AS. From the Greek pan, all, 
 and trow, flesh ; that is, quite fleshy. 
 A gland situated behind the stomach. 
 
 PA-PlL'LA. From the Latin papilla, nip- 
 ple. Small, conical prominences seen 
 on the tongue and skin. 
 
 PA-ROT'ID. From the Greek para, about, 
 and ox, tlie ear. A gland situated un- 
 der the ear. 
 
 PA-TEL'LA. From the Latin patina, a 
 dish. The knee-pan. 
 
 PEL'VIS. Latin. A basin. The name 
 of a bony structure at the lower part 
 of the trunk. 
 
 PER-I-OS'TE-UM. From peri, about, and 
 os, bone. The membrane, or skin that 
 surrounds the bones. 
 
 PER-SPI-RA'TIOX. The evacuation of 
 the fluids of the body through the pores 
 of the skin. 
 
 PHA-LAN'GES. From the Greek pha- 
 larri, a file of soldiers. The bonea 
 composing the fingers and toes. 
 
 PIIAR'VNX. From the Greek pkarugx, 
 the pharynx. The swallow. 
 
 PHYS-I-OL/O-GY. From the Greek phu- 
 M.-, nature, and logos, a discourse. The 
 science which treats of the functions 
 of animals and vegetables. 
 
 PLEU'RA. Greek. The membrane that 
 lines the chest and surrounds the lungs. 
 
 Pri/MO-NA-RY. Belonging to the lungs. 
 
 PLEX'US.- Latin. Any union of nerves 
 or fibres, in the form of net-work. 
 
 RA'DI-CS. Latin. A spoke. The small 
 bone of the fore-arm. 
 
 REC'TUM. The .ower and straight por- 
 tiru of the intestines. 
 
 RE-SI D'u-UM. Residue. The waste re 
 mains of the food. 
 
 RET'I-NA. From the Latin rete, a nc-u 
 The net-like expansion of the optic 
 nerve on the inner surface of the 
 eye. 
 
 SA'CRUM. A bone so called because it 
 was offered iu sacrifice. The lower 
 portion of the spinal column. 
 
 SA-LI'VA. Latin. The fluid secreted in 
 the mouth. 
 
 SCAP'U-LA. Latin. The shoulder-blade, 
 
 SCLE-ROT'IC. From the Greek akleroo, 
 I harden. A membrane of the eye. 
 
 SE-CRE'TION. From the Latin seccrnere, 
 to separate. The function of several 
 glands, by which they separate from 
 the blood the material which they re- 
 spectively demand for their several pur- 
 
 SEM-1-I.u'NAR. From the Latin send. 
 half, and lu.na, moon. The name of 
 two valves at the commencement of 
 the aorta and pulmonary artery. 
 
 SKEL'E-TON. From the Greek skdld, 
 I dry. The articulated, dry bones of 
 an animal. 
 
 SPI'NAL CORD. A prolongation of the 
 brain. 
 
 SPINE. From the J>ain spina, a thorn 
 The back-bone. 
 
 SPLEEN. The milt. It was supposed 
 by the ancients to be the seat of mel- 
 ancholy, anger, and vexation. 
 
 STER'NUM. Greek. The breast-bone. 
 
 STOM'ACH. The principal organ of di- 
 gestion, situated below the left lung. 
 
 SUB-LIN'GUAL. From the Latin sub, 
 under, and lingua, the tongue. The 
 name applied to the gland under the 
 tongue. 
 
 SUB-MAX'IL-LA-KY. From the Latin 
 sub, under, and maxilla, the jaw-bone 
 The name applied to the gland undei 
 the jaw. 
 
 SUT'URE. From the Latin suo, I stitch 
 
180 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 The seam or joint which unites the 
 skull-bones. 
 
 BYN-O'VI-A. From the Greek swn, with, 
 and oon, an egg. The lubricating fluid 
 of the joints. 
 
 SYS'TEM. From the Greek sun, to- 
 gether, and istemi, I place. An assem- 
 blage of organs, arranged according to 
 some plan or method ; as the nervous 
 system. 
 
 SYS-TEM'JC. Belonging to the general 
 system. 
 
 TEN'DON. From the Greek tein6, I 
 stretch. Strong, white cords, that con- 
 nect the muscles to the bone which 
 they move. 
 
 THO-RAC'IC. From the Greek tii&raz, 
 the chest. 
 
 TIB'I-A. Latin. A pipe or flute. The 
 largest bone of the leg. 
 
 TRA'CHE-A. From the Greek trachus, 
 rough, and arteria. The canal that 
 conveys air to the lungs. 
 
 TRI-CUS'PID. From the Latin trea, three, 
 and cuspis, a point. The three valves 
 in the light side of the heart. 
 
 TRUNK. The body of animals, without 
 the limbs. 
 
 TYM'PAN-UM. Latin. The drum of the 
 ear. 
 
 UL'NA. Latin. A cubit. A bone of 
 the fore-arm. 
 
 VALVE. From the Latin valva, a 
 small door. Any membrane, or dou- 
 bling of any membrane, which pre- 
 vents fluid from flowing back in the 
 vessels and canals of the animal body 
 
 VEINS. From the Latin vena. The 
 vessels that carry the blood to the 
 heart. 
 
 VEN'TRI-CLE. Latin. A small cavity 
 of the animal body. 
 
 VERT'E-BRA, -JE. From the Latin ver- 
 to, I turn. A joint of the spinal 
 column. 
 
 VES'I-CLE. From the Latin vesicula, a 
 small vessel, or bladder. 
 
 Vl'TAL. From the Latin vita, life. 
 
 VIT'RE-OUS. Pertaining to glass. A 
 name given to one of the humora >( 
 the eve 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. PAGE. 
 
 ABSORPTION, . 76 
 
 ACIDS, Antidote* for, 172 
 
 AIR, Composition of the, 96 
 
 , the Effects of, when impure,. 99 
 
 , the Effects of, upon the Skin,... 125 
 
 AIR-CELLS, 90 
 
 AMMONIA, Antidotes for, 170 
 
 AORTA, 65 
 
 ARSENIC, Antidote for, 171 
 
 ARTERIES, 63 
 
 , Nutrient, 87 
 
 , Pulmonary, 64 
 
 of the Skin, 117 
 
 , Treatment of divided, 72 
 
 ASPHYXIA, from Carbonic Gas, 105 
 
 , from Electricity, 105 
 
 , from Drowning, 104 
 
 , from Hanging, 104 
 
 ATTITUDES, 25 
 
 AURICLES of the Heart, 62 
 
 BATHING, Necessity of, ............. 125 
 
 - , Method of,. .............. 164 
 
 BELLADONNA, Antidote for, ......... 175 
 
 RILE, ............... .- ............... 52 
 
 BLOOD, Composition of, .............. 86 
 
 - , Circulation of, ............... 67 
 
 -- , Change of, .................. 97 
 
 BONES, Structure of, ................. 11 
 
 - , Physiology of, ............... 21 
 
 - .Hygiene of, ............... 24,26 
 
 - of the Head, ................. 11 
 
 - of the Trunk, ................ 12 
 
 -- of the Upper Extremities, ..... 16 
 
 - of the Lower Extremities,. ---- 17 
 BRAIN, ............................. 127 
 
 - , Membranes of, .............. 128 
 
 - , Functions of, ............... 134 
 
 - , Injuries of, ................. 137 
 
 BRONCHIA, ......................... 90 
 
 BRONCHITIS, ................... 90, 112 
 
 BURNS and SCALDS, Treatment of,. .126 
 
 CAPILLARIES, ...................... 66 
 
 CARBONIC GAS, ................ 95, 107 
 
 the Effects of, when 
 
 breathed, 
 CARTILAGE, 
 CEREBELLUM, 
 CEREBRUM, 
 CHEST, 
 CHYLE 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 13, 101 
 54 
 
 CHYME, 64 
 
 CIRCULATORY ORGANS, 62 
 
 , Physiology of, 67 
 
 , Hygiene of, ....7075 
 
 CLOTHING, Amount of, 123 
 
 , Change of, 124 
 
 , Kind of, 122 
 
 should be loosely worn, 
 
 24, 70, 123 
 
 CONIUM, Antidote for, 174 
 
 COPPER, Antidote for, 171 
 
 CUTICLE, 115, 119 
 
 CUTIS VERA, 117 
 
 D. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM, 91 
 
 DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 48 
 
 -, Physiology of,.. 53 
 ., Hygiene of, 56 61 
 
 DRINKS, 59 
 
 DROWNED, Treatment of Persons,.. 104 
 DUODENUM, 50 
 
 E. 
 
 EAR, Anatomy of, 152 
 
 , Physiology of, 155 
 
 , Hygiene of, 157 
 
 EXH A LE NTS, 82 
 
 EYE, Anatomy of, 143 
 
 , Physiology of, 149 
 
 , Hygiene of, 150 
 
 , Method of removing Dust from, 151 
 
 F. 
 
 FASCIA, 29 
 
 FIBRES, 27 
 
 FOLLICLE, 82 
 
 FOOD, Changes of, during the Diges- 
 tive Process, 54 
 
 , Quantity of, 56 
 
 , duality of, 57 
 
 , Manner of taking, 58 
 
 , Time for taking, 60 
 
 FROZEN LIMBS, Treatment of, 126 
 
 GASTRIC JUICE, M 
 
 GLANDS, Structure of, 83 
 
 Lachrymal, 147 
 
 Lymphatic, 78 
 
 Mesenteric, 51 
 
 Oil, 118,120 
 
 Perspiratory, 118, 120 
 
 Salivary, 48 
 
 GLOTTIS, 110 
 
IS2 
 
 II- PAGE. 
 
 HEALTH, Means of preserving, 158 
 
 HEARING, Sense of, 152 
 
 HEART, ti-2 
 
 , Contractions of the (57, d9 
 
 HEAT, Animal, 10G 
 
 , Hygiene of, 108, 109 
 
 HEMORRHAGE, Means of arresting,.. .7 
 
 INTESTINES,. . 50 
 
 JOINTS, Structure of, 19 
 
 , Use of, 21 
 
 L, 
 
 LACTE ALS, 51 
 
 LARYNX, 110 
 
 LEAD, Antidote for, 171 
 
 LIGAMENTS, 20 
 
 LIGHT, Influence of, 37, 126 
 
 LIVER, 52 
 
 LUNGS, 89 
 
 LYMPHATICS, 76 
 
 , Physiology of, 78 
 
 , Hygiene of, 7981 
 
 , of the Skin, 117 
 
 M. 
 
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA, 129 
 
 MEMBRANE, 21 
 
 MERCURY, Antidote for, 173 
 
 MINERAL POISONS, 170 
 
 MUSCLES, Anatomy of, 27 
 
 , Physiology of, 30 
 
 , Hygiene of, 3642 
 
 , Compression of, 38, 113 
 
 N. 
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM, - 127 
 
 , Physiology of, . . 131 
 
 , Hygiene of,134 137 
 
 NERVES, 130 
 
 , Sympathetic, 130 
 
 , of the Skin 117, 119 
 
 , Gu.-tatorv, 139 
 
 , Olfactory, 141 
 
 , Auditory, ; 154 
 
 , Optic, 146 
 
 NITUE, Treatment for an Over-dose.. 172 
 NURSES, Directions for, 164 
 
 O. 
 
 OESOPHAGUS, 49 
 
 OMENTUM, 52 
 
 OPIUM, Treatment for an Over-dose,.. 173 
 
 PANCREAS, .52 
 
 PERIOSTEUM, 21 
 
 PHARYNX, 48 
 
 POISONS and their Antidotes, 170 
 
 It. PACh 
 
 READING, the proper Pos tion in, 113 
 
 REMOVAL OF DISEASE, 159 
 
 RESPIRATORY ORGANS, 89 
 
 , Physiology of, 193 
 
 , Hygiene of, 98 lO- 
 
 RETINA, 4} 
 
 RIBS, 10 
 
 8. 
 
 SALIVA, 53 
 
 SECRETORY ORGANS, 83 
 
 , Physiology of. 83 
 
 , Hygiene of, 84, 85 
 
 SENSES, i ;{8 
 
 SKIN, Anatomy of, 115 
 
 , Physiology of, 1 19 
 
 , Hygiene of, 122, 1-26 
 
 SMELL, Sense of, 141 
 
 SOUND, Ill, 155 
 
 SPINAL COLUMN, 14 
 
 -, Curvature of, 26 
 
 CORD, 129 
 
 SPLEEN, 52 
 
 STRAMONIUM, Treatment for an 
 
 Over-dose, 174 
 
 STOMACH, 49 
 
 SYNOVIA, 21 
 
 S VNOVIAL MEMBRANE, 20 
 
 TASTE, Sense of, 139 
 
 TEETH, Anatomy of, 43 
 
 , Physiology of, 44 
 
 , Hygiene of, 45, 46 
 
 TENDON, 27 
 
 THORACIC DUCT, 52 
 
 THROAT, extraneous Bodies in, 114 
 
 TOUCH, Sense o;, 138 
 
 TRACHEA, 90 
 
 U. 
 
 ULNA, 16 
 
 V. 
 
 VALVES of the Heart, 62 
 
 of the Aorta, 63 
 
 of the Pulmonary Artery, 63 
 
 VEINS, 66 
 
 of the Skin, 117 
 
 VEGETABLE POISONS, 173 
 
 VENTILATION, 100 
 
 VENTRICLES of the Heart. 62 
 
 VERTEBRA;, 14 
 
 VISION, 143 
 
 VOCAL ORGANS, 110 
 
 , Physiology of, Ill 
 
 , Hygiene of, ...112, 111 
 
 W. 
 
 WATCHERS, Directions for, 16? 
 
 WOUNDS, Treatment of, .74 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. - 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 IN using these plates, we would suggest, that the pupil carefully examine 
 the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text, in connection with the 
 lesson to be recited. The similarity between these and the plates will 
 enable the pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation, from 
 the latter. 
 
 Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical 
 outline plate, and also give its structure ; while other members of the class 
 note all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of 
 that organ, and if necessary, others may give an extended explanation. 
 The third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends, 
 while other members of the class supply what has been omitted. After 
 thus presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions may be pro- 
 posed promiscuously, from each paragraph, and where examples occur in 
 the text, let other analogous ones be given. 
 
 If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied, 
 confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared. 
 When practicable, the three departments should be united ; but this can 
 only be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, while 
 the physiology can be united with the anatomy, in all chapters upon 
 physiology. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 A FRONT VIEW OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 Bones of the Head. 7, The sphenoid bone. 8, The frontal bone. 10, The 
 parietal bone. 11, The os unguis. 12, The superior maxillary bone, 
 (upper jaw.) 13, The nasal bone. 14, The ethmoid bone. 15, The malar 
 bone, (check-bone.) 16, The vomer. 17, The inferior maxillary bone, 
 (the lower jaw.) a, Its body. 6, Its ramus, or branch. 18, The teeth 
 
 Bones of the Trunk. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, The sternum 3,3, The 
 ribs. 4, The sacrum. 5, The innominatum. 
 
 Bones of the Upper Extremities. 19, The clavicle, (collar-bone.) 20, The 
 
184 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 scapula, (shoulder-blade.) 21, The humerus. 22, The ulna. 23, The 
 radius. 24, 2-5, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, The bones of the carpus, (wrist.) 
 
 32, 32, 32, The five bones of the metacatpus, (the palm of the hand.) 
 
 33, 33, 33, The first range of finger-bones. 34, 34, The second range of 
 finger-bones. 35, 35, 35, The third range of finger-bones. 
 
 Bones of the Lower Extremities. 36, The femur, (thigh-bone.) 37, The 
 patella, (knee-pan.) 38, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 39, The fibula. 40, 40, 
 40, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 41, 41, The bones of the metatarsus, 
 (middle of the foot.) 42, 42, The bones of the toes. 
 
 ARTICULATIONS. (Left side of the plate.) 
 
 Ligaments of the Trunk. 1, 1, The common spinal ligament. 2, 2, The 
 intervertebral ligament, (cartilage between the vertebrae.) 9, 10, 11, 12, Ar- 
 ticulations of the ribs with the spinal column. 13, 13, 14, 15, 16, Liga 
 ments that connect the cartilages of the ribs with the sternum. 
 
 Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. 25, The ligament that connects 
 the clavicle and sternum. 27, The ligament that connects the upper rib 
 and clavicle. 28, 29, 30, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula 
 31, 32,- 33, 34, Ligaments of the shoulder-joint. 35, 35, 36, Ligaments of 
 the elbow-joint. 37, 38, 39, 40, Ligaments of the wrist. 41, 42, 43, 44, 
 Ligaments of the fingers. 
 
 Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 49, 49, Ligaments of the hip-joint. 
 50, 50, Ligaments of the patella. 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, Ligaments of the 
 knee-joint. 56, A large bursa mucosa. 57, The ligament of the tibia and 
 fibula. 58, 58, The interosseous ligament. 59, 59, Ligaments of the an- 
 kle-joint. 60, 61, 62, Ligaments of the metatarsus. 63, 64, Ligaments of 
 the toes. 
 
 A, The brachial artery. B, The brachial vein. C, The radial artery. 
 D, The femoral artery. E, The femoral vein. F, G, The anterior tibial 
 artery. 
 
 PLATE H. 
 
 A BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 Bones of the Head. 5, The occipital bone. 6, The parietal bone. 7, The 
 temporal bone. 8, The frontal bone. 9, The sphenoid bone. 15, The 
 malar bone. 16, The nasal bone. 17, The superior maxillary bone, (upper 
 i-aw.) 18, The inferior maxillary bone, (lower jaw.) 19, The teeth. 
 
 Bones of the Trunk. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, The sacrum. 3, The 
 Coccyx. 20, The innominatum. 4, 4, The ribs. 
 
 Bones of the Upper Extremities. 21, The clavicle, (collar-bone.) 22, The 
 icapula, (shoulder-blade.) 23, The humerus. 24. The ulna. 25, The 
 adius. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, The bones of the carpus, (wrist.) 
 53, 33, 33, The bones "of the metacarpus, (palm of the hand.) 34, 34, 34, 
 The first iange of finger-bones. 35, 35, The second range of finger-bones 
 16, 36, a*, Th*. third rang of finger-bones. 
 
KEY TO JKIATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. b < 
 
 Bones of the Lower Extremities. 37, The femur, (thigh-bone.) 38, The 
 patella, (knee-pan.) 39, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 40, The fibula. 41, 42, 
 43, 44, 45, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 46, 46, The bones of the 
 metatarsus, (middle of the foot.) 47, 47, Bones of the toes. 
 
 ARTICULATIONS. (Left side of the plate.) 
 
 Ligaments of the Trunk. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Ligaments of the 
 spinal column. 14, 14, 15, 15, Ligaments that connect the ribs and spinal 
 column. 11, 11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, Ligaments that connect the sacrum 
 and innominatum. 
 
 Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. 27, 28, Ligaments that connect the 
 clavicle aftd scapula. 29, The capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint. 
 oO, 30, Ligaments of the elbow. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the carpus, 
 (wrist.) 
 
 Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 9, Tendon of the gluteus muscle. 
 35, The capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 36, 36, Ligaments of the knee- 
 joint. 37, The ligament that connects the tibia and fibula. 38, The in 
 terosseous ligament. 39, 40, Ligaments of the ankle-joint. 
 
 PLATE IH. 
 A FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Muscles of the Head and Neck. 7, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 
 8, The sterno-hyoideus muscle. 9, The omo-hyoideus muscle. 10, The 
 trapezius muscle. 11, The orbicularis oculi muscle. 12, The frontal 
 muscle. 14, The orbicularis oris muscle. 15, The elevator muscle of the 
 nostrils. 16, The zygomatic muscle. 17, The depressor of the lower lip. 
 18, The depressor anguli oris muscle. 19, The triangular muscle of the 
 nose. 20, 21, The aural muscles. 22, The masseter muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Trunk. 2, 3, The external oblique muscles. 
 
 Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 1, The grand pectoral muscle. 
 3, 4, The serratus muscle. 23, The deltoid muscle. 24, The biceps 
 brachialis muscle. 2-5, The coraco-brachialis muscle. 26, The anterior 
 brachial muscle. 27, The triceps brachialis muscle. 28, The long sjj- 
 pinator muscle. 29, The external radial muscle. 30, The pronator teres 
 muscle. 31, The anterior radial muscle. 32, The palmaris brevis muscle 
 33, The anterior ulnar muscle. 35, The palmar muscle. 36, The abductor 
 muscle of the thumb. 37, The adductor muscle of the thumb. " 38, 39, 
 Small flexor muscles of the thumb. 40, The abductor muscle of the little 
 finger. 41, 41, The lumbricales muscles. 61,61, The bifurcation of the 
 tendons of the superficial flexor muscle, in the fingers. 
 
 Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 42, The fascia lata muscle. 43, The 
 sartorius muscle. 44, The rectus femoris muscle. 45, The vastns oxtcrnus 
 nviscle. 46, The vastus internus muscle. 47, The internal straight muscle. 
 ?<, The pectineus muscle. 49, The adductor muscle. 50, The psoaa 
 
I $6 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 muscle. 51, The tibialis anticus muscle. 52, The long extensv>r muscle 
 of the great toe. 53, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 54, Thf. 
 anterior peroneal muscle. 55, The long lateral peroneal muscle. 56, 57, The 
 gastrocnemii muscles. 58, The long flexor muscle of the great toe. 
 59, The short extensor muscles of the toes. 60, The abductor muscle of 
 the great toe. 
 
 The figures and letters on the left side of the plate, indicate the position 
 of important fasciae, that cover the muscles and enclose the tendons. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 
 
 A BACK VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Muscles of the Head and Neck, 4, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 
 5, The complexus muscle. 6, The mylo-hyoideus muscle. 7, 8, The oc- 
 cipito-frontalis muscle. 9, The masseter muscle. 10,11,12, The anterior, 
 middle, and posterior aural muscles. 13, The temporal muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Trunk. 1, 1, The trapezius muscle. 2, The latissimus dorsi 
 muscle. 3, The rhomboideus muscle. 4, The external oblique muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 5, The deltoid muscle. 6, 7, The 
 infra-spinatus muscle. 9, The triceps extensor muscle. 10, The internal 
 brachial muscle. 11, The long supinator muscle. 12, The external radi- 
 al muscle. 13, The second external radial muscle. 14, The anconeus 
 muscle. 15, 16, The extensor digitorum communis muscle. 17, The ex- 
 tensor carpi ulnaris muscle. 18, The flexor carpi ulnaris. 19, 20, The 
 extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis muscles. 21, An extensor muscle of the 
 thumb. 22, 28, Interossii muscles. 
 
 Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 29, The gluteus maximus muscle. 
 30, The gluteus medius muscle. 31, The biceps flexor cruris muscle 
 32, The semi-tendinosus muscle. 33, The semi-membranosis muscle. 
 34, The gracilis muscle. 35, The adductor muscle. 36, The vastus ex- 
 ternus muscle. 37, The sartorius muscle. 38, 39, The gastrocnemii 
 muscles. 40, The long peroneal muscle. 41, The external peroneal mus- 
 cle. 42, The long flexor muscle of the great toe. 43, The long extensor 
 rn^iscle of the toes. 44, The short extensor muscle of the toes. 47, The 
 short flexor muscle of the toes. 
 
 The figures and letters on the left side of the plate, indicate the position 
 of membranous fasciee which envelop the muscles and tendons. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Mouth and Neck. (A Side view.) 1, The upper lip. 2, Thi 
 tower lip. 3, The upper jaw. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The tongue. 6, The 
 hard palate, (roof of the mouth.) 7, The parotid gland. 8, The sub 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 187 
 
 lingual gland. T, The larynx. 10, The pharynx. 11, The oesophagus 
 
 12, The upper portion of the spinal column. C, The spinal cord. 
 
 The Clout and its Organs. 9, 9, The trachea. R, The right auricle 
 of the heart. L, The left auricle. 13, The left ventricle of the neart. 
 14, The right ventricle. 15, The aorta. 16, The pulmonary artery. 
 17, The vena cava descendens. 18, The right subclayian vein. 19, The 
 left subclavian vein. 20, The right jugular vein. 21, The left jugular 
 vein. 22, The right carotid artery. 23, The left carotid artery. 24, 25, 
 26, The upper, middle, and lower li bes of the right lung. 27, 28, The 
 upper and lower lobes of the left lung. 29, 29, 29, The diaphragm. 
 P, P, P, P, The pleura, that lines the cavity of the chest S, S, The clavi- 
 cles. O, O, O, O, The ribs. M, M, M, M, Muscles of the chest. 40, The 
 thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein. 
 
 The Abdomen and its Organs. 30, The stomach. 31, 32, The right and 
 left lobe of the liver. F, The fissure that separates the two lobes. 33, The 
 gall bladder. 34, 34, The duodenum. 35, The ascending colon. 36, The 
 transverse colon. 37, The descending colon. 38, 38, 38, 38, The small 
 intestine. 39, 39, The walls of the abdominal cavity turned down. 41, 
 The spleen. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Relation of the Lacteals and Thoracic Dttct. 1, 1, A section 
 of the small intestine. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, Mesenteric glands, through 
 which the lacteals from the intestine pass. 3, Several lacteal vessels 
 entering the enlarged portion and commencement of the thoracic duct. 
 5, 5, 5, The thoracic duct. 6, The thoracic duct opening into the left sub- 
 clavian vein. 7, (See 40, Fig. 1.) 8, The right subclavian vein. 9, The 
 vena cava descendens. 10, 11, 11, The aorta. 12, The carotid arteries. 
 
 13, 13, The jugular veins. 14, The vena azagos. 15, 15, The spinal col- 
 umn. 16, The diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 3. The Relation of the Larynx. Trachea, Bronchia, and Air-cells. 
 1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 
 3, The larynx. 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchia.. 6, The left bron- 
 chia. 7, 7, 7, 7, Divisions of the right bronchia. 8, 8, 8, 8, Divisions of the 
 left bronchia. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. 
 
 Fig. 4. An ideal View of a lateral and vertical Section of the Larynx. 
 
 1, 1, The superior vocal cords, (ligaments.) 2, 2, The inferior vocal cords 
 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 HEART, ARTERIES, AND VEINS. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Heart and large Arteries. 1, The right auricle of the heart. 
 
 2, The right ventricle of the heart. 3, The left auricle. 4, The left ven- 
 tricle. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, The aorta. 7, 7, The descending 
 aorta. 8, The arteria innominata. 9, The left carotid artery. 10, The left 
 subclavian artery. 56, The right subclavian nrt.-rv. 
 
188 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 Arteries of the Neck and Head. 15, The right carotid artery. 16, The 
 left carotid artery. 17, The right temporal artery. 50, The right facial 
 irtery. 54, The left temporal artery. 
 
 Arteries of the Upper Extremities. 11, 11, The left brachial artery. 
 12, The left radial artery. 13, 13, The right brachial artery. 14, The 
 right radial artery. 51, The right ulnar artery. 
 
 Arteries of the Lower Extremities. 18, The left iliac artery. 19, The right 
 iliac artery. 20, The left femoral artery. 21, The right femoral artery. 
 22, The peroneal artery. 23, The left anterior tibial artery. 24, The mus- 
 cular artery. 25, 25, The right and left arteria profunda. 26, The right 
 anterior tibia! artery. 27, The right peroneal artery. 
 
 The Veins of the Neck and Head. 28, The vena cava descendens. 
 29, The left subclavian vein. 30, The right subclavian vein. 31, The 
 right jugular vein. 32, The left jugular vein. 53, The right temporA 
 vein. 55, The left temporal vein. 49, The right facial vein. 
 
 Veins of the Upper Extremities. 33, The left brachial vein. 34, The left 
 radial vein. 35, The right brachial vein. 36, The right radial vein. 
 51, The right ulnar vein. 
 
 Veins of the Lower Extremities. 37, The vena cava ascendens. 38, The 
 left iliac vein. 39. The right iliac vein. 40, The left femoral vein. 41, The 
 right femoral vein. 42, The left anterior tibial vein. 43, The left per 
 oneal vein. 44, The right anterior tibial vein. 45, The right peroneal 
 vein. 46, 46, The profunda veins. 47, The muscular veins. 48, 48, 48, 
 48, 48, 48, Intercostal arteries and veins. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Relation of the Cavities of the Heart to the large Blood-vessels. 
 1, The vena cava descendens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right 
 auricle of the heart. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right 
 ventricle. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The pul- 
 monary artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to 
 the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 
 10, The left pulmonary veins. 11, The right pulmonary veins. 12, The 
 left auricle. 13, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle. 
 14, The left ventricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The 
 semilunar valves of the aorta. 18, The septum between the right and left 
 ventricle. 
 
 Fig. 3. An ideal View of the Heart, Arteries, and Veins. A, The right 
 auricle. B, The right ventricle. C, The tricuspid valves. D, The open- 
 ing between the right auricle and right ventricle. E, The left auricle. 
 F, The left ventricle. G, The mitral valves. H, The opening between 
 the left auricle and left ventricle. I, The septum between the right and 
 left ventricle. K, The pulmonary artery. L, The semilunar valves of the 
 pulmonary artery. M, M, The right pulmonary artery. N, N, The left 
 pulmonary artery. 0, O, O, O, O, O, The capillary vessels of the lungs 
 P, P, P, The right pulmonary vein. Q, Q, The left pulmonary vein 
 R, R, The aorta. S, The semilunar valves of the aorta. T, T, A branch 
 of the aorta to the upper extremities. U, U, U, U, A branch to the lower 
 extremities. V, V, V, V, V, V, The capillary vessels at the extremity 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 189 
 
 D/ the branches of the aorta. W, "W, The descending vena cava. 
 X, X, X, The ascending vena cava. 
 
 In Figs. 1, 2, 3, the course of the blood through the circulatory vessels 
 is indicated by arrows. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION. 
 
 Fig. 1. 1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 5>, The 
 right ventricle of the heart. 4, The left ventricle. 5, The pulmonary 
 artery. 6, The branch of the pulmonary artery to the left lung. 7, The 
 branch of the pulmonary artery to the right lung. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 
 Branches of the pulmonary artery in the right and left lung. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 
 Air-cells. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Small pulmonary veins in the right 
 and left lung. 11, The left pulmonary vein. 12, 12, The right pulmonary 
 vein. 
 
 Fig. 2. An ideal View of the Pulmonary Circulation. 1, 1, The right 
 lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, The right bronchia. 
 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, The left bronchia. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells, with arteries and 
 veins passing around them. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The 
 right ventricle of the heart. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary 
 artery. 11, 11, 11, 11, The right pulmonary artery. 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, The 
 left pulmonary artery. 13, 13, 13, 13, The right pulmonary vein. 
 14, 14, 14, 14, The left pulmonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The 
 left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. 18, The septum between the right 
 and left ventricles. 
 
 Fig. 3. An ideal View of the Capillaries. 1, 1, A branch of the pul- 
 monary artery. 2, 2, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 3, 3, Capillary 
 vessels between the artery and vein. 
 
 Fig. 4. An ideal View of the Relations of the Bronchia, Air-cells, Pul- 
 monary Arteries, and Veins. 1, A bronchial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air-cells. 
 3, A branch of the pulmonary artery. 4, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 
 
 PLATE VUL 
 
 THE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, SPINAL CORD, AND 
 NERVES. 
 
 I, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, The spinal cord. 4, The 
 brachial plexus of nerves. 5, The lumbar plexus of nerves. 6, The' sa- 
 cral plexus of nerves. 7, The facial nerve. 8, 17, The radial nerve. 
 9, 9, 16, The ulnar nerve. 10, The median nerve. G, The circumflex 
 nerve of the shoulder. 
 
 II, 11, The great sciatic nerve. 12, The external popliteal, or peroneal 
 
l./O KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATKS. 
 
 nerve. 13, 13, The posterior tibial nerve. 14, The external tibial nerve. 
 15, The muscular branch of the external peroneal nerve. 18, The muscu- 
 lar branch of the sciatic nerve. P, Q, The posterior tibial nerve. 
 
 The letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments dis- 
 tributed to the various muscles and the skin. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 THE SKLN. 
 
 Fig. 1. A perspiratory Tube and Gland. 1, 1, The contorted portion of 
 the tube that forms the gland. 2, 2, Two branches which unite to form 
 the main duct of the gland. 3, 3, The perspiratory tube. 4, The cuticle. 
 5, Its colored portion. 6, The cutis vera, (true skin.) 7, 7, Fat vesicles, 
 in which the gland is imbedded. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Papilla of the Skin. 1, 1, Two papillae, formed of an artery, 
 vein, and nerve. 2,2,2,2, Nerves forming a loop in the papilke. 3,3, Ar- 
 teries of the papillae. 4, 4, Veins of the papillae. 5, 5, A net-work of 
 arteries, veins, and nerves. 6, 6, Nerves of the skin. 8, 8, Arteries of 
 the skin. 7, 7, Veins of the skin. 
 
 Fig. 3. A Hair, audits Oil-Glands. 1, 1, The hair. 2, 2, The sheath 
 of the hair. 3, Oil-glands that surround the bulb of the hair, the ducts of 
 which open into the sheath of the hair, (2, 2.) 
 
 Fig. 4. A Section of tJie Skin. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, Its colored por- 
 tion. 3, 3, The papillary layer. 4, 4, A net-work of arteries, veins, and 
 nerves, upon the upper surface of the cutis vera. 5, 5, 5, 5, The cutis 
 vera, (true skin.) 6, 6, 6, Hairs that originate in the cutis vera. 7, 7, 7, Oil- 
 glands, the ducts of which connect with the sheath of the hair. 8, 8, 8 8, 
 8, 8, 8, 8, Perspiratory glands and their ducts. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Nerves of the 
 skin. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Arteries of the skin. 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, Veins of 
 the skin. 12, 12, 12, 12, Papillae, or ridges of the skin. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 AN ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE EYE. 
 
 Fig. 1. 1, 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, 2, The cornea. 3, 3, The choroid 
 coat. 4, 4, The retina. 5, 5, The iris. 6, 6, The posterior chamber of 
 the 'eye that contains the aqueous humor. 7,7, The anterior chamber. 
 8, 8, The pupil. 9, The crystalline humor. 10, 10, The vitreous humor. 
 11, The optic nerve. 12, A representation of a pen. 13, An inverted 
 image of the pen (12) on the ret ma. 14, 14, A canal surrounding the 
 crystalline humor. 15, 15, The bevelled junction of the cornea and scle- 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 191 
 
 rotic coats. A, a perpendicular ray of light from the pen. B, B, oblique 
 r ays, that are refracted in passing through the humors of the eye. 
 
 Fig. 2. A View ofttie External, Middle ; and Internal Ear. 1,1. The ex- 
 ternal ear. 2, The meatus auditorius externus, (the tube that connects 
 with the middle ear.) 3, The membrana tympani, (drum of the ear.) 
 8, 8, The tympanum, (middle ear.) 4, The malleus. 5, The incus. 
 6, The orbicularis. 7, The stapes, (stirrup-bone,) that connects with the 
 vestibule of the internal ear. 9, 9, (4, 5, 6, 7, The small bones of the mid- 
 dle ear,) 10, 11, 12, The semicircular canals. 13, 13, The cochlea. 
 14, The auditory nerve. 15, The division of the auditory nerve to the 
 semicircular can -Us. 16, The division to the cochlea. 17, 17i The 
 Eustachian tube. 18, The chorda tympani nerve. 19, The seventh pair 
 (tHcitd) nprve. 20, The styloid process of the temporal bone. 21, 21, 
 21, 21. 21, Tut pslxous or hard portion of the temporal bone, in which 
 ihe parts of the middle and internal ear are situated. 
 
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