iiiiiiiiii UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES SUPPLEMENT TO THE ENCYCLOPEDIA, OR DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE. IN THREE VOLUMES. Illustrated with Copperplates. NON IGNORO QU^ BONA SINT, FIERI MELIORA POSSE DOCTRINA, ET QU.E NGN OPTIMA, ALIQUO MODO ACUI TAMEN, ET CORRIGI POSSE. — CiCERO. VOL. II. ELE PHI ^|)ilatjelpi)ia : PRINTED Br BUDD AND B^RTR.iM, FOR TIIOiMAS DOBSON, AT THE STONE HOUSE, N" 41, SOUTH SECOND STREET. 1803. SUPPLEMENT TO T.HE AE5 ENCYCLOPAEDIA. E L E Elfarome- T^ LECTROMETER, is an inarument which mea- ''^'■- I J lures the quantity of ele>5lricity in any eleiflrified body. The moll common elecflrometers are defcribed in the article Electricity (EncycL), n" 27, and 182 — 233. A very valuable one is likewile defcribed in n° 85. of the article Electricity in this Supplement; but there are ftill two eleftrometers, of which we have hitherto given no account, though they are of fuch va- lue, that to pals them unnoticed would be unpardon- able. The firft, which is by much the moll accu- rate and delicate inflrument of the kind that we have leen, was invented by Mr Coulomb, and is adapted to afcertain the fmalled quantity of redundant electricity. The fecond is a late invention of Mr Cuthbertfun, the ingenious improver of the air-pump, and is employed only to meafure the charge of large jars and batteries. Electrometer, by Mr Coulomb of the Royal A- cademy of Sciences at Paris, defcribed in the Memoirs for 1785. Mr Coulomb had made fome experiments in exami- nation of Dr Hooke's theory of fprings " ut tenjlo ftc vis ;" and found, that it was furprifingly exad, in re- gard to the force neceifary for twilling eladic wires. Having fufpended a nicely turned metal cylinder by a fine wire in the direiftion of its axis, and having given it feveral turns, and left it to regain its natural pofilion, heobferved, that it performed all its revolution of un- tvv'illlng and twilling in times precifcly equal, whether ihefe oTcillations were of a few degrees, or confiiled of feveral revolutions. He thence concluded, that the force with which the wire endeavoured to regain its natural pofition was exactly proportional to its dillance from it. Engaged, foon after, by order from the Mi- nifter of Marine, in an examination of the phen^ mcna of the mariner's compals, he took this method of fuf- pcnding his needles, in order 10 obtain exafl me.ifures of the forces which caul'td them to deviate from the magnetic meridian. He made ibmc obfervations with needles I'o fulpendcd ; whicii are highly valuable to the philulbpher engaged in that liudy. When Iiis fuccefs in this relearch had fully gratilie J liis wifhes, he turned his thuughis 10 the exuinina'ion ot tlie law of electiic aiflion by the help of an ck Urometer liifpendcd in the fame manntr. It is con(lru(5leJ as loUovs : ABDC (li^. I.) repreiVnts a gl ifs cylinder, 12 inclies in dianictjr and in heiglit. This is covered by a gl.ifs plate fitted to it by a prcjciSing fillet on the un- der lurlace. This cover is pierced with two round SuppL. Vol. II. Plate XXVII. E L E holes of i|th inches in diameter. One of them / Is in Elcar<.me- the centre, and it receives the lower end of the gl.ifs icr. tube / />, of 24 inches height, which is fixed in the hole ''■^""'^^^ with a cement made of fealing-wax, or other eleflric fubftance. The top of this tube receives the brafs collar H ( fig. 2 . n° 3. ), bored truly cylindrical, and hav- ing a fmall flioulder, which rells on the top of the tube. This collar is fadtned with cement, and receives the hollow cylinder * (fig. 2. n" 2.), to which is joined the circular plate a b, divided on the edge into 360 degrees. It is alfo pierced with a round hole G in the centre, whichreceivesthecylindfical pin/' (fig. 2. n° i.), having s milled head b, and an index i 0, whofe point is bent down, fo as to mark the divifions on the circle a b. This pin turns lliffly in the hole G, and the cylinder * turns lleadily in the collar H. To the lower end of the centre pin is faftened a little pincer q, formed like the end of a port-crayon, and tightened by the ring q, fo as to hold fad the fufpenfion wire, the lower end of which is grafped by a (iinilar pincer Po (fig. 3.), tighten- ed by the ring <p. The lower end 9 is cylindrical, and it is of fuch weight as to drain the wire perfedly draight, but without any tifk cf breaking it. It may be made half of the weight that will jud break it. This pincer is enlarged at C, and pierced with a hole, which receives tightly the arm g Q, q of the elc<5lroir.c- ter. Tiiis is eight inches long, and confids of a dry filk thread, or llend.er draw of fr>me grafs completely dried, and dipped in melted gum lac or fine fealing- wax, and held upiight belore a clear fire, till it form a (lender cylinder of about -j'^thof an inch in diam;tcr. Tliis occupies fix of the eight inches, from _g- to 7 : the remaining two inches is a fine thread of the lac or fcaling-v.' IX, as it drains off in forming the arm. A: a is a ball of pith of elder or fine cork, one-fourth or one- half of an inchindiameter,madeveiyrmooib,and glided. It is balanced by a vertical circle^ of paper, of large di- menlions ftilTened with varnifh. Tlie relidance of tlie air tJ this piano loon checks the ofcill itions of the arm. The v/hole is feeii in its place in fi j. i. where the arm hangs horiz'^nially abnvit tl;e middle of the height if the great cylinder. In its ofclUations the ball ^r moves round in a circle, whol'e centre is in the axis of the whole indrunient. Its fituation is indicated by a graduated circle Z O Q_j drawn on a ilip of paper, and adhering to the glafs witli varnilli. The ele^Trified bo- dv» whole aflion is to be obfervtd, is another fmall ball ot cork /, alfo gilt, or a brafs ball well poldhid. This A is 39'^ OXO '>4 E L E [ ] E L E is carried bv a flalk of gum lac m <?, iiiclofing a dry filk thread. This ft;ilk is grafped by a clamp of cleft deal, or any fimilar contrivance which lies fii ni on the glafs covtr. When this ball is let down tlirough the hole m, it (lands fo as to touch the ball a on the arm when tliat ball is oppofite o on the graduated circle. To elediify the ball /, v/e employ the infulating handle, fi;^. 4. which is a flender ftick of foaling wax or l.ic, holding a metal wire that carries a fmall polilhed inetil ball. We tcucli with it fome eleftiified bcdy, fuch as the prime conduftor of a machine, the knob ot ajar, &c. Iniroduce tiiis elciftrilied ball cautioully in- to the hole m, ai.d tonch the ball / witli ir. Tlie ball a is immediately repelled, and goes to a dillance, twill- ing the fulptnfujn-wire, till the force ot twill exerted by the wire balances the mutual lepulfion of the balls / and a. Such is the procefs f-r examining tlie law of elec- tric ailion. But when we would examine the aftion of diiiercnt bodies in diiftrent flaCes, another appar;itus is w.mted. This is rsprefented by the piece cAd {^g. 5.), confining cf a plug of ftalingwax A, which fits tight into the hole m, and is pierced by the wire c d, hooked ate, to receive a wire conne..1ing it occafionally vlth an slearified boJy, and having b;low a polilhed nietal ball d. The iniliument is fitted for obfervation In the follow- ing manner : Turn the milled button b at top, till the twift-index /" is on the mark n of the twill circle. Then turn the whole in the collar H, till the bull a Hands rippolite to the mark of the paper circle z 0Q_, and at the fame time touches the ball / or d. Tlie obfervation is made thus : The ball / is elec- trified as already faid, and a is repelled, and retires from /, twilling the wiie, and, after a few ofcillations, fettles at a dillance correfponding to the repulfion. Now turn the twill-index, fo as to force the ball a nearer to /. We eltimate the force of this new repnllion by add- ing the motion of th.e twift-index to the angle at which the ball firll relied. By turning the tv/ill-index ftill more, we bring the balls Hill nearer, and have a mea- fure of another repulfion. — And thus m.ay we obtain as many meafures as we pleale. In this way Coulomb afcertained the relation be- tween the repulfion and the dillance to be the inverfe du- plicate ratio of the dillances. He difcovered the law cf dilFipation by air in contaft, and the relation which this bears to the primitive repulfion, by obferving the gradual approach of o to / as the eleiflricity diflipates from both, and by llackcning the twill-index till the ball a retires to its primitive dillance. He afcertained the dilFipation along iinperteifl condiidlors, and tlie length necelfary for infulation, by completely infulating the hall /, and obferving the lol's by air in contail \\ itli it, and then Aiding a metal rod down the infulating fialk, till the dilFipation began to exceed what took jlace by t!ie air alone. He examined the proportion cf redundant fluid in communicating bodies, by con- r.e(fling them alternately with the piece, fig. 5. ; as alio by eleflritying one ball, and obferving its npulfiveforce, and then Iharing its elei-lricity with anotlier, and ob- ferving the diminution. He examined the graduation of his eleilrometer, by fliaring the ele^ftriclty ol one ball with an equal ball, v.hich gave him the pofition that indicated one half ; and, by repeating this, for one- fourth, &c. in the fame manner as we praflifed and re- ElcSrome- lated in Electricity (Sii/>pl.), n" 141, 5cc. '<•"■'■ An example of one or two ot thofe trials will give a clear conception of the conclufions deduced from thefe obfervations. The ball / was introduced and ele>flrified ; a was re- pelled, and fettled at 40" ; the index was twifted 140'', which brought a to 20 ; and the time was noted. 'I'lie eleiflricity gradually dilFipated, and u came neaier to /. The index was untwilled 30'^, and .; retired a little be- yond 20" ; but on waiting a few feconds, it llo< d tx- a^^ly at 20". The time was again noted. The inter- val was exaiTlly three riiinutes. The conclufion from the experiment was as foll.ws : When the ball was brought to 20", the repullion was evidently 140 -{- 20, or 160. Three minutes after- wards it was 1 10, -J- 20, or 130 ; and 30" were loll in three minntes,'or 10° per minute. The mean force was 145. Therefore the mean lifs per minute was, -rVr" Obierve alfo, that the primitive force correfponding to the diftance was 40 : and the force correfponding to 20 was 160, or inverfcly as 20* to 40*. But obfcrve, that the dillances were not meafured by the angles, but by tho chord of the angles. The obliquity of adion muPc alfo be accounted for ; and the real levar is lefs than the arm, in the proportion of ra- dius to the coline of I the angle. The wire ufed by Coulomb in his firft experiments on the law of adion was of fach llrength, that -j-Joth of a French grain, applied at the point a, held it taft till the twill-index was turned 360°; fo that one de- gree correfponded to tt-jVo^ "^ * eraln. A foot of this wire weighed t'o'Ii ofagiain. Experience having fhewn that this was a fenfibility far exceeding what was neceflary lor the meafures that he had in view, and made the iuflrument too delicate for comm.cn ul'es, he fabllituted much llronger and (horter wires, and recom- mends muchlmaller dimenlirnstorthe wholeinflrurocnt. We have made two of only five inches in diameter and 14 inches high ; the aim ii ^ being 2\ inches, and the fufpenfion a fingle fibre vt lilk, carryin;^ 30 grains. It is far more fenlible than Bennet's gold leaf elec- trometer. The fame inftrument, with a filver wire fuf- penfion, and a thread of lac projecting from the end g, as an index to coincide more clofely with the fcale, is fufficiently nice for all experiments of meafurement. It is always proper to have the diameter of the cylinder double the length of tlie arm, that tlie ailiun of the glafs may not dillurb the pTifition of the arm. It is greatly improved by having a round hole in the bottom of the iiillrumenr, in which the cylinder C of the lower pincer may iiang freely: this pi events much tedi- ous ofcillation. Eor ordinary experiments, for meafur- ing char^'es of batteries, and the like, a much kfs deli- cate inllrument, with a fufpenfion-wire llrained at both ends, is abundantly delicate, and vallly more manage- able. The wire Ihould extend as far below the arm as above ir, and fhould be grafped below, by a pincer turn- ing by a milled head in a hole at the end of a flender fpring. This enables us to adjuft the inftrument fpeedi- ly. Having placed the twift-index at o, turn this lower button gently till the ball a points exactly to o on the paper circle. Even in thiscoarfeft ftate we have found it more delicate, and much moie exaft, than the eledlro- meter defcribed in Electricuy {Sup/>/.) n*' 85. which was E L E C 3 ] ELK Eleflrome- wp« much more collly, and liable to accidents. Cou- head ; the ball B has two holes, one at the top, and the Elcclronn- ^^^_^^5l, l"nib's eleclrometcr has the great advantage of walling other at the bottotti ; the Ufper hole is f) wiJe, as to t^'- very little electricity ; whereas Henley's, or Brookes's, let the head of the pin pifs through it, but to flop at ^•^~'''^*-' or de Lne's, walle it very fall when it is intenfe. the under one wiih its Ihank hanging freely in l> ; i is We improved it greatly by taking away the appara- a common Henley's quadrant elciftronietcr ; and wlierj tiis with the ball /, and hibftitiiting the piece, fig. 5. in ufe it is fcrewed upon the top off. for it, after changing its conllrudlion a little. Inftead It is evident, from the conftruaion, that if the foot c{ the wire c d, we ufed the fmalJtft glafs tube that we ftand horizontal, and the ball B be made to touch b, it could varniih on the infide, by drawing through it a will remain in that pofition without the help of the filk thread dipped in varniih. Having varniflied it with weight ; ; and if it fiiould by any means receive a very lac both within and wiihuut, a bral's ball d was fixed low charge ol'eledlric Huid, the two balls b, B, will re- on its lower end, and a fine wire, with a ball at tf p, pel each ither ; B will begin to afcend, and, on account was put d"wn into the tube, fo as to touch the ball be- of the centre of gravity being above the centre of mo- low. When the plug was fitted in'o the hole tn once tion, tlie afcenfion will continue till A reft up.,n a. If for all, the litualion of the ball (^fuirered no alteration, the balance be fet again horl/oi al, and the pip. / be When delicate experiments are to be made, the upper put into its place in B, it will caule B to reft ution b, bnll c is icisched l>y the charger, fig. 4. which eleiftrifies with a prelfure equal to that weight, fo that more elec- d. C is immediately drawn out with a glafs forceps ; tiic fluid muft be communicated than foimerly before and thus d is kit completely infulated. When external the balls «ill fcparatc ; and as tlie we'ght in B is increa- eleihicity, fuch as tJie faint eledricity of the atmo- i'ed or diminilhed, a greater or lefs quantity cf eleftric fpi;ere is tn be examined, the v.'ire is allowed to re- fluid will be required to effe.ft a feparation. main in the tube. — N- B. A fcrupulous experimenter, When this inftrumeut is to be applied to a jar, or who may objefl to the Itraining fpring lecommended battery, one end of a wire L muft be inferted into a above, may Cubftiiute u I'mall weight, which will be con- hole iti b, and the other end into a hole of any ball pro- flant in its iiflion. ceeding from the infide of a battery, as M. A chain. The reader will obferve, that this eleSrometer, as or wire, or any body through which the chaige is to hitherto managed, meafures only repullions. It is not pals, muft be hung to the hook at m, and carried from fo eafy to meafure attrailions with it ; and Mr Con- thence to the outlide of the battery, as is reprefented lomb was obliged to take a very circuitous method, du- by the line N. k muft be fcrewed upon c, with its in- ring which a great deal of tleiftricity was diflipated. dex towards A. The realon of this inllrument bein" In this refpefl, the elecflrometer defcribed in the article added, is to fhew, by the index continuing to rife, that Electricity (^'k/i/'/.) has theadvantage; but in every the charge of the battery is increafing, becaufe ths other refpec'l, Mr Coulomb's is the fineft eleilrometer other part of the inftruraent does not ait till the battery that has yet been publilhed, giving a/yo/a/c meafures, and has received its required charge. this with great accuracy. The Hon. Mr Cavendilh It is almnft ncedlefs to oblerve that this inftrument has employed the conftrudion in his moft valuable ex- confifts ot three eleflrometers, viz. Henley's eleflrome- peiiments on the force of gravity (P/.;7. Trajif. 1798, ter. Lane's dilcharging cledrometer confideiably im- Part II.) ; an experiment which Newton would have proved, and Brookei's fteclyard eleflrcmeter improved been delighted with obfervlng. likewile. By this combination and thefe improvements, Cu'hberifon's Elf.ctro.metf.r is thus defcribed by we polfefs all that can be required in an eleiflrometer himfelf in the lall number of the fecond volwme of Ni- lor batteries and lar^;e jars ; f.ir, l)y /, we fee the pro- cholfoti's Phtlofophical Journal. GH (fig. 6.) is an grels of the charge ; by the feparatfon of B ^, we luve oblong piece of wood, about 18 inches in length, and fix the repulfive power in weight ; and by the ball A, llie in breadth, in wiiich are fixed three glafs fupporters, difcharge is caiiied when the charge has acquired the D, E, F, mounted with brafs balls, o, ,,-, b. Of thefe ftrength propofed. fupporters, E and F are exacftly of the fame length ; In thejournal from wliich this abftraifl is taken, the but D is four inches Ihorter. Under the brafs ball a reader will find fome curious experiments made with is a long brals hook ; the ball c is made of two hemi- b.itteries by means of this electrometer ; but one will fpheres, the under one being fixed to the brafs mount- be fulBcient to explain its ule. Prepare the clei-lro- ing, and the upper turned with a groove to ihut upon meter in the mtnner Ihewn in the figure, with the jar it, lb that it can be taken oil at pleafiire. The ball b M annexed, which contains about 168 fquare inches of has a brafs tube fixed to it, about three inches long, coating. Take out the pin in B, and obferve whether cemented on the top of F, and the fame ball has a hole the ball B will remain at reft upon i ; if not, turn at the top, of a'Mint one-hair inch diameter, corrcfpond- the adjufting I'crew at C till it jull remains upon A. ing with the itilide of the tube. AB is a ftraight br.ii's Put into B the pin, maiked /', weighing 15 gr.iins ; Wire, with a knife edged centre in the middle, placed a take two inches ol watch-pendulum wire, (■.': to each little below the centre of gravity, and equally balanced end a pair t>l fpiing tongs, as is reprefented at G >//, with a hollow brals ball at each end, the centre, or hook one end to hi, and the oiher to the wire N, com- axis, refting upon a proper Ihaped piece cf brafs fixed municating with the ontfide of the jar ; let the uncoat- in the infide of the ballc : that fide of the hemifphere cd part ot the jar be made very clean and dry ; and let towards c is cut open to p.rmit the end c A of the ba- the prime condin^or ot an eleJrical machine, or a wire lance to defccud till it touches the ball a, and the upper proceeding trom it, touch liie wire L ; then, if the m.i- hemifphere C is alfo cut open to permit the end cV> to chine be put in motii^n, li.e jar and electrometer will afcend ; < is a weight, weighing a certain number oi chaigc, as will be feen by the riling ot the index of i ; grains, and made in llie form of a pin with a broad and vvhench.irgcd high enough, B will be repelled by A 3 bt E L E [ 4 ] E L I Elcphanti- ufis. P,'f»r»- ^, anJ A will dcTccnd and difcharge the jar tlirough pliorin ,j,£ y^,|,g which was confined in the tongs, and the wire will be filled and run into balls. The ingenious author, bybreatliing through a glafs pipe into the jar, damped it a liule in tlie infide. Then loading B with a pin of 30 grains, he obtained fuch a charge as lufcd eight inches of watch pendulum wire, difpofed exatflly as the two inches were difiiofed in the firmer experiment. 15y icpeatirg and varying his experiments, he found that double quantilies of ele<flrical Haid, ia the torni of a difcharge, will melt four times the length of wire of a certain diameter. ELECTROPHORUS. See Electricity in this Suppie-iu tit . ELEPHAS, the Elephant. See Encychpxd'ta ; where the natural hiflory cf this huge and fagacicus animal is detailed at confiderable length. S.nce that article was publilhtd, we have feen the third volume of the Afiatic Refeaiches, in which fomc important quef- lions, which we were then (obliged to leave in uncer- tainty, feem to be decided by Jolm Corfc, Efq. They relate, \Jl, To the mode in which elephants copulate ; which BufFon afferts (and in proof of his affertion ad- «iuces the llruvfture and pofuion of the generative organ in the female) to be performed while that female re- mains recumbent on the back ; but which Mr Corfe in- fills, from ocular evidence, takes place after the manner in which the hcrfe copulates with the mate, zd. To the method of receiving nourifhment Irom the mother ; which is not, as BufFon avers, by the trunk, but by the mouth, which fucks the dug, while the trunk of the young animal grafps it round to prefs out the milk. 3<y, To the period of their going v.'iih young ; which Mr Corfe conceives cannot be lefs than two years ; \shereas BufFon and Pennant affign only nine months for the geHation of their young. His realons tor this fuppofition are unanfwerable, and (hall be given in his own words. " As far as I know, the exaiJl lime an elephant goes with young has not yet been afcertained ; but it cannot be lefs than two years, as one of the elephants brought forth a young one twenty-one months and three days aiter (he was taken. She was obferved to be wiih young in April or May 1788, and (he was only taken in January preceding ; fo tliat it is very likely llie muft have had connection wi:h the male feme monihs before (lie was fecured, otherwife they could not have difco- vered that Ihe was with young, as a fcetus of lei's than iu months cannot well be fuppofcd to make any alter- ation in the fize or (hape of fo large an animal. The young one, a male, was produced October 16, 1789, and appeared in every relpefl to have arrived at its lull lime. The gentleman to whom it belongs examined its mouth a tew days after it was brought forth, and found that one cf its grinders on each lide had partly cut the gum." When Mr Corfe wrote his memoir, the young ele- phant was active and well, and beginning to eat a little gral's. In Africa the Hottentots feed on the elephant ; and M.Vaillant declares, that an elephant's foot, when baked in their manner, is a moft delicious morfel. ELEPHANTIASIS (fee Medicine, 11^352. En- (vcl.) is one of the moft dreadful maladies with which the human race is any where afflifled . It is not indeed ■common, if it be found at all, in the temperate climates of Europe ; but it is frequent in the E:ifl and Weft In- Elcjihantl- dies, where it too often baffles the ikill of the ahlell ^''* phyhcians. In the fecond volume of the Afiatic Re- _, I ■ fearches we h.ive the following prefcription for its curt : v^f-v->«^ " Take (>f fine trefli white arfenic one to'a, or 105 grains ; of picked black peppi-t fix times as much: let both be well beaten at interv.ds for four days fucceffive- ly in an iron mortar, and then reduced to an impalpa- ble powder in one of Hone with a Hone peftle, and thus completely levigated, a little water being mixed with them. Make pills of them as large as tares or fniall pulfc, and keep them diy in a (tiady place. Or.e of thofe pills muR be fwallowed morning and evening with f;me betel leaf, or in countries where betel is not at hand, with cold water : if the body be dcanled t'rom foulnels and oblli unions by gentle cathartics and bleed- ing belore the medicine is adininiftered, the remedy will be fpeedier." This prefcription, we are told, is an old fecret of the Hindoo phyficians, which they conlider as a powerful remedy againlF all corruptions of tlie blood, whether » occalioned by the elephantiafis or the venerial difeafe, which they call the Perjian fire, and which they apply likewife to the cure of cold and moift diftempers, or palfy, dillortions of the face, relaxation of the nerv«s, and fimilar difcafes. As the Hindoos are an ingenious and fcienlific people, it might be worth fome European phyfician's while to make trial of this ancient medicine in the Well Indies, where the elephantiafis or kindred difeafes prove lo frequently fatal. ELEVATION, in architeflure, denotes a draught or defcription of the principal face or fide of a building ; called alfo \X.i upright ox orthographi. ELEUTHERA, or Alabafer, one of the Bahama' or Lucaya iflands, where above 60 families formerly fettled under Dep. Gov. Holmes, and ereded a fmall fort. — Morse. ELIAS, Mount St. a mountain near the (hore of theN. W. coallofNonh-America,N.W. of Admiralty bay, and S. E. of Prince William's found. — ///. ELIZABETH CITY Co. in Virginia, lies between York and James rivers, having Warwick and York counties on the W. and Chelapeak bay m the E. and N. There are I'everalfniall iOands on its fea-coaft, the chief of which are Long and Egg iflands. Point Comtort is the S. eallern extremity of the co. It con- tains 3450 inh.;bi;ants, of whom 1876 are flave.-. — ib. Elizabeth Ijlands, fsveral imull iilands on the S. E. lide ct Buzzard's bay, extending S. A'ederly from the extremity of Barnftable co. in MalTachufetts, and bearing N. W. frcm Martha's Vineyard ; fituated be- tween 41. 24. and 41. 32. N. lat. and between 70. 38. and 70. 56. W. long. They are about 16 in number; the chief of which are Nafhawn, Pafqui, Nafhawenna, Pinequefe, and Cattahunk illands. All thefe belong to Duke's county. — ib. Elizabeth, a Ihort fouthern arm of James river in Virginia. It aiFords an excellent harbor, and large enough for 300 lliips. The channel is from 150 to 200 fathoms wide ; and at common flood tide it has l8 feet water to Norfolk, which Hands near the mouth of its eadern branch. The S. branch rifes in the Dif- mal Swamp. Craney idand, at the mouth of Eliza- beth, lies 5 miles S. W. of Point Comfort, at the mouth of James river. — il). F.Liz.\- ^,tw*cn fe ELK [ 5 ] EMM Elizabeth's Ifland, Queen II Elk. Elizabeth's Island, Queen, in the ftraits of Magellan, in S. America. Here fre(h water, herbs fit forTallaJ, and wild fowl may be had in great plenty. The rtiores alfo abound with fhell filh, — ib. Elizabeth, a tcwnfhip in Lancaller co. Pennfylva- uia, containing abcut 30 houfes, and a Dutch church ; 18 miles N. W. by W. of Lancafter, and 84 W. by N. of Philadelphia. — ib. ELIZABETHTOWN, a pott town and borough, in ElFex county, New-Jerl'ey ; pleafantly fituated on a fmall creek which empties into Arthur Kull. Its foil is equal to any in the Rate. In the compaft part of the town, there are about 150 houles, two brick churches, one fur Prefbyterians, very handfome, the other for Epifcopalians, and an academy. This is one of the oldeli towns in the Rate, havin'j; been purchafed of the Indians as early as 1664, and fettled ibon after. It lies 6 miles foutherly of Newark, and 15 S. W. by W. of New- York .—;■*. Eli zABETHTOWN, a village of Alleghany CO. Penn- fylvania, fituated on the S. E. fide of Monongahela river between Rcdilone Old Fort and Piilfburg, about 18 miles from each, and 6 above the mouth of the Youghagany. Many boats are built here for the trade and emigration to Kentucky, and in the environs are feveral faw-milU. N. lat. 40. 13. W. long. 79. 22 — ib. Elizabethtown, a port town ct Maryland, and capital of Walliington en. formerly calkd Hagarftowii, fcated in the fertile valley of Cimegocheague. It has feveral ftreets regularly laid out. Tiie houfes are principally built of brick and (lone, in number about 300. Epifcopalians, Prtfbyterians, and &:rman Lu- therans have each a church. The court-houfe and market-houfe a;e handfome buildings, and the gaol is of (lone, and rubft'ntial. The trade with the weftern country is confiuerable ; and there are a number of mills in the neiglibourhood, on Antietam creek. — ib. Elizabethtows, the chief town of Tyrrel co. in Edenton diftrict, N'rth-Carolina, has a gaol, court- houfc, and a few dwelling-houfes. It is 40 miles from Fayetteville, and 55 from Wilmington. — ib. Elizabethtown, a pott t wn and the chief in Bla- den CO. N. Carolina, is fituated on the N. W. branch of Cape Eear. It contains a court-houfe, gaol, and abcut 30 houfes ; 36 miles fouthward of Fayetteville, and 47 N. W. of Wilmington. — ib. ELK, a creek in Northumbsrland co. Pcnnfylvania, which uniting with Penn's creek, falls into the Sufque- hanna, 5 miles below Sunbury. — ib. Elk, a navigable river of the eallern (hore of Mi- ryland, which rifes in Chctter co. Pennfylvania, by two branches ; Big and Little Elk crscks. At their confluence llands Elkton. The canals in contemplati- on from Elk river, to Delaware b.iy, are noticed under Dehware bay. — ib. Elk, a fliort navigable river, in the (late o{ Ten- nclTee. It rifes on the N. W. lide of Cumberland mountain, runs S. wefterly, and falls into the Ten- neflee a little above the Mufcle ihoals ; about 40 miles W. N. W. of the Creeks' CrolUn^ Place.— /i. Elkhorn, a fmall water of Kentucky river. The Elkhorn lands are much elleemed, being fituated in a bend of Kentucky river, in Fayette co. in which this iiaaall river, or creek, rifes — ib. Elk, Laie, ore of the chain of fmall lakes which conneils the lake cf th» Woods with lake Superior. N. lat. 48. 41. W. long. 93. — ib. Elkridce, a fmall town in Ann Arundel co. Mary- land, fituated on the S. bank of Patapfco river, and on the W. fiJe of Deep Ru:i. This place is famriu for the bright tobacco called kite's foot. It is 8 miles S. W. of Baltimore, and 19 N. W. of Annapolis. N. lat. 39. 12. 30. — ib. Elkton, a p 'ft town of confiJerab'e trade, at the head of Chefapeak bay, in Maryland, and the capital of Cecil CO. It is fituated at the confluence of the head branches of Elk river, 13 miles from its mouth at Turkey Point, and a mile above French town. The tide flows up to the town, and it enjoys great advan- tages from the carrying trade, between Daltiraore and Philadelphia. Upwards of 250,000 bu(hels of wheat are colleded here annually, for fupplying thofe mar- kets, or the neighbouring mills. Elkton confifts of one flreet, in which are about 90 houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol. On tlie W. fide of the town is an academy. It is 12 miles S. W. oi Chrifllana bridge, 10 N. E. of Charleftown, 47 S. W. of Philadelphia, and 56 N. E. of Baltimore. — ih. ELLINGTON, a townfliip of about 20c families, in Tolland co. Conneflicut. It lies about 12 miles N. E. ot Hartford city, and 6 W. of Tolland. — ib. ELLIrSE, or Ellipsis, is one of the conic fee- tions, popularly called an oval ; being called an ellifife or eHipJis by Apollonius, the fir (I and principal author on the conic fedion?, becaufe in this figure the fquares of the ordinates are li/s than, or defellive of, the rec- tangles under the parameters and abfcHfes. See Conic .Ssffiom, Encycl. ELLIPSOID, is an elliptical fpheroid, being the folid generated by the revolution of an ellipfe about either axis. ELLIPTOIDE, an infinite or indefinite elllpfis, de- fined by the indefinite equation ay " + " = i x ''■''.a — .v" when m or n are greater than 1 : for when they are each = I, it denotes the common ellipfe. There are feveral kinds or degrees of elllptoides, de- nominated from the exponent m-j-n of the ordinate y. As tlie cubical cUiptoide, expreifed by a j ' = b x^ .a — .V ; the biquadratic, or furfolid u _y'= 3 .\ ' .a — .v ' ; &c. ELMORE, the fouthernmott townlhip in Oile?.ns CO. in Vermont ; and contained, by tl»e cenfus, only 12 inhaliitants. — Moru. EMERY'j River, a fmall river in Tennelfce, which runs S. E. into the Tennelfce, 7 miles N. by E. of the moutli of Clinch river. — ib. EMINENrL-\L equation, a term ufed by fome algebrairts, in the invcdigation of the areas of curvili- ne';^ figures, for a kind of aflumed equation that con- tains another equation eminently, the latter being a par- ticular c.ife of the former. EMMAUS, a Moravian fettlcment, 8 miles from Bethlehem, in Pennfylvania. — Moric. EMMITSBURGH, or Emnitjlurgh, 11 flourifiiing village in Frederick co. Maryland, fituated between Flat Run and Tom's creek, wtlltrn h.-ad waters cf the Monococy, and about a mile S. of the Pennfyl- vania E N A C 6 ] E N A F.iianiclliii^ v.iui.i line It is 24 miles N. E. by E. of Frcd.'rick, ^''"^''^*~^ ;iiul 50 N. W. ot' Baltimore. N. lat. 39. 10. 30. —ih. ENAMELLING or Vf.ssels for the Kitchen. Tn the ye.ir 1779 the Society of Err.utation in Paris propofcJ IS a piize queltimi " To difcnvcr a compo- (Itli)n tic r>r in:iking kitchen utcniils which (hould he ticcfrom the dirailv.int^;:;cs att-.Midii.g copper, l.-ad, tin- ned vtflels, gUzed earthen WMrc, &c. wliith (hould be a^i ftrong as pniTilile, Icfs collly ih.in the ved'cls tiled :it prefent, nnd winch fliould be able to bear tli2 liii-hcll degree of kiichen fire, and the moll luddvjn changes frum heat to ci'lJ." In coiifeqner.ce ( f this propofal, Mr SvEN Rinman of the Royal .-^cadamy of Stockholm, williout any inten- tion of being a candidate for the premium ofl'ercd by the Society of Emulation, inftituted a fet of experi- jiicnts on fmall veifeU of copper and hanimeied iron, with the view of giving to ihem a coating of what ni.iy properly be called enamel, which Ihonld not have tlie defeifl.'. of tinning, and which, when applied to iron, (li'iuld take from it the inconveniency of rnlline, and of blackening many ftirts of vic>nals when they i;re drclFed in it. 'I'hele experiments lie fubmitted to the academy of which he was a member ; and as we think them important, we ihall lay the fubllance of them be- fore our readers. The moft common, and the cheapetl kind of v\hite enamel that is to be met with in the lliop<. (which is an opaque white glafs, compofed of powdered quartz, of elafs of lead, and of calx of tin), vi-a5 tried for coat- ing kitchen utenfils ; and he found that it was excellent for the purpofe, as it produced a coating, which was not only clean and agieeable in its appearance, but pof- felfed hkewife all the power of refilfing the ad^ion of trie and of acids that could be defired. But, as it is very difficult to apply, is very dear for common ufe, and is befides conndered as not being capable of rcfifl- ing violent blows or falls, he made various experiments with fubllances of lefs jirice ; of which the following are certainly worthy of being related. I. The white femi-tranfpartnt lluor fpar was reduced into a fine powder, wiili an equal quantity of unburnt gypfum, and afterwards calcined in a llrong fire with a white heat ; the whole being, from time to time, care- fully fiirred. The velfel, which he intended to coat, having firll been wetted by dipping it in water, had as much of the aiorefaid powder applied to its infide, by means of a very fine filk fieve, as would adhere to it of itfelf, or could be made to do fo by prell'ing it with the finger. After this velfel had been dried and gra- dually heated, it was expofed to a i'udden and violent heat, partly in a coal-fire, kept up by a pair (f bellows (the veflel being at the fame time covered, fo that no coals or allies could fall into it,), and partly in an allay- ing furnace. In the coal fire, and with the heat as violent as is com- monly ufed to make copper folder run, the mixture was melted, in about the fpaceofa minute, into an opaque white enamel, which evenly covered the furface of the copper, and fixed itfelf pretty firmly to the metal ; it alio bore hard blows without breaking, and refifted the trials made by boiling things in it, and by applying acids to it. The forementioned mixture was alfo redu- ced into a fine powder in a glafs mortar, and made into a fort o( thin paflc with water ; it was tiien applied to EnameDing the velfel with a fmall brufli, an operation as eafy as "^-^"^'"^^ that of applying any other wet colouring matter. He like wife tried this palle, by covering vclfels vi-ith it in the fame way the potters apply their common glazing for (lone ware. By both the above mentioned procefles he obtained a very Imooth coating, particularly by the latter, which is more quickly performed. When the pafte is applied, the velfel Ihould be made a little waim, fo alfo Ihould tlie palle itfelf. Il the conlliment parts of thefe two fubRanccs be con- fidtred (th. it is to fay, that gypliim is compofed nf calca- reous earth fatnraled with viiiiolic (fnlphuric) acid, and flnor fpar ot a particular acid united to lihceous eartil ; alio, that the whole, when put into the fire without the addition of any other fubllance, is, of all earthy or ftony mixtures, that which the mull eafily melts into an o- paque white glaf', not very brittle) and if, on the other hand, the a(5tion of acids be attended tc — we fiiall eafily conceive thefe fubllances niufl attach themielves llrongly to copper, and that the varnilh formed by them cannot afterwards be dillolved or a<5led upon by acids. The greatell difficulty attending on this fimple mix- ture is, the llrong and fuddtn heat necelfary to apply it with eifeifl, that heat being greater than is commonly to be obtained in an allaying furnace. On that ac- count, M. Rinman endeavoured to render it more fu- fible by the addition of fome other fubllance. Of his experiments made with this view, fome failed, and others fncceeded. We Ihall record only fuch as were fuccefsful, and at the fame time attended with fuch moderate expence as not to preclude them from common life. 2. With the fubllances employed in his firft experi- ment, which, with the author, we Ih.ill henceforth call n" I. he mixed an equal quantity of what is called/«- /:b!e glafs (vitnmt fujibilej, compofed of fix parts of lime, lour ol fiuor fpar, two of quartz reduced into a fine powder, and one-tenth of a part of mang inefe ; the whole having been calcined, and ground with wa- ter, in the manner colours are ground, he fpread it on the velfel with a brulh. This mixture ran pretty well upon the copper in the coal fire ; it alfo attached itfelf very ftrongly to it, and produced an enamel which was firm and hard, and feemed likely to bear wear; but it was of a dark grey colour, and without any brillian- cy. The mixture did not melt more readily in the af- faying furnace. Two parts of n° i. with one part of the fufible glafs, and a quarter of a part of manganefe, had nearly the fame effefl. This lall mixture, indeed, was rather more eafily melted, but it had a darker colour. 3. Eight parts of \\° i. with one half of a part of borax, one quarter of a part of nitre, and half a part of manganefe, were melted, in the fpace often minutes, into a brown liver-coloured glafs ; which, in the af- f lying furnace, produced upon the copper velfel a black enamel, which had a dull furface. In other refpedls it was firm, even, and hard; but it did not fufficiently co- ver the veffel by a fingle application, nor was it capable of refilling theaftion of acids. 4. One part ot the brown glafs mentioned in the lad experiment, with three parts of n° 1. became, in the allaying furnace with a red heat,almofl as fluid as the lall, and had an even and fmooth furface ; but it was of a dark E N A [ Enamelling a dark colour, and had not any. brilliancy. It was not "'^'^''"*'~' lenfibly acted upon by vitriolic (falphuric) acid. J. Four parts of n" i. mixed with one half of a part of litharge, were melted in a crucible, with the help of the billows, in five minutes, fo as to become as fluid as water. This mixture, during the fudon, emitted a fmell of fulphureous acid, and formed an opaque gl.ifs of a draw colour ; which, after being grouud, as ufuai, and fpread upon a copper veifel, produced an enamel which covered the velfel very evenly, and was wJtli- oul bubbles. It was liitewife, perhaps the hardeft of all, but could net be melted in the alF.iying furnace, requiring a ftronger fire kept up by the bellows. It preferved its ftraw colour, but without any luftre, and refifted the aftion of acids better than the common gla- zing of the potters. 6. Mr Rinnian mixed together equal quantities of gypfum, fluor, fpar, and what the potters call ivhitc lead {a), and which ferves for the bafis of their glazing. This mixture, after being calcined, melted in five mi- nutes, with the afflllance of a pair of bellows into a very white, hard, and opaque enamel, which was very eafily poured out of the crucible. This enamel, treat- ed like the others, ran very freely, equally, and with- out bubbles, by the heat of the alFaying lurnace. It was alfo pretty hard and ftrong, but without any luftre, and had green and yellow fpots, occafiuned by the acids of the gypfum and fluor fpar, which had aifled upon the copper during the fufion vi the enamel. It, how- ever, bore melting two or three times, and tlien ap- peared of a white colour ; it WaS but very little affedcd by other acids. 7. Equal parts of fluor fpar, of gypfum, of litharge, and of pure flint glafs, powdered and mixed together, melted in five minutes, by the help of a pair of bellows, and produced a white and hard gUfs, very like that of the lafl experiment, but rather haider. After being applied on the veflel in the ufual manner, it formed, with the greateft heat of an affajing furnace, an ena- mel of a yellowifh white colour, firm and liard, but without lullre. In order to avoid the formation of bubbles, care was taken (as ought always to be done in enamelling) to remove the veliel from the fire as foon as it had acquired a brilliant appearance therein, or as foon as the enamel was completely melted. 8. Twelve parts of glafs of lead or of litharge, with eight parts of flint glafs, and two of flowers of zinc. Were melted, in the fpacecf fcven minutes, into a clear yellow glafs, which, when ufed for enamelling, was dil- pofed to form bubbles ; but, by continuing the heat for a longer time, the bubbles were difperftd, and he ob- tained a prettv good enamel, ol a yellow brown colour with a greenilh caft, very hard and firm. It refilled the adion of the vegetable acids, like the enamels al- ready fpoken of, but it was a little attacked by the mi- neral acids. 9. Hepowderedandmixed together five parts of fluor fp^r, five parts of gypfum, two parts ot minium, one half of a part of borax, two pans of flint glaG, one hall of a part of calx of tin, and only one twenty-fifth of a part of calx of cobalt. This mixture was melted in a crucible in fix minutes, by help of the billows, and pro- duced an opaque glafs of a pearl colour, a little incli- 7 ] E N A ning to blue, on account of the calx of cobalt. It Enamelling was pretty hard, and, alter being ground with water ^-'^^^*«-' in the ufual way, it became of a very good confiflence, lo as to be very fit for fprcadmg over vefftls, to which it adhered very llrongly. If any toLhles formed on the velfel during its drying, they might b; rut>bed down with the finger, and the whole furf.ice rendered fmooth and even. After being warmed, and gradu illy hcited, it was put into an aiiaying furnace, made very hot with birdi charcoal, which had been juil kindled under the mufBe. After a niin jte it melted, and began to appear brilliant ; lb that he found it necelfary 10 take out ihe velfel very quickly, which was already very evenly coat- ed wi;h a tiiick, and fulli.;iently hard, enamel, the fur- face of which, however, had no brilliancy. The colour lemtii.cd always inclining to green, be- c lufe ilie copper had been a little attacked by the arids of the gypfum and fluor fp.ir during tlie lufion; but in other refptfts this enamel was very firm, was very little hurt by flight blows, and b'>re very well fudden changes of lieat and cold. Weak acids had no aOion upon it ; but he had fjme reafon to think that it would, in length of time, have been aded t'pon, to a certain degree, by vitrijlic (I'ulpburic) acid. I.s colour, ex- cept the lotemeniioncd fliade of green, was white, with a dull, and rather changeable, furface. The calx of cobalt, which has beenju.1 mentioned, and which Mr Rinman made ufe of merely with the in- tention oi obtaining a fine colour, was prepared by (a- turating a folution of cobalt in aquafortis (nitric acid) w ith common fait, and evaporating to drynefs ; by which means lie obtained a fine rofe-coloured calx. A very fniall quantity of this calx, when mixed witii any fufible glafs, gives it a beautiful blue colcur. Of the various fpecies of enamel, which have been defcribed in the courfe of thefe experiments, and which may be all applied, with more or kfs advantage, to kitclien utenfils, the leaft expenfive are n"* i, 2, and 5. ; but they are alfo thofc which require the greaieli heat. On the other hand, n" 9 may be recommended as the moll eafy of fulicn, and, at the fame time, very durable when ufed for coating veffels in which victuals are to be drelled, which is here the principal objeft, and is of far greater importance than the brilliant appear- ance refultingfrom the enamel generally ufed l>y artilli, which however may be employed when the faving of expence is not regarded. The enamels hitherto defcribed are not applicable to vclFcls made of iron, though tliey may be employed to cover copper with great advantage. Iron will not iii- deed bear the common praftice of cnamellers, namely, to be put into the fire and taken out again leveral times ; for the i'parks which fly from iron, when in a hot fire, detach and carry off the enamel from the parts Contiguous to ihofe where tliC fpark^ are formed. The acids, too, of the gypfum and Huor fpar, made ufe of in the enamels already mentioned, aOed upon the iron during the fulion of the cmmtl, from which rel'ulted bubbles and bire fpots, which entirely fpoiled the ap- pearance of the work. Oar author theielore continu- ed his experiments with a view to difcover a proper enamel tor vellels made o! ihi-, metal. 10. He reduced into a very fine powder, and groun^ together (a) This fubftance is itfelf a mixture, being compofed of four pirts of lead and one of tia. E N A C s ] E N F 1 ndincllliig together, rine parts of minium (leil oxyd cf lead), llx parts oC rtint glafs, two parts of pure potalli, two pans (f purified nitre, and one part of borax. This mixture was put into a large crucible, whicli it only half fiilfd ; lie covered the crucible fo that no coals coulJ fall into it, and gradually increafcd the fire under it. When the cfferviifcence had entirely ceafed, he caufcd the mixture to melt, by ufing the bellows for four or five minutes; by thefc means he obtained a clear and compact glaf>, which he poured out of the crucible upon a piece of marble. Having quenched it in water, and reduced it to a very fine powder in a glafs nioriar, he ground it with water to the confulence of a very thin pafle. He then covered an iion vclfcl \vi;h it on both fides, which, after having dried and lie.iteJ it by degrees, he put under a muffle well heated in an alfiyingluinace. The enamel melted very readily in the fpace ol half a minute, .iiid with a very brilliant appearance. He immediately withdrew the vcifel, and let it cool. It was found to be entirely coated with a beautilul enamel of a bLick colour; which colour ap- peared to be caufed by a thin layer of calcined iron, which might be fecn through the tranfparency of the enamel. A copper vclFel, having been covered with the fame enan.el, the fine colour of the copper was vifible through the thin coat of glafs ; and it was as well defended from rull by this coaling as il would have been by an enamel of a rtronger kind. 11. To hinder the colour of the metal from being feen through llie coating, he added to the mixture, ufcd in the preceding experiment, only one hundredth part cf the calx of cobalt delcribed in n'^ 9. Tlie whole was melted into a beautiful blue glafs ; it was prepa- red for enamelling, and applied, in the manner before defcribed, upon another iron veli'e!. The enamel pro- ved to be fmooth, thick and brilliant, like the piece- ding, but it covered the velfel more perfe>ftly ; it was of a fine blue colour, with fome black fpots in thofe parts where it had been moft thinly applied. 12. The glafs of n° 10. reduced into powder, and ground with potters white lead, o{ which mention has already be;n made, melted with the fame facility ; it: produced a very fmooth enamel, of a grey colour, but more firm and hard than the lormer, and, on account of the aduiiion made to it, of a ftill lefi price. By mixing with the fame glafs a fmall quantity of crocus martis.he obtained a very fipe enamel, of a dark red colour, not to mention other colours in it liill more beautiful. The ciocus martls he ufed in this experiment was prepared irom a folution of iron in aqua regia (nitro-miiriatic acid), which was evaporated to diynefs, and the matter thus eJukurated and calcined. 13. In order to render the forementioned enamel more folid, and to give it what is called io./y, he melt- ed together a mixture of twelve parts of Hint glafs, eighteen parts of minium, four parts of potulli, four p.ir.s of nitre, two parts of borax, three parts of calx if tin, and one eighth part of calx of cobalt, obferving always the ufual precautions. He (.htained a glafs of a li^ht blue ci.lour, which, after having been ground ■ with warer, and fpread upon fmall iron b^fins, or tea cups, produced, by means of a brifc fire in an a/Taying furnace, an enamel which was fmooth and even, and of a pearl col&ur. The coating was of a proper thicknefs, Enfield- to obtain which require a certain degree of dexterity Enamelling and pra<flice. He alfo tried to paint upon this enamel with what is called vi'inerjl purple (purpura mineralis), , which he ufed with a little powdered quartz, nitre, and borax. It produced a very beautiful red colour. Though this lall mentioned compofition is morebeau- tiful when applied upon iron, and more even than the preceding, it has the difadvantage, on account of the flits which it contains, of not refilling the aflion of the ftronger vegetable acids, and ftill Icfs that of the mine- ral ones. But as a velfel when coated with this ena- mel bears, without any injury, fudden changes of heat: and cold, and alfo to have any greafy mixtures baked or boiled in it, (even tiiofe which are of a caudic alka- line name, or thofe which contain the ufual weak acids which arc ufed in the preparation cf our food), it may be applied to velfels of various kinds, among others to tea cups ; particularly as it is neither brittle nor fub- jeit to crack, provided it is not expofed to violent blows. It is hardly necelTary to fay, that this enamel can only be applied upon veifels made of hammered iron, and not upon thoie of caft iron, thefe la(f being always too thick to be heated with fulficient quicknefs : for the greater is the fpace of time neceiTary to make tlie velfels red hot, the greater is the quantity of fcalcs formed upon them, and, of courfe, the enamel becomes more injured. Our author makes fome other judicious obfervations on the enamel for iron, of which he has defcribed the compofition, and fays, that, independent of its ufe for coating kitchen utenfils, it might be made to ferve m.my other purpofes, fuch as preferving things made of that metal, not only from rull, but alfo, as he proved by experiment, to a certain degree, from calcination. ENCAUSTIC Painting. See Painting in this Supplement. ENDEAVOUR Straits, are between the N. point of New-Holl.iiid, and the S. coaft of New-Guinea. S. lat. 10. E. long, from Paris 140. — Morse. ENFIELD (William, L. L. D.), well known in the leirned world by feveral ufeful and elegant publi- cations, was born at Sudbury, on Mirch 29, O. S. 1741, of parents in a humble walk of life, but of very refpeifiable charaders. His amiable diipofition and promifing talents early recommended him to the Rev. Mr Hextall, the diffenting miuiiler of that place, who took great care of his education, and infuled into his young mind that tafte for elegance in compofition which ever afterwards diftinguiflied him. In his 17th year he was fent to the academy at Da- ventry, then under ths diredion i:'i the Rev. Dr Afli- worth, where he palfed through the ufual courfe of in- (Irudicn pieparalory to the oiiice of the miniftry ; and with fiich fuccefs did he cultivate the talents of a preacher, and if an amiable man in fociety, that, on leaving the academy, he was at once chofen, in 1763, minifter of the very refpeifiable congregation of Benn's Garden in Liverpool. In ih.it agreeable town he pafTed feven of the happieft years of his lif.", very generally beloved and efteemed. He married, in 1767, the daughter of Mr Holland dra- per in Liverpool, with whom he palfed all the reft of his days in mf4t cordial union. His literary reputation was extended, during his refidence in this place, by the publication of two volumes of fermons, which weie very well E N F [ 9 1 E N F Enfield, well received, and have ferved to grace many pulpits "''"'''^^ befides that in which they were originally preached. A colle(ftion of hymns and of family prayers, which he alfo puhlifhed at Liverpool, did credit to his tafte and judgment. About 1770, he was invited to take a fhare in the condud of the academy at Warrington, and alfo to oc- cupy the place of minifter to the dilfcnting congrega- tion there, both vacant by the death of the Rev. Mr Seddon. His acceptance of this honourable invitation was a fouTce of a variety of mixed fenfations and events to him, of which anxiety and vexation ccmpofed too large a (hare for his liappinefs. No alTiduity on his part was wanting in the performance of his various du- ties ; but the difeafes ot the inlUtutron w-ere radical and incurable ; and perhaps jiis gentlenefs of temper was ill adapted to contend with the difficulties, in matter of difcipline, which fecm entailed on all dilfenting acade- mies, and which, in that fituation, fell upon him, as the domeflic reiident, with peculiar weiglit. He al- ways, however, jiofleifed the refpcdl and atfedion of the befi difpofed of the (ludcnls ; and there was no reafon to fuppofe that any other perfon, in his place, could have prevented that dUFolution which the academy un- derwent in 1783. During the period of his engagement there, Iiis indefatigable indullry was exeried in tlie compofi- tion of a number of works, moftly, indeed, of the clafs of ufeful compilations, but containing valuable dif- plays of his powers of thinking and writing. The moll confiderable was his " Inftitutes of Natural Philofo- phy" (quarto, Johnfon, 1783 ;) a clear and well-arran- ged compendium of the leading principles, theoretical and experimental, of the fciences comprifed under that head. And it may be mentioned, as an extraordinary proof of his diligence and power of comprehenfion, that, on a vacancy in the mathematical department of the academy, which the Ifate of the inflituiion render- ed it impoflible to fupply by a new tutor, he prepared himfelf, at a fliort warning, to fill it up; and did fill it with credit and utility, though this abftrufe branch of fcience had never before been a particular objeft of his ftudy. He continued at Warrington two years after ihe academy had broken up, taking a few private pupils. In 1785, receiving an invitation from tlie principal diflenting congregation at Norwich, he accepted it, and firR fixed his refidence at Thorpe, a pleafing vil- lage near the city, where he purfued his plan of taking a limited number of pupils to board in his houfe. He afterwards removed to Norwich itfelf ; and, at length, fatigued with the long cares of education, entirely cea- lisd to receive boarders, and only gave private inftruc- tions to two or three feleft pupils a few hours in tiie morning. This too he at laft difcontinued, and devo- ted liimfelf folely to the duties of his congregation, and the retired and independent occupations of literature. Yet, in a private way and fmall circle, few men had been more fuccefbful in education, of which many flrik- ing examples might be mentioned, and none more fo than the members of his own family. Never, indeed, was a father more defervedly happy in his children ; but the eldell, whom he had trained with uncommon care, and who had already, when juft of age, advanced in his profedional career fo far as to be chofen town-clerk of SuppL. Vol. II. Nottingham, was moft unfortunately fnatched away by EnficH a iever a few years fince. \.x~v-">«-i This fatal event produced effei5ts on the doiflcr's health which alarmed his friends. The fymptoms were thofe of angina pecloris, and they continued till the ufual ferenity of his mind was redored by time and employ, ment. Some of the laft years of his life were the moft comfortable : employed only in occupations which were agreeable to him, and which left him mafter of his own time; witnelTing the happy fettlemenl of two of his daughters ; contraded in his living within the domeflie privacy which he loved ; and conncded wiih fome of the moft agreeable literary companions, and with a fct of the moll cordial and kind-hearted friends that per- haps this ifland aiFords, hefeemed fully to enjoy life as it flowed, and indulged himfelf in pleafing profpeifls for futurity. Alas ! an unfufpeifled and incurable difeafe was preparing a fad and fudJen change : a fchirrous contradlion of the rectum, the fymptoms of which were miliaken by himfelf for a common laxity of the bowel>, brought on a total ftoppage, which, after a week's ftruggle, ended in death. Its gradual approach gave him an opportunity to difplay all the icndernefs, and more than the ufual fjrmnefs, of his nature. He ditd November 3, 1797, amidll the kind offices of mourn- ing friends, and his laft hours were peace ! Befides the literary performances already mentioned, Dr Enfield completed, in 1791, the laborious tafk of an abridgment cf " Brucker's Hlftory of Pbilofophy," which he comprifed in two volumes quarto. It may be truly faid, that the tenets of philofnphy and the lives of its profeiiors were never before difplayed in fo pleafing a form, and with fuch clearnefs and elegance cf language. Indeed it was his peculiar excellence to arrange and e^.prefs other mens ideas to the utmoft ad- vantage. Perhaps, at the time of his deceale, there was not in England a more perfeifl mafter of what is called the middle ftyle in writing, combining the qua- lities of eafe, elegance, perfpicuity, and correiflnefs, en- tirely free from afieflation and fingularity, and fitted for any fubjecl. If his caft of thought was not original, yet it was free, enlarged, and manly. \Vhatlie was in the capacity of a teacher of religion, his feveral congre- gations will teftify with grateful and afFe(flionate re- memberance. Few minifters have paid fuch unremit- ting attention to the perfection of their pulpit compo- fitions ; nor was it only by detached difcourles that he inculcated the truths of mordity and religion, but by methodical plans of inftruflion, drawn up with great care and comprehenuon. The valuable (lores of this kind which he left behind him, will not be configned to oblivion ; but, it is hoped, will inform and improve numbers to whom the voice of the preacher could never Lave extended. In delivery, his manner was grave and imprtffive, depending rather on the weight of juft enun- ciation than in tlic arts of oratory. Little need be added to this fketch ci the moral qualities of the excel- lei.t man above commemorated. If moderation, com- pliancy, and gentlenefs were ever prevalent in him to a de_i;ree of excefs, who that knew him will blame an ex- cels which opened liis foul to every emoiion and oflice cf afFedion and fricndfliip? This account "( Dr Enfield, which is taken from the Monthly Magazine, is acknowledged by its author to be the elFufion of fricndlliip j but we believe that the B panegyric, Eolipile. ENG [lo] EOL panegyric, though high, is in general jufl. It is our clafi. We confefs ourfelves to be unwilling to relinguifli Engraltinj duty, however, to warn our re.iuers .igiinlt placing iin- this opinion ; but it would be very unf.iir to withhold ' plicit confidence in the Doflor's reprel'enialion of an- fnnn the public any i'.iS. which feenis to militate againll , cicnt philofophy ; for though we li.ive iVequenily Ibiind it, and has come to our knowledge. We ihall therefore him correft, and have iheiefore quoted him with ap- trunfciibi; from the Philnfophlcal Magazine \.\\e. io\\r,w- pr(-bition ouifwlves, we have likewil'c itjund him fonie- ing communication iVoni Dr Thornton, ledurer on nie- tinies miftaking the Lnfe of his au;hois. In a work dical botany at Guy's Hofpi'.al, refpeftiiig a fuppoled like his, millakes were indeed unavoidable; for when Lufus naiur£, which he confiders as the confcquence of he refolved to comprefs tlie fubllance of Erucker's live engrafting. volume? within the ccmpais of two, he could not avoid In the firfl volume of the rhi'bfphkal TranfaShns, fonietimes giving what he thought the fenfe of the an- N" XXIX. publilhed November 1667, you have tlic cients, when accuracy required their very 'worth to be following communication, intided, given. This wc believe to be the fource of thofe errors "Some HortuLn Experiments about the engraft- in his elegant hiflory, vvhii;h we have heard otliers un- ing of Oranges and Lemons or Citrons, whereby is piuduced an individual Fruit, liaU Oiange and lialf Lemon, growing K^getlier as one Body upon the fame Tree." We liave here orange trees (faith the intelligence juftly atliibute to dtfign ; for had it been his ilcj.gn to deceive, he would not fui tly have llored his margin with leferenccs to enable every rc.idcr to detefl the deceit. Enfield, a townlliip in Hailford co. Connciflieut, on the E. bank of Connecticut river, oppodte to Suffield, from Florence) th.it bear a fruit which is citron on one and bounded on the N. by the Milfachufetts line: fide and orange on the other. They have been brought it was granted by the court of Maifichufetti, to hither out of other countries, and they are now much Springfield, in 1648, and was fettled in 16S1. In propagated by engratting. This was confirmed to us 1769 it contained 214 Englifli families. In the town (fays the editor of the Tranfaiflicns of the royal Sc- are two Congregational churches, and ameeting-houfe ciety) by a very ingenious Englilh gentleman, who al'- for Shakers. The compact part of tlie town, contigu- ferted, that himfcU not only had feen, but bought of ous to the river, is very pleafint. It is 16 or 18 miles them, anno i66o, in P.iris, whither they had been fent N. of Hartford. — 3forse. by Genoa merchants ; and that on fome trees he had Enfield, a townfhip in Grafton co. New-Hamp- found an orange on one branch and a lemon on ano- (hirc, about 11 miles S. E. of Dartmouth College. It ther branch (which is not fo remarkable as what fol- was incorporaied in 1761, and his 724 inhabitants, lows); as aUo, one of the fame fiuit, half orange ard chiefly farmers. — jl). half lemon ; and fomctiraes three quarters of one, and ENGANNO, TKO^i?t\jK, or Fa//t Cape, istlieeaft- a quarter of the other, ernmoll land of the ifland of St. Domingo, 5-' leagues In the third part of the Reports of the Board of northerly of Pointe de I'Epte, and 22 S. E. of Cape Agriculture, among the foreign communications, we Raphael, or Round Mountain. N. lat. 19. 3. W. long, fee, with equal plcafure and altonilhment, an account from Paris 71. 25. — ii. of the American apple, which, by a peculiar mode of ENGINEER is the appellation of him whofe pro- budding (a), is half fweet an half four, h.df white and fefllon it is to contrive or make any kind of ufetul en- half red, without the leaft confufion of the refpeflive gine or machine. He Is denominated either a civil or military engineer, according as the objects of liis pro- feflion refpeifl civil or military purpofes. See Forti- fication, Encycl. and Machine in this SupplcmeKl. ENGLISH Harlot, one of the bell harbors in the ifl.md of Antigua, on the S (hore, a mile S. E. of the mouth of Falmouth harbor. It it well fortified, and halves At Mr Mafon's, florid, Fleet-ftreet, oppofite the Bolt and Tun, there is a produdlion now, September 1 79^*, to be feen half peach and lialf neflariiie. It has all thefoftnefs and yellDw down of the peach, and the fleek red irnootlinefs c-f the necftarine ; fuppofed to be a lufus nature, but probably is rather tlie I'p.irtings of has a royal navy yard and arfenal, with conveniences art than of nature, and which perhaps will be tlie caufe why we fliall in future fee many other fuch vegetable wonders, which, as we fee, were known to our an- ceftors. ENNEADECATERIS, in chronology, a cycle or period of 19 folar years, being the fame as the golden for careening fliips of war. N. lat. 17. 8. 25. W. long 61. 27. 30. — Morse. English Neighbourhood, a village in Bergen co. New-Jei-fey, on a N. E. branch of Hackinfack river, W. of, and in the vicinity of Fort Lee. — ib. Englishtown, in New-Jerfey, almall village in the number and lunar cycle, or cycle of the moon N. weftern part of Monmouth co. on the road from ENO, a river in N. Carolina, which unites with Princetown to Shrewffaury, 2 1 miles from the former. Little and Flat rivers in Orange co. and forms the 6 W. of Monmouth court-houfe, and i8 E. of Prince- Neui, about 17 miles below HiUiborough Morse. ion.— ib. ENOREE, a N. W. branch of Broad river in S. ENGONASIS, in aftronomy, the fame as Hercules, Carolina. It feparates Pinckney and Ninety-Six dif- one of the northern conftellations. tridls, and joins Broad river about 5 miles below Tyger ENGRAFTING. See Grafting, Encycl. where river. — Ih. it is faid that there is little hope of producing miied ENSETE. See Musa, Encycl. fruits by engrafting one tree upon another of the fame EOLIPILE. See .Solipile, Encycl. EPAULE, (a) The manner in which the extraordinary neftarine peach firft produced in this country was efFei5led, was >y inferting the bud of one fruit upon the ftock bearing a different fort. E P I C 11 ] E P I Epaule EPAULE, or EspAULE, in fortification, the fhoul. I d.r of the baftion, or tlie angle mnde by the face and fPJf^^PJ^- liink, otherwife called the angle of the epaule. El'HRATA, or D.tnLanlToiun, a village in Lan- cafter co. Pcnnfylvania, fituated on the N. \V. fide of Calico cieek, which, joining the Cjnelloga, tails into the Sufquehanna. It lies 12 miles N. ot the town of Lancaller, and upwards of 60 W. of Philadelphia. It is fituated in a romantic and feijuellered vale, and poffell'td by a religious community called Tunkers, who are moftly of German delcent, and believe in general redemption. They ufe great plainnils of drefs and language, and will neither fvvear, nor tight, nor go to law, nor take inlerell for the mon^y they lend. They have many peculiarities ; but their innocent man- ners have acquired them the name of the harmlefs Tunkers. This fcttlement is fomctimes called Tunker's Town, and conllfls of about 40 buildings; of which 3 arc places of v.-orfliip. They fublift by cultivating their lands, by aitending a printin-^-officc, a grift-mill, a paper-mill, an oil-mill, &c. and tlie (liters by fpin- ning, weaving, fewing, &c. Befides this congregation at Ephrata, there were in 1770, 14 others of this fed in various parts of Pcnnfylvaiiia, andfomein Maryland. The whole, cxclufive of thofe in Maryland, amounted to upwards of iOOO fouls. — Morse. EPISCOPACY is a fubjeft of which, in cur own opinion, enough has been faid in the Eiuychpxdla. VVe are requefled however to infert in this place an argu- ment additional to \\° 17. of that article ; and we com- ply with the requell the more icadily that we find the argument, which has been fuggefted to us, in tiiat very work of Dr Beikeley's which we were permitted to abridge even before our amiable friend had pubhlhed it himl'tlf. The argument indeed is not new. It was, we believe, ^;y? uled by Dr Wells in fome controver- fial IcUers ag.iinlt the Englilh dilfenters, which were publillied early in the current century. Dr Berkeley adopted it from Dr Wells ; and other doflors have taken it from Dr Berkeley. It is as follows : That the apoltles ellablilhed fwo orders of miniilcrs in the Chridian church is admitted by all who contend not for tlie equal and common tights of Chrillians ; and that the perfons occupying the higher order, by what- ever title they were known, or however limited may have been the jurifditflion of each, poireifed authority as well to ordain others as to preach thegofpel and ad- minifter the facraments, is the very point on %vhich the advocates for the divine right of prcfbytery infill. At the reformation, however, and for 1400 years before, there was an intermediate order of minifters between thefe two, known by the name of priefts or prefbytcrs, authwiftd indeed to preach the gofpel and to adminiller its facraments, but not authorifed to f-nd labourers of any kind into Chrift's vineyard. This inlertmJ'uite or- der therefore being, by the fuppofition, diltinift from the two apojlolical orders of miniRer';, niuft have been, at whatevei period it was introduced into the chunh, an order of human invention ; but it ii from this order of minifters that the clergy of ihofe churches, which are m t Epifcopal, derive ail their authority to miniller in holy things. The confequcnce is obvious. Scotch EFiscoFALiJi\s area iociety of Chriftians cer- tainly as relpciflable, if not fo numerous, as any otiicr in the kingdom v.'hich dillcnts from the worftiip and dif- r Eflablifii- nicut of Kpifcopacy iubcotUnil. No liturgy ufcil in the Scutch diurch, cipline of the eftabliftied church. For many years, J^pircopacy. however, the public woilhip of that fcciety was pro- ''~'^^'"*^ fcribed by the legill.Uuie ; and there is reafon to fufpcft that its real principles are not yet univerfally under- ftood. If this be fo, it furely becomes the editors of a work in which fjme acco'int is given of almoft every denomination of Chrillians down to the novel ic6i which ftiks its members Bereaks, to do juftice to the venerable remains of what was once the eftabliflud church of their native country. That the reformation from popery was in Scotland tumultuous and irregular, is known to all Europe : and very lew of our readers can be ignorant that there was neitiier order in the reformed church, nor decency in her worlhlp till James VT. with much addrels, accom- piiihid the eftablilhmerit ot a very moderate epil'copacy. To ihib form cf church government the belter part of the nation was fufficiently attaclied; and it continued to be the ecclefiafticul polity, fupported by the ftate, till the grand rebellion, when it was overthrown by the partlzans of the nalioual covenant. It was rellored, however in 1662 ; and again abol.lhed in x68i; by tliat convention which placed the Prince and Princefs of Oianeeonthe ancient throne of the Scottifli monarchs. Thefe events are fo univerfally known, that it it fuf- ficient in this place barely to mention them ; but there are probably many of our readers who do not know, that, during the whole period of her legal eftablilhment, the Scotch epifcopal church had no public liturgy. It appears indeed, that tlie firfl reformers made ule of the Englilli book of common prayer ; and there is on re- cord fufticicnt evidence that John Knox himiielf, though he difapproved ol fome things in that book, had no ob- jedlion either to ftated forms < f prayer in general, or to a fubordlnation among the minillers of the gofpel ; but his fuccelfor Andrew Melvil, who polTelfed nei- ther his learning nor his worth, had influence enough to introduce into the church a perfect parity cf mini- fters, and to excite among the people a very general abhorrence of liturgical worlliip. So rooted indeed was that abhorrence, that, as every one knows, an attempt to introduce into the church oi Scotland a book < f commrn prayer, copied with fome alterations from that of England, produced the fulemn league and ccvitiaiU, which involved in one common ruin the unfoitunate Charles andhisdarling Epifcopacy. At the reftoration of the monarchy, the Epifcopal conllltution of the church was rcftored, but no new attempt was made to eftablilh the ufe of a public liturgy, and except at the ordina- tions of the clergy, when the Englilh forms «cre ufcd, no fervice book was itsn in a Scottiih church. Forfomo years alter Epifcopacy liad ceafcd to be the religion of the ftate, the deprived clergy made no alte- ration in tlieir modes of focial worlhip. Having re- fufed to transfer to King William tiiat allegiance which they had fworn to Kmg J imes, they were treated, du- ring his rtign with fuch fcverity, that on the Lord's day they diirft not venture fuitlierthan to officiate "in their own hijed houfcs. where they received fuch friends a' chofc t" conic in unto them ;" and in thofe fmall congregations, if congregations they may be called, they continued to pray, it not extempore, at leaft with- out book, till the acceilion of Anne to the throne of her a'lceftors. The attachment of that Princefs, not orily to the cjnftitution, but alfo to the worfliip of the B 2 church 3 Except at ordiniti- r.rlfcopacy. 4 Introiluc- tion of the Englilh li- turgy. i^ourccs of divifion a- niong the Scotch E- pifcopali- E P I [ clmrch of Eii;'l ind, was well known to them ; and they very reafouably thought that they could not more et- feiflually recommend themCelves to her proteflion than by adopting the uib of the Englifli liturgy, which the mofl enlightened among them had long profelTed to ad- mire. It was accordingly introduced by degrees into Scotland; and an aft of parliament being palTed on the 3d of March 1712, "to prevent the difturbing ot thofe of the Epifcopal communion in that part of Greit Bri- tain called Scotland, in the exercife of their religious worlTiip, and in the ufe of ihe liturgy of the church of England," tlvat liturgy was univerfally adoptsd by the Scotch Epifcopalians ; ar.d public chapels, which had hitherto been prohibited, wcie everywhere built, and well frequented. That thofe who had refufcd idlegiance to King Wil- liam and Quten Anne fhould fcruple to pay it to a new family, clogged as it was by fo many oaths, can excite no wonder ; nor, is it at all wonderful, that, for their attachment to the abdicated family, the public worlhip of the Scotch Epifcopalians was, after the in- furrtaionof 17 15 and 1716, laid under fomereftraints. Thefe, however, were neither rigoroufly fevere, nor of long duration ; and by the year 1720, their con- gregations were as numerous as formerly, confiftuig, efpecially in the northern counties, of men of all ranks, even fuch as held offices of truft under the ellablifhed government, who frequented the Epifcopal chapels in preference to the paiilh churches. Hitherto the Epifcopalians had been fafely conduiff- ed through all dangers and difficulties by the prudence of Dr Rofe, the deprived bilhop of Edinburgh ; but foon after his death, which happened on the 20th ot March, 1720, divifions broke out among them, which threatened to prove more fatal to their church than any perfecution to which they had yet been fubjeded. For realbns which will be feen afterwards, it is proper to trace thofe divifions from their fource. No native of Britain, who knows any thing of the hiftory of his country, can be ignorant, that Dr Sail- croft, the archbilliop of Canterbury, and five other bi- fliops, were at the Revolution deprived of their fees by an aft of parliament ; becaufe, like the Scotch bi- (hops, they could not bring themfelvcs to transfer to King William and Queen Mary that allegiance which they had fo lately fworn to King James. As thofe prelates were extremely popular for the vigorous oppo- iition which they had given to fome of the Popilh pro- jeas of the late king, and as a number of inferior cler- gymen, of great eminence for piety and learning, were involved in the fame fate with them ; it need not excite great furprife, that a fweeping deprivation, which, in all its circumftances, was perhaps without a precedent in ecclefiaftical hil^ory, produced a fchifm in the church of England. The deprived clergy, confidering the bifhops who were placed in the fees thus vacated as in- truders, and all who adhered to them as fchifmatics, opened feparate chapels under the authority cf the pri- niate and his nonjuring fuffragans ; and contended, that ihey and their adherents conftituted the only orthodox and catholic branch of the church in England. 2 ] E P I Both churches, however, made ufe of the fame litUT- Epifcopacy. gy : and during tlie lives of the deprived prelates, there was no other apparent difference in their worlhip than what necelfarily refulted from their paying allegiance to different foverei^ns. But this uniformity was not of long duration. The bilhops, who had been polfelfed of fees before the Revolution, were fcarcely dead, when their fucce(r)rs, being under no civil reftraint, found, in the principles which they had hrouqht w-ith theni from the eftablilhment, the means, not only of dividing their own little church, but likewife of fowing the feeds of diffenfion among their brethren in Scotland. It has been oblerved elfewhere*, that in the church of England there are three opinions refpecling the na- ture and end of the Lord's Supper, which, in oppofi- tion to eucl) other, have been all patronifed by men of •'' great eminence for theological learning. It appears, indeed, from the firll liturgy fet forth by authority in the reign of King Edward VI. that the reformers of that church, from the errors of popery unanimoufly held the Lord's Supper to be a euchariftical facrifice ; and this opinion, which has been adopted by great numbers in every age fince, feems to have been the moll prevalent of the three among thofe clergy who were deprived of their livings at the Revolution. It is in- deed countenanced by feveral paffages in the prefent or- der for th: aJminiftration of the Lord's S'lpper ; and therefore, though there are other things in that order which cannot be ealily reconciled to it, archbilliop San- croft, and bis fuffragans, whatever their own opinions might be, chofe not to widen the breach between them- felvcs and the eltablifliment, by deviating in the fmalleft degree from the form in which they had been accuftom- ed to celebrate that facrament. Their fucceffors, how. ever, in office, were men of different difpofitions. Con- fidering themfelves as totally unconneifted with the (late, and no longer bound by the aft of uniformity, one party, at tl;e head of which was bidiop Collier, the celebrated ecclefiaftical hiftorian (a), judged it pro- per to make fuch alterations in the communion office as might render it more fui table to their own notions of the Lord's Supper, and bring it nearer, both in mat- ter and form, to the nioft ancient hturgies of the Chri- ftian church. Of the propofed alterations, fome were perhaps pro- per in their circumllances ; whilll others, to fay the beft of them, were certainly needlefs, if not inexpedient. They were accordingly all oppofed by another power- ful party of nonjurors ; and the queftions in difpute were referred, firll to Dr Rofe, the deprived bifhop of Edinburgh, and afterwards to Dr Atterbury and Dr Potter, tlie bilhops of Rocheller and Oxford. What judgment the two Englifli prelates gave in this contro- verfy we know not ; but that of bifhop Rofe did him much honour. Declining the oflice of umpire between the parties, he recommended mutual forbearance and occafional communion with each other, according to either form ; and employed a gentleman, well verfed in ecclefiaftical literature, to prove that fuch a compliance of biftiops with each other's innocent prejudices was not uncommon in the pureft times. Thefe Supper of the Lord, En- (I. (a) This very learned, though violent man, of whom the reader will find fome account in the Encyclopitiiay was, with Dr Hickes and others, confecrated by the deprived prelates, for the purpofe of preferving the Epif- copal fucceffion in what they confidered as the true church of England. E r I [ I Epifcopacy. Thefe difputes among the Engllfh nonjurors, and ^■^"^'"^ the appeal which was made to Dr Rofe, drew, more clofely than hitherto it had been drawn, the attention of the Scotch Epifcopal clergy, not only to their own liturgy, which had been authorifed by King Charles I. but likewil'c to the moll ancient liturgies extant, as well as to what the fathers of the fird three centuries have taught concerning the nature of the Lord's Supper. The confequence was, th.it fuch of them as were fcho- lars foon difcovered, that the Scotch communion office approached much nearer to the moll ancient offices than the Englirti ; and a powerful party was formed for re- viving the ufe of it in Scotland. Had thofe men aimed at nothing farther, it is pro- bable they would have met with very little oppofition. Their opponents, who, in general, were lefs learned than they, were fo llrongly attached to the houfe of g Stuart, that they would have adopted almofl any thing Revival of fanftioned by the royal martyr's authority ; but the ancicntufa- advocates for the Scotch office ivnew not where to flop. £'*• They wilhed to introduce fome other ufages of the pri- mitive church, fuch as the commemoration of the faith- ful departed, and the mixture of the eucharitlic cup (See Sui'i'ER of the Lord, n° 2. and 3. Encycl.); and their brethren, perceiving no authority from Charles I. for thefe things, and being accuftomed to confider them as Popidi praiftifes, a violent controverfy was ready to burft forth about what every enlightened mind mull confider as matters of very little importance. That the eucharillic cup was in the primitive church mixed with a little water, i? a fadl incontrovertible ; that the pradlice was harmlefs and decent, it is wonder- ful that any man lliould deny ; but that fuch a niix-- ture is ejfiniiol to the facrament, we cannot believe, for the reafons affigned in the article referred to ; and therefore it ought furely to have been no object of con- tention. That the faithful departed were commemorated in 3 ] E P I I the primitive church long before the invention of pur- Epifcopri'y. gatory, is known to every fcholar ; that In thofe days ^-^'"■''"^»' fuch a commemoration tended to invigorate the faith and the charity of Chriftians, it would, in our opinir-n, be very eafy to prove ; and that at prefcnt every Chri- (lian prays in priv.ite for his deceafed friends, we have proved elfewhere by arguments, of the eonfutation of which we are under no apprehenfion (See GRF.FKchaich in this SuppUmeni) : but we (it not the ncccjfi'.y of in- troducing fuch prayers into public worfhlp at any pe- riod ; and we perceive impropriety in di'ing it at a pe- riod when, from various circurallances, they may caufe weak brethren to err. But tiiofe who pleaded for the revival of this practice in the beginning of the current century, were blinded by their very erudition (b) ; and thofe who oppofcd it feem not to have been acquainted with the workings of a benevolent and devout mind, or indeed to have known in what the ellence of a prayer confills. The ancient uf iges, however, were not the only fub- jeifts which, on the death of bilhop Rofe, furnifhed matter for controverfy among the Scotch Epifcopalians. That excellent prelate, together with the deprived arch- bilhop of Glafgow, and the deprived bilhop of Dun- blain, had, from time to time, as they faw occafion, raifed to the Epifcopal dignity fome of the moft defer- ving Prefbyters of the church ; but it was refolved, for what reafon we do not very well know, that none of the new bilhops fhould be apixiinted to vacant diocefes daring the life of any one prelate who had polfclTed a legal eftabliOiment ; fo that billiop Rofe, who furvived all his brethren, was for feveral years the eccleliaftical governor of the whole Epifcopal church in Scotland. On his death, therefore, though there were four billiops in Scotland, and two Scotch bifliops refiding in Lon- don, there was not one of thofe prelates who could claim to himfelf the authority of a diocefan over any portion of the Catholick church. This they at firft una- nimoufly (b) Paradoxical as this aflertion may at firft fight appear, nothing is more certain than that erudition, and even fcience, if partially cultivated, is as likely to blind as to enlighten the underft.mding. When a man de- votes all his lime, and all his attention, to om purfuit, he contraifls fuch a fondnefs for it, as gradually to confi- der it as the only valuable purfuit, which will infallibly lead to truth, and to nothing but truth ; and in this dif- pofition of mind, he is ready to embrace the moft extravagant ablurdity to which it may conduct him. Of this the reader will find one very ftriking inftance in page 62S vol. L of this Suppl. where the celebrated Euler appears fo devoted to his darling analyfis, as to place implicit confidence in it, even when he iiimfelf feems fenfible that it had led him to a conclulion contrary to common fenfe, and the nature of things. That Dr Bentley was a very eminent philologift, is univcrfally known ; that his emendatory criticifms on the ClalFics are often happy, no man will deny ; and yet, mifled by his favourite purfuits, he never pronounces more dogmatically than when the dogma which he utters is untenable. We appeal to his criticifms on Milton. Perhaps there is not a man alive who will refufe to Dr Waburton the praife of learning and ingenuity. The addrel's with which he de- tefls the double doflrines of the ancient philofophers, is fometimes almofl allonilhing ; yet, mifled by his own ardour in this purfuit, he difcovers hidden meanings everywhere, and has found a rational fylleni of religion in fome of the ancient myfteries, where there is every reafon to believe that nothing in reality was to be found but atheifm and vice. Juft fo it is with.tlie ardent reader of the Chriftian fathers. If he devote all his time to tlie Itudy of their writings, he not only becomes enamoured of his employment, but acquires gradually fuch a veneration for the character of hismafters (and venerable they undoubtedly are) as renders him afraid to quef- tion any thing wliich they advance, and unable to dilllnguilli between their tcftimony, whicli is delcrving of all credit, and their reafonings, which are often inconclulive. We trull it is needlefs to difclaim any wilh to dlf- courage, by this note, the ftudy either of the Chriftian fathers, the Greek piiilofophcrs, philologic.il criticifni, or the modern analyfis ; we only wilh to dilfuade men of letters from devoting their whole time to any one purfuit whatever ; for they may depend upon it, that fuch partial ftudies contrail tlie mind. One of the moft eminent matiiematicians at prefent in England is reported to have declared his contempt of the ParaJifc Lo/l, becaufe he found in it nothing Jmonjhatnl ! E r I C H ] E P I Epiroypacy. nimoufly acknowledged ; and one of iliem, in tlie name of himlelt and liis bie'.hren, recommended to the clergy ot the dioccfcnt Edinl)urgh to clecf), after the primitive plan, a fuccelTor to their late venerable dioccfan. The advice was followed; the eleiflion was made, and ap- proved by the bilhops : and Dr Fullirton, the bilhop chi^fen, became b:(h"p ot Edinburgh, by the fame n;cans and the fame authority as, in the ptimitive church, St Cyprian became billiop of Carthage, or Cortielliis bilhop of Rome. llie clergy in other diftrifl?, fnllowinq the example of thole ill Edinburgh, diocclkn Epifcopacy was about to be revived througlunit all Scotland upon principles pirely ecclcfiaftical, when fome of the l)i(hop^■, >vhom Di Ro:"e had left behind liim merely for preferving the Epifcopal fiiccelFiin, conceived a ntw and very e.ttr.j- y ordinary conllitution for the Scotch Epifcopal church. College of Whether they were envious of their colleagues, and of- bilhops. i'ended that none of the elecflions had f.illen upon them ; whether ihey were fo ignorant as not to know that di. ocef.m Epifcopncy had fublilted lung bet" re the con- verlion of the Roman empire, in abiolute independence on the rtate ; or that tlu-y were aJluated, as there is realon to lufpcifl, by I'mnc political principle which they could not with lafety avow ; — fo it was, that they oppofcd diocefan E['ifcopacy ol cvety kind, and pro- poled to govern the wliole Scotch church bv a college of bifliop';. Againll this unprecedented fchenie the more learned bilhops oj)pofed all their ir.fluence; and being exceedingly difigreeable to the inferior clergy, it was very foon abandoned by its authors themfelves, who, after fome aciimonious controverfy, were glad to 8 come to an agreement with their diocefan brethren. Thofe divi- Of this agreement, or concorduk as it was called, the fioiisheal- following were the principal articles: i. " That the Scotch or Enflilli liturgy, and no other, might be indiffeiently ufcd in the public ferv ice ; and that the peace of the church lliould not be diHurbed by the in- troduiTion of any of the ancient ufages which had late- ly excited fuch dilFenfions. 2. That no man lliould thenceforward be confecrated a bilhop of the Scotch church without the confent and tippiobation of the ma- jority of the bilhops. 3. That the biiliops, by a ma- jority of voices, fhould choofe one of their number to "prefide in the meetings of his breihien, and to convo- cate fuch meetings when he judged them necelTary : that this prefident fliould be llyled Primus Epifcopus, or more (hortly Primus ; but that he (hould not pof- fefs metropolitical power, or claim any kind of jurifdic- tion without the bounds of his own diocef; or diftridt. 4. That upon the vacancy of any diocefe or diftrift, the prefbyters Ihould neither eleft, nor fubmit to, ano- ther bilhop, without receiving a mandate by the Pri- mus, iffiied with the confent of the majority of his col- leagues." This concordate was in 1731Z fubfcribed by all the bifliops then in Scotland, who immediately became dio- cefans, and thought no more of the college fyftem. It was afterwards, with a few additions, for afcertaining more prccifcly the prerogatives ol the Primus ; for re- gulating the conduiS of fynods j for exempting bifnops from the juiifdiiflion of otlicr biiliops, in whofc diftri(5ls they might chance to refide ; and for preventing infe- rior clergymen from del'erting their congregations, or removing from one diftricl to another, without the con- ed. fent of the bifliops of both — thrown into the form of Epifcopacy. canons ; and thefe canons have continued to be the *>^^""''~^~' code of the Scotch Epifcopal church down to the pre- fent day. p The members, and more efpeci.illy the clergymen of Political this church, had always been confidered as unduly at- opiniom. tached to the family of Stuart ; and though there was undoubtedly at tirft fome ground for that fufpicion, the writer of this article knows, from the moft incon- trovertible evidence, that it was continued too long, and carried by much too far. Jicobitifm was impu- ted to the fociety as its diltlnguiihing tenet ; but the members of that fociety have at all times contended, that their diftinguilhing tenets were the apoflolical inftitution of Epifcopacy, and in the exercife of thofe powers wliich are purely fpiritual, the independency of the church up. on the llate. In politics, indeed, they have unanimoufly maintained, that the only ruler of princes or legijlatures is God, and not the people. They are, of courfe, no friends to the faihionable doiftriiie of refiflance, wliich they believe to be not only condemned in exprefs terms by Chrift and two of his apollles, but to be alio the fource of that anarchical tyranny which is at pr,."fent deluging Europe with blood. They confider a limited monarchy, like that of Britain, as the "noil perfed form of eivil government which the world has ever fecn ; an hereditary monari;..y is infinitely preferable to one that is eledlive ; and with refpecl to the title of the monarch, when they take a retrofpedive view of the origin of all civil governments, they cannot but look upon a per- manent and unquellioned eflablifhrnent as an indication of the plan and determination of Providence furniruing the bell right to a crown which any modern fovereign can claim. 13 Surely thefe are harmlefs opinions ; and yet the wor- Pcrfecu- fliip of thofe who held them was, in 1746 and 174S, laid ''»"• under fuch reftraints as were calculated to produce dil- afFeiflion where it did not previoufly exill. Two laws were then enacted againll the Scotch Epifcopalians ; wh'ch, under the pretence of eradicating their attach- ment to the houfe of Stuart, were fo contrived as to pre- clude fuch of their clergy as were willing to pay alle- giance to the reigning fovereign, and to pray for the royal family by name, from reaping the fmalleft benefit from their loyalty. The experiment was tried by fome of them ; of whom one venerable perfon, who was never fufpefted of undue attachment to the houfe of Stuart, is ftiU alive ; but he, and his complying brethren, had their chapels burnt, and were themfelves imprifoned, as if they had been the mod incorrigible Jacobites. This was a kind of perfecution which, (ince the Reformation, has had no precedent in the annals of Britain. A pried of the church of Rome, by renouncing the errors of Popery, has at all times been qualified to hold a living in Eng- land ; a dilTenting minifter, of whatever denomination, might at any time be admitted into orders, and rife to the higlieft dignities of the Englifh church ; — but while the laws of 1746 and 174S remained in force, there was nothing in the power of a Scotch Epifcopal cler- gyman to do from which he could reap the fmallell be- nefit. By taking the oaths to government, he was not qualified to hold a living in Englantl, or even to enjoy a toleration in Scotland ; ;ind his clerical charafcer be- ing acknowledged by the Englifh bifliops, he could not by thofe prelates be canonicaily reordaiued. Upoa E P I C ^5 ] E Q^ U Epifcopacy. II Toleration iz Mth of th« Scotch Epifcopal church. Their wor ftiip. Upon the clergy, however, thofe laws of uncommon rigour were not long rigoroully executed. After a few years, the burning of chapels, and the impiifoning of niinillers, were occurrences iar from frequent ; but ihe laws to which we allude affcifled likewile the political privileges of fuch laynncn as irequented the Epifcopal chapels ; and in that part ot their operation, thofe laws were never relaxed till lyoz, when they were wholly repealed, and the Epifcopalians in Scotland tolerated like other well affefted dilFenters from tlie naliocal ei'la- blifnment. While Epifcopacy was the eflabliflied form of church government in Scotland, the clergy ol" that church fub- Icribed a confelhon of faith fummed up in twenty-five articles, wliich the reader will find in the hiftory attri- buted to John Knox. It is fufricient to obferve in this place, tliat in clientials it ditfers littl;: from the articles of m'jll other relormed churches ; and in every thing wliich does not immediately relate to papljlry, it is mo- derate and unexceptionable ; perhaps more lo than the prcfent confelhon of eitlier ot the Britilh churches. During the period which intervened between tlie Re- volution and the year 1792, no lubfciipiion was in- deed requiied from Scotch Epifcopalian cleigyreen to any fummary c f Chrillian doctrine ; but at their ordi- nations, thofe clergy folcmnly profelfed llieir belief of all the canonical books of the Old and New Tefta- ments ; declared their perfuallon that thofe books con- tain fulliciently all doflrines necelfary to falvaiion, through i'aith in Jefus Chrill ; and were obliged to read daily in their chapels the Englifii book of Com- mon Priyer, which contains tlie Apoltles, Nicene, and Aihanafian creeds. But now thofe cleig\ men are en- joined by ai5t of parliament to fubfcribe the 39 ar- ticles of tlie church of England ; fo that the princi- ples of their faith are well known. No doubt theie are diflferences of opinion among them about the fenfe of fome of thofe articles ; and it is well known that there are fiinilar dihcrences among the Englifh clergy themfelves: but there is every reafon to believe, that the faith of the Scotch Epilcopallans has, in every important point, been at all times orthodox. We are aware, that they have been reprefented as unfriendly to the Engliih fervice j but fuch a reprelen- tion appears to be either a wiltul falfehood, or the offspring of ignorance. The only reioimed liturgy that ever had the fanftion of a civil cltaUliihment in Scotland, is the Bo'jk of Common Prayer, aiul Mmiiii- Jlration of the Sacraments, and ether parts if Divine Ser- vice authoriled by King Charles I. In that book, the order of adminiftraiion of the Lord's Supper differs in fome particulars from the Englilh order, and is unquef- tionably better adapted to the opinions of thofe who confider that holy ordinance eiiher as an euchariftical facrifice, or as a feaft upon a facrlfice. In the one or other of thefe lights, the Lord's Supper is viewed by a great majority of the Scotch Epitcupalians ; and of courfe the Scotch communion office is uled in a great majority ot their chapels : but it is not ufcd in them all. Their bilhops, who, when in England, cummuni- cate with the ellablilLed church, leave the iiiteiiur cler- gy at liberty to ufe eitlier the Englifh or the Scotch form, as is moll agreeable to themfelves and to the people among whom they miniller ; and to filcnce the clamour of fymbolizing with the church of Rome, which was fome yenrs ago either ignorantly or mal'ci- Epr'"? oully raifed againft them, they altered the arrau^cmen! .11 ot the Scotch prayer of confecration, fo as not only to y^tl^J^iJ'^ bring it nearer to the nirlt primitive forms, but alfo to make it abloKitely inconliUent with the re^l prefence, as taught either by the church oi Rome or by the Lu- theran cliurches. On this fubjtcl, fee CkEBK-Cnikcn, n° 17. in th's Supphmrnt. ^ Thus liave we given a (hort view of the diftinguifh- EngliHi ing principles of what mull furdy be coiifidered as a clcrjjyircn very refpeclable fociety of Chriftians, and the only re- "''''■■''''""^• formed Epifcopal fociety in that part of Great Britain called Scotland. There are, indeed, chapels in Scotland diftinfl from the church nf which we have been treat- ing, where the Englilh liturgy is read by clergymen who have received Epifcopal ordination either in Eng- land or in Ireland ; but thofe cliapels being all inde- pendent of each other, and under the inl'pcdion of no bifliop, the perfons who frequent them leem to be ra- ther Congregatiunalills than Epifcopalians, and certain- ly do not conllitute what can, with any propriety, be called an Epifcopal church. EPPING, a plantation in the diflri^ of M.iine, of about 25 families, i 2 miles from Narragu.igue. — Mor>e. Epping, a townfhip in Rockingham co. New-ljamp- fliire, taken from the N. W. part of Eieter, and in- corporated in 1741. In 1790 it contained 1:233, ""^ 1740 inhabitant!.. It is 6 miles N. W. of Exeter, and 23 W. of Portfmoutli. — ib. EPSOM, a townfliip in Rockingham co. New- Hamplhire, lies E. of Pembroke, adjoining ; 10 miles E. of Concord, and 45 miles N. W. of Portinioutli. It was incorporated in 1727 ; in 1775 ■' contained 387, and in 1790, 799 inhabitants.. — ih. EQUiiNT, in aftronomy, a fanciful circle, intro- duced into fcience to remove fome ot the deteifls of the Ptolemaic fyllem of the univerfe. In this artificial fyftem of epicycles and eccentric circles, the idea of cir- cular and equable motion was by no means abandoned ; but while each of the lieavenly bodies revolved in its own orb, the centre of that orb was fuppofed to be car- ried at the fame time round the circumference ot ano- ther circle. The more obvious inequalities were thus explained with a geometrical precifion. With all its nice combination, however, of circles, tlie fyllem was foon found to have deftiSs ; to remove wliich, the fine contrivance of the equant was introduced. Though the angular motion of a planet viewed fiom the earth was confeiil'd to be unequal, a point could be conceived from which it would be feen to move witli peif(.(5l uni- formity. That point v.-as made the centre of the equant, and lay at the fame dillance from the centre of the eccentricity on the one tide, as the earth was removed on the other. " Nothing (fays Dr Smith, from whom this account of tlie equant is taken) can more evidently Ihew, how much the lepofe and tranquillity oi the imagination is the ultimate end of philofophv, than the inveiuiou of this equalizing cir- cle." EQIJATION OF A CURVE. See Algebra (En- cycl.) Part III. chap. ii. Sicular EcivATioN, in aflronomy. See Astronomt in this Supplement, n* 25 — 38. EQUICURVE CIRCLE, the fame with Circle of Curvature, which fee in this Supplement. ERGETT Ergctt dc kiaiie II I'.rk'pom. F.RGETT ERGET E R K [ I ,—,— , T Two AbvlTiiiian fhrubs of ■.11 EL KRAN^ I ., ' T,, 1 • u m,^, , > the eenus Mimosa, which li i 1 Y DIMMO I r 7- I J Ice, M,ncycl. ^ ] ESC F-fcanibia. ERIE, EoRT, a ftrong fortification in Upper Candi- da, fiuiated on the N. (hore of lake Erie, ;ind on the \V. bank of Niagara river, 27 miles S. by E. of Niaga- ra Fort, and 18 above the carrying place at the Falls of Niagara. N. lat. 42. 59. W. long. 78. 20. 30. — Mors:. Erie, a lake of the fourth magnitude in North- /\merica, and through which runs the line between the United States and Upper Canada. D'Etroit river on the W. brings tiie waieis of the great lakes vvitli wh'ch lake Erie has a communication on the N. W. and Nia- gara river on the E. forms its communication with the waters of lake Ontario and tlie river St. Lawrence. It i-. fituated between 41. and 43. N. lat. and between 78. 48. and 83. W. long. Its form is eliptical. Its length is about 225 miles ; and its medium breadth about 40. It affords good navigation for fliipping of any burden. The coaft on both fides of the lake is generally favour- able for the padage of batteaux and canoes. Its banks in many places have a flat fandy iliore, particularly to the ealhvard of the peninfula called Long Point, which runs upwards of 1 8 miles into the lake, and being com- pofed of fand is very convenient to haul boats out of the lurf upon it, when the lake is too rough for failing and rowing ; yet in fome places, chiefly on the S. fide to- wards both ends of the lake, it would be dangerous to approach and impofl"ible to land, by reafon of the per- pendicular height of the rocks. Some of thefe, (as at Cayahoga, which are already defcribed) are magnifi- cent beyond delcription, and mufl alio infpire dread in the boldeft breaft, when viewed from the water. Lake Erie has a great variety of fine fifh, fuch as (lurgeon, eel, white filli, trout, perch, &c. Lakes Huron and Michigan afford communication with lake Erie, by vef- fcls of 8 feet draught. There are portages into the waters of lake Erie from the Wabafh, Great Miami, Mufkingum, and Alleghany, from 2 to 16 miles. The portage between the Ohio and Potowmac will be about 20 miles, when the obflru(5fions in the Monongahela and Cheat rivers are removed. — ii. ERIE'S, an Indian nation, called by tlie French, du Chat, or Cat-nation. They were extirpated by the Iroquois about the year 1655. Were it not for the lake which Ifill bears the name of that nation^ one would not have known that they ever exifted. — il>. ERKOOM, an Abyfllnian bird, part of a large tribe, " in which (fays Mr Bruce) the greateft variety lies in his beak and horn. The horn he wears fometimes upon the beak and fometimes upon the forehead above the root of the beak." This bird is by naturalills called the Itidian croiu or raven; and our author, though he feems to think this claffificaticn improper, admits that he has one charafterillic of the raven ; he walks, and does not hop or jump in the manner that many others of that kind do ; but then he at times runs with very great velocity, and, in running, very much refembles tlie turkey or buftard when his head is turned from you. The colour of the eye of this1)ird is of a dark brown, or rather reJdifh, calf, but darker ftill as it approaches the pupil ; he has very large eyelafhes, both upper and lo'.-er, but efpeclally his upper. From the point of ErUoom the beak to the extremity of the tail is three feet ten inches ; the breadth, from one point of the wing to the other extended, is fix feet, and the length twenty- two inches ; the length of the neck ten inches, and its tliicknefs three inches and a half; the length of the beak, mcafuring the operiing near the head llraight to the point, ten inches; and from the point of the beak to the root of the horn, fcven inches and three eighths. The whole length of the horn is three inches and a half. The length of the horn, from the foot to the extre- mity where it joins the beak, is four inches. The tliicknefs of the beak in front of the opening is one inch and feven eighths. The tliicknefs of the hoin in front is one inch and five eighths. The horn in height, taken from the upper part of the point to the beak, two inches. The length of the thighs feven inches, and that of the legs fix inches and five eighths. The thicknefs in profile feven lines, and in front four lines and a half. It has three toes before and one behind, but they are not very flrong, nor fcemingly made to tear up carcafcs. The length of the foot to the hinder toe is one inch fix lines, the innermoft is one inch feven lines, the middle two inches two lines, and the lall outer one two inches one line. This bird is all of a black, or rather black mixed with foot-colour ; the large feathers of the wing are ten in number, milk- white both without and within. The tip cf his wings reaches very nearly to his tail ; his beak and head mea- fured together are eleven inches and a half, and his head three inches and a quarter. At his neck he has thofe protubeiances like the Turkey-cock, which are light-blue, but turn red upon his being chafed, or in the time the hen is laying. The erkoom, though not eafily raifed, flies (fays our author) both ftrong and far. It has a rank fmell, and is faid in AbyfTinia to feed upon dead carcafes. This, however, he thinks a niiftake, as he never faw it following the army, nor approaching a dead carcafe ; and as often as he had occafion to open this bird, he found in its ftomach nothing but the green fcarabeus or beetle. It builds in large thick trees, always, if it can, near churches; has a covered neft like that of a magpie, but four times as large as the eagle's. It places its nefl firm upon the trunk, without endeavouring to make it high from the ground : the entry is always on the eaft fide. ERROL, a fmall town on lake Umbagog, in the N. eallernmoft fettled part of Grafton co. New-Hamp. lliire, incorporated in 1774. — Morse. ERVINE, a townfliip in Ontario co. New-York. Of its inhabitante 93 are qualified to be eleftors. — ib. ESCAMBIA, one of the moft confiderable rivers that fall into the bay of Penfacola in Weft-Florida, empties itfelf near tlie head of the N. branch, about 12 or 15 miles from Penfacola, through feveral marfties and channels, which have a number of iflands between tliem, that are overflowed when the water is high. A flioal near its mouth prevents vellels, drawing more llian 5 or 6 feet, from entering ; but there is from 2 to 4 fathoms of water afterwards. Capt. Hutchins af- cended it in a b<.at upwards of 80 miles, and from the depth of water there, it appeared to be navigable for pettiaugers many miles further. It is uncertain where its ESS [ 17 ] its fource is. The courfe is very winding. At the mouth of the river on the W. lide was the t'lwn of E T O Camhleton, fettled by French Protertants in 1766, but was afterwards abandoned. The lands in general on each fide of the river, are rich, low or fwanipy, admirably adapted for the cul- ture of rice or corn. The great number of rivulets which fall into this river from the high circumjacent country, may be led over iany part of the rice lands, at any fe.ifon of the year. The numerous iflands at the mouth of the river, fome of very confiderable ex- tent, are not in'erior for rice to any in America. The fettlements made by MeJfrs. Tait and Mitchell, capt. Jobnion, Mr. M'Kinnon, and fome others, are very evident prools of thi atfertion ; who within two ye^irs of tlicir iirrt fcttlement, had nearly cleared all the ex- penfes they had been at in making very confiderable ellabliiliments ; and would entirely have done it in another year, had not the Spaniards taiten pofleffion of the country. — ii. ESPIRITU SANCTO, a bay on the W. coaft of Edl Florida, in 27. b. N. lat. It has a good harbor, 4 fathom water, and fate anchorage; but the land all about the coall is very low, and cannot be feen fi-om a lliip's declc when in 7 fathom water. Several low, fandy iflandi and marfhes, covered with mangrove bulhos, lie before the main land. Here are imnienfe numbers of fiih in the lummer time, which may be caught with a fein, enough to load a Ihip, (if the cli- mate would admit of curing them) even in a few days. —a. ESQUIMAUX, a large bay on the Labrador coaft, into which a river of the fame name empties. It lies in the N. W. part of ihe gulf of St Lawrence, near the mouth of the llraits of Belleifle. Efquimaui iflands lie acrofs its mouth. — ii. ESSEX Co. in Maifacufetts, is bounded N. by the flate of N. Hampftiire ; E. and S. by the ocean, and the town of Chellea in Suffolk co.; W. by Middlefei CO.; in length about 38 miles, in breadth 25 ; and is (liaped triangularly, Chelfea being the acute point. The chief iflands on its coaft, belonging to it, are Cftpe Anne and Plumb iflands. It is fubdivided into 22 townfliips, which cvntain 7644 houfes and 57,913 inhabitants ; being the moft populous, of its fize, of any in the ftate, having about 135 fouls to a fquare mile. The firft fetllement in Mailachufetts Proper was made in Salem, the capital of the county, in 1628, by John Endicott, Efq. one of the original patentees, and many years governor of the colony. It was made a fliire in 1643, being one of the thiee into which tlie colony Was hrft divided. Elfcx co. pays about one fc- vcnth part of the ftate tax, eleiU fix feiiators and coun- fellors for the government of the commonwealth, and one reprefentaiive in the Icgiflalure of the United States. — iL Tlie face of the county is pleafingly variegated with hills, vale.-, woods, and plains. 'I'lie land is general- ly fruitful ; but is more favourable to barley than moft other pans of the fta'e. Quarries of marble and lime- ftone are found in this coun:y ; and the fea roaft is in- dented with a nim;ber of goi)d harbors. Merrimack river, intcif.cti the N. part of Elfex county; be- tween it .'iid the Kew-tlamplhire line are the towns SurrL. Vol. II. of Methuen, Haverhill, Almftury and SaliPjury. —ib. Essex Co. in Virginia, is bounded E. and N. E by , Rappahannock river, which divides it from Richmond. It is about 55 miles long and 12 broad, and contains 9122 inhabitants, of whom 5440 are flaves. — Ii. Essex Co. in New-Jetfey, is in the eaftein part rf the ftate, and divided from Staten-Iftand by Newaric bay. It is about 25 miles in length and 16 In breadth, and has three townfhips, viz. Newark, Ehzabethtown and Acquackanack, which contain 17,785 inhabitant!, of whom 1 1 7 1 are flaves. The foil is very fertile, and its fiults and other produflions meet with a quick falc in New- York city. Elfex county has within it 7 Pref- byterian churches, 3 for Epifc'palians, 1 for Anabap- tiUs, and 2 for Dutch Calvanifts. — ii. Essex Co. in Vermont, is the north-eafternmoft in the ftate. — ii. Essex, a townfliip in Chittenden co. Vermont, con- tains 354 inhabitants. It lies between Jericho on the S. E. and Colchefter on the N. W.—ii. EST A PA, or Ejlape, a town belonging to the pro- vince of Tabafco, and audience of Mexico, in New- Spain, N. America. It is mentioned by Dampitr, as fituated on Tabafco river, 4 leagues beyond Villa de Mofe. It is faid to be a place of confiderable trade ; and fo flrong, that it repulled capt. Hewet, when he attacked it with 200 defperate buccaneers. — ib. ESTAPO, a llrong town in New-Spain, inhabited by Spaniards and native Americans ; lituated at the mouth of the river Tlaluc. N. lat. 17. 30. W. long. 103. 5.—;*. ESTHER Toiun, in Lancafter co. Pennfylvania, fituated on the E. bank of Sufquehanna river, a little N. of Harrifburg. — ii. ETON is a place which, on account of its college, fliould not be omitted in a repofitory of arts, fciences, and literature ; and as no notice is taken of it in the Encyclopxdia, we (hall deviate for once from the plan which we had laid down for this Supplement, and which is, not to admit into it delcrlptions of places in our own ifl.ind that may be vifited by the greater part of our readers with little trouble. Though in a different county, namely, Buckingham- flilre, Eton may be faid to be one and the fame town with Windfor, for which fee Encycl. It is pleafantljr fituated on the banks of the Thames, in a delightful valley, which is of a remarkably healthy foil. Its col- lege was founded by Henry VI. fcr the fupport of a proviift and feven fellows, one of whom is vite-provoft, and for the education of fevenly King's fcholar-, as thof.; are called, who are on the foundation. Thef:, when propeily qualified, are elc6ed, on the firft Tuef- day In iVuguft, to king's college Cambridge, but they are not removed till there are vacancies in the college, and then they are called according to feniorlty ; and after they have been three years at Cambridge, they claim a fellowlliip. Befides thofe on the fi>undation, there are feldom Icls than three hundred fcholars, and often many more, who board at the matters houfes, or within tlie bounds of the .college. The fchool is divid- ed into upper and lower, and each of thefe into three cliiifcs. To each fchool there is a mafter and four afliftants or ulhers. The revenue of the college is about C £. 5009 E T O [ i8 ] E U D ^^'.jcco a-year. Here is a noble librarr, and in the jrreat c.-uit is a fine ftatue of the founder, crcfted at the expencc cf a late provofl Dr Godolphin dejn of St Paul's. Tie chapel is in a good ll)le ot Gothic ar- chitCiSure. The fchools and other p-trts, which arc ill the other flyle of building, are equally well, and feem like ill? delign of Inigo Jones. At Eton there is a fingular, and wc think a laudable, fcllivul, called the Mcntcm, celebrated triennially (for- meily duennially) by the fcholars of the fchool U|Kn Whic-Tucfdav. The following account of this felliifal, taken from the Monthly Magazine, will probably be acceptable to nnny of our readers. It conimencei by a number of the fenior boys taking pod upon the bridges or other leading places of all the avenues around Windfor and Eton foon after the dawn of day. Thefe youlhs fo polled are chiefly the befl figures, and the moft aiSlive of the Undents ; they ate all attired in fancy dreflcs of filks, fatins, &c. and fome richly embroidered, principally in the habits or fafhion of running footmen, with poles in their hands ; they trj ciWed fallicarers, and demand fait, i. e. a contribu- tion from every palfenger, and will take no denial. When the contribution is given, which is ad libitum, a printed paper \i delivered with their motto and the date of the year, which palFes the bearer free through all other falt-bearers for that day, and ij as follows, viz. " Pro more et monte, 1799. (a) VIvant Rex et Regina." Thefe youths continue thus coUefling their fait at all the entrances for near feren miles round Windfor and Eton, from the dawn of day until about tlie clofe of the proteffion, which it generally tliree o'clock in the afternoon. The proceilion commences about twelve o'clock at noon, and confifts of the Queen's and other bands of niufic; feveral Ilandards borne by different fludents ; all the Etonian boys, two and two, dreifed in officers uniforms ; thofe of the king's foundation wearing blue, the others fcarlet uniforms, fwords, &c. The Grand Standard-bearer. The Captain, or Head Boy of Eton School. The Lieutenant, or Second Boy. His Majefty, attended by the Prince of Wales, and ether male branches of the royal family on horfebaclc, with their fuite. The Quten and Princefles in coaches, attended by their fuite. Band of mufic, followed by a great concourfe of the Nobility and Gentry in their carriages .and on horfe- back. The proceflion commences in the great fquare at Eton, and proceeds through Eton to Slough, and round to Salt Plill, where the boys all pafs the king and tjueen in review, and afcend the Montem : here an ora- tion is delivered, and the grand ftandard is difplayed with much grace and aftivity by the ftandard bearer, who is generally felefled from among the fenior boys. There are two extraordinary falt-bearers appointed to attend the king and queen, who are always attired in fanciful habits, in manner of the other fak-bearers already defcribed, but fuperbly embroidered. Thefe falt-lxrarcis carry each an embroidered bag, which not only receivf s the royal fair, but alfo whatever is colledf- ed by the t utifationed fahbearers. The donation of the king and queen, or, as it is called upon this oecu- lion, the nyal fa'l, is always fiJty guineas each ; the Prince of Wales thirty guineas ; all the other princes and pvincclFci twenty guineas each. As foon as this cercmory is performed, the royal family return to Windlor. The boys are all fumptuoufly entertained at the tavern at Salt Hill ; and the beautiiul gardens at that place are laid out far fuch ladies and gentlemen as chooie to take any refrclliments, the different bands of inulic performing all the time in the gardens. About fix o'clock in the evening all the boys return in the fame order of proocfflon as in tlie morning ( wrih the exception only of the royal family), and, marching round the great fquare in Eton fchool, are difmilfed. The captain then pays his refpedls to the loyal family at the queen's lodge, Windfor, previous to his depar- ture for King's College, Cambridge ; to defray which eipence, the produce of the montem is prefented to him; and upon Whit-Tuefday, in the year 1796, it amounted to more than 1000 guineas. The day con- cludes by a brilliant difplay of beauty, rank, and fa- fliion, a promenade on Windfor Terras, bands of mufic performing, &c. and the fcene highly enlivened and en- riched by the affable condefcenfion of the royal family, who indilciiminately mix with the company, and parade the Terrace till nearly dark. EVANSHAM, the capital of Wythe co. in Virgi- nia, is fituated on the E. fide of Reedy creek, which falls into the Great Kanhaway, Woods or New river. It contains a court-houfe, gaol, and about 25 houfes.; 40 miles W. by S. of Chrifiianiburg, 242 in a like di- re<51ion from Bichmond, and 518. S. W.byW. of Phi- ladelphia. — Morse. Spontaneous EVAPORATION. See Weather, n" 17, &c. Encycl. EUDIOMETER, an inHrument for afcertaining the purity of the atmofpherical air. Many have been the contrivances of chemifts for this purpofe (fee Eo- DinMETER, F.neycl.) ; but perhaps the bell eudiometer is that of Morvcau (or Guylon, as he now choofes to call himfelf), ot which mention has been made in Che- mistry, n° 420. in this Supplement. The following ftiort defcription will make the nature and ufe of this inllrument plain to every reader. AB, (Plate XXVIII.) reprefcnts a fmall glafs retort with a long neck; its whole capacity being trom fcvetj to nine folid inches. It mufl be chofen of fuch a cur- vature that, when the neck is fet upright, the bulb may form at its lower part a cavity to retain the matters in- troduced. The extremity of the neck of this retort is ground with emery to enter the glafs tube CD, which is open at both end?, and about 12 or 15 inches in length. The retort then clofes the tube in the man- ner of a ground ftopper, and intercepts all external com- munication. A cylindrical glafs velfel F is provided, of the form of a common jar, in which the glafs tube CD may be entirely plunged beneath the level of the water. Laftly, the fulphuretof potafh is prepared and broken I'tOll (a) Or whatever the year may be, Zudionx- tcr II Eudoxus. E U D C I broken' into pieces fufficiently fmall to be introduced into the retort. Thefe aretn be ir.clofed, dry and even liot, in a bot.le for ufe. Thefe ccnilitutc the whole apparatus nr.d preparation of materials. When it is lequiied to examine an aeriform fluid, by feparating its oxygen, two or three pieces of the ful- phiiret, of the fue of a pea, are put into tl;e retort. It is llien tilled « ith water, taking care to incline it fo that all the ait may pafs out horn the bulb. The orifice of the letort is then to be clof;d, and inverted into the pneunnatic tube, in order that the gas propnfed for exa- mination may be transferred into it in the uliul manner. By an eafy manoeuvre of alternately inclining the re- tort in different direiftions, all the water is maue to flow out of the bulb in wliich the fulphuret remains. When this is done, the retort is placed in the vertical fituati >n, and its extremity introduced into the tube of glafs CD, which muft always be undur water. A fmall lighted taper is then to be placed under the bulb. To fupporC the retort in its pofition, the jar is provided with a wooden cover, in which there is a notch to receive it. The firft inipredion of the heat c'ilates the gafeous fluid fo much that it defcends almort to the bottom of the tube, which is difpofed exprelsly for its reception; otherwife the partial efcape would prevent an accurate determination of its change cf bulk. Bit as foon as the fulphuiet begins to boil, the water quickly rifes, not only in the inferior tube, but likewife in ilie neck cf the retort, notwithftanding the application, and even the increafe of the heat. If the fluid be abfolutely pure vital air, the abforp- tion is total. In this cal'e, to prevent the rupture of the veflel by too fudden refrigeration, the al'cent of the water muft be rendered flower, either by removing the taper, or by increafing llie perpendicular height ; •which will not prevent the abforption from continuing while any gas remains which is proper to fupport com- buliion. If the fluid be common air, or oxygen mixed with any other gas, the quantity of water which has entered the retort muft be accurately mealured after the cooling. It reprefents the volume of air ablbrbed. Care muft be taken to inclofe the remaining gas Huder the fame pret- fure, by plunging the retort to the level of the line at which the inclofcd water refts, before the orifice is flopped. This operation of meafuring, which is very eafy when tneafuiing vcfftls are at hand, may be habitually per- formed by a flip of paper palled on the neck of the re- tort, upon which divilionsare drawn from obfervntion, and whicli muft be covered with varnilh to defend it from the afti'ir. of the water. EUDOXUS of Gnidus was a celebrated phllofophcr of the fchool of Pythagoras. His firft preceptor was Archytas, by whom lie was iaftructed in the principles of geometry and philofophy. About the age of t weniy- thtoe he came to Athens ; and though ! is p itrimony wa« lm:ill, by the generous alFillance < f Theomedon, a phyfician, he was enabled to aitend the fchools of the philolophers, particularly that ol Pl.ito. The liberality of his triends afterwards fopiorted him during a viiit to Egypt, where he was introd'iced by An;efilaus to ktrg Ncflanebis II. and by him to tlic E^^yptian piicfts. It has been faid thiit he accompanieJ I'lato into Egypt ; but this is inconfiflent with clironology j for Ncx'lanc- 9 ] E V O bis II. reigned in Egypt from the fecond year of the hundred and fourth Olympiad, to the fecond year of the hundred and feventh ; and it was bct'ore Plato open- , ed his fchool, that is, before the ninety-eighth Olym- piad, about the fortieth year of his age, that he vifitcd Egypt. Eudoxus is; highly celebrated l)y the ancients for his fkiil in aftronomy, but none of his writings on this or any other fubjecl are extant. Aratus, who has deferibed the celeftial phenomena in verle, is faid to have followed Eudoxus. He flourilhed about the nine- ty-i'eventh Olympiad, and died in the fifty-third year of hi sage. Enfeld's H'tfl. of Philofophy. EV'ECTION is ufed by fome aftronomers for the libration of the moon, being an inequality in her mo- tion, by which, at or near the quadratures, fhe is not in a line drawn throuch the centre of the earth to the fun, as ihe is at tlic fy/ygies, or cotjunftion and oppofition, but makes an an:;le with that line of about 2° 51'. The motion of the moon about her axis only is equable ; which rotation is perloimed exdiftly in the fame time as (he revolves about the earth ; for which reafon it is that ihe turns always the fame face towards the earth nearly, and would do fo exactly, were it net that her monthly motion about the earth, in an elliptic orbit, is not e- quable ; on which account the moon, fcen from the earth, appears to librate a little upon her axis, fome- times from eaft to weft, and fometimes from weft to eaft; or fome parts in the eallern limb of the moon go backwards and forwards a fmall (pace, and fome that were confpicuous, are hid, and then appear again. The term evtd'icn is ufed by fome allrL-nomers to denote that equation of the moon's motion v.hich is proportional to the fine of double the dillance of the moon from the fun, diminifhed by the mo'n's anoma- ly. This equation is not yet accurately determined : fome ftate it at 1° 30', others, at i" 16', &c. It is thi grealeft of all the moon's equations, except the equatioa of lire centre. liutlon's DMimary. EVENLY EVFN NL'MBtR. ScC No M BEX, J^/Ajr/. ErnKLT Odd Number. See Number, Encycl. EVESHAM, a townOiip in Burlington co. New. Jerfey, fituated between the f rks of Moore's creek, which runs N. wefterly to Delaware river. It is 7 miles eaftcrly of Haddonfield, 16 E. of Philadelphia, and 25 S. of Burlington. Here is an Indian fettlement, called Edge Pelick, x traiff of land refcrved by tlie ancient natives. They have fome hundreds of acres of improved land?, about 30 houfes, and a nieeting-houfe. They formerly had a minitler of their own order, who ftatedly ofikiated in the Indian language. — Morse. EVOLVENT, in the higher geometry, n term ufed by fome writers for the involute or curve refulting from the evolution of a curve, in contradiftiniflion to that evolute, or curve fiippofed to be opened or evolved. Sec E\OLUrE and Involute,.?!;^/./. EVOLUTE, in the higher geometry, a curve firft propokd by Huyghen^, and fince much iludicd by ma- thematicians. It is any curve fuppofcd to be evi>lvej or opened, by h.iving a thread wrapped dole upon it, faftened at one end, and beginning to evolve or unwind the thread from the other end, keepinjt the part ev.il- ved or wo'ind off ti?,ht ftretchcd ; then this eud of the ihriad will defcribe anotlier curve, called the involute. Or the lame Involute is deferibed the co;ur.iry way, by C z wrapping li roiute. * In all pro- Tiability the Jlarmonuil cf the Abbe XUzauchi. E U P [2 wr.ipping the thread upon the evolute, keeping it al- ways (Iretched. For ilie Involution and Evo- lution vf Curves, fee Involution in this Supple- ment. Lnperfed EroLVTE, a name given by M. Reaumur to a new kind of evolute. The m ithematici^ns had liitlierto only conlidered the perpendiculars let fall from the involute on tlie convex fide of the evolute : but if otlier lines not perpendicular be drawn upon the fame ])oints, provided they be all drawn under tlie fame an- gle, the efieifl will llill be the fame ; that is, tlie c blique lines will all interfcift in the curve, and by their inter- fedlions form the in!initcly fniall fides of a new curve, to which they would be fo many tangents. Such a curve is a kind of evolute, and has its radii ; but it is an imperfecl one, fince ilie radii are not perpendicular to the firll curve or involute. EUPHON, a mufical inftrument invented lately by Dr Chladni of Wittenberg, well known by his various publications on philofophical fubjefls, efpecially the tiie- ory of mufical founds. The euphon conlills of forty- two immoveable parallel cylinders of glafs of equal length and thicknefs ; but its conftruflion, tone, and the metiiod of playing it, are totally different from thofe of the harmonica, with which indeed it has nothing in common but the glafs. See Harmonica, £«^j67. Dr Chladni gives the following account of his inven- tion. In his 19th year lie began to learn to play the harpfichord ; and he afterwards read a great many of the principal works on the theory of miific, by which he found that the phyfico-mathematical part of that fcience was far more defeilive than otiier branches of natural philofophy. Being therefore poirelFed with an idea that his time could not be better emyloyed than in endeavouring to make difcoveries in this department, he accordingly tried various experiments on the vibra- tions of Ibings and the different kinds of vibration in cylindric pieces of wood, firft difcovered, through cal- culation by the elder Enler ; and found, that though a great deal had beenfaid on the nature of thefe elallic bodies, yet the manner of vibration and the proportion of tones in other elaftic bodies, which do not proceed, as in the former, in ftraight lines, but depend on the vibration of whole furfaces, were totally unknown, and tliat the little which had been written on that fubje(fl, by fome authors, did not correfpond with nature. He had already long remarked, that every plate ot glafs or metal emitted various tones according as it was held and llruck in different places ; and he was defirous to difcover the caule of this difference, which no one had ever examined. He fixed in a vice the axle of a biafs plate which belonged to a poliftiing machine, and found, that by drawing the bow of a violin over it, he produ- ced very different tones, v/hich were llronger, and of longer duration than thofe obtained merely by llri- king it. The obfervation, that not only firings, but alfo other elaftic bodies may be made to produce founds by draw- ing a violin bow over them, Dr Chladni does not give 8s a,difcovery of his own ; as the fo called iron violin has been long known, and as be had read of an inftru- ment conftruded in Italy*, where glafs or metal bells were made to found by means of two or more violin bows drawn over them. But the idea of employing this inftrument to examine vibrating tones was firft en- tertained by himfelf. Having accurately remarked the ] E U P tones produced by the abovementionej metal plate, ht found that they gave a progrelllon wliich correfponded with thefquaresof 2, 3, 4, &c. Not long before he had read, in the Trsnfadions of the Royal Society of Gottingen, ihe obfervations of Mr Lichtenberg on the phenonieiia produced by ftrcw- ing pounded refin over a glaf> plate or cake of refin, and he repealed many of his experiments. Tuis led him to the idea that, perhaps, the v:irioui vibratory movements ot fuch a plate w-iuld be difcovered by a di- verfity of phenomena, if he ftrewed over it fand or any thing of the like kind. By this experiment there was produced a ftar-formed figure ; and the author, having continued his refcarches, publilhvd the refult of them in a work entitled Difcoveries refpeiling the Theory of Sound, printed at Leipfic in 1787. Wliilft he was employed in tliefe inveftigations, he refolved to invent a new mufical inftrument ; and he be- gan to confiJer whether it might not be pollible by nibbing glafs tubes in a ftraight line, with the wet fin- gers, to produce I'ounds in the fame manner as is done in the harmonica by rubbing them circularly. That glafs tubes, like thofe in his euphon, would not merely by fuch rubbing emit any tones, he had long known by llieory and experience; and he therefore applied himfelf to the folution of the difticult queftion, in what manner the inftiument ought to be conftruded to an- fwer the intended purp ife I Alter various fruiilefs at- tempts for a year and a half, during which his imagi- nation was fo full of the idea, that f imetimes in liis dreams he thought he faw the inftrument and lieard its tones, that is, like ihofe of the harmonica, but with more diftiniflnefs and lefs confulion, he at length, in a ftate between deeping and waking, obtained a folution of the problem which had given fo much employment to his thoughts. On the fccond of June 17S9, bein^ tired with walking, he fat down on a chair, about nine in the evening, to enjoy a lliort ilumber ; but fcarcely had he clofed his eyes when the image of an inftru- ment, fuch as he wiftied for, feemed to prefent itlelf before him, and terrified him fo much that he awoke as if he had been ftruck by an eledric (hock. He imme- diately ftarted up in a kind of enthufia(m ; and made a feries oi experiments, which convinced him that what he h id feen was perfeffly right, and that he had it now in his power to carry his deiign into execution. He made his experiments and conftru>5led his firft inftrument in fo private a manner, that no perfon knew any thing of them. On tlie 8tli of March 1790 his fiift inftrument of this kind was completed ; and in a i&w days he was able to play on it fome eafy pieces of mufic. It was now necelfiry to give to this inftrument, as it was en- tirely new, a new name ; and that of euphon, which fig- nifiesan inftrument that has a pleafant found, appeared to him themoft proper. It was not, however, brought to perfeflion at once, for he made a fecond inftrument which was an improve- ment of the firft, and a third which was an improvement of the fecond. In found, indeed, and particularly in the higher tones, the firft was equal to either of the other two •, but the conftriufticn was deficient in ftrength, fo that every week fome hours were neceffary to keep it in proper repair ; and it was impoffible to convey it the diftance of a mile without almoft totally deftroying it Dr Chladni alfo, for want of better tubes, employed thofe ufed for thermometers, and marked Euphon. E U P 21 ] E U P Buphon. marked the whole and half tones by a coating of feal- ''^'^''^*^ wax on the under fide; but as the wax, owing to the moifturc and vibration, often cracked and flew off, it was attended with danger to the eyes. It was there- fore extremely diflicult to give to the conllruftion of the inftrument fufficient ftrength ; but this the inventor at length accomplilhed, fo that his new euphon cannot be injured or put out of tune either by playing or by car- riage. The third inftrumcut was fomewhat different from the firll and fecond ; as the fore parr, which in the two former rofe upwards with an oblique angle, flood at right angles, fo that it could be tranfported with eafe in a particular carriage made for that purpafe. In- ftead of the thermometer tubes ufed in the firft, the Doiftor now employs tubes of different colour--. In the fecond inftrument thofe for the whole tones were of darii green glafs ; but he ufed for the half tones, in both, a milk white kind of glafs. In a word, the euphon has fome refemblance to a fmall writing-defk. When opened, the abovementioned glafs tubes, of the thicknefs of the barrel of a quill and about i6 inches long, are feen in a horizontal pofition. They are wet- ted with water, by means of a fponge, and (Iroked with the wet fingers in the diredion of their length, fo that the increafe of the tone depends merely on the ftronger or weaker prcffure, and the flower or quicker move- ment of the fingers. The number of tubes at prefent is forty-two. In the back part there is a perpendicular founding-board divided in the middle, through which the tubes pafs. It appears therefore that the euphon ought not to be coufidered as an altered or improved harmonica, but as a totally new and different inftru- ment. In regard to fweetnefs of fund, it approaches very near to the harmonica ; but it has feveral advan- tages which no unprejudiced perfiin, who examines both inftruments, will deny. I . It is fimpler, both in regard to its conftrudlion and the movement necelTary to produce the found, as nei- ther turning nor ftamping is required, but merely the movement of the finger. 2. It produces its found fpeedier ; fo that as foon as it is touched you may have the tone as full as the inftrument is capable of giving it; whereas, in the harmonica, the tones, particularly the lov/er ones, muft be made to increafe gradually. 3. It has more diftin(5lnefs in quick paffi^es, becaufe the tones do not refound fo long as in the harmonica, where the found of one low tone is often heard when you wifh only to hear the following tone. 4. The uni- fon is purer than is generally the cafe in the harmonica, where it is difficult to have perfc^fl glaffes, which in every part give like tones with mathemitical exaftnefs. It is however as ditHcult to be tuned as the harmo- nica. 5. It does not affed the nerves of the performer ; for a perfon fcarcely feels a weak agitation in the fin- gers ; whereas in the harmonica, particul irly in con- cords of die lower notes, the agitation extends to the arms, and even through the whole body of the perf xm- er. 6. The expence of this inftrument will be much lefs in future than that of the harmonica. 7. Wlicn one of the tubes breaks or any other pait is deranged, it can be foon repaired, and at very little expence; whereas, when one of the glaffes of the harmonica breaks, it re- quires much time, and is very difficult to procure anotlier capable of giving tlie fame tone as the for- mer, and which will correfpond fufficiently with the F.upfiorbia. feries of the reft. v^">^">««^ EUPHORBIA (See Encyd). Of this plant three new fpecies were difcovered by Le Vaillant during his laft travels into the interior p.irts of Africa. The firft, which he calls the Cucumber-Euphorbia, adheres to the earth no otherwife than by a few (lender roots. It Plate rifes to the height of nine or ten inches only ; and ex- XXVIII. a>5lly refembles a cucumber, of which it has the bent *'S- ^• (hape. It contains abundance of milky juice, which appeared to him as cauftic as that of the great euphor- bia. Its colour, which is a yellowifti green, tinted with a beautiful fhade of violet towards the root, gives it a very attractive appearance : but wne betide the man who fhould be tempted to eat of it ! as it U a virulent poifon. The fecond, 10 which he gave the name of the Melonribbed Euphorbia, does not rife more than Fig. s. three or four inches from the ground, to which it ad- heres by a colleiflion of fibrous roots, iffuing from feve- ral tubercles difpofed in the manner of a crown. The ftem forms a flatted globe excavated at the fummit, aiid has ribs like the apple which in France is called calvilU blanche. Thefe ribs are elevated, thick, and convex, have a greenilh colour, and are marked with brown tranfverfdl bands. From the fummit of the ribs iffue feveral little tufts of pedunculate flowers. The third he called the Caterpillar-Euphorbia, becaufe when Fig. 3. he firft found it, he thought he perceived on it feveral beautiful caterpillars. The defcription of it in a few words is as follows : From a very large tuberous root, which here and there throws out a few thready fibres, iffue feveral ftalks almoft of the length of the finger : they creep along the ground, are twifted, woody, defti- tute of leaves, and furniflied with feveral rows of round tubercles, each guarded by two prickles. All thefe kinds of euphorbia are to be dreaded, the laft two in particular; becaufe being low and mixed with the herbage like mullirooms, animals, as they feed, run the rifk of eating them with their pafture. Our author confirms the account which has been given in the Encyclopedia of the flivages poifoning the refervoirs of water with this plant in order to procure the game which fhall drink of it. To effect the death of' the animal, it is neceffary that the poifon reach the blood and mingle with it. Yet, inconceivable as it may be, the animal, though poifoned, is not the lefs wholefome food, as our author fays he has experienced. However great may be the proportion of euphorbia thrown into a pond of water, he is perfuaded tliat it never diffules it- felf through the whole mafs. It is his opinion, that the poifon is a refinous juice, which, being from its nature incapable of combining with water, I'lvims on the fur- face, and there forms a (hining greenifh oil, which with a little attention may he difcerncd by the naked eye when the furface is fmooth. I tried (lays he) the qua- lities of this oil on myfelf, taking with a llraw, from the furface of the bafin, a finglc drop, which I put upon my tongue; and it gave me tliai kind of burning paia which a cauftic occalions. I then took up fome water from the refervoir in the hollow of my hand, and blow- ing off the oily fluid which f'wam on the furfice, I dip- ped the end of my tongue into the remainder, but could not perceive in it the flighteft tafte different from that of water itfelf. He feems to think that milk is an an- tidote Exeter. EXC [22] EXE Euilx^c ;idote to ths pcifon of euphorbia ; becaufc lie fquee/'-d bill having many indorfenittius, where the Jrawer, Rxfgefis ^.- 9 Icinc (f the juice into a baini i f mill< and gnve it to drawee, and early Indorl'ers, have all failed. It is evi- H ^^^"1^ an ape, which fw^Uowcd p.irt of it without the lead dent that, if the holder proves under eadi bankruptcy , ii'iiiry. He confcifcs, however, that the dofi; was the whole amount of the bill, he will receive mucli more tiifling. tlun his due. May he make his elciflion where to EUvSTACC, or E.:Jla;'ut, called alfn Mctanza', or piove the v.-hole demand, and where to prove the reCi- Sl.iuj^hter, (licm a butchery made on it by the Spani- due? Or ougl.t he not (which feems molt equitable) to ard-). It is an inconfiderable ifland, about 20 miles be compelled to prove his debt againft his immediate in circuit. It furms, with a long point of 1 md, the predecelfor only? — the afllgnees cf that predeccirr entrance to the harbor ot St. Auijulliiie, in Eall-Flo- proving, in their turn, in like manner (eacli party once lida — Morse. only), back to the diawcr. This is a cafe nfgicat im- EUSTYLE, is the hell manner of placing columns, portancc to difc^iunters, and the reader will Hnd fome with regard to their dUUnce ; winch, accordnig to Vi- judicious obfctvations on it in the Profciior's work, truvius, (hould be four modules, or two diameters and EXEGESIS, or Execetha, in algfbra, is the lind- a quarter. ing, cither in numb:;rs or lines, the roots of the equa- EXCENTRIC, or Eicentric Ciaci-e, in the an- tion of a problem, according as the problem is either cient Ptoloma^c allrononiy, was the very orbit of ih;; numeral or geometrical. planet itfelf, whith it was fnppofed to defcribe about the EXETER, a poll town in Rockingham co. New- earth, and which was conceived excentric with it; call- Hamplhire, and, next to Portfmouth, the moll: confi- ed alfo the deferent- derable feaport town in the Hate. It is ikuated at the liillead of ihefe excentric circles round the earth, the head of navigation on Swamfcot, or Exeter river, a moderns make the planets defcribe elliptic 01 bits about branch of the Pifcataqua, 15 miles S. W. of Portf- the fun ; which accounts for all the iriegularitics cf their mouth, and a like diftance N. AV. cif Newburyport, in motions, and their various dillances from the eailh, &c. Eifc.x co. Malfachufetts. The tide riles here 1 1 feet, more juftly and naturally. It is well fituated for a manufaauring town, and has ExCKNTRic, or Excentric Circli, in the new aflrono- already a duck manutafloiy in its infancy, 6 faw mills, my, is the circle delcrilied from the centre of the orbit a fulling mill, flitting mill, paper mill, Inuffmiil, 2 cho- of a planet, with half the greated axis asaiadius; or colateand logrift mills, iron work-., and 2 printing ofti- it is the circle that circuniicribes the elliptic orbit of ces. The faddlery bufmefs is carried on here to gieater the planet. extent, than in any town on this fide Pliiladelphia. l)e- EXCHANGE. See Encycl. under that word, and fore the revolution, Ihip building was a profitable biu likewife under Bills of Exch^n^c, where the antiquity fmefs ; and the vclltls were employed in the Weft India cf fuch bills, efpecially among the Chinefe, is niention- trade. Notwithllanding the lots of this market, there ed. In FrofelTor Beckmann's hiftory of inventions the are tour or tive vedels, of different burden, built here reader will find an ordinance of the year 1394 concern- annually; the river being capable of floating down ing the acceptance of bill? of exchange, and alfo copies thofe of 500 tons. An equal number is alfo employed of two bills cf the year 1404, which fufficiently prove in the foreign trade, chieriy to the Weft-Indies. The that the method of tranfadling bufinels by bills of ex- fituation ot this place bids fair for eitenfive population, charge was fully cftablifiied in Europe fo early as the The public edifices are 2 Congregational churches, an fourteenth century; and that the prefent form and elegant building appropriated for the academy, a hand- terms were even then ufed. The ordinance, which was fome and capacious court-houfe, and a gaol. The iifued by the city of Barcelona, decreed that bills of ex- public offices of the ftate are kept here at prefent. Be- change (hould be accepted within twenty-four hours fides the celebrated Exeter academy, there are here an after they were prefented, and that the acceptance Englifh fchool and 6 or 8 private fchools, chiefly for fe- Ihculd be written on the back of the bill. males. B'lt there are queftions relating to bills of exchange This townlliip is of irregular figure, and about 4 of much greater importance than their antiquity ; and miles fquare. It was incorporated in 1638; prior to thefe queftions are not yet decided. For inftance, which, it had the name of Swamfcot Falls, from the Ought a bill < f exchange to be ccnfidered by the law fiiUs of the river, which feparate the frelh from the tide merely as a de'ofu belonging to the drawer, and fuccef- water ; where the body ot the town is fitualed ; chiefly lively confided to the remittees ? or fhoiild it be confi- on the wellern fide of the river. The number of in- dered iis transferable property, at all times abfoUitely habitants in 1775, ^'^'^ '74-' — ^^^ '" '790. 1722. It vefted in the holder, whofe neglect therefore, when it lies 54 miles N. of Bofton, and 402 N. E. of Pbiladel- vitiates the value, falls wholly on himfelf ? phia. N. lat. 42. 59. W. long. 71. In a work publilhed 1798 by Profeffor Bufch of " Phillips Exeter Academy" was founded and en- Hamburgh, entitled, ji<Uitiotis to the Thcoreticul and dowed by the hon. John Phillips, L. L. D. of Exeter, Pra{lhal Delineation of Comm(rci (a), the reader will and incorporated by ail ot Allembly in 1781. It is a lind fome arguments, which, to fay the leaft of them, very refpeiftableand ufetui inftitutirn. under the infpec- are ccrta'niy plaufible, to prove that bills cf exchange tion of a bi.ard of truftees, and the immediate govem- ought to be at all times confidered as the abfolute pro- ment and inftrudion of a preceptor and an alliftanU perty of the holder. This theory is then applied to It has a iund of ^,15,000, a part of which is in lands the difficult and ftill unfettlcd cafe of the holder of a not yet produiflive. The prefent annual income is ^480. (a) Profeflbr Bufch publilhed in 1792 a work entitled A Theoretical and FraUieal Dtlincation of Commerce, EXP [ 23 ] E X U Exeter ^^.400. It has commonly between 50 and 6c (Indents. il In 1794, a building was erefled, 76 by 36 feet, two Ixponen- fj^jig^ j^jgh . wbich, in point of convenience, and per- i„^-v->^ haps elegance, is exceeded by few buildings of the kind in the United States. — Morse. Exeter, the N. wefternmolt townfliip in Wafliing- ton CO. Rhode-Ifland ftate, has North Kingllon on the E. and Voluntown, in Connedicut, on the W. The feveral branches of Wood river unite here, and take a S. courfe between Hopkinton and Richmond. It con- tains 2495 inhabitants, of whom 37 are fiaves. — ib. Exeter, a townlhip in Luzern co. Pennfylvania. —lb. Exeter, a town in New-Hsnover co. in Wilmington diQrift, N. Carolina ; fituated on the N. E. branch of Cape Fear, about 36 miles N. from Wilmington, and 22 from the New river. — ib. EXPECTATION of Life, in the doftrine of life annuities, is the Ihare, or number of years of life, which a perfon of a given age, may, upon an equality of chance, expedt to enjoy. By the e-xpeftation or (hare of life, fays Mr Simpfon (SeUB Exercifci, p. 273), is not here to be underftood that particular period which a perfon hath an equal chance of furviving ; this laft being a different and more fimple confideration. The expetftation of a life, to put it in the moft familiar light, may be taken as the num- ber of years at which the purchafe of an annuity, grant- ed upon it, without difcount of money, ougiit to be va- lued. Which number of years will differ more or lefs from the period abovementioned, according to the dif- ferent degrees of mortality to which the feveral ftages of life are incident. Thus it is much more than an equal chance, according to the table of the probability of the duration of life which the fame author has given us, that an infant, jull come into the world, arrives not to the age of ten years ; yet the expeftatlon or (hare of lite due to it, upon an average, is near twenty years. The reafon of which wide difference is the great excefs of the probability of mortality in the firft tender years of life, above that refpeifting the more mature and Itronger ages. Indeed if the numbers that die at every age were to be the fame, the two quantities above fpe- cified would alfo be equal ; but when the faid numbers become continually lefs and lefs, the expeiflation mull of confequcnce be the greater of the two. EXPONENTIAL Calculus, the method of dif- ferencing, or finding the fluxions of exponential quan- tities, and of fumming up thofe differences, or finding their fluents. Exponential Curve, \% that whofe nature is defined or expreifed by an exponential equation ; as the curve denoted by a* = y, or by x^ = y. Exponential Equation, is one in which is contain- ed an exponential quantity : as the equation a" = b, or »r» = ab, &c. Exponential ^anlily, is that whofe power is a variable quantity, as the expreflion a", or .x". Expo- nential quanti'.ies are of feveral degrees and orders ac- cording to liie number of exponents or powers, one over another. EXTR.'i. CoxsTELLAP.v Stars, fuch as are not properly inchi.'ed in any conllellation. EXTRA Mundane Space, Is the infinite, empty, void fpace, vhlch is by fome fiippofed to be extended beyond the bounds of the unlverfe, and confequently in which there is really nothing at all. The phr.ife exiru- viundane f[<ace h,is been fn long In ufe among our bell writers, that it is now inipoflible to banilh It from the language; and yet it lias been the fource of fome ex- travagant millakes. Many phllifophers confider fpace as fomethlng real, dinincfl- both from body and mind ; and no lef:. a man than Dr Clarke confidercd it as an attribute of the Deity. Yet we think nothing more evident than that If body had never eiifted, fpace would never have been thought of; and if this be fo, extra- mundane fpace, indead of denoting any real thing, or attribute Infinitely extended, can mean nothing more than the pr^ibility of enlarging the corporeal unlverle, however widely extended it may be. See Metaphysics {EncycL), Part II. ch. iv. EXTRADOS, the outfide of an arch of a bridge, vault, &c. See Arch in this Supplenient. EXTREMES Conjunct, and Extrerr.es Disjuncl, in fpherical trigonometry are, the former the two circu- lar parts that lie next the affumed middle part ; and the latter are the two that lie remote from the middle part. Thefe were terms applied by Lord Napier in his uni- verfal theorem for refolving all right-angled and quad- rantal fpherical triangles, and publiihed in his Lo^ariih- marum Canonis Defcriptio, an. 1614. In this theorem, Napier condenfes into one rule, in two parts, the rules for all the cafes of right angled fpherical triangles, which had been feparately demontlrated by Pitiilus, Lanfbergius, Copernicus, Regiomontanus, and others. In this theorem, neglecting the right angle, Nipier calls the other five parts circular parts, which are, the two legs about the right angle, and the complements of the other three, viz. of the hypothenufe, and the two oblique angles. Then taking any three of thefe five parts, r)ne ot them will be in the middle between the other two, and thefe two are the extremes conjunct when they are immediately adjacent to that middle part, or they are the extremes disjundl when they are each feparated from the middle one by another part. EXUMA Ifle, one of the Bahama ifles, fituated on the E. of the Great Bank, between Stocking ifles on the S. W. and Long-ifle on the E, It is now uninlia- blted, excepting two families, yet is one of the bell cf the Bahamas, not only for its fertility, but for the ex- cellence of its anchoring ground, in the found to which it gives name ; where all the Bntilli navy could ride in fafety. N. lat. 24. 50. W. long. 74. 30. — Morse. ExuMA Sound, lies E. of the Great Bahama Bank, between It and the ifle of Guanahani. N. lat. 24. W. long. 75 ib. FABIANE, B. Fairfield. F A I C 24 1 F. F A L fairflcld II Falconry. FABIANE, a river in Loiiifiana, T\hic!) runs S. eaftward into the Miflllllppi, in N. lat. 39. 30. ; 16 miles above Jaftioni river and 50 below the Iowa town and rapids. — Jlorss. FAI3IU3, one of tlic milit.iry townfliips in New- York.—;/;. FACE or Facade, in architeflurc, is fomctimes ufed for the front or ontward part of a building, which immediately prcfents itl'elf to tlie eye ; or the fiJe wliere the ch'ef entrance i;;, or next the ftrect, S:c. — ii. FAIiiFAX Co. in Vitgini:), is about 25 miles long, and 18 broad ; on the W. Bank of Potowmack river. It contains 12,320 inhabitants, of whom 4574 are flaves. Chief town, Aleiandiia. — it. Fairf-ix, a townftiip in Franklin co. Vermont, E. of Georgia, and on the bank of La Moille river, and contains 254 inhabitants; and is about 9 miles from lake Champlain. — ii. FAIRFIELD, a plantation in Lincoln co. diftrlft of Maine, on the S. E. bank of Kennebeck river, S. of Canaan, and oppofite Hancock; about 17 miles from Pitt down, and 7 from Fort Halifax. It contains 492 inhabitants, and is 225 miles N. E. of Boflon. — iL. Fairfield, a new townfliip in Herkemer county, New- York. — ili. Fairfield, a townfliip in Franklin co. Vermont, E. cf St. Albans ; and contains 1 29 inhabitants. It is 1 3 miles S. of the Canada line, and as far from the near. eft part of lake Champlain. — ii. Fairfield, a townlhip in Wafhington co. New- York. By the ftate ceufus of 1796, 29 of its inhabitants are eleftors. — ii. Fairfield, a townfliip in Cumberland co. New-Jer- fey, on Cohanzy creek, and at the head of Black creek ; 25 miles E. by S. of Salem, in Salem co. — ii. Fairfield Co. in Connedicut, is the S. wefternmoft in the ftate ; bounded W. by the ftate of New- York, E. by New-Haven co. N. by Litchfield, and S. by Longlfland found. Its fliapc is very irregular. It is divided into 13 townfhips, of which Fairfield and Dan- bury are the chief; and contains 36,250 inhabitants, including 433 flaves. It is feparated from New-Haven CO. and part of Litchfield co. by Stratford river. The other parts of the county are watered by fmall ftreams, as S.igatnck, Safco, Peganook, Five Mile, Rodens, Mill, and Mayamus rivers. Several harbors, and a number of fmall ifles lie along the found, in the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, Norwalk, Fairfield, and Stratford. The face of the county is rough, but the foil is good. — it). Fairfield, the Unquowa of the Indians, a pofl town and port of entry of Connedlicut, and capital of the above county, is pleafantly fituated on Mill Run, a little above its entrance into Lnnglfl'nd found, 22 miles S. W. by W. of New-Haven, and 64 from New York. It coiit.<ins about 200 houfes, a neat Corigre9;atlonal church, and a court-houfe. About 4 mil?? N. W. of the body of the town, and in the townfliip, is the beautiful parifli of Greenfield, in which is a flourllhing academy. A high eminence in the centre of the parilh commands a delightful prof- pcifl. Fairfield was fettled froin Weathersfield in 1639, and iu 1736 contained 400 families. It was burnt by a party of tories and Britlfh, under the command of gov. Tryon, in 1 777; the lofs fuftained, amounted to upwards of ^.40,000. Fairfield carries on a con- fiderablc trade to the W. Indies. The exports for one year, ending Sept. 30th, 1794, amounted to 77,425 dollars. — ib. Fairfield, a townfhip in Wellmoreland co. Penn- fylvania. — ib. Fairfield Co. in Camden diftrift, S. Carolina, be- tween Waterce river which divides it from Lancaller CO. and Broad river which feparates it from Newbury and Union counties. It contains 6138 white inhabit- ants, and 14S5 flaves. Its chief town is Winnfbo- rouu;h. — ib. FAIRHAVEN, in Brlftol co. Maffachufetts, lies on the N. W. fide of Buzzard's bay, and on the eall- ern fide of Acculhnet river, oppofite to Bedford. — ib. Fairhaven, a confiderable townfhip in Rutland co. Vermont, N. W. of Poultney. It contains 545 inha- bitants, and is 51 miles N. of Bennington. — ib. FAIRLEE, a townlhip in Orange CO. Vermont, on the W. bank of Connefticut river, t6 miles N. of Dart-, mouth C'llege. The townfliip is hilly, but of a good foil, and lias feveral glades of excellent land. It con- tains 463 inhabitants. — ib. FAIR WEATHER, Cate, on the E. coaft of Patagonia, in S. America, lies northerly from Cape Virgin Mary. S. lat. 51. 45. W. long, from Green- wich 68. 10. — ib. FALCONRY is a fpecies of fport, about the an- tiquity of which, there has been fome difpute. Un- der the word Hawking {Encycl.) we have deduced what we thought fufEclent evidence of its being pradi- fed among the Thracians, and likewife among the Bri- tons before the invafion of this ifland by the Romans. Flavins Blondus, however, and Laurentius Valla, both writers of the 15th century, and the latter, one of the moft learned men of his time, affirm that no nation or- people were accullomed to catch either land or water- fowls with any rapacious bird trained for the piirpofe. We were pleafed to fee our own opinion, fo different. from this, completely eftablilhed by the learned labours of Profelior Beckrnann. So early (fays he) as the time of Ctetias (and lie refers to the page and edition of his author) hares and foxes were hunted in India by means of rapacious birds. The account of Ariflotle*, how- ' f^ift- Ar"- ever, is ftlll more to the purpoie, and more worthy of "■"''''''• "" notice. "In Thrace (fays he) the men go out to "^ catch birds with hawks. The men beat the reeds and bulhcs wliich grow in marfliy places, in order to raife the fmall birds, which the hawks purfue and drive to the ground, where the fowlers kill them with poles." The fame account is to be found in another book afcrib- ed F A L [ 25 ] F A L Falconry, ed alfo to Ariftotle, and which appears, at any rate, ^^'~^''"'*~^ to be the work of an author not iniich younger. Re- ipefling Thrace, which is lituaied above Amphipolis, a wonderful thing is told, which might appear incredi- ble to thofe who l.aJ never heard it before. It is faid th.'it boys go out into the fields, .nnd purfiie birds by tlie affillance of hawks. Wlien they have found a place convenient for their purpole, they call the hawks by their names, which immediately appear as foon as they hear their voices, and chafe the birds into the bulhes, where the boys knock them down with (Hi-ks and feize them. What is fllll more wonderful, when ihefe hawks lay hold of any birds thetnfelve^, they throw them to the fowlers ; but the bo) s, in return, give ihem fome fliaie of ihe prey. De mirabilibus aufiultat. cap. 128. Intlii' p:.(rage, there aie two additions which render the circumllance ftill more rema;k"l)le. The firft is, that the falcons appeared when c.iU d by their names ; and the fccond, that of their own accord they brought to the fowleis wh.itcver they caui,ht themfelvcs. No- thing is here wanting but the Spaniel employed to find out game, the hood which is put upon tiie head of the hawk while it Hands on the hind, and the thong ufed for holding it, to form a fhort dcfcription of lalconry as dill prailifed. Ourfalconeis, when they have taken the bird from the hawk, give him, in return, a fmall Ihare of it ; and in the like manner the Thracian hawks received fome part of their booty. Other writers after Arillotle, fuch as Antigonus, jElian, Pliny, and Phile,have alfo given an account of this method of fowling. jEli.m, who feldom relates any thing without fume alteration or addition, fays, that in Thrace nets were ufed, into which the birds were driven by the hawks ; and in this he is followed by the poet Phile. jElian, alfo, in another place defcribes a manner of hunting with hawks in India, which, as we are told by feveral travellers, is (lill praiffifed in Perfia, where it is well underltood, and by other eaftern na- tions. The Indians (fays he) hunt hares and foxes in the following manner : They do not employ dogs, but eagles, crows, and, above all, kites, which they catch when young, and train for that purpofe. They let loofe a tame hare or iox, with a piece ot flelh fallened to it, and fulFer thefe birds to fly after it, in order to fei/.e the flelh, which they are tond of, and which, on their return, they receive as the reward of their labour. Wlien thus inllrufled to purfue their prey, they are fent after wild foxes and hares in the mountains ; thefe they follow in hopes of obtaining their ufuul food, and foon catch them and bring them back to their mafters, as we are informed by Ctelias. Inllead of the flcfh, however, which was faftened to the tame animaU, they receive as food the entrails of the wild ones which they have caught. It feems therefore, that the Greeks received from In- dia and Thrace the firll information refpeiting the me- thod of fowling with birds cf prey ; but it does not ap- peal that this praifticc was introduced am; ng tliem at a very early pciiod. In Italy, however, it mull have been very common, for Martial and Apuleiua fpeak of it as a thing every wliere known; tlie former calls a hawk the iowlei's fcrvant. SuFPL. Vol. K. The Profeflor traces the hiilory of this att with great learning down to the prcfent time. It was carried to the highelt perfection at the principal c-nrts of Europe (he fayo) in the 12th century, when the ladies kept hawks, which were as much fondled by thofe who wifhed to gain their favour as lap-dogs are at prcfent. Among the oldeft writers on falconry as an art he reckons Demetrius, who about tlie year 1270 was phy- fician to the Emperor Michael Paleologus, His book, written in Greek, was firfl printed at Paris in 1612 will) a Latin tranfl uion ; but its precepts (fays our au- thor) would be thought of very little value at prefent. For an account of the modern art of falconry fee Emy. clops dill, FALK (John Peter), known to the world as one of the fciei.tific travellers employed by the late Emprefs of Rullia to explore her vaft dominions, was born in Wellrogothia, a province in Sweden, aljout the year 1727. He ftudied medicine in theuniverfity of Upfal, and went through a courfe of botany under the cele- brated Linn-Eus, to whofe fon he was tutor. He pu- blicly defended the difiertation (a) which that famous botanill had compofed on a new fpccies of plants, which he called ajlromcria. In the year 1760, he was fo deeply afFe<fted with de| reflion of fpints, that M. de Linne, in the view ot obliging him to tike exercife and diffipuion, fent him to travel over the ifland of Gothlind, to make a collec- tion of the plants it produces, and the various kinds of corals and corallines which the fea leaves on its fhores. This voyage was attended with no diminu- tion of his diftemper, which found a continual fuppljr of aliment in a fanguine melaticholy temperament, in a too fedentary way of life, and in the bad ftate of his finances. Profeflor Forfkael having left Upfal for Copenhagen in 1760, Falk followed him thither in the defigu of applying, by the advice of M. de IJnne, to be appoint- ed aflillant to M. Forfkael in his famous journey thro* Arabia ; but, notwithftanding all the pains that M. CEJer, and feveral oiher men of literary reputation at Copenhagen, took in his behalf, his application failed, as the fociety that were to go on that important expe- dition was already formed. Obliged, with much dif- content, to return, he herborifed as he travelled, and enriched the Flora Suecica with feveral new difco- veries. A man in office at St Pcterfhurgh having written to M. Linrc to fend him a direiflor for his cabinet of natural hiftory, M. Falk accepted the poft, which led him to the chair of profelFor of botany at the apothe- caries garden at St Peterfburg, a place that had been long vacant. His hypocnndriac complaint ftiU conti- nued to torment him. When the Imperial academy of fciences was preparing in 1768 the plan of its learn- ed expeditions, it took M. Falk into ilsfervice, though his healtli was uncertain. He was recalled in 17715 but having got only to Kafan in 1773, he there ob- tained permitfion to go and ufe the baths of Kifliar, from which he returned ag.iin to Kafan at the end of the year, with hi-> heilth apparently better. But his difeafe loon returned with redoubled vio- lence. From the month of December 1773, '^^ ^'-'i^ 1) never Fait. (a) In the collediou knowu under the title oiLwmi AvtitnitaliS Academut, F A L C 26 ] FAR F^Ik. nertr quitted his bed, nor taken any otlisr nouriflinient '~''"**^ ihm bread diied in the Sv.ed.lh manner (knxkebiocJ), of which he fcarcely tooic once a day Ibme mouthfuls dipped in tea. At fii ft lie received she vifits of a few fiieuds, but aftcrw.irds denied himfeif to them, and VT.s reduced to the llric^eft fohtiide. When M. Geor- gi, nrienibcr of the fociety cf natural liiftory at Berlin, who had been dtftined to affill and relieve the profclfor in the duties of his expeditcn, went to fee hini on this occafion, nothinc feenied left ol'him but a Ikeleton ot a wild and terrifying afpeft. The few words he drew from him conlllled in compUints, occafiuned by a hoft of difeafes which kept his body in torture, and threw him into the moil cruel lleeplclfnef^. The lall eveninj^ M. Georgi kept him company till midnight. He fpoko little, and fiid nothing that could give reafon to fuf- peif the dclign he wti, meditating. His hunter, and at the fame tin:e his trully ferv.mt, offered to fit up with liini the night; but he could not be perfuaded to confont. M. Georgi being requefted the next day, March 31, to come to the lodging of the unfortunate gentleman, he found him lying before his bed, covered with blood ; befide him lay a razor, with which he had given him- felf a flight wound in the throat, thi fatal pillol, and a powder horn ; all together prefcnting a tremendous fpeflacle. He had put the muzzle of the piftol againll his throat, and relling the pommel upon his bed, he difcharged the contents in fuch a manner, that the ball, having gone through his head, had (luck in the ceiling. His foldier had feen h'm lliil fitting up in his bed at four o'clock, at which time he ufaally fell into a Ihort {lumber. In his chamber was found a note written the evening before, betraying throughout the dhlmifled ft<:te of his mind, but nothing declaratcry of his defign, or that was of any importance. M. Falk, like all hypochrondriac perfons, was not very communicative, and on certain occafions was dif- trullful. But, at the fame time, he was of a fedate temper, complaifant, and upright, which made it .t very eafy matter to bear with him, and fecure to him the in- dulgence of all his acquaintance. His extreme fubrie- ty had enabled him to make fome favings from his pay, though he was very beneiicent ; it was not, theiel'ore, indigence that drove him to this aft of violence. He was of a cold conftitution, preferring folitiide and qui- et to fociety, to the company of his friends, and to or- dinary amufements, which yet he did not Ihun, except in the latter period of his life. As to religivin, he (hew- ed on all occafions more refpeft for it than any flrong effufions of zeal. It was folely to be afcribed to the violence of his diftemper, and the weaknels of mind which it brought on, that led hiin to put a period to liis days. The fate of this unfortunate fcholar was ge- nerally and julUy lamented. His papers were found in the greateft diforder. They contain, however, very ufeful and important relations. He particularly made it his bufinefs to inquire about the Kirguifes, and other Tartarian nations, and as he frequently remained for the fpace of nine months toge- ther in the fame place, he was enabled to procure fa- tisfaftory notions concerning the objeifls oi his invefti- gations. The Imperial academy, in 1774, appointed Profelfor Laxmann to arrange his manulcripts in or- der for publication j which was done accordingly. FALLING Spring, a brimch of James river in Vir- ginia, where it is called Jackfon's river, rifing in the Biountain, 20 miles S. W. of the Warm Spring. The water falls over the rock 200 feet, which is about 50 feet higher than the fall of Niagara. Between the fheet of water and the rock below, a man may walk acrofs dry. — Mors!. FALMOUTH, a townfhip, formerly including Portland, in Cumberland co. Maine, containiiig 299 i inhabitants. It is fituated on Cafco bay, i 20 miles N, N. E. of Bofton. Incoi pirated in 17 18. — ib. Falmouth, a townlhip in Hants co. Nova-Scotia; fituated rn the S. E. fide o( the Bafin of Minas, oppo- fite Windfcr, 28 miles N. VV. of Halifax. — iu. Falmouth, a maritime townlhip in Barnliable co. M-tlTachufctts, lituated on the N. E. part of tlie Vine- yard found, on the W. fide of the bay of its name ; 77 miks S. E. by S. of Bofton, 18 from Sandwich, and 9 from Holme's flole. It was incorporated in 1686, and contains 1637 inhabitants. N. lat. 41. 33. W. long. 70. 35. It is a poll town. — ib. Falmouth, a poft town in Stafford co. Virginia, fituated on the N. bank of Rappahannock river, nearly oppofite to Frederickfbuig. It is irregularly built, and contains an Epifcopalian church and about 150 houfes. It is 23 miles S. W. of Dumfries, 70 N. by E. of Richmond, and 207 S. wefterly of PJiiladelphia. Confiderable quantities cf tobacco are infpedled here. Falmoui M, a town in Lancafter co. Pennfylvania, fituated on the S. E. fide of Conawago creek, 20 miles Wefterly of Lancafter. It has been lately laid out. — ib. Falmouth, a town and harbor on the S. Ihore of the iftand tf Antigua, in the Weft-Indies. It has Englifti harjjor on the E. and Rendezvous bay on the W. ; and lituated in St. Paul's parifti, at the N. W. corner of the harbor, which is well fortified. — ib. Falmouth, in the illand of Jamaica, in the Weft» Indies, commonly called the Point, is fituated on the S. fide of Martha Brae harbor; and including the ad- joining villages of Martha Brae and the Rock, is com- pofed of 220 houfes. Here 30 capital .ftationed fliips load for Great-Britain, exclufive of llcops and fmaller craft. — ib. FALSINGTON, a village in Pennfylvania, in Bucks CO. 28 miles N. E. ot Philadelphia. — /i. FAQUIER Co. in Virginia, is bounded N. by Lou- don and E. by Prince William. It is about 55 miles long and 20 broad, and contains 17,892 inhabitants, of whom 6642 are flaves — ib. FAREWELL, Cape, the S. point of Weft Green- land, on the N. fide of the entrance ot Davis's ftraits. North America. N. lat. 59. 37. W. long. 42. 42. —lb. FARMER (Richard D. D.), fo well known as one of the commentators on Shakelpeare, was a man of fuch pleafing, though fingular manners, that we regret the very imperfeit account which we niuft give of his life.. One of us, who had the pleafure of being a little known to him, has been fo much delighted with the natural eafe and pleafantry of his converfation, that we made all the inquiries which we judged requifite to enable us to draw up fuch a biographical flietch of this agreeable man as might be acceptable to our readers, and not un- worthy of his charaiSer ; but thefe inquiries were made in vain. Tliofe to whom we applied knew little more of Falllnff Farmer. Farmer. FAR C27] FAR of tlie incidents of his life thsn what we had previoufly which I;e was at pains to prnpagate, n'^t only in his Farmer. ' found in a niifcellany, of which the writers feem to con- college, but, as far as his inrtuence went, through tlu ^■'^~^''*— IJder it as a principle of duty to vilify the charaifler of whole univerfity. every perfun, who, like Dr Farmer, is tlie friend of or- It has hien faid, that the delights of the pipe and the der, and the enemy ot fiiJden or rapid innovati.ins. To bottle in Emanuel pariiuir outweighed, in his eflima- that mifcelliny, therefore, v.'e muft be beholden for tion, the daz/ling fpkndor of the mitre ; but he had many fafls ; but we fhall certainly copy none cT its other and better reafons for preferring a private to a malevolence. public ftation. In early life, at lead before he was ad- Dr Farmer was born at Leicefter 1735; hut what vancej in year<, he had felt the power of love, and had was the ftation of his father we have nut learned. Of fuffered fuch a difappointment as funk deep in his mind, his fchool education he received part, perhaps the and for a time threatened his underftandin?. Froin whole, in his native town ; and from fchool he was re- that period, though he retained his faculties entiie, he moved to the iniiverfity of CambiiJge, wheie he devo- acquired fnme pecuii.iritics of manner ; of which he w.u ted himfeU chiefly to clailical learnmg and the belles f<> lar confci us, as to be fenfible th it they would bard- lettres. In 1757, he was admitted to the degree of ly become the charafler of a bifhop; being likewife bachelor of arts ; in 1760, to that of mafterofarts; flrongly attached to dramatic entertainments, which, if a bachelor of divinity in 1767, and a doiftor of divinity we miflake not, the Englifh bilhops never witneA, and in 1775, in which year he was alfo eleiftid mader of delighting in clubs, where he could have rational «on- Emanuel on the deceafe of Dr Rich.irdfon, and prin- verfation without ftate or ceremony of any kind — he cipal librarian on the dece:ife of Dr Barnardillon. very wifely preferred his refidentlarylhip to the higheft The difturbances in America having by this time be- dignity in the church. At the time of his death, come ferious, the univerlity of Cambridge, will) num- which happened in the autumn of 1797, he was a fel- berlef. other loyal bodies, voted an addrefs to the king, low of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, matter o( approving of the meafiires adopted by government to Emanuel college, principal librarian of the public libra- reduce the faiftious colonills to their duty. The ad- ry in the univerfity, one cf the canons refidentiary of drefs, hdweve"-, was not carried unanimouHy. It was, St Paul's, chancellor rf the diocefe of Lichfield and of courfe, oppoi'ed by Jf.be, fo well known for his free Coventry, and prebendary of Worceftcr. opinions in politics and religion, and by fome others. Though a good clafllcal fcholar, Dr Farmer has been of whom one man, a member of the c.\put, carried his celebrated only for that kind of literature which is con- oppofition fo far, as adlually to refufe the key of the ne>51ed with the Englifh drama, and having a ftrong place which contained the feal necelfary on fuch occa- predelidion for old Englifti writers, he ranked hieh fions. In this emergency, Dr Farmer, who was then among the commentators upon Shakefpeare. His " Ef- vice-chancellor, is faid to have forced open the door fay upon the Learning of Shakefpeare," dedicated to with a fledge-hammer ; an exploit which his democrati- Mr Cradock, the intelligent refdent of Gumley-Hall cal biographers affei^ to redicule, by calling it Lis in Leicefterfhire, has palled through feveral edition^. courtly zeal, and the occafion of all his fubfcquent pre- This cffay was, in fai5t, the firft foundation of his fame, ferments. which an unconquerable indolence prevented him from If it be indeed true, that he broke the door in pieces carrying to that height to whicn the exercife of his li- with bis own hands, his conduifl muft be acknowledged terary talents could not have failtd to raife it. S > great to have been not very decorous ; but if the office wliich indeed was his love ot eafe, that after having announced lie filled be taken into confideration, wc apprehend it for fubfcriptions a hiftory ol Leicefterlhire, and a^flual- would be as difficult to prove that condud ed'entially ly begun to print it, rather than fubmit to the fatigue wrong, as to vindicate the obdinate airogance of him of carrying it through the piefs, he retuned the fub- who occafioned it. The feal was the property of the fcriptions, and prefented the MSS. and plates to Mr univeifity, of which this outrageous fupporter of the Nichols, the refpeiflable printer ot the Gentleman's bill of rights was but an individual member. The uni- Magazine, who has fince carried on the hiftory with a vetfity liad refolved that it fliould be employed for a degree of fpirit, ability, and induftry, perhaps unpre- ccrtain purpofe, which it was the duty of the vice-chan- cedented in this department of literature, cellor to carry into effeiS ; and lince the feal was re- Indolence and the love of eafe were indeed the Doc- fufed to him, he had no alternative but to get policf- tor's chief characleriftics ; and to them, with the dif- fion of it by force. We hope, however, that he em- appointment already mentioned, may be attributed a ployed a fervant to break the door; and, indeed, as want of propriety in his extern.)l appearance, and in vice-chancellor, he muft have had fj many fcrvants at the ufual forms of behaviour belonging to his ftation. his command, that it is not conceivable he would wield The prevailing features rf his character dillirguifhed the fledge-hammer himfelf. themlelves by feveral odd ties : There were three thicgs, Some time after this, he was made a prebendary of it was faid, which the mafter of Emanuel loved, f/s. Canterbury, we believe through the reccmnieudation of old port, old clothes, and old books ; and three things Lord North, then prcmiir; and it was at Canterbury which no one could perfuade him to perform, r/s. to that the writer of this fkctch had the h.<ppinefs t f be- rife in the morning, to go to bed at night, and to fettle ing introduced to him, and witnefiing h.is liofpitality. an account. VVhtn in C.tmbridge, if an old houfe After enjoying his prebend for feveral years, he refign- were pulled down, the m.iftcr of Emanuel was always ed it on being preferred, by the prelienc premier, to a there in an old blue gnat coat, and a rufty hat. When refidentiaryftiip of St I'.uil's ; and we have reafon to in London, he was lure to be found in the fame garb believe, that he declined a billiopric, whi 'h was oiFered at an old book-llall, or ft.inding at the corner ot a dir- to him as a reward fur tiie conftiiuticn.il principles ty lane, poring ihiough his gl.us at <in old play bill. D 2 This FAR [ 28 ] FAS Famicr II Farming- ton. This charafler is not drawn by a friendly pencil ; but it is ncvcTtlieltis not unjull. His inattention to the common decencies of drefs and behaviour was no- toricus, infomnch that, in the company of Grangers, the eccentricity of his appearance and <ii his manners made him fcmelimes be taken lor a perfon half crazed. The writer of this Iketch faw him one morning at Canter- bury drelled in ftocicings of unl)leached thread, brown breeches, and a wig not worth a thilling ; and when a brother prebendary of his, remarkable for elegance ot manners, and propriety of drefs, put him in mind that they were to attend on the archliilhop, Di Farmer re- plied, that it had totally cfcaped him; but he went hnme, and ttrelfed himfelf like a clergyman. That he fat late reading, and occafionally drinking brandy and water, cannot be denied ; and it is literally true, that I'.e cculd not eafily be prev.iiKd upon to fettle his ac- counts. His accounts with fome of his pupils, when tutor oi his college, were never fettled to the day of his death ■, and the young gentlemen not unfrequently took advantage of this unconquerable indolence to borrow of him confiderable fums, well knowing that there was lit- tle chance of a demand being ever made upon their pa- rents. One gentleman, in particular, told a friend of ours, who was himfelf a penlioner of Emanuel, that when he left that college, he was near fifty pounds in debt to Dr Farmer ; " a debt (faid he) which I would have fcrupuloufly paid, but, after repeated felicitations, I could get no bill from him." Having been a warm partizan of government du- ring the American war, it will readily be believed that Ur Farmer was the detei mined enemy of levellers and anarchifts. He was fuch a Whig as thofe who placed King William on the throne; and of courfe deemed a violent Tory by our prcfent republicans, of whom, to fay the truth, he could hardly (peak with temper. By his enemies he is admitted to have been a man of gene- rofity. As he obtained money eafily, fo he parted with it eafily. Whilft he was always ready to relieve dif- trefs, his bounty was frequently bellowed on the patro- nage of learned men and learned publications. He was, accordingly, a favourite witli all good men who knew him. In his own college he was adored ; in the univerfity he had, for many years, more influence than any other individual ; and, with all his eccentricities, his death was a lofs to that learned body, which, in the opinion of feme of its members, will not loon be made up. FARMINGTON, a very flourifhing townOiip of excellent land, in Lincoln co. diftrift of Maine, on Sandy river, 35 miles N. W. of Hallowell, 30 fame courfe from Harrington, and 204 N. N. E. of Bofton. Number of inhabitants, about 1200. A very few years fince this townfhip was a wildernefs. — Morse. Farmington, a large, pleafant, and wealthy town in Hartford co. Connedicut, 10 miles S. W. of Hart- ford city, 32 N. E. of New-Haven, and 22 E. of Litch- field. Farmington river, a water of ConneSicut, mean- ders delightfully through charming intervales, which beautify and enrich this town. The houfes, in the compaift part of this town, Hand chiefly on a ftreet which runs N. and S. along the gentle declivity of a hill, which afcends E. of the intervales ; about the centre of the ftreet flands a large and handfome Congrega- tioual church. This town was fettled as early as 1645, and its limits then were very ejtenfive. Several towns have been fince taken from it. — ib. Farmington, a fmall river of Conneflicut, which pali'es through the town of Farmington, where it re- ceives Cambridge or Poquabi ck liver, iioni the S. W. when it acquires the name of Windfcr river and tails into ConneiSicut river in the town of Windfor, about 4 mile;; al)ovc Hartford city. — il. FASCINATION, the art of bewitching, enchant- ment, an unfeen inexplicable influence. Under the title Serpens (Eitcyd. n'^ 22) we have mentioned fe- veral inllances of the fafcinating power of tlie rattle- fnake, which were relateil by men of charaifter, and certainly gained fome degree of credit among men of fcience. In Vaillanl's New Travels into the Interior Parts of Africa, an account is given of fimilar inllan- ces of fafcination by African fervants, fome of them witncifed by himfelf, and others reported to him by men of veracity. On the confines of the European colony, at a place called Swart-lanJ, our traveller faw a fhrike on the branch of a tree, tremble as if in convulfions, whilft it uttered the moft piercing cries of diftrefs. Clofer at- tention led him to difcover upon the next branch of the fame tree a large ferpent, that, with ftretched-out neck, and fiery eyes, thoueh perfedlly ftill, was gazing on the poor animal. He fhot the ferpent ; but, in the mean-time, the bird had died. Having meafured the diilance between the place where the llirike was feen in convulfions and that occupied bv the ferpent when it was fliot, he found it to be three feet and a half; which convinced him and his attendants that the bird had not died either from the bite or the poifon of its ene- my. Indeed he ftripped it before the wliole company, and made them obferve that it was untouched, and had not received the flighteft wound. — In another diftridt of Africa, during the courfe of the fame travels, he faw a fmall rnoufe die in convulfions, occafioned by the fafcinaling power of a ferpent, at the diilance of two yards from it ; and when he confulted his Hottentots upon this incident, they exprefTed, he fays, no fort of altonifhment, but affured him that the ferpent had the faculty of attraffing and fafcinating fuch animals as it wiflied to devour. We have already had occafion to remark how re- gardlefs this author is of inconfiftencies in his narra- tive ; and we perceive fomething like an inconfiftency in the narratives before us. Though his Hottentots exprelfed no furprife at the fafcination of the moufe, and declared that nothing was more common, he fays exprefsly, that to thofe who witnefled the fafcination of the fhrike, the fafl appeared fo extraordinary, that they could hardly believe it, even after they had feen it. The moll wonderful inftance ot fafcination which we have anywhere met with, was that of a Captain ia the Dutch fervice at the Cape, who, after affuring our traveller that it is an event which happens very fre- quently, proceeded thus : " My teftimony ought to have the more weight, as I had once nearly become my- felf a viiftim to this fafcination. While in garrifon at Ceylon, and amufing myfelf, like you, in hunting in a marfli, I was, in the courfe of my fport, fuddenly fei- zed witha convulfive and involuntary trembling, differ- ent from any thing I had ever experienced, and at the fame time was flrongly attraded, and in fpite ©f myfelf, to FAS [2 Fafcination to a particular fpot of the uiarfh. Direfting my eyes '"■'"^''""^^ to this fpot, I beheld, with feelings of horror, a (er- pent of an enormous fize, whofe look inllantly pierced me. Having, however, not yet loft all power ot motion, I embraced the opportunity before it was too late, and faluted the reptile with the contents of my fufee- The report was a talifman that broke the charm. All at once, as if by a miracle, my convulfion ceafed ; I felt myftlfable to fly; and the only inconvenience of this extraordinary adventure was a cold fweat, which was doubilefs the eft'efl: of my fear, and of the violent agi- tation my fenfes had undergone." This inltance ot i'afcination differs in one very mate- rial circumftance from the two fomewhat fmiilar inltan- cet mentioned in the Encychpadia. In both thefe, the eyes of the perfons iafcinated were fixed on the eyes of the fnake; l5Ut here the Dutch Captain was ftrongly attraded towards the ferpent before he law, or even fufpefted that fo formidable an enemy was in his neighbourhood. If the llory therefore be true, the ef- fedl which he defcribes could not poflibly have been the effcA of fear, but of fome unfeen influence on his whole nervous fyftem. The fubjedl has of late attrafled the attention of men of fcience, whofe local fituation gives them an op- portunity of making experiments upon diiferent fer- pents, with a view to ai'certain whether they really pof- iefs or not this moft unaccountable of all powers. In the year 1796, was printed at Philadelphia, a Memoir concerning the Fafcinatlng Faculty ivhhh has been afcri- bed to the Rattleftiake, and other American Serpents, by Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. ProfeiFur of natural hiftory and botany in theuniverfity of Pennfylvania. in this memoir, the manner in which the fafcinating power is fuppnfed to be exerted is thus Rated by the ingeni- ous profeflbr : " The fnake, whatever its fpecies may be, lying at the bottom of the tree or buih upon which the bird or fquirrel fits, fixes its eyes upon the animal it defigns to fafcinatc or enchant. No fooner is this done, than the unhappy animal is unable to make its efcape. It now begins to utter a moft piteous ciy, which is well known by thofe who hear it, and underftand the whole machinery of the bufinefs, to be the cry of a creature en- chanted. If it is a fquirrel, it runs up the tree for afliort diftance, comes down again, then runs up, and, laftly, comes lower down. 'On that occafion (faysan honeft,but TroM«r rather credulous writer*), it has been obferved, that filer Kalm. the fquirrel always goes down more than it goes up.' The fnake ftill continues at the root of the tree, with its eyes fixed on the fquirrel, with which its attention is fo entirely taken up, that a perfon accidentally ap- proaching, may make a confiderable noife without the fnake's fo much as turning about. The fquirrel, as before mentioned, comes always lower, and at laft leaps down to the fnake, whofe mouth is already wide open for its reception. The poor little animal then, with a piteous cry, runs into the fnake's jaws, and is fvvallow- ed at once, if it be not too big ; but if its fize will not allow it to be fwallowed at once, the fnake liks it fe- veral times with its tongue, and fmoothens it, and by that means makes it fit tor fwallowlng." From Dr Barton's memoir, it appears that the North American Indians are by no means of one opinion re- fpcfling the fafcinating power of the rattle-faake. Some 9 ] FAS intelligent friends of his, well acquainted with the man- Fafcination ners, rtligioub opinions, and fiiperftitious prejudices of ^-^~"^~^^ thofe people, informed him, that though they had of- ten heard the Indians fpeak of the ingenuity of thefe reptiles in catching birds, fquirrels, &c. they did not recoUedl having ever heard them fay that fnakes charm birds. On the other hand, however, a Mohegan In- dian told the Doiftor himfelf, that the Indians are of opinion, that the rattle-fnake can charm or bewitch, fquirrels and bird"^, and that it does this with its rattle, which it flukes, thereby inviting the animals to defcend from the trees, after which they are eafily caught. Ac- cording to this Indian, hi; countrymen do not think that the fnake, in any manner, accompHflies the bufi- nefs with its eyes. A Choktah Indian alhired the Doc- tor, that the rattle-fnake does charm birds, Sec; but he was honed enough to confefs, that he did not know in what manner it does it. The interpreter, through whom the converfalion was carried on with this Indian, faid that the fnake charms by means of its rattle. This opinion of the interpreter was the opinion of Dr Mead. That eminent naturalift, controverting, about fifty years ago, the common opinion, that Provi- dence has turnifhed the rattle-fnake with its rattle to give warning to travellers, was tlie tirll who afferted that this fingular appendage is given to the animal to terrify fquirrels and fmall birds, which are then fo ftu- pified by the fight of fo formidable an enemy, that at length they drop down and become its prey ; and that this is what the Indians call fafdnuiion. The fame opinion has been adopted by profelfor Blumenbach of Gottingen, who, in his Manual of Natural Hiftoiy, thus exprelTes himfelf on this curious fubjed : " That fquirrels, fmall birds, &c. fall down fponta- neoufly from trees into the mouth ot the rattle-fnake, lying below them, is an undifputed fafl ; and is the Iefs furprifing, as the like phenomena have been re- marked in regard to other fnakes, and alfo toads, hawks, and cats; all of which, in certain circumftances, as ap- pears, have the power of drawing towards them fmall animals, merely by fixing their eyes ftedfaftly on them. In regard to the rattle-fnake, this elFeifl is produced by the rattle in its tail, the hifiing noife of which makes fquirrels, &c. whether through curiofity, millake, or terror, feem to approach the animal as it were fponta- neoufly. At any rate, I know, from the information of intelligent eye-witnelfes, that it is a common ftrata- gem of the young favages in America to conceal them- felves in the bullies, where they imitate the hilling nolfc of the rattle-fnake, and by thefe means attraift fquirrels, which they are then enabled to catch." To this opinion Dr Birton oppofes an infuperable objedlion. It is, that this fafcinating power is by no means peculiar to the rattle-fnake. With regard to the ftratagem of the favages, he thinks that Dr Blu- menbach has been impofed upon ; as neither he, nor any other perfon of whom he made the inquiry, ever heard of fuch a ftratagem. The young Indians, he fays, place a reed crofs-wife in their mouth, and by a tremulous motion of the lips, imitate the cry of young birds ; by which means they entice the old ones,fo that they can eafily Ihoot them: And this pradlice may have given rife to the ftory of their imitating the hilTing noiftfofthe rattle-fnake. Some have fuppofed that ferpents, under ccrttin cir- cumftances. FAS [ 30 ] FAS FafcinatMHi euniflaiices, emit from theirbndies a ftup'fying vapour; '-'^^^'^ a„j th^t it is iliis vapour which produces the tlTcft ca'hd fojlinalhtt: Eut againft this opinion Dr Baiton alleges the foUcviri;^ arguments : " I know, indeed (HiN s he), th^t in ionie ot the hirger fpecies cf fcrpents inhabiting South America and ether countries, there is evolved in the flomach, duiing the long and tedious procefs of dlgeilif-n in thefe animals, a vapour or a pas, whofe od'.ur is inlenfely fetid. I have not, how- ever, found thai this is the cafe with the rattle-fnake, and other Nnnh Ameiican ferpcnts, that I have exa- mined. Bat my own obfetvations on this head have rot been very minute. 1 have inaJe inquiry of fome per- fons (whofe prejudices againft the fcrpent tribe are not fo powerful as my own), who are nnt afraid to put the heads and necks of the black fnake, and other J'erpents that are deflitiue of venomous fangs, into their mouths, and have been informed, that they never perceived any d'fiifreeable fme'l to proceed f. om the breath of thefe animals. I have been prefent at the opening of a box which contained a number of living ferpenti, and al- though the box had been fo clofe as to admit but a very Vmall quantity of frelh air, although the obferva- tion was made in a fmall warm room, I did not per- ceive any peculiarly dil'agreeable effluvium to aiiie from the bodies of thefe animals. I am, moreover, intorm- • AmtricM ed by a member of this fociely*, who has, for a confi- /»i;7«/J/i;c<j.' jeiaijle lime, had a rattle-fnake under his immediate 6V;V/_y. cA\e, that he has not obferved that any difagreeable va- pour proceeds from this leptile. On the other hand, however, it is alferted by fome creditable perfons of my acquaintance, that a moll ( fFenfive odour, fimilar to that of flelh in the laft Itage of putrefadion, is conti- nually emanating from every part of the rattle-fnake, and fome other fpecies of ferpents. This odour ex- tends under certain circumftances, to a confiderable diftance from the body of the animal. Mr William Bartram alFures me, that he has obferved ' horfes to be fenfibie of, and grca'ly agitated by it, at the diftan;eof forty or fifty yards from the fnake. They Ihewed (he fays) their abhorrence by fnorting, winnowing, and ftartingfiom the road, endeavouring to throw their ri- ders, in order to make their efcape.' This fafl, rela- ted by a man of rigid veracity, is extremely curious ; and, in an efpecial manner, deferves the attention ct thofe writers who imagine that this fetid emanation from ferpents is capable (f affefting birds, at fmall di- ftances, with a kind of afphyxy. It even gives fa/a co- lour of probability to the ftory related liy Melrodorus, \ Lib. j8. and prefcrved in the Natural Hiftcry of PlinyJ. Cap. 14. S'lme experiments, however, which were made in Philadelphia a little before the Doiftor compofed his memoir, feem to have been decifive not only as to the fetor, but as to every thing which refembles fafcina- lion in the rattle-fnake. Birds which were put into a cage which contained a rattle-fnake, flew or ran from the reptile, as though they were fenfibie cf the danger to which they were expofed. The fnake made many- attempts to catch the birds, but could feldom fucceed. When a dead bird was thrown into the cage, the fnake devoured it immediately. He fijon caught anJ devour- ed a living mole, an animal much more flufgllli than the bird. Dr Barton hiinl'elf faw a fnow-bird (fee Em- BtRizE F.ncycl.) in a cage with a large rattle-fn ike. The little animal had betn thus imprifoned for feveral h.-uis when he firfl faw it, but it exhibited no figns of Faf'-lnatiou fear. It hopped about trom the floor of the cage to its rooft, and fretpiently perched on the fnake's back. Its chirp wai nowife trem'ilous, but perfciTily n.itui.il. It ate l)ie feeds which were put into the cage; and by its whole adions moft evidently demonftraied that its fituation was not uneafv. Having thus difpofed of the doflrincs of fome of his predccelFurs, Dr Barton proceeds to fay; "The refult of not a little attention to the fubjeiff has taught me, that there is but one wonder in the bufuiefs ; — the won- der that the ftory Ihould ever have been believed by a man of underftanding and cf obfervation." Fafcina- tion, we aie informed, is almoll entirely limited to biid? that build low, and " in almofl every inftance, I found that the fappofed f.-fcinating faculty of the ferpent was exerted upon llie birds at the particular feafon of their laying their eggs, of their hatching, or ot their rearing their young. Hill tender and dcfencelefs. I now began to fufpcfl, that the cries and fears of b'rds fuppoibd to be fafclnated originated in an endeavour to pr> ted their neft or young. My inquiries have convinced me that this is the cafe. The rattle-fnake, which is the lazieft of all the fer- pent tribe, never moves in a fpiral manner or climbs up trees ; but the black inake, and fome other fpecies of the genus coluber, do. When impelled by hunger, and incapable of fatisfyingir by the capture of animals on the ground, they begin to glide uptrees or bufhesupon which a bird has its neft. Tlie bird is not ignorant of the fer- pent's objeift. She leaves her neft, whether it contains eggs or young ones, and endeavours to oppofe the rep- tile's progrefs. In dning this, Ihe is aduated by the ftrength of her inftindlive attachment to her eggs, or of affeflion to her young. Her cry is melancholy, her motions are tremulous. She expofes herfelf to the moft imminent danger. Sometimes Ihe approaches fo near the reptile that he feizes her as his prey. But this is far fr. m being univerfally the cafe. Often fhe compels the ferpent to leave the tree, and then returns to her neft. It is a well kflown faft, that among fome fpecies of birds, the female, at a certain period, is accuftomed to conipel the young ones to leave the neft ; that is, when the young have acquired fo much ftrength that they are no longer entitled to all her care. But they ftill claim fome of her care. Their flights are aukward, and foon broken by fatigue. They fall to the ground, where they are frequently expofed to the attacks of the ferpent, which attempts to devour them. In this fitua- tion of afFiirs, the mother will place herfelf npon a branch of a tree or bufh, in the vicinity of the ferpent. She will dart upon the ferpent, in order to prevent the deftrudion of her young: but fear, the inftinft of felf prefervation, will compel her to retire. She leaves the ferpent, however, but for a (hort time, and then returns again. Oftentimes fhe prevents the deftruiSi-n of her young, attacking the fnake with her wings, her beak, or her claws. Should the reptile fucceed in captuiing the young, the motlier is expofed to lefs danger. For, w hilrt engaged in fwallov/ing them, lie has neither in- clination nor power to feize upon the old one. But the appetite of the ferpent tribe is si eat: the capacity of tl.eir ftomachs is not le-fs fo. The danger of the mother is at hand when the young are devoured. The fnake FAY [ 31 ] FED Fayette- vilio. Javonrablc fnakefeizes upon her: and this is the caflrnphe, which crowns the tale of fafcinaiion ! FAVOURABLE Lake, in N. lat. 52. 48. W. long. 93. 10. is tlie fource of two large rivers, at the mouth of one of which, emptying into Winnipeg lake, (lands the Canadian houfe. The other is the S. W. branch of Severn river. — Morse, FAUSSE-Brayf, in fortification, an elevation of earth, aljout three feet ahove the level ground, round tlie foot of the rampart on the oulfide, defended by a parapet about four or five fathoms diftant from the up- per parapet, which parts it from the berme and the edge of the ditch. The faulfe-braye is the fame with what is otherwife called Chemin des ronJcs, and Bnjjfeen- ceinli ; and its ufs is for the defence of the ditch. FAWN, a townfiiip in York co. Pennfylvania. — Morse. FAYETTE, a fettlement in Tioga co. New- York, between the Unadilla and the main branch of the Chenengo. It is laid out into 100 lots of afquare mile each, as nearly as the ground will permit. — ib. Favette, Co. in Pennfylvania, is bounded N. by Weflmoreland, S. by part of Maryland and Virginia, and W. by Monongahcla river. It is 39 miles in length and 29 in breadth, and contains 473,280 acres ; divid- ed into 1 1 townfliips, of which Union is the chief. The number of inhabitants is 13,325, of whom 282 are flaves. — ib. Fayette, adiftriflofN. Carolina, comprehending 6 counties, viz. Moore, Cumberland, Sampfon, Rich- mond, Robelbn, and Aiifon. It is bounded N. by Hillfborough, S. E. by Wilmington and Newbern, W. by Saliibury, and S. by the ftate of S. Carolina. It is 120 miles in length, and 50 in breadth, and con- tains 34,020 inhabitants, of whom 5,678 are flaves. — ib. Fayette, a co. of Kentucky, furroundcd by Clarke, Bourbon, Scott, Franklin, Woodford, Maddifon, and Mercer counties. Chief town Lexington. — ib. FAYETTEVILLE, fo called in honor of the Mar- quis La Fayette, a Mourifliing poft town of North-Caro- lina, the feat of juflice for the above diftri(5l, and pleafant- ly lituated in Cunibeiland ce. on the W. fide of the N. W. branch of Cape Fear river, nearly at the head of navigation, and 100 miles above Wilmington, and 6l foutherly of Raleigh. On the bank of the river, ftand a few buildings and tl>e tobacco ware houfes, which have received in one feafon 6oco hhds. of tobacco, equal in quality to that of PetcrPourg. The compa(5t part of the town is fituated about a mile from the river, near the jundlion af Blount's and Crofs creek ; on which lad it is chiefly ere<5led, and from that cir- cumftance was formerly named Crofs Creek. On both fides the creek are about 400 houfes, 2 handfome edifices for the fupreme, dillriitt, and county courts, and the meetings of the town officers and its citi.^ens. The Free Mafons' lodge is alfo a large and handfome building. The town is regularly laid out, and its principal ftreets are 100 feet wide. Here are three mills, two confidcrable diftilleries and breweries, and feveral extenfive tan yards. The trade to Wilmington is very confiderable, to which it fends down tobacco, wheat, flour, beef, poik, flax-feed, hemp, cotton, butter, lumber, (laves, naval (lores, &c. The boats ufed in tranfporting thefe articles to Wilmington, con- tain about 120 barrels, and make their returns of European and India goods, &c. in from 10 to 20 days. Fear Point The fiiuation of tlie town is agreeable and healthy, !• and well adapted for eftablifiiing manufaaories. The ^^^^^ij;!^ country immediately round the town is confiderably elevated, and the foil dry and barren ; but near the water courfes, which are numerous, the foil is as rich as any in the (late. Since the fire in 1792, which dc- (Iroyed many houfes, the people begin to build wi'h brick, whicli are made here of a good quality, and fold reafonahly. The tov.-n (lands in a fettlement rf Scotch Highlanders, and is 55 miles N. W. of Camden in S. Cirohn I, 100 S. W. of Tarboroueh, 147 S. W. by S. of Halifax, 379 S. by W. of Walhington city, and 526 S. W. bv S. of Philadelphia.— ;i, FEAR POINT, Cape, at the mouth of Cape Fear river in N. Carolina, 4 miles S S. E. of the light-hcule on Bald Head. — ib. FEATHER-EDGED, is a term ufed by workmen f r fuch boards as are thicker on one edge, or fide, than on the other. FEDERALSBURG, a village in Maryland, on the E. fide of Cliefapcak bay, fitu-ited en Mirlhy Hope creek, partly in Dorcheller and partly in Caroline co. 5 miles E. N. E. of Hunting-Creek town, and about 20 N. E. of Cambridge. — Morse. FE D'ANTIOCHIA, Santa, the mod northern town of Popayan, a di(lrii5l of Terra Firma, S. .Ame- rica. It is fituated 200 miles N. of Popayan city, near the confines of the province of drthagena, on the banks of St Martha river, and near 1 80 miles S. of its conflux with the Magdalena. Thither the inhabitants removed from Antiochia, 15 leagues from it, now an inconfiderablc place, whereas Santa Fe d'-\niiochia is a confiderable place, and capital of the audience of Santa Fe. — ib. FE DE BAGOTA, Santa, the capital of Nev.-. Grenada, S. America, fituated on the bjinks of tlie lit- tle river Pati, a w.ater of the Magdalena : is 180 miles E. of the bottom of Bonaventura bay. It is an arch- bilhop's fee, and the feat of an univerlity founded by king Philip III. in 1610. Near this city are gold mines. The air is temperate and healthful, and provifions plenty. S. lat. 4. 10. W. long. 74. 5. — ib. FE, or FOY, Santa, a place in the middle of Vera- gua, a province in the audience of Guatimala, in North America, where the king ri Spain keeps ollicers for cafting and refining gold. It (l::nds at the fource of a river which runs into the North Sea. — ib. FE, Santa, the capital of New-Mexico, in N. Ame- rica. It is lituated near the fource of Rio del Nort, 130 leagues from its moutli, in the gulf of Mexico. It is faid to be a rich and regularly built city, and a bilhop's fee. Baudrand makes it 9 leagues from the river. It is alfo called Santa Fc de Grenada : by others Njw-Mexico. N. lat. 36. W. long. 104. — ib Fc, Santa, a city o( P.iragu.iy, S. Ameiic.i, 150 leagues S. by S. W. of the city of Alfumption. The in- habitants are chiefly employed iu hulbandry, grazing, and weaving cloth. They fell their proJuiflicns and manufadlures to good profit in Brazil. Frim hence is a road to Potofi in Peru, and to Corbuda in Tucuma- na ; which being eafy and convenient, is very advan- tageous to this place. The dillance not being above 350 leagues. It (lands on the W. fide of Paraguay river. S. lat. 3c. 45. W. long. 60 40 — ib. FELTING, F E L [ 32 ] F E L iVliiin;. FELTING, the mctlioJ of working up wool or "■^^^^^^ l;:4ir iiuo II kind ot cloth or lUiff, withi ut either fj)in- riing or weaving it. In this country I'elting is Utile ptaclifed except in hat iii.iking ; and hs nine-tenths of ihofe who arc employed in the manufafturing of hats know nothin;^ of tlie principles on which they proceed, the following oblervationi on the meciianifm of felting mull to tl'.em be both agrcea!)le and ufeUil. They are liy M. M 'ni^e, and taken from the Annaks i!c Chcmic. If we exdmine, in a niiciofcope, hnnian hair, wool, the Iiair of a rabbit, hare, beaver, 'cic. however great the maprifying power ot the inltiument i;iay be, the llirface of each hair appears pcrie>flly fmooth and even ; or at leall, it any inequalities are to be perceived, they Teem rather to arile from tome diH'cr ence in the colour and tranfparency of particular parts of thefe fubrtances than from the irregularity of their I'urfaces ; for their image, when viewed by a Iblar microl'cope, is termina- ted by even lines, without any roughnefs. The fur- face of thefe obj.'fts, however, is by no means fmooth; on the contrary, it appears to be formed either of la- mella: which cover each other from the root to the p<iint, pretty much in the fame manner as the fcales of a tilli cover tlie animal from the head to the tail ; or, more probably, of zones placed one over tlie other, like what is obferved in the llruifure of horns : to this con- formation it is, that the fubltances here treated of owe their difpofuion to what is called felting. If, with one hand, we take hold of a hair by the root, and draw it between two fingers of the other, from the root towards the point, we are hardly lenfible of any friftion or refiftance, nor can we dillinguilh any found ; but if, on the contrary, we hold the hair at the point, and draw it between the fingers, from the point towards the root, we are fenfible of a refiftance which did not exifl. in the former cafe ; a fort of tremulous motion is likewife produced which is not only per- ceptible to the touch, but may alfo be dillinguifhed by the ear. It is evident therefore, that the texture of the fur- face ot a hair i-, not the fame from the root towards the point as from the point towards the loot ; and that a hair, when giafped, mull offer more rcfittance in Aiding or moving progretlively towards the point than towards the root ; ;. e. in moving wiih its point foremoft If a hair, afttr being taken hold of by the fore fin- ger and thumb, he rubbed by them, in the longitudinal direction of the hair, a progretTive motion takes place, and this motion is always tuwaids the root. Tliis etfecfJ: does not at all depend on the nature of the fkin of the fingers or its texture ; for if the hair be turned, fo that the point is placed where the root was, the movement then becomes contrary to what it was before ; that is to fay, it is always dire«5ted towards tile root. What is obferved, in the above inltance, is entirely analogous to what happens when country children, by way of fport, introduce an ear of rye or barley between the wrill and the fhirt, the points of the beards of which are directed liUtwarda. By the various motions of the arm, this ear, fimetimes catching atrainft the (liirt, fometimes againll the fliin, takes a progrelfive motion backwards, and foon gets up to the armpit. It is very clear that this etr.:a is produced by the beards of the ear, and indeed chiefly by the afperities up'-.n ih-'fe beards ; which, being all directed towards the point, do not permit the ear to move in any other direflion than towards that p.irt to which it was united to the * llalk. There is no doubt that it is the fame with re- fpeifl to hair; and that its furface is befet with afperi- ties, which, being laid one upon the other, and turned towards the points, permit no motion but towards the root. A tight knot, made in the middle of a hair, is very difHcult to ui'ite by the ul'ual means, on account of the extreme thinnefs of the hair ; l)Ut it we place the hair in the bend of liie hand, fo that the knot i> in a line with the li'ile finger, and, after grafping the hair by clofing the hand, we llrike the tilt levcral times againll the knee, tiie afperities of one end of the hair being now in a contrary direction to thofe of the oilier, each ot the ends recedes a little, one of them one way, the 01 her the contrary way; the knot is thereby opened, and, by introducing a pin into tlie eye which is formed, it is very e-ify to finifh untying it. Thefe obtei vations, v.'hich it would be ufelefs to mul- tiply, relate to long hair, that having b"eii taken as an example; but they apply with equal jir^priety to wool, furs, and in general to every kind of ai.imal liair. Tlie furface of all thefe is therelbre to be conlidered as com- pofed of h ird lamelU placed one upon another, like tiles, from the root to the point; which lamdU allow the progretlive motion of the hair towards ihe root, but prevent a limilar motion towards the point. From what has been faid, it is ealy to explain why the contaifl of woolen fluffs is rough to the fkin, while that of linen or cotten cloths is fmooth ; the reafon is, the afperites upon the turface of the fibres of the wool (notwithflanding the flexibility of each particular fibre), by fixing themi'elves in the fkin, produce a difagreeable fenfation, at leaft till we are accuftomed to it ; where- as the furface of the fibres of hemp or flax, of which linen is made, being perfeiflly fmootli, do not caufe any fuch fenfation. It is alfo evident, that the injury arifing to wounds or fores, from the application of wool, does not proceed from any chemical property, but is occafion. ed folely by the conformation of the furface of the fi- bres ; the afperities of which attach themfelves to the raw and expofed flelli, which they ftimulate and irritate to fuch a degree as to produce inflammation. This conformation is the principal caufe of that dif- pofition to what is called felting, which the hair of all animals in general poffeires. The hatter, by ftriking the wool with the firing of his bow (fee Hat, Encycl.), feparates the hairs from each other, and caufes them to fpring up in the air ; the hairs fall again on the table, in all poflible direc- tions, fo as to form a layer of a certain thicknefs, and the workman covers them with a cloth, whicl. lie preffes with his hands, moving them backwards and forwards in various diredions. This preffure brings the hairs againfl each other, and multiplies their points of con- tadl ; the agitation of them gives to each hair a pro- greilive morion towards the root ; by means of this mo- tion the hairs are twilled together, and the lamclU of earh hair, by fixing thennfelves to ihofe of other hairs which happen to be direifted the contrary way, keep the whide in that compad flate which the preffure makes it acquire. In proportion as the mafs becomes compfiifl, the preffure of the hands fhould be increafed ; not only to make it more clofe, but alfo to keep up t!ic progrfcflive Feltin; F E L [ 33 1 F E R Fcltinp;. progrefTive motion anJ twifling of the hairs, which then them by means of a brufli, and tliey are made to keep '^''"^^^^^ tal<es place with greater difficulty: but throughout the this direflion by having a hot iron palTed over them, whole of this operation, the hairs fix themfelves only If the agitation were cin'.inued for a longer time, thefe to each c'.her, and not to the cloth with which they hairs, not having their flraightnefs ileltroyed by the are covered, the fibres o{ wliich, as we have alre;uiy operation before defcribeJ, would pafs entirely tlirough faid, are fmooth, and have ni^t that difpofition to felt- the felt, going out at the oppoiitc fiirface, as each iiif; wliich we h ive defcribed above. hair follows exadlly the diredlion it acquired at the be- lt may not be amifs here to explain why that hair ginning, which is intended for making liats is always cut off It is owing to the very fame circumllances vvhidi •with a Ihirp inllrument (;<lthough that canndt be done make wool and hair capable of felting, that wocllen without lofing a p.irt ot its length), and not plucked cloih is thickensd by fulling. Sec Fulling in uhis cut by the roots, as might be d 'ne after foftcning the Supplement. fkiii: the reafon is, the bulb (>f the hair, whi:b in thel.it- FER, Point au, on the W. coafl of lake Cham- ter cafe would come out with it, would render that end plain, lies in Clinton co. nearly 5 miles S. ot" the divifion which was fixed in the (kin thick and obtufe ; and it lina between New-York and Lower Canada, and 25 would confequently be lefs difpofed to introduce itielf miles S. of St. John's. The Briiilh occupied a bairack among the contiguous hairs, and to contribute by its here, furnlfhcd with one field piece, a few men, and a progrelhve motion to the conte.Kture of the mafs. fubaltern otTicer. It has been given up according to The above defcribed conformation of the furface of treaty. — Alorse. hairs and wool is not the only caufe which produces FERDINAND NARONK.\, an ifland on tl.e their dil'pofition to felting. It is not i'ufficieiu that coall of Brazil, South America, lies in S. lat. 3. 56. every hair porteifes the forememioned tendency to move W. long. 52 43 — :b. progreirivfly towards the root, and that the inclined /,;- FERGUSSON I Robert), who at an early period of fW/r, by hooking themfelves to each other, prelerve the life obtained a coiifiderable degree ol celebiity as a mafs in that (late to which conipreilion has brought it; Scottilh poet, was born at Eiinburgh on the 5th of liut it is alfo neceifary that the luirs (h'uld not be September I 750, according to a maiuifcr'pt account of ftraight, like needles ; if they were lo, preffing and rub- him with whicli we have been favoured by a relation, bing them together would merely raufe them to conti- In the biographical fketch prefixed to the Ptrtli edition nue their progreiVive motion, without changing their of his poems he is faid to h.ivc been born in 1751. direiflion : and the effcdt of thofe operations would only His father William Fergiilfon polfelfed, as well as be to make them move trom the centre of the niafs, himfelf, fome talents for poetry ; but, m.inying early, without producing any compaflnefs in it. Eveiy hair and being wifer than his fon, he abandoned the mufes mud therefore be twilled or curled in fuch a n.anner fur trade, and was employed in dilTcrent mercantile that the extremity which is towards the root maybe houfes, fii ft in Aberdeen, aud afterwards in Edinburgh, difpofed to change its direction perpetually, to twift At the time of his dcalh, he was an accountant in the itfelf about other hairs, and to ip.cliiie tow.irdi itfelf a- Biitilh linen hall, but never acquired any thing hke gain, in cafe it iliould be determined thereto by any opulence. change in the pofiiion of the reft of its length. It is During the years of infancy and childhood, the con- becaufe wool has naturally this eroded lorm that it is ftitiition c f rur poet was fo weak, that little hopes were fo proper for felting, and that it may be made ufe of entertained of his arriving at manhood. By the care, tor that purpofe without undergoing any previous pre- however, and attention of his parents, he gradually ac- paration. quired ftrength, anil at the age of fix was put to au But the hairs of the beaver, the rabbit, tlie hare, he. Enghfli fthool, where his proficiency in reading and re- being naturally ftraight, cannot be employed alone in citingwasuncommoniy great. At t)ie age ot feven liewa* felting till they have undergone a preliminary operation; fent to the highfchoolof Edinl>urgh, wheie he continued which confills in rubbing or combining them, before four years, and with very little labour made a rapid pro- they are taken oft' the Ikin, with a brufh diiiped in a fo- grefs in the knowledge of the L.itin tongue ; but for lution of mercury in aquafortis (nitric acid). This ii- fome reafon or odi?r he was removed from the high quor, ading only on one fide of the fubltance of the fchool to tlie grammar fchool of Dundee, whence, alter hairs, changes their direction from a tight line, and two years he was fcnt to the univerfity of St Andrews, gives them that difpofition to felling which wool natu- A gentleman of the n.-.me of Fergufi"on hadlcft burfaries rally pofTclfes. in that univerlity for the education of two b.>ys of the When the hairs are not intended to enter into the fame name; and Mr Willi imFergulFon having wi:h diffi- body of the mafi, but are only to be employed in mak- culty o'jtained one of them for liis f m, was induced to ing a fort of external coating, fuch as is fometimes educate him at St Andrews in preference to Edin- given to the outer fui face of hats, the operation jud burgh. mentioned need not be performed; but the felt on Though at no period of his life a fevere ftudent, our which they are to be fixed being tinilhed, the hair is poet's attainments in fcicnce were fuch as to keep alive unifoimly I'prcad uj>on the furface to which the coating in the univcifity the h ipcs which had been formed of is to be applied ; and, being covered with a cloth, it is him at fchool ; and he was conlclfedly the firll mathe- preffcd with the hands, and agitated tor a ccrt.iiii time, ma'ician of his ll.mding. On this accou n we are tol J Ey thefe means, tlie hairs introduce tliemfelvcs, by the that lie becimc the favourite of Dr Wilkic, who was root, a certiin depth in"o the felt, and are there fixed then profclfor rf natural philof(>phy in the univcifity of by their lamclU in fuch a manner as not to be calily ex- St Andrews ; but it is not improbable th.it the Do,5lor trailed. A p.irticuhir dirciflion is afterwards given to valjed biiii as mach for his poetical j^enlus as for his Sup PL. Vol. II. E ikill Fer, Vmat :'tt B rcrgufToa. F E R [ 34 ] F E R Tcr^vfron. {i^,\\\ in geometry ; forWilkie was a poet liinifelf, and ^■''^"'^^^ Mr FergulTon hid already written feveral fm.iU poems wliich attraifled confidcrable notice, as well from tiie profelfors as from liis fellow-lludents. But whatever was tlie bond of union, Dr Wil'^ie patronifsd the youthful poet ; and the pjet fhewed afterwards that he WIS not urgrateful. Upon the DoiSor's death, he pub- lilhed, in the Sccttifli dialjft, a beaulitul eclogue to his inemory, in which the peculiar merits of that eccentric genius are appreciated with great judgment. See WiLKiE, in this Supplement. During the laft win:er that he refiJed in St An- drews, our poet had c<ille(fled materials for a tragedy tm the death of Sir William Wallace, and had even completed two acts of the play ; but having feen a fi- tnilar work on the fame fubjefi, he abandoned l:is de- fign ; ''becaufe (faid he to a friend) whatever 1 pub- lilh Ihall be original, and this tragedy mi^jht be conli- dered as a copy." Having finilTied his ftudies at the univerfity, he re- turned to Edinburgh without refolving on any perma- nent employmtnt. His father had defigned him lor the church ; but he was now dead, and our author turned a deaf ear to the intreaties of his mother, and of every other friend who endeavoured to perfuade him to fulfil his father's intenticn. He was then adviled to ftudy phyfic ; but he declined it, becaufe, he faid, that, when reading the defcription of difeafes, he fancied that he felt the fymptoras of them all in himfelf. To the law, however, he could not Itart the fame objeiElion ; and he began to (ludy it, but made no progrel's. At this his relation and the editor of his pi'ems exprefs no furprife ; for, according to them, it was a lludy the moil improper for him, as it could not be expeifled that a genius {•> lively would fubniit totlie drudgery ot that dry andledentary prolellion. That the law was a very in)proper profeffion for a nan of his narrow fortune is indeed true ; but wetruft that his two biographers will not conlider us as intend- ing any ofTence to them, if we embrace the prefcnt op- portunity of expofmg the folly of a very common re- mark, that a lively gtnius cannot fubmit to what is ab- furdly called a dry lludy. We might inllance different lavjyers at our own bar, who, with great poetical ta- lents in their youth, have rifcn to the fummit of their proteiFion ; but to avoid perfonal diftindions at home, we (hall take our examples from England. The genius of the late Earl oi Mansfield was at lead as lively as that of Mr Ferguifon, and if he had pleafed he could have been equally a poet ; yet he fubmitted to the drudgery ofUudying a law ilill drier than that of Scot- lind. To the fine tafte of Atterbury bifhop of Ro- chefter, and to his clalhcal compofilions both in profe ard verle, no man is a llranger who is at all converfant in Englilh literature: yet that elegant fcholar and poet, after he had rifen to tlie dignity ot Dean of Cailifle, fubmitted to the drudgery of lludying, through the medium of barbarous L.atln, the eccleliaftical law of England from the earlieft ages ; and declared, that by dint of peifeverance he came in time to relilh it as much as the (ludy of Homer and Virgil. Whatever be thought ot Milton's political principles, no man can read his controverllal writings, and entertain a doubt but that he could have fubmitted to the drudgery of llu' ■ ■ ■ ,. rng the \j.w. The truth is, and it is a truth of great Importance, FtrgulTon. that a man of real vigour ot mind may bring himfelf to ^'^^''"^^ delight in any kind of (ludy which is uleful and ho- nourable. Such men were Lord MaiisfieiJ, the Biftiop of Rochefter, and Milton; but, whether through fome radical defect in his nervous iyllem, or in conlequence of early dillipation, Mr FergulTon, with many efiimable qualities was fo utterly dcllitute of this mental vigour, that rather than fubmit to what his friends call drud- gery, he feems to have looked with a wilhful eye to fome linecure place. With this view he paid a vifit to an uncle who lived near Aberdeen, a man of great learning and in opulent circumllances, in hopei that, by his inierefl, he might be fettled in a poll fuitable to his merit : But how dehifive w'ere his hopes ! His uncle indeed received him with every mark of afFciSion ; but liis fondnel's gradually cooled, and at the end of fix months, he ordered him abruptly to leave liio houfe, without having endeavoured to procure for him any fettlement. To a mind like FergutTon's, feelingly alive, fuch treat- ment from fo near a relation, to whom he had always behaved with becoming refpeft, mud have been dread- tally galling. Stung with indignation, he returned to his mother's at Edinburgh ; and asfoon as he recovered from a fevere illntfs, brought upon him by difappoint- ment and the fatigue of his journey, he compofed two elegies; one on "The Decay of rriendlliip," and the other " Againlt Repining at Fortune," both occafion- ed by his adventure in the Nurth. How much he felt the dafiiing of his hopes, is apparent trom the following pathetic hues in the Decay of Friendlliip: But, ah! thefe youthful fportive hours are fled, Thele fcenes ct jocund mirth are now no more ; No healing flurnbers 'tend my humble bed. No friends condole the forrows of the poor. And what avails lire thoughts of former joy ? What comfort bring they in the adverie hour? Can tliey the canker-worm of care dellroy, Or brigliten fortune's difcontentcd lour ? So dellitutewas he at this period, that he fubmitted to copy papers in the comraifl'ary clerk's office, we be- lieve at fo much the Iheet ; but not liking the employ, ment, and quarrelling with the commilFary clerk depute, he foon lelt the office in difguft. Hitherto he had lived rather in obfcurity ; and hap- py had it been for him, if in that obfcurity he had been iulFered to remain : happy had it been for him, had his converfation beenlefs fafcinating, and his company lefs courted by the frolic and the gay. PotTelTing an In- exhaullible fund of wit, the belt good nature, much modelly, and great goodnefs of heart, he was viewed with affedion by all to w^hom he was known; but his powers of fong, and almofl unrivalled talents for mi- mickry, led him oftener into the company of thofe who wilhed for him merely to enliven a focial hour, than of fuch as by their virtue were inclined, and by their in- fluence were able, to procure him a competent fettle- ment for life. The confequence of this was great laxity of manners. His moral principles indeed were never corrupted, nor, as we have reafon to believe, his faitli in revelation fhaken ; but there is no dcubt but that, courted as he was by the fyren voice of pleafure, he yielded lo many temptations, and in the hours of ebtiety committed F E R C 35 3 F K R Ftrgufloii. committed adlions which, in his cooler moments, he re- ^■^"""'^^ fleiled on witii abhorrence. His conlrience was indeed frequently roiifed. Be- ing on a vllit to a friend at Haddington, and ikuntering one day near the church yard, he was accolled by a clergyman, who feemed to be no ftranger to the Icind of life which he led. Tliis judicious divine contrived to draw his attention to the (hortnefs of time, the length of eternity, death and judgment, and the awful (late that awaits the wicked in an unfeen world ; and the conver- fation made a deep impreffion on his mind. It feemed, however, to be effaced from his memory liy the diflrpa- tion of Edinburgh, till it was recalled with diuLleefFecl by the following accident : In the room adjoining to that in which he flept was a ftarling, wliich b^ing feized one night by a cat tliat had found its way down the chimney, awaked Mr Fer- guflbn by the raoft alarming fcreams. Havintr learned the caufe of the alaim, he began ferioufly to reflect how often he, an immortal and accountable being, had in the hour of intemperance fet death at defiance, though it was thus terrible in reality even to an unaccountable and finlefb creature. This brought to his reooUeiflion the converfilion of the clergyman, whicli, aided by t!ie folemnity of midnight, wrought his mind up to a pitch of remorfe that almoft bordered on frantic defpair. Sleep now forfook his eyelids ; and he rofe in the morn- ing, not as lie had formerly done, to mis again with the Ibcial and the gay, but to be a recliife from fociety, and to allow the remembrance of his pad follies to prey upon his vitals. All his vivacity now forfook him ; thofe lips which were formed to give delight, were clo- fed as by the hand c f death ; and " on his countenance fat horror plum'd."' From this ftate of gloomy defpondency, however, he began gradually to recover ; and, except that a fettled melancholy was vifible in his countenance, his health was completely reflored, when one evening he fell at; J cut his head Co dreadl'uUy, that from the lofs of blood he became delirious. In this deplorable ftate he conti- nued (or frveral months, till, being C|uite exhaufted by want of fleep and conftant fpeaking, he expired on the l6th of Oilober 1774. He was interred in the Ca- nougate church yard, where his friends eredled a mo- nument to his memory, which has been fince removed to mike way for a larger and more elegant monument by his enthufiaftic admirer the late poet Bvrns. Thus died Robert Ferguff >n, a young m^n of the brightell genius and of the bell l)eart, who, had he joined prudence to his uncommon talents, muil have rifen to great eminence in the republic i)t letters ; but, as a late juvenile poet has obfcrvcd of him Complete alike in head and heart, But wanting in the prudent part^ He prov'd a poet's lot. Of his poems no gcner.il charaflcr can be given. The fubj-(ftsot them are Ibmetimes uncommon and gen -rally local or temporary. They arc o( courfe very unequ.il. But fuch of them as are in the Scottifh di.ile^^ have been univerfally admired by his countrymen ; and when it isconfidcred that they wcrecomp .fed amid II a round of dilllpation, they will bt. allowed to furnilh complete evidence of his genius and his talle. FERMANAGH, atownfliipin Mifflin co. Pennf) 1- reTiuMigli vania — Morse. U FERMAT (Peter), who was counfellor of the par- remiei.ta* liament of Touloufe in France, flouiiflied in the 17th y^i^^^^i;^ century, and died in 1663. Fie was a man of great talents, and a very general fcliolar ; but being con- temporary and intimately conneded with Des Cartes, Meifenne, Torricelli, and Huygens, he was naturally- led to devote much of his time to the mathematicr.l fciciices. He was (fays Dr Hutton) a fit (I rate mathe- matician, and polfeircd the fir.ell tafte for pure and ge- nuine geometry, whicli he contributed greatly to im- prove, as well as algebra. Fermat was author of, i. A Method for the Qui. draiure of all forts of parabolas. — 2. Another on Mixi. mums and Minimums: which ferves not only for the determination of plane and folid problems, but alfo for drawing tangents to curve lines, finding the centres of gravity in folids, and the refolution ofqueftions con- cerning nun, bers: in Ilioit, a method very fimdarto the fluxions of Newton. — 3. An Introduilicn to Geome- tric Loci, plxne and folid — 4. A Treatife on Spheri- cal Tangencies: where lie demonftiates in the Solids, the lame thingb as Vieta demonftrated in planes. — 5. A Reftoration of Apolloniu^'s two books on Plane Loci. — 6. A General Metlir.d f )r tlie dimenfion of Curve Lines. Befides a number of other fmaller pieces and many letters to learned men ; feveralof which are to be found in his O/frd Faria Mjtkani.t>:<i, printed at Touloufe, in folio, 16-1). FERMENTATION is a chemical procefs which has been alieady confidered in the Encyelopadia, and will be again refumed in this Supplementundtr the title Animal and Vegetable SvsitANCf.s. In this pljce we mean nothing mure than to give fuch dircdlions, prin- cipally from Mr Richardfon of Hull, for t)ie proper fer- mentation of malt liquors as have not been fully detail- ed in the article Brewing (Encycl.) This author controverts, we do not think very fuc- cefstully, the conclafioni drawn by Mr Henry from the experiments, of whicli the reader will find an account in the article Fermentation (j^nyc/.); but it is not his theory with which we are at prefent concerned, but his praifiice as that of an experienced and enlightened brewer. Having treated of U'orli, and the proper me- thod of boiling them, for which fee Woar in ih'n S'lp- pUment, and having given an hillorical view of the pro- cefs ol fermentation, of which a pretty accurate abridge- ment is inferted in the articles Brewing and Flr- MENTATiON {Encycl.), lie procceds thus : " The agency oi air, in the bufinefs of fermentation, is very powerful ; but as all fcrment.dile rubje>.Ts have an abundant fiipplv, we are rather to provide ior the egrcfs of their own, than to fuflfci t!ie admidir'n of the exter- nal air, by which a great number of the fine, volatile, oleaginous parts of the fubjtifl would be carried < (f, and A proportion.ite injury in flavour and fpiriluofuy fuflained. Hence fuch a coveting fliould be provided (or the gyle-tun as would barely allow the efcape of the common air produced by the operation ; whiltl vhegas, or fixed air, (rem its greater denfity, rciling upon the furface of the beer the wliole depth of the curb, pre- vents the aflion of flie external air, and conlequently the cfcapc of thofe fine and valuable parts jull m:n- tionej. E 2 « Bui FEZ C 36 ] FEZ FcTTOrnti- tion Frtzan. But tovvarv's the conclufion of vinous fermentation, this aerial covering beciinb to lole its efficiioy ; wliich points out the necelFiiy of then getting the beer into ' calks as foon as polFible, that the confcqiiences may be prevented, of expiling fo large a furface, liable to fo copious an evaporation. Am; nj;ft theie, a lola ot Ipi- lituofity is not the leall ; fnr this evajioration is more and more fpirituous as the aclion apprcaches the coin- p.ction of vinous fermentation ; and that once obtained, tlie lofs becomes itill mo^e conliderable, if llill expofeJ to the air j whence it migiit be termed tlie dillillation of Nature, in which fl>e is fo much fuperior to art, tliat the etheital fpirit rifes pure and unmixed, ufhilft the hic»liell reftification of the tlill produces at beft but a compound of aquecus and fpirituous p irts. " Nor is this entirely conicfture. Experience teach- es us, that we cannot produce fo rtrong a beer infum- iner, ceteris paribus, as in winter ; the reafon is, not be- caufe the ailion of fermentation does not realize fo much Ipirit in warm weather, but bccaufe the fermenting li- quor, after the perfei5lit.n of vinofuy, continues fo long in a fl^te of rarefa(ftion, that the fpirituous parts are diffipated in a much greater degree at that time than at any other, in a limilar ILue of progrellidn. And this dodrine of natural diftiUation feems to account for that increafe of ftrength obtainable from long prefervation, in well clofed cilks, and, more particularly fo, inglafs bottles; tor Nature, in her etforts to l)iing about her 5;rand purpofe of relolving every compound into its firft principles, keeps up a perpetual internal ftiuggle, as well as an external evaporation ; and it the Utter be ef- feclually prevented, the former mull he produiflive of additional fpirituofiiy, fo long as the ailion keeps wiih- in the pale of vinous termentatlon. " In order to maintain a due regulation of the fer- menting power, and to anfwerthe feveral purpofes of tiie operation, a fcrupulous attention to the degree of heat at which the aflion commence?, and a particular regard to tiie quality and quantity of the ferment employed, ;ire indiipeufably nectllary." The degree (f heat muft he afcertained by the thermometer, and regulated by experience: the quantity of yeaft can be afcertained only by the intention ( f the attift ; but ci the quality of that fubllance we (hall treat under Yeast in this Supplement. I'ERRISBURGH, atownfliip in Addifon co. Ver- mont, on lake Champlain. It contains 481 inhabit- ants. Otter creek, L.ittle Otter and Lewis's creeks l.iU into the lake here. The mouth (.f Otter creek lies in N. lat. 44. II. 45. W. long. 73. 9. 47. — Morse. FEZZAN is a kingdom in the interior of Africa, jilaced in the vafl wildernefs as an illand in the ocean. The following account of it was given to Mr Lucas liie African traveller by a:i old (liereef, a native of Fez- yan ; and that account was confirmed by the governor j.f Mefurata, who had himfelf villted Fezzan, and who, liaviog treated the traveller with great kindnefs, ought jiot to be lufpeiSted of having wantonly deceived him. According to this account, Fezzan is fituated to the fouth of Mefurata (feeMESURATA in ih'ti Siipf)/.), and the traveller from the latter place to the former arrives in eight days at Wadan, where refrelhrnents are procu- red for the caravan. From thence in five hours they reach tlie defart of Soudah, where no vegetable is feen to grow but the talk, a tree ftom which the lemon co- loured wood is taken which forms handles for tools. The palfage of the defart takes up fome days, when ^ the traveller finds a miterable village, producing no- thing but dates, brackilh water, and Indian corn ; from this village a day's journey condufls to the town of Sebbah, where are the remains of an ancient calcic, and other venerable ruins, and in four days more he reach- es Mourzouk, tlie capital of Fezzan. This city is fituated on the banks of a fmall river, furrounded by a high wall for defence, and is diftann from Mefurata 390 computed miles. Eallward of Mourzouk is the town ot Quecla, in whicii are the re- mains of ancient buildings ; the fize of the ciderns, and the conltrudlion of the vaulted caves, exhibit inllances of ancient fplendor. South of vvhicli place is Jermah, dillinguilbed by numerous and majeflic ruins, on which are many iufcriptions. Teiiouwa lies eafiward, near which was a river which the fherecf remembers, but is now overwhelmed in the moving fands. N. E. from Mourzouk, diftant about I30 miles, is the large tiwn of Temmifwa, where the caravans of pil.;iims from Bornou and Nigritia, by way of Cairo to Mecca, pro- vide their lloresforthe defart. In the town or province of Mcndrah is a large quan- tity of iroua, a fpecies of foflil alkali, that fhiats on the furface or fettles on the banks ot its fpreading lakes, great quantity of which is fent to Tripoli, and (hipped For Turkey, Tunis, and Morocco : at tie latter place it is ufed as an ingredient in the red dye of the leather. Mendrah is about 60 miles fou(h of Fezzan. The ter- ritory of Fezzan extends but little weflward, being confined by barren mountains. The Imaller towns of this kingdom are faid to be about one hundred ; thefe towns are chiefly inhabited by hufbandmen and lliep- herds ; in every town a market is regularly held ; mut- ton and goat's fleih are f ild by the quarter, ufunlly from thirty-two to forty grains of gold, or from four to five iliillings Englifh. The flefh of camels is dearer, and di- vided into Imnller parts. The houles are of clay, with flat roofs compofed of branches of tiec;, on which earth is laid ; this isfufB- cient in a climate where it never rains. The heats in I'ummer, fiom April to November, are intenfe, and the hot winds blow from the iouth-eaft, fouth, and fbuth- weft ; vifith fuch violence as to threaten fuflfocation ; when it changes to the well or north-weft a reviving frefhnefs enfues. The dref's of the inhabitants is like that of the Moors of Barbary, confifting of a large pair of trowfers, a Ihirt which hangs over the trowfers, a kind of waiilcoat without (leeves, and a jacket with tight fleeves ; over the jacket is a loofe robe which reaches below the knee, a girdle of crimfon, and a long cloth called a barakon or alhaicque, like a highland plaid, is worn ; (lockings of leather, laced like half boots, and flippers; on the head a red cap and turban ; fometimes over the whole tiiey throw a long cloak with a hood, called a bur- noofe. In fummer they throw off all but the ftiirt and the cap. The people bear very high degrees of heat, but any- cold afjre<5ls them fenfibly. Their difeafes are chiefly of the inflammatory and putrid kind ; the fmall pox is common, l^heir old women are their principal phyfi- cians. For pains in the head they cup and bleed ; for thofe in the limbs, they bathe in the hot lakes. They have Fetzan. FEZ C zi ] F I G Fciian. have a naltkude of noxious and loathfome animals; '^^^'^'"^ ll'.e air is crowded with mofquitos, and their perfons are over-run with the vermin which afFedl the beggars of Europe. In tlicir perfi ns ihcy incline to the negro, of a deep fwarthy c-'mpierinn, with curly black hair; tliey are tall, but indolent, inadive, and weak. In their com- mon intercourfe, dillindion of rank fcems to be for- gotten ; rich and poor, malterand man, converfe, eat, and drink, together; they aie, however, generous and liofpitable. An extenfive plain compofes the kingdom of Fezzan : the foil is generally a light fand, the fprings are abun- dant, and few regions in Africa exhibit a richer vege- tation. The lanil produces the talk, the white ihorn, date trees, the olive and lime, apricot, pomegranate, and fig : In-liin corn and barley are the favourite ob- je<fls of cultiv.ition, i f wheat there is little raifed. The tame animal-, are, the flieep, cow, goat, and camel ; and the wild are, the oftricii, antelopes ot various kinds, one of which is called the huadee, which when chafed plunges with addrefs from a precipice, and lights on its hams. The food of the lower clafs confifts of flour of In- dian corn, fcafoned with oil and fruit ; thofs of fuperior rank eat wheat bread and flcfli. Fez/an produces much fall ; the water has in general a mineral tafte, but the favourite beverage is a liqu"'r from the date tree, which acquires, when fermented, an intoxicating ftrength. In religion they are rigid Mahomedan;', but tolerant. Their government monarchical ; their prefcnt king i5 defcended from one of the fhereefs of TaiElet, who about 400 years fince obtained the crown. Till the prefent century the kingdom vuas independent, when the Bafliaw of Tripoli conquered and made It tributary ; the reigning fovereign has nearly thrown off this yoke. In Fezzan, the defcendants of the prophet are highly privileged, their property and perfons are inviolable ; they are exempt from certain punilhments. This clafs are in general either princes or merchants. The revenue is compofed of a tax on towns and vil- lages, a tax on every camel load ot goods (except pro- vifions) which enters the capital, fines for offences, Ijnds of perfons dying without heirs, and a tax on gar- dens and date trees. Gold duft by weight is the chief inedlum of payment ; but for convenience they are fur- rifhed with fmall papers of gold daft of different va- lues, from two xarbes or one and a half upwards; for Imallcr articles corn or flour are u!ed as a medium. One grain of gold is equal to lid. fterling. The Fez- zan grain is the fame a> in England. The juftice of the fovereign is highly extolled ; fmall f'ffenccs are punlfhed by the baftinado, and the punilh- ments increafe to fine, impt ifonmcnt, and death. Troll- ing to their natural defence, their towns are with lut guard, and they have no ftanding forces. The only war the flierecf remqmbered was undertaken againll a people inhabiting the mountains of Tibefti, which is Jeparated from llie people of Fezzan by a wide and fandy defart. Thefe people are wild and favage, and had plundered a caravan belonging to the king, who Cent an army of between 3 and 4003 men agalnll and fubdued them. The country of thefe penple produce* much fenna. The vales ot Tibclli aie laid to be fertile in corn and pallure for cattle, p.irticularly camels. The people live In huts, and profefs various religions, Fezzan fome the M..hon;edan, others are attached to their an- ii clent idolatry. Figuratc._ The people of Fezzan carry on a confiderable trade with Tripoli, Bornou, Nigrltia, &c. At the end <,f October, when the heals are abated, the caravans de- part from Mourzouk In I'mall parties of ten or twelve, unlefs in time of war. They lay in provilions of date?, nieal, and mutton f.ilted, dried in the fun, and boiled in oil or fat. The merchants have agents in the chief towns, to whom they fend the flavcs they purchafe. The caravans to Tripi li carry the trona, f^-nna, grid and flaves brnugl.t from tliefouihern countries; and in return bring back cutlery, woollen, filk;, dollars, cop- per, and brafs. That to Born u cirries brafs and copper, for the currency of the country, imperi-il dollars, and various manul'ai^ures , but of their own produce only a prepa- ration of dates, and mtal of Indian corn, and they take in return fl.ivcs, gold duft, and civet. To Cifhna, an empire in Nigritia, they carry cow- ries, brafs to make rings and bracelet^, horfes, feveril kinds of manufadlures, and the Gooroo nuts ; and in return take gold dull. Haves, cotton cloth, dyed goa^s fkins, hides, fenna, and civet, for the countries fouth tpf the Niger, where alfo they convey fabre blades and Dutch knives, coral, brafs beads, looking glaffts, dol- lars, &c. and receive back gold dull, flaves, cotton cloths, goatfkins, Gooroo nuts, cowrie^, and ivory. A caravan of pilgrims fets out likewife in the au- tumn of every fecond and third year from Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan, to Mecca. They proceed to Temefia, over the mountain of Zlltan, and thence to Sibbul, a place fubjeft to Tiipoli ; and thence nearly In a line with the Mediterranean fea to Cairo, and thence to Mecca by the cu.Iomary route. As not one ccleili.il obfcrva'.Ion has been taken to determine any latitude between Benin and Triorll, all the pofitions are fised by eflimation, reckoning; fifteen cr lixteen miles for a day's journey. Mr Renndl places Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan, in lat. 27°. 20', or 260 ra'les from Mafurata. FIDLERS EWozl; a bend of Wood creek, between the outlet of South bay and the mouth ci the creek, at the northern end of lake Champlain, cppofite the mouth of Eaft bay. The mouth of Wood creek lies in N. lat. 43. 32. W. long. 73. 15. 12 Morse. FIGURATE Numbers arc fuch as do or may re- prefent fome geometrical figuic, fnch as a triangle, pentagon, or pyraniid, 5;c. Thele numbers are treated of at great length by Maclaurin in his Fluxiins ; Simp- f>a in h'S Algebra; and Milcoim in his Arithmetic; hut the following account of th-.m by Dr Hutton is as perfpicuous as any that we liave feen : Figurate numbers are diftlngullhcd into order:, ac- cording to thtir place in the fcale of their gencratim , being all produced one from another, viz. by addinij continually the terms of any one, the fucceliive funis are the terms < f the neit order, beginning from the firit order, which is that of equal units I, i, i, 1, fee. ; tiien the 2d order confilh of llie fiiccefllv- fums of thofe of ihe lit order, forming ihe arithmetical progrclfion i, 2, 3, 4, &c. ; thole c^t the jd order are the fucceliive fums of ihofe of the ad, and are the triangular num- bers 1 1 3, 6, 10, 15, ie. ; ihofc of the 4ih order are TO'; i *^ 1 V I G C 5S fi-.irate the fucceffive foms of tliofe of tlie 3d, ind arc the py- ^^^JJl^Jl^ ramia.il numbers i, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c. and lb on, as below : Oro'fr. Name. Nutnhers I. Equals. I, I, I, I, I. kc. 2. Arithnieticals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. &c. 3. Triangular?, ii 3> 6, 10, 15. &c. 4. PyramidaU, I, 4, 10, 20, 55' &c. 5. 2J Pyramidals, 1, 5, 15, 35, 70. &c. 6. 3J Pyramidals, 1, 6, 21, 56, 126, &c. 7. 4th Pyramidals, I, 7, 28, 84, 210, &c. ] F I L dividing the prnuuifis 1X2, 2x3. 3 X4i 4X5, &c. each by the firft prod. 1X2; the firll pyramids by di- viding the prodiKls 1x2X3. 2X3X4. 3X4X5, &c. by tlie firft I X 2 X 3- And, in general, the figu- rate numbers of any order n, are fiund by fulillituting fucceflivcly I, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. inflead of x- in this general X . .V + I . X + 2 . X + 3 . &c. exprcOion where tlic The above are all conlidered as difFerent forts of tri- angular numbers, being formed from an arithmetical progreffion wliofe common difference is I. But it tliat commou difference be 2, the fuccefflve fums will be the feries of fqiiare numbers : if it be 3, the feries will be pentagonal numbers, or pentagons ; if it be 4, the feries will be hexagonal numbers, or liexagons ; and fo on. Thus : Arithm:- I ft Sinus, or 2d Slims, or ticnls. Po/ysroni . 2d Polygons. I. 2, 3, 4, Tri. I, 3, 6, 10 I, 4, 10, 20 I. 3- 5. 7. Sqrs. I, 4, 9, 16 I. 5. H. 30 ', 4. 7. 'o. Pent. 1, 5, 12, 22 I, 6, 18, 40 I. 5' 9> '3» Hex. I, 6, 15, 28 I, 7, 22, 50 &c. And the reafon of the names triangles, fquares, pen- tagons, hexagon-, &c. is, that thofe numbers may be placed in the form of thefe regular figures or polygons, as here below : Triangles. 136 10 o u o o Squares. 9 16 Pintagons 5 J2 e o o o Hexagons, o o o 15 o o o 0^0 But the figurate numbers of any order mny alio be found without computing thofe cf the preceding or- ders; which is done by taking the fucceilive produ<Ss of as many of the terms of the arithmeticals I, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. in their natural order, as there are units in the nuniber which denominates the order of figurates re- quired, and dividing thofe produifls always by the firft produft. Thus the triangular numbers are found by 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . &c. faiflors in the numerator and denominator are fuppofed to be multiplied together, and to be continued tdl tlje number in each be lefs by i than that which exprellis the order of the figurates required. FILTER (See EmycL). It is well known that vefl'els made of a particular kind of porous flene are employed as filtering bafins for freeing viater, intended to be diunk, from various kinds of impurity. In fea voyages fuch filtering bafins muft be hi^^hly ufeful ; and they are frequently found ufeful at land where no water can be had but from ffagnant pools, or fprings flowing through cky. The ftone, however, of which they are made is not every where to be found ; and therefore different perfons have endeavoured to employ the art of the potter to fupply their place. In the year 1790 a patent was granted to a female potter, for her invention of the following compofition for this purpofe ; viz. four equal parts, out of nine equal parts, of tobacco-pipe clay ; and five equal parts, out of nine equal parts, of coarfe fea, river, drift, or pit fand ; thefe two material?, in the above proportions, are fufficient for tlie purpofe of making fmall bafins, and other vcffels, to contain a quantity not exceeding one gallon cf water, or other liquid. But tlie compo- fition, when confined to thele two materials, and in thefe proportions, often flies or cracks in the fire, if larger balins, or other vefTels, are attempted to be made with it. She, therefore, in the fecond inrtance, com- pofes her filtering bafins of equal parts of tobacco-pipe clay and coarfe fea, river, drift, or pit land ; in the third inrtance, of three equal parts, out of nine equal parts, of tobacco-pipe clay ; one equal part, out of nine equal parts, of Stourbridge clay, or clay from the fur- face of coal-mines, or any other clay of the fame quali- ty ; one equal part, out of nine equal parts, of Windfor, or other loam, of the fame quality with Windfor loam ; and four equal parts, out of nine equal parts, of coarfe river, fea, drift, or pit fand. Or, in the fourth in- flance, of four equal parts, out of eight equal parts, of tobacco-pipe clay ; three equal parts, out of eight equal parts, of coarfe fea, river, drift, or pit fand ; and one equal part, out of eight equal parts, of that burnt ground clay of which crucibles are made. If the lady who invented, or pretends to have in- vented, thefe bafins, have a right to her patent, far be it from us to wifh our readers of any defcription to in- croach upon it ; but as the ufe of the materials of which her bafins are made was known to potters before fiie was born, they may certainly compound thefe materials in proportions different from hers, without doing her any legal injury. As fhe vaiies her own proportions fo much, we think it probable that fome proportion differing a little from them all, may anfwer the purpofe of filtering vefTels equally well ; and it is almoft need- lefs to add, that with this precaution any potter may make fuch vefTels, for which he would undoubtedly have a great demand. A patent yiltcr. F I L [ 39 ] F I L Filter. A patent has likewlfe been granted to Mr Jolhua ^^^^~>^ Collier of Southwark for a very ingenious contrivance for tilterinc anJ fweetening water, oil, and all other liquids. Of this contrivance, wiiich combiries the ap- plication of machinery wi[h tlie anliieptic propeilies of charcoal (See CwtMisTRy N' 34. SuppUmirU), we fhall give a detailed account. Filh oil is one of the liquids which he had it parti- cularly in view to free trom all its imparities in fmell, tafte, and colour ; and the chemical procefs employed by him for this purpole conlills in [>ouring a quantity of any fpecies of tilh oil, or a mixture of different forts of filh til, into any convenient velftl, which is to be heated to the temperature of no or 120 degrees of Fahrenheit's fcale, and then adding of cauftic mineral alkali, of the fpecilic gravity commonly defcribed as i.zj, or of fuch ftrength that a phial containing 1000 grains of diftiUed water will cc^ntain 1250 grains of thefe lees, a quantity equal to four parts of the 100 by weight of the quantity of oil; the mixture is then to be agitated, and left to (land a fufEcient time for the falts and fediments to fubfide ; it is then drawn ofF into another vellel, containing a fufRcient quantity of frifli burnt charcoal, finely po\7dcred, or any other fub- ftance poffeffing antifeptic properties, in a powdered or divided (late, with an addition of a fmall proportion of diluted fulph.uric acid, fufScient only to decompofe the fmall quantity of faponaceous matter (till fufpended in the nil, which appears by the oil becoming clear at the furface : the contents of this veifel are alfo agitated, and the coaly faline and aqueous particles left to fubfide ; after which the oil is palfed through proper Itrainers, herein after defcribed, and is thereby rendered perfect- ly tranfparent and fit for ufe. The piinciple of the improved flrainerSj or filtering machines, confids in the means applied to combine hy- droflatic prelTure, which increafes according to the per- pendicnlar height of the fluid, with the mode of filter- ing p!r afcciifum, thereby procuring the new and pecu- liar advantage that the Huid and its feJiment take op- pofite direftions. A great advantage attending this invention is, that the dimenfions of the chamber in which the fediment is received, may be varied, while the filtering furface remain•^ the fame. To adapt the ma- chines Uit only to the purpofe of familes, work-houfes, hofpitals, public charities, the navy, or the merchant fcrvice, but alfo to all the purpofes of oil-men, of dillil- lers, of the laboratory, the brewery, &c. chambers of various capacities mull be provided for the fediment and precipitated matter. With refpeifl to tlie oil. trade, the fpa<:e required is very great, efpecially for fperma- ceti, or Brnfil bottoms. In the various purpofes of the laboratory, no hmits can be fi;;cd, but all dimen- fions will be occafionally required: in dillillerics and breweries they may be fmaller in proportion; and in that dcfigned for water and for donielllc ufe, a very fmall chamber will be fuflicient. When water is to be fweetened, or freed fioni any putrid or noxious par- ticles, it palTes, in its way to the filtering chamber, through an iron-box, or cylinder, containing charcoal finely powdered, or any other antifeptic fubllance info- luble in water, the water being forced into it by hy- drottatic prclfure, through a tube of any fuflicient height. Tliis box lias two aperttires to receive ai.J de- iiver the fluid, and thefe arc opened and ciofed by cocks, or icrewf, or any other method ufed for fuch putpofe;. Filter and being aifixed to the machine by other fcrews, may ^-'^^'"^ be cafily detached from the fame. Thus, whenever the charcoal begins to lofe its antifeptic properties, the box is removed and heated till it is red hot; by which means the foreign matter efcapes through the fmall apertures, after which the bcx i, cooled, and the char- coal becomes Iweel, pure, and equally iit fjr ufe as at firll, though the procefs be ever fo often repealed. Another part of the invention confill? in filterin-.; machines in the form of (lills, in which charcoal may be repeatedly burned after any fluid fubllances have paiFed through it, for the purpofe of freeing them ci- ther from putrid or noxious particles, or of difchartiini; their colouring matter ; wiiich filtering ftills are fo cr.n- trived, that the fluid may pafs through in any quanti- ty, without dilpiacin » the charcoal : the part of the fluid remaining iiiterfpcried among the cliarcoal, may be driven over by heat, and be employed for many in- ferior purpofes of the arts f r manufactures. Lallly, the heat may be raifed fo as to purify the charcoil, as has been before dcfcnbid in the machines for water. The flue of thofc llills is fo conllructed that water may be employed to cool them without the Icfs of time re- quilite for their gradually parting with their heat tJ the furroundmg aimufphere, fo as to be fit for a fubk- quent operation. But it wua not merely to the purifying of oils and various liquids that Mr CoUier turn-d his attention. To his filtering apparatus are attached inftruments fir afcei tdining the comparati\ e qualities of oils, which de- pend in part on the principle of tlieir fpecific gravities ; fpermaceti oil, concralted with other filh oils, being as 875 to 920. For this purpofe, a glafs veiTel of any- convenient fliape, is made ufe of, furnilhed with a bubble alfo of glafs, and a thermometer. If the oil is pure, this bubble finks, when the mercury rifes to a certain llandard, by the application of the hand, or any other heat to the veli'el containing the oil. If the fpermaceti oil is impure, the bubble will Hill float, though it is of the temperature required ; and the de- gree of impure, or foreign matter, will be (hewn by the Itate of the thermometer at wliich the bubble finks. To determine what tendency oils ufed for burning have to congeal in cold weathei, a frte/ing mixture is put in a phial of thin glafs, or any otlier convenient vellel ; into this a thermometer is immcrfed, and a linsjle drop of the oil, under exjieriment, fuftered to fall on the outfide of the vclfcl, where it immediately con- geals ; as the cold produced by th.e mixture gradually ceafes, it is eafy to obfcrve by the thermometer at what point of temperature tlie oil becomes fluid, and runs down the lide ot the glals. A Ihott defcription of this apparatu"; will make its Plote principles plain to every reader. A {i\^- i.) is the ^^*"' tiltern, into which tlic wattr or other liquor to be fil- tered is put. b B is a tube opening into the bottom of the cii'tern A, and bent along the bi>tt(.m of the ma- chine conveying the fluid into C C C the filieriig chamber winch is covered with leather b.nind down round its circular rim, and through wliich leather the water is percolated. D D, The baton rifini; above the level of the chamber and receiving the filtered li- quor. E, The fpout by which it runs oif into a pitch- er or other vditl. F, Another fpcu: luimiiied with ;i co«.k F I R. [ 40 ] F I R Filter ccict to draw off the foul water from the chamber v/hen In tlic nineteenth nnmber cf Mr Nicholfon's Journal of I' nccsU'ry. G G G, Tl e air tube, which begins above PhilofL'phj-, Clieniilby, ;incl the Arts, we have the fol- ' ^^^^^,^ the l.'vel of the chamber, is covered with a button, lowing compoiiticn tc-i exlinguinii.ig fire, ir^vented by which favcs the leather from bfine; ciit, and has a fnull M. Von A ken. lateral aperture tnr the air to be carried off. This Burnt Alum - . pounds 30 pipe palTv:s alcng the bottom and up the fide, and ri- ~ Zing above the level of the water in the cillern, is there clofed, except a fmall lateial aperture thiough which the air efcapes. H, A guard or rim wiih crofs bars put over the leather to keep it from being forced up rire. Green vitriul powdered - - 40 Cinabrefe or red ochre in powder - 20 Potter's clay, or other ilay, alfo powdered 200 Witer, .... 630 With 40 meafurcs of this mixture an artificial Hre by the wa;er. It is fallened down by means of two was extinguifhcd under the dircflion of the inventor notches on oj-polite fides of the guard, by which it by three perfons, which would have required the labour locks into two llaples rivetted into the bottom of the of 20 men, and 1500 meafures of common water. Si^. i.-afon. I, the lid Aiding down to cover the water I'lbbroni was commifiii ned to examine the value of from dull, and fufpended at pleafure by means of this invention, and found, in his comparative trials with K K, two fprings on each lube for that putpofe. L M engines of equal power, worked by the fime number ct" N O, A cylindrical box containing charcoal, which men, that the mixture exti'guilhed the materials in is conuefled with the above by means of the tube P, cnmbuflion in one fixth part lefs time, and three eighths and a continuation of the tube B. L M, The water lefs of fluid than when common water was nfed. He ob- tube B continued below the charcoal apparatus, fo that ferved, as might indeed have been imagined from the na- the fluid may pafs through the fame int" the cylinder, ture of the material, that the flame difappeared where- from whence it enters the chambers at P, fo as to be ever the mixture fell, and that the faline, metallic, filtered through the leather as before defcribed. R R, and earthy matters firmed an impenetrable lute round Cullais which may be unlcrewed at pleafuie, fo as to the hot combuftible matter, which prevented the accefs detach the charcoal apparatus whenever the charcoal of the air, and confequenlly the renewal of the deftruc- requires to be purified by heat. S S, Two cocks to live procefs. direfl the fluid through the charcoal cylinder or in.me- This recipe, Mr Nicholfon informs us, is taken fiom diately into the filtering chamber. the 85th N" of the Giornale Lettcrario di Napoli, in Fig. 2. A, A tub or cillern, containing the oil to be which it was inferted in the form of a letter from Sig. filtered, and fupplying a tube of fuflicient height tor Fdbbroni to Sig. D. Luigi Targioni of Naples ; and the hydrodatic preffure to operate. B B, A main the author of the letter eftimates the price of the corn- tube of wood, tin, leather, or cloth, to which any pofition at about one halfpenny per pound, number of bags, of the fize and fhape of corn facks, or The reafon aOlgned by Mr Nicholfon for giving this any C C convenient fize or fhape may be conneded. abridged account a place in his valuable work-, will be Thefe are bound to D D D, flraight double iron admitted by him and the public as a fufficient reafon for bars, furniflied with a hinge at one end and a fcrew at our adopting it into our's. It is, that fuch inventions the other, by opening which the bags may be emptied, are worthy of the attention of philofophers and econo- F, A trough underneath, made to receive the filtered mids, even though in the firft applications thty may oil from the receivers E E E. prove lefs advantageous than their inventors m.iy be Fig. 3. A, A funnel caflc or ciflern, into which the difpofed to think. It is fcarcely probable that this fluid is put which partes down. B, A tube fitted into praftice in the large way, with .tu engine throwing up- the fame, through which it enters. C, An iron ftill, wards of 200 gallons (value about L. 3, i05.)each mi- or ftiU of any other fvibltance capable of fuftaining heat, nute, would be thought of or adopted, or that a fuf. full of finely powdered and fifted charcoal, through ficient ftore of the materials would be kept in readi- the head of which the fluid paiTes into any receiver, nefs ; fince at this rate the expenditure for an hour D, A f.re place of any conftruflion to drive over the would demand provifion to the amount of L. 210 fluid remaining interfperfed among the charcoal, and fterling. But in country places the proceA, or fome alfo to purify the charcoal by an increafe of temperature variation of it, might be applied with fufficient profit when required. E, A cock to let water into the flues in tlie refult, more efpecially if it be confidered that to cool the apparatus for a fubfequent operation. common fa't or alum, or fuch f.iline matter as can be Fig. 4. The trial gl ifs vrith its thermometer. had and mixed with the water, together with clay, FINCASTLE, a pod town in Virginia, and capital chalk, or lime, oclireou'! earth or common mud, or even of Botetourt co. fituated on the E. fide of Catabaw thefe lafl without any frit, may anfwer the purpote of creek, a fmall dream which falls into James river, on the lute with more or lefs eflfeiS, and extinguifh an ac- the V/. fide of the North Mountain. Here are about cidencal fire with much greater fpeed and certainty 50 hrufes, a court-houfe and gaol. It lies on the pod than clear water would do. road from Richmond to Kentucky, 36 miles e.iderly of FiRt.-BdUs are meteors, of which fome account has Lexington, and 192 W. by N. of Richmond. — Morse, been given in the Encyclopedia, us well as of various FINDLEY, a lowndiip in Wafliirgton co. Penn- hypothefes which have been framed refpefling their na- fylvania. — Ih. ture and their origin. Since that article was publifhed, FIRE. See that article Encycl. and CAt.oRic and a new and very Angular hypoihcfis has been framed by Combustion, CuEMisTRr InJex in this Sup^l. Profefijr Chladni of Wittenberg, who maintains it by Extinction of FIRE is fometimes a matter of {o arguments, which, however fanciful, are yet worthy of much confequcpce, that every thing wh'ch promifcs to the reader's notice.* be effedual for that purpofe is worthy of attention. He i'uppofe;, thit fire balls, inftead of being collec- tions • PhU. FIR [4 Fir«. tions of the eleiSrical fluid floating in the higheft re- ^"^■"^ gions of our atinofphcre, are maires of very denfe mat- ter formed in iar dirtant parts of fpace, and ful)jedled to fimilar laws with the planets and comets. He en- deavours to prove, that their component parts muft be denfe and heavy ; becaufe their courfe fhews, in fo ap- parent a manner, the cffefls of gravity ; and becaufe their mafs, though it diftends to a monllrous fize, re- tains fufFicient confiftency and weight to continue an exceedingly rapid movement through a very large fpace, without being decompofed or dllfolved, notwithftand- ing the refillance of the atmofphere. It feems to him probable, that this fubllance is by the eflcd of fire re- duced to a tough fluid condition ; becaufe its form ap- pears fomctimes round and fometiraes elongated, and as its extending till it burfts, as well as the burfting it- felf, allows us to fuppofe a previous capability of ex- tenfion by elaftic fluidity. At any rale it appears to be certain, that fuch denfe matter, at fo great a height is not colleifted from panicles to be found in our atmof- phere, or can be thrown together into large mafl'es by any power with which we are acquainted ; that no power with which we are acquainted is able to give to fuch bodies fo rapid a projedile force in a diredion almoft parallel to the horizon ; that the matter does not rife upwards irom the earth, but exifls previoufly in the celellial regions, and mull have been conveyed thence to our earth. In tlie opinion of Dr Chladni, the following is the only theory of this phenomenon that agrees with all the accounts hitherto given, which is nut contrary to nature in any other refpedl, and which befules feems to be confirmed by various mafles found on the fpot where fire-balls fell. As earthy, metallic, and other particles form the principal component parts of our planets, among which iron is tlie prevailing part, other planetary bodies may therefore confill of fmiilar, or perhaps the fame com- ponent parts, though combined and modified in a very different manner. There may alfo be denfe matters ac- cumulated in fmaller malfcs, without being in immediate connexion with the larger planetary bodies difperfed throughout infinite fpace; and which, being impelled either by fome prcjedling power or attraflion. continue to move until they approach the earth or fome other body, when, being overcome by its attradive force, they immediately fall down. By their exceedingly great velocity. Hill increafed by the attraflion of the earth and the violent friiflion in the atmofphere, a (Irong elc(5lricity and heat muft nccclTarily be excited ; by which means they are reduced to a flaming and melted condition, and great quantities of vapour and different kinds of gafes are thus difengaged, which dillend the li- quid mafs to a monllrous fize, till, by a ftiU farther ex- panfion of ihefe elallic fluids, it muft at lengih burft. Dr Chladni thinks alio that the greater part of the jlmotlng Jl^irs, as they are called, are nothing elfe than fire-balls, which differ only from the latter in this, that their peculiarly great velocity carries them paft the earth at a greater dillance, \o that they are not fo I'trongly attrailcd by it as 10 fall down ; and therefore, in their palfagc through the high regions of the atmof. phere, occafion only a tranfient clcflric flafh, or a(5lually take fire for a moment, and are again fpceJily extin- guiflicd, when ihcy get to fuch a diftance from the earth SUPPL. Vol.. II. ] FIR that the air becomes too much rarefied for the exift- encc of fire. The grounds on which Dr Chladni fupports this opi- nion are variousrelations, well authenticated, of the mo- tions of thofc meteors, and the phenomena which ac- company their burfting. Befides thofc mentioned in the Encyclopedia, he lavs a particular ftrefs on the account which he received from M. B.iudin, Profeflbr of plii- lofophy at Pau, of a remarkable fiery meteor feen in Gafcony on the 241)1 of July, 1790. On the evenin» of that day M. Baudin was in the court of the callle of Mormes with a friend, the atmofphere being perfetft- ly clear, when they fiiddenly found themfelvesfurround- ed by a wliitilli light, which obfcured that of the full moon, then fhining with great luftre. On looking up- wards, they obferved, almoft in their zenith, a fire-ball of a larger diameter than the moon, and with a tail equal in length to five or fix times the diameter of the body. The ball and the tail were of a pale white co- lour, except the point of the latter, which was ahoioft as red as blood. The direflion of this meteor was from fouth to north. " Scarcely (fays M. Baudin) had we looked at it for two feconds, when it divided itfelf into feveral portions of confiderable fize, which we faw fall in dif- ferent direi?Hons, and almoft with the fame appearance as the burfting of a bomb. All thefe different frag- ments became extinguiflied in the air, and fome of them, in falling, alfumed that blood-red colour which I hat! obferved in the point of the tail. It is not improbable that all the reft may have affumed the fame colour ; but I remarked only thofe which proceeded in a direflioix towards Mormef, and which were particularly expofej to my view. " About two minutes and a half, or three minuses after, we heard a dreadful clap of thunder, or ra'.her cxplofion, as if feveral large pieces of ordnance had been fired off together. The concuffion of the atmofphere by this Ihock wks fo great, that we all thought an earthquake had taken place. The windows (hook in their frames, and fome of them, which probably were laid to, and not clofely (hut, were thrown open. We were informed next day, that in fome of the houfes at Houga, a fmall town about half a mile diftint from Mormes, the kitchen utenfils were thrown from the flielves ; fo that the people concluded there had been an earthquake. But as no movement was obferved ia the ground below our feet, I am inclined to think that all thefe effeils were produced merely by the violent concuftion of the atmofphere. " We proceeded into the garden while the noife ftill continued and .appeared to be in a perpendicular di- reflion above us. Sometime after, wlien it had ceafed, we heard a hollow noife, which feemed to roll along the chain of the Pyrenees in ech<ies, for the dillance of fif'reen miles. It continued aliout four minutes, beco- ming gradually more remote, and always weaker ; and at the fame time wc perceived a ftronj fuiellof fulphur. "While we were endeavouring to point out to f.ime perfons prcfcnt the place where the meteor had divided itfelf, wc obfei ved a fnvill whitillj cloud, which arofe perhaps from the vapour of it, and wliich concealed iron) us the three liars of the Great Bear, lying in the rire. middle of tlioli: rorniing the fcmicircle. With fome difficulty. F I R [ 42 ] 1< I R Fife. difficulty, however, we coulJ at hft diftir.guifli lliefe ""^ *~' [lars again behind the thin cloud. Theie arole, at the fanie time, a frelh gentle breeze. " From the time that elapfed between the hurfting of the ball, and the explofion which followed, I was incli- ned to think, that the meteor was at the height of at leall feven or eight miles, and that it fell four miles to tiie north o{ Mormes. The latter paitof my corjec- ture was foon confirmed by an account which we re- ceived, that a great many flones had f.illcn from the atmofphere at Juliac, and in the neighbourh'od of Bar- botan. One d '.hefe places lies at the didance of about four milts to the north of Mormes, and the other at about the diftance of five 10 the north-norch- wcll." M. de Carrits Barbotan, the friend who was with the Prt'felFor in the ccuit and garden of Mormes when the meteor firil attra(5led their attention, was at Juliac two days afterwards, and confirmed to him the truth of this circumftance. It appeared, likewife from the ac- count of feveral intelligent perfons, higlily worthy of credit, thit tlie meteor burft at a little dillance from Juliac, and that the tiones which fell were lound lying in a fpace almoll circular, about two miles in diameter. They were of various fizes. Some were fdtn to fall, which, when found, weighed 18 or 20 pounds, and ■which had funk into the earth from two to three feet. M. de C. Barbotan tranfmitted one weighing 18 pounds to the academy of fciences at Paris; and M. Baudin was told, that fome were found whicli weighed even 50 pounds. He examined a fmall one, and found it very heavy in proportion to its fi/.e : it was black on the outfide; of a greyiili colour in the infide, and inter- fperfed with a number oi fmall lliining mstallic par- ticles. On (hiking it with a piece of fleel, it produced a few fmall daik red fparks, not very lively. A mine- ralogifl, to whom a like piece of ftone from tiie fame meteor was fhewn at Paris, defcribed it as a kind of grey flag mixed with calcareous fpar, the furface of which exhibited vitrified Llackifii calx of iron. The ProfefTor was told alfo, that fome ftones were found to- tally vitrified. Such (fays Dr Chladni) is the account given by Baudin of this meteor ; the phenomena of which he endeavours to explain from accumulations in the upper parts of the atmofphere. According to all the obfervations hitherto made with any accuracy on fire-balls, the height at which they were firft perceived was always very confiderable, and hy comparing the angles under which they were feen from different points, often 19 German miles, and even more ; their velocity, for the mod part, feveral miles in a fecond ; and their fize always very great, often a tjuaiter of a mile, and even more, in diameter. They were all fecn to fall moftly in an oblique direction ; not one of them ever proceeded upwards. All of them have appeared under the form of a globular mafs, fome- limes a little extended in length and highly luminous ; having behind it a tail, which, according to every ap- pearance, was compofed of flames and fmoke. All of them burft alter they were feen to move through a large fpace, fometimes over feveral diftrids, with an explofion ■which fliook every thing around. In every inflance vhere there has been an opportunity of obferving the fragments that fell after they burft, and which fome- times have funk to the depth of feveral feet into ths earth, they were found to confift ot fcorious maffes, which contained iron in a metallic or calcined ftate, pure, or elfe mixed with different kinds of earth and fulphur. All the ancient and modern accounts, writ- ten partly by naturalifts, and partly by others, are fo eflentially fimilar, that the one feems to be only a re- petition of the other. Tliis conformity in accounts, the authors of which knew nothing of thofe given by others, and who could have no interert in fabricating fimilar tales, can fcarcely have arifen from accident or fidion, and givei to the related tads, however inexpli- cable many of them may feem, every degree of credi- bility. In the third volume of Pall is's Travels, we have an account of a mafs of iron difcovered by him in Siberia, which Dr Chladni confiders as having been undiiubted- ly a fire-iiall, or the fragment of a fire.bnll. This pro- blematical mat's was found between Krafnojarfk and A- bekantk in the high flate mountains, quite open and uncovered. It weighed 1600 pounds; had a very ir- regular and fomewhat compretfed figure like a rough granite ; was covered externally with a ferruginous kind of crud ; and the infide confitled of malleable iron, brittle wlien heated, porous like r large fea fponge, and having its interlaces filled with a brittle hard vitri- fied fubftance of an amber yellow colour. This texture and the vitrified fubftance appeared uniformly through- out the whole mafs, and without any traces of flag or artificial fire. Dr Chladni fliews with a great deal of ingenuity, that this mat's neither originated by the wet method, nor could have been produced by art, the burning of a foreft, by lightning, or by a volcanic eruption. It ap- pears to him, therefore, in the higheft degree probable, that it is of the fame nature with fireballs, or, as they have fometimes been ciWed, Jlying clrugons. The Tar- tars, as we are informed by Pallas, conlidered this mafs as a facred relid which had droppeJ down from hea- ven ; and this circumftance Dr Chladni confiders as no flight confirmation of his opinion, which he farther fup- porls by the following reafonings : " I . As fire-bails confitt of denfe and heavy fubftances, which, by their exceedingly quick movement, and the fridion thence excited by the atmofphere, become elec- tric, are reduced to a ftate of ignition, and melted by the heat, fo that they extend to a great fize, and burft ; it thence follows, that in places where fragments, pro- duced by the hurtling of a fire-ball, have been found, fubllances endowed with all thefe properties muft alfo have been found. Iron, however, the principal compo- nent part of all the mafles hitherto found (and he fpeaks of many befides that of Pallas), pofTelTes all thefe pro- perties in a very eminent degree. The weight and toughnefs of the principal component parts of fire-balls, which muft be very confiderable, fince, with the great- eft polFible ditlention, they retain confidence enough to proceed with the utmoft velocity through t'uch an im- menfe fpace without decompofition of their mafs, and without their progrefs being obftruded by the refift- ance of the air, agree perfedly well with melted iron ; their dazzling white light has by many obfervers been compared to that of melted iron ; iron alfo exhibits the fame appearances of flaming, fmoking, and throwing out fparks, and all thefe phenomena are moft beautiful when Fire. F I R [ 43 ] F I R Fire. when ihey take place in vh^l air. Of the extenfion by elallic fluids expanded by the heat, and of the contrac- tion which follows from cold, traces may be difcovered in the internal fpongy nature of ilie iron maffes which have been found, and in the globular depreffions of the exterior hard cruft ; the latter of which gives us reafon to fuppofe, that in thefe places there have been air- bubbles, wliich, on cooling, funk down. The mixture of fulphur found in various maffcs, agrees alio exceeding- ly well with the phenomena of fire-balls, and efpecially with the great inflammability of fulphur in very thin impure air ; for it is well known, that fulphur in an air-pump will take fire in air, in which few other bodies could do the fame. In regard to thofe malFes in which no fulphur was found, this may have arifen from the fulphur efcaping in vapour, fince fome time after the appearance of tire-balls a llrong fniell of fulphur has been perceived. The brittlenels of the Siberian iron mafs when heated, may arife fiom fome fmall remains of fulphur, which may perhaps be the caufe of the fa- cility with which fragments of this mafs, as well as of another found at Aix-la-Chapelle, could be roafted. " 2. The whole texture of the malfes betrayed evident figns of fufion. This, however, cannot have been oc- calioned by any common, natural, or artificial fire ; and particularly for this reafon, becaufe iron fo malleable is not fufible in fuch fire, and when it is fufed with the addition of inflammable matters, lofes its malleability, and becomes like common raw iron. The vitrified fub- ftance in the Siberian mafs is equally incapable of be- ing fufed in a common fire. The fire, then, muft have been much ftronger than that produced by the com- mon, natural, and artificial means ; or the fufion muft have been efledfed by the torce of exceedingly llrong eleftricity ; or perhaps both caufes may have been com- bined together. " 3. It is totally incomprehenfible how, on the high flate mountains, where the Siberian mafs was found, at a confiderable dillance from the iron mines ; in the chalky foil of the extenfive plains of America, where for a hundred miles around there are no iron mines, and not even fo much as a ftone to be found ; and at Aix-la-Chapelle, where, as far as the author knows, there are no iron works — fo many ferruginous particles could be coUeifled in a fmall fpace as would be necef- fary to form malfes of 1600, 15,000, and 17,000, up to 33,600 pounds. This circumftance (hews, that thefe malfes could as little have been fufed by lightning as by the burning of a foreft or of foffile coal. Thefe inalles were found quite expofed and uncovered, and not at any depth in the earth, where vre can much more readily admit fuch an accumulation of ferruginous particles to have been melted by the effeils of light- ning. " Should it be afked, how fuch malfes originated, or by what means they were brought into fiich an infu- lated pofition ? this queftion would be the fame as if it were afked how the planets originated. AVhatever hy- potliefes we may fyrm, we mull either admit that the planets, if we except the many revolutions whlcli they may have undergone, either on or near their furlace, have always been lince their firll form ition, and ever will be the fame ; or that nature, acling on created matter, polfelFes the power to produce worlds and whole fyftcms to deliroy them, and from their materials to iorm new ones. For the latter opinion there are, in- deed, more grounds than for the former, as alternations ' of deftrudion and creation are exhibited by all ort;.i- nifed and un'Tganifed bodies on our earth, which i^i'vcj us reafon to fufpefl that nature, to which greatnefs"^ and fmallnefs.confidered in general, arc merely relative terms, can produce more effeds of the fame kind on a larger fcale. Bat many variations have been obferved on di- ftant bodies, which, in fome meafure, render the laft opinion probable. For example, the appearing and total diQppearing of certain liars, when they do not depend upon periodical changes. If we now admit that planetary bodies have ftarted into exiftence, we cannot fuppofe that fuch an evei.t can have otherwife taken place, than by conjefturlng that either particles of matter, which were before difperfed through infinite fpace in a more foft and chaotic condition, have unit- ed together in large maffes by the power of attraiilion ; or that new planetary bodies have been formed from the fragments of much larger ones that have been bro- ken to pieces, either perhaps by fome external fhock, or by an internal explofion. Let whichever of thefe hypolhefes be tire trueft, it is not improbable, or at leaft not contrary to nature, if we fuppofe that a large quantity of fuch material particles, either on account of their too great dlfiance, or becaufe prevented by a ftronger movement in another direi5H(>n, may not have united thcmiclves to the larger accumu! itlng mafs of a new world ; but have remained inliilated, :;nd, impelled by fome fliock, have continued their courfe tlirough infinite fpace, until they approached fo near to fome planet, as to be within the fphere of its attraflion, and then by falling down to occafion the phenomena before mentioned." Whether Chladni be a philofopher of the French fcliool we know not ; but fome parts of his theory tend ftrongly towards niaterlalifin ; and the arguments by which he attempts to prop thofe parts are peculiar. ly weak. When he talks of Nature producing worlds, he either fubliitutes Nature for Nature's God, or ut- ters jargon which has no meaning. In what fenfe the word Nature is ufed by every philofopher of a found mind, we have elfewhere been at fome pains to fliev/ (fee River, n° 116, EncyclJ) ; but how abfurd would it be to fay, that the fyftem of general laws, by which the Author and Governor of the unlverfe connefts to- gether its various parts, and regulates all their opera- tions, poffelfcs, independently of him, the " power to produce worlds and whole fyftems, to deftroy them, and from their materials to form new onei !" As Chladni admits, or talks as if he admitted, the creation of matter, it would be wrong to impute to him this abfurdity ; but if by Nature he means God, and he can conliftently mean nothing clfe, we beg leave to affirm, that it is iliredly contrary to every notion which we can form of Nature in this fnfe, " to fuppofe that a large quantity cf material particles, either on ac" count of (iieir diflance, or becaufe prevented by a Jlrcng er movement in another direi5tion, have not united them- felves to the larger accumulating mats of a new world, but remained infulated, and impelled by fome liiock, have continued their courfe through infinite fpace, occ.'' Is there any dill ince to which God cannot rcacii, or any movement fo llrong as to refill his power ? Our author's language is indeed confufed, and probably liis F 3 ideas liif FIR [ 44 ] F I S Whenhe fpeaks of the par- chemiftry have difclofed the iecret, hy fliewing, that Fifhersfidd Flfiiiiig. Tire. ideas were not very clear. ''"^'^"*^ tides of matter being at firft difperfed through intinite fpace, and afterwards united by the power of attrac- tion, he revives the queftion which was long ago dif- cufled between Newton and Bentley, and difculfcd in fuch a manner as Ihould have filenced for ever the bab- blings of thofe who form viorlds by attra<5lion. " The hvpothefis (fays Newton) of matter's being at firll evenly fpicad through the heavens, is, in my opi- nion, inconfillent with the hypothefis of innate gravity without a fupernatural po'->er to reconcile them ; and therefore infers a Deity. For if there be innate gravi- ty, it is impoffible now for the matter, of the earth, and all the planets and Hars, to fly up from them, and be- come ever:ly fpread through all the heaven?, without a fupernatural power ; and certainly that which can never be hereafter wilhout a fupernatural power, could never be heretofore without the fame power". Dr Chladni, indeed, does not fay that his particles of matter were even/y difperfed through infinite fpace ; but fuch muft be his meaning, if he has any meaning : for matter un- rven/y difpcrl'ed mull, by an innate attraiflion, be united as fonn as it exills, and fo united as not to leave fmall fragments of it to wander, we know not why, through the tracklefs void. Turn matter on all fides, make it eternal or of late production, finite or infinite, there by sygen the combuftion is carried on contained in the nitre. Rtifiuit or Rar-MNt FiRF, is a fire from the artillery and fmall arms, directed parallel to the horizon, or to thole parts of the works of a place that are defended. Running Fire is when ranks of men fire one after another; or when the lines of an army are drawn out to fire on account of a viiftory ; in which cafe each fqua- dron or battalion takes the fire from that on its right, from the right of the firft line to the lei't, and from the left to tlie right of the fecond line, &c. FISHERSFIELD, a townlhip in Hillft.^rough co. New-Hamplhire, incorporated in 1763, containing 331 inhabitants. Sunapee pond lies partly here, and in the townlhip of Wendel. It is about 16 miles eafterly of Charleftown. — Alone. FISHER'j JJland, in Long-Ifland found, lies oppo- fite to Groton in ConncAlcut, is about 10 miles in length and 2 in breadth, having a light foil, favorable for raifing fheep. It produces alfo wheat and other grain. It is annexed to the townlhip of Southhold, in Suffolk CO. on Long-Ifland. — ib. FISHING, the art of catching fifh. See Angling, Fishery, and Fishing, &c. Encycl. Chinefe Fishing. We venture to give this appella- can be no regular fyllem produced bat by a voluntary tion to fome very ingenious contrivances of the people and meaning agent; and therefore, if it he true that of China for catching in their lakes, not only fifh, but fire-balls are malfes of denfe matter, coeval with the pla- water-fowl. For the purpofe of catching filh they have iietary fyftem, e.xifling in the celeflial regions, and trained a fpecies of pelican, refembling the common cor- thence conveyed to our earth, they muft have been vorant, which they call the Z,e«7zc, or filhing bird. It formed, and their motions imprelfed upon diem, by the Author of Nature for fome wife purpofe, though by us that purpofe may never be difcovered. One thing feenis pretty clear, that wherever they may be formed, the phenomena attending their burfting, account fuffi- ciently for the notions of thunderbolts which have been generally entertained in all ages, and in every country. Greek-FiRF (fee IVUJ-Fike, EricycL). In the fecond volume of Mr Nicholfon's Philofophical Journal, we is brown, with a white throat, the body whitifh beneath, and fpotted with brown ; the tail is rounded, the irrides blue, and the bill yellow. Sir George Staunton, who, when the embalTy was proceeding on the fouthern branch of the great canal, faw thofc birds employed, tells us, that on a large lake, clofe to the eall fide of the canal, are thoufands of fmall boats and rafts, built entirely for this fpecies of filhery. On each boat or raft are ten or a dozen birds, which, at a fignal from have the following receipt for making this compofition, the owner, plunge into the water ; and it is aftonilhing taken from fome manufcripts of Leonard de Vinci, vvh.o to fee the enormous (ize of filh with which they return, fiouriflied in the end of the fifteenth and beginning of grafped within their bills. They appeared to be fo well tlie fixteenth centuries, and who appears to have advan- trained, that it did not require either ring or cord about ced far before his contemporaries in phyfical fcieiice. their throats to prevent them from fwallowing any por- Take the charcoal of willow, nitre, brandy, refin, ful- tion of their prey, except what their mafter was pleafed pliur, pitch, and camphor. Mix the whole well together to return to them for encouragement and food. The over the fire. Plunge a woollen cord in the mixture, boat ufed by thefe fifliermen is of a remarkable light and form it into balls, which may afterwards be pro- make, and is often carried to the lake, together with rided with fpikes. Thefe balls, being fet on fire, are the filliing birds, by the men who are there to be fup- thrown into the enemy's veffels. It is called the Greek ported by it. fire, and is a fingular compofition, for it burns even up- The fame author faw the fifhermen bufy on the great on the water. Callinicus the architefl taught this com- lake Weechaung-hee ; and he gives the following ac- pofition to the Romans (of Conllantinople), who de- count of a very fingular method praflifed by them for rived great advantage from it, particularly under the catching the filh of the lake without the aid of birds, emperor Leo, when the Orientals attacked Conftanti- of net, or of hooks. iiople. A great number of their velfels were burn- To one fide of a boat a flat beard, painted while, ed by means of this compofition. is fixed, at an angle of about 45 degrees, the edge in- The compofition of the Greek fire thus given by dining towards the water. On moonlight nights the Vinci is found in nearly the fame words in fome of the boat is fo placed that the painted board is turned to writings of Baptilla Porta ; whence it appears that both authors derived their information from the fame fource. A compofition which burnt without accefs to the at- mofphere could not fail to fill the minds of our fore- fathers with wonder; but the modem difcoveries ia the moon, from whence the rays of light ftriking on the whitened furface, give to it the appearance of moving water ; on which the filh being tempted to leap as oa their element, the boatman raifing with a firing the board, turn the fi(h into the boat. Water- F I S C 45 ] F I S Fifliing II Fiftula. Water-fowl are much fought after by the Chinefe, and are taken upon the fame lake by the following in- genious device. Empty jars or gourds are fuffered to float about upon ihe water, that fuch objefts may be- come familiar to the birds. The filherman then wades into the lake with one of thofe empty velf-ls upon his head, and walks gently towards a bird ; and lifting up his arm, draws it down below the furface of the water without any diiturbance or giving alarm to the reft, feveral of whom he treats in the fame manner, until he fills the bag he had brought to hold his prey. The contrivance itfelf is not fo fingular, as it is that the fame exaftly Ihould have occurred in the new continent, as Ulloa allerts, to the natives of Carthagena, upon the lake Cienega de Tefias. FISHING Bay, in Maryland, lies on the E. fide cf Chefapeak bay, partly in Dorcheller and Somerfet counties. It receives feveral rivers from each county, the chief of which are Wicomico, Nanticokej alfo Tranfquaking and Blackwater creeks. The entrance into this large bay lies between Goldfborough and Devil's iflands. — Morse. Fishing Bay, on the S. fide of lake Ontario, is about 37 miles E. of Fort Niagara. — ib. FISHING-CREEK, a townlhip on Sufquehanna river, in Pennfylvanla. — ib. FISH KILL, a port town in Dutchefs co. New- York, 5 miles E. of Hudfon river, on Filhkill or creek, at the foot of the Highlands, which rife S. of it ; contain- ing about 30 houfes, a church for Eplfcopalians, and one for Low Dutch. The townlhip is very extenlive, and contained, in 1790, 5941 inhabitants, of whom 601 were flaves. It lies 14 miles S. by E. of Pough- keepfie, oppofite Newburgh, and 66 N. of New-York city. There are a few houfes only at the Landing, on the margin cf the river. — ib. Fish Kill, or Creel, on which the town above de- fcribed ftands, and from which it derives its name, is fmall, and empties into Hudfon river, about a mile below the Landing, and nearly oppofite New-Wind- for. — ib. Alfo, the name of a fmall ftream which runs S. W. into Oneida lake. Llkewife, a ftream which rifes from Saratoga lake, and runs 6 miles eafterly to the Hudfon. Its mouth is oppofite Batten kill, 2 miles above Saratoga town ; and on the N. fide of which Gen. Burgoyne's army laid down their arms as prifoners. — lb. FISTULA Lachrymalis is a difeafe which, in all its ftages, has been treated of in the article Surgery, chap. xiv. Encycl. A work, however, has been lately publillied by James Ware furgeon, in which there is the defcription of an operation for its cure confiderably different from that moft commonly ufed, and which, while it is fimple, the author's experience has afcertain- ed to be fuccefsful. In the cure of this difeafe, which is very troublefome, and not very uncommon, it is a well known praiftice to infert a metallic tube in the nafal du(ft cf the lachrymal canal : but the advantage derived from ihis operation is not at all times lafting. Among other c.iufes ot failure, Mr Ware notices the lodgment of infiilfated mucus in the cavity of the tube. To remedy this de- fert, he recommends the following operation. «• If the difeafe has not occafioned an aperture in the lachrymal fac, or if this aperture be not fitaated in a right line with the longitudinal direaion of the nafal dud, a punflure fliould be made into the fac, at a fmall dillancefrom the internal junfluie of the palpebrx, and nearly in a lins drawn hurizoncally from this jiiniftuie towards the nofe with a fi)ear-pointed lancet. The blunt end of a filver probe, of a fize rather fmaller than the probes that are commonly ufed by furgjoiis, fiiould then be introduced through the wound, and gently, but fteadily, pulhed on in the diredion of the nafal dudl, with a force fufncient to overcome the obftruc- tion in this canal, and until there is reafon to believe that it has freely entered into the cavity of the nofe. The pofition of the probe, when thus introduced, will be nearly perpendicular; its fide will touch the upper edge of the orbit; and the fpace between its bulbous end in the nofe and tlie wound in the (kin will ufually be found, in a full-grown perfon, to be about an inch and a quarter, or an inch and three-eighths. The probe is then to be withdrawn, and a filver ftyle, of a fize nearly limilar to that of the probe, but rather fmall- er, about an inch and three-eighths in length, with a flat head, like that of a nail, but placed obliquely, that it may fit clofe on the (kin, is to be introduced through the duct, in place of the probe, and to be left conftant- ly in it. For the firft day or two after the ftyle has been introduced, it is fometimes advifable to wafh the eye with a weak faturnine lotion, in order to obviate any tendency to infiammation which may have been excited by the operation ; but this in general is (o flight, that our author has rarely had occafion to ufe any application to remove it. The ftyle ftiould be with- drawn once every day ior about a week, and after- wards every fecond or third day. Some warm water fhould each time be injected through the duft into the nofe, and the inftrument be afterwards replaced in the fame manner as before. Mr Ware formerly ufed to cover the head of the ftyle with a piece of diachylon plafter fpread on black filk, but has of late obviated the necelTity for applying any plafter by blackening the head of the ftyle with fealing-wax. " The efFe(£l (fays he) produced by the ftyle, whea introduced in the way above mentioned, at firft gave me much furpri(e. It was employed with a view limi- lar to that with which Mr Pott recommends the intro- duftion of a bougie; viz. to open and dilate the nafal du(ft, and thus to eftablKh a pa(iage, through which the tears might afterwards be conveyed from the eye to the nofe. I expecfted, however, that whilft the ftyle con- tinued in the duft the obftruiflion would remain, and of courfe that the watering of the eye, and tlie weaknefs of the fight, would prove as troublefome as they had been before the inftrum^'nt was introduced. I did not imagine that any effential benefit could relult fro.m the operation until the (lyle was removed, and the palfige thereby opened. It was an agreeable dlfappointmeiit to me to find that the amendment was much more ex- peditious. The watering of the eye almoft wholly ceafed as foon as the (iyle was introduced ; and in pro- portion as the patient amended in this refpci-T, his fight alio became more ftrong and ufeful. The ftvle, there- fore, fecms to ?.& in a twofold capacity : firft, it di- lates the obftrufted palfage ; and then, by an attrac- tion fomewh.it fimilir to that of a capillary tube, it euides the tears through the dua into the nofe. ^ " The liftiiri FLA C 46 ] F L I FIHuU rhiibudi. " Tl:e wound that I ufually make into the fac, if the Ciippetative procefs has not formed a fuitable aper- ture in this part, is no larger than is juft fuflicienc to admit the end of the probe or Ryle ; and this, in gene- ral, ill a little time, becomes a tiilulous orifice, through vliich die llyle is paffed without occalioning the fmallell degree of pain. The accumulation of matter in the la- chiymal fic, which, previous to the operation, is often copious, ufually abates foon after the operation has been performed ; and, in about a week or ten days, the treat- ment of the cafe becomes fo eafy, that the patient him- felf, or feme fiitnd or fervant who is conlhmtly with him, is fully competent to do the whole that is necef- fary. It confids folely in withdrawing the ftyle two or three times in the week, occafionally injeSing fome warm water, and then replacing the inftrumcnt in the fame way in which it was done before. " It is not e.ify to afcertain the exail length of time that the llyle fliould be continued in the duvfl. Some have worn it many years, and, not finding any inconve- nience from the inllrument, are flill afraid and unwil- ling to part from it. Others, on the contrary, have difufed it at the end of about a month or fix weeks, and liave not had the fmalleft return of the obftrudlion afterwards." The author relates fo many fuccefsful cafes of this operation, that we thought it our duty to record his method in this Supplementary volume of our general repofitory of arts and fciences ; for a fuccefsful praflice, as well in furgery as in phyfic, muft reft on the bafis of eipetience. FITCHBURGH, a pod town of MafTachufetts, Worcefter co. 23 miles N. of Worcefter, 24 from Con- cord, and 42 N. W. of Bofton. It has 1151 inhabit- ants. — Morse. FITZWILLIAM, a townttiip in Cheniire co. New- Hamplliire, about 16 miles E. of Connefticut river, and fcparaled from Royalflon in Worcefter co. Mafla- chufetts, bf the (late line. It was incorporated in 1773, and. contains 1038 inhabitants. — ib. Oblique or Second FLANK, or Flank of the Curtain, is that part of the curtain from whence the face of the oppofite baftion can be feen, being contain- ed between the lines rafant and fichant, or the greater andlefs lines of defence ; or the part of the curtain be- tween the flank and the point where the fichant line of defence terminates. Covered, Low or Retired Flank, is the platform of the cafemate which lies hid in the ballion, and is other- wife called the orillon. Fiihant Flank, is that from whence a cannon play- ing, fires diredly on the face of the oppofite baftion. Rafant or Razant Flank, is the point from whence the line of defence begins, from the conjunftion of which with the curtain the Ihot only rafeth the face of the ne.>c« ballion, wliich happens when the face cannot be difcovored hut from the flank alone. FLATBUSH, the chief town of King's co. Long- Ifland, New-York. It is a pleafant and healthy town, fituated on a fmall bay which opens E. irom New- Yoik harbor, and is 5 miles S. by E. fiom New. York city. It contains a number of dwelling-houfes, moft- ly in one ftreet ; many of which are elegant and com- inodious. The inhabitants are chiefly of Dutch ex- tradlion. It contains 941 inhabitants, of whom 107 are qualified eledors, and 378 are flaves. The producli- ons are various kinds of fruit, vegetables, grain, &c. which find a ready market in the metropolis. The land lies low ; and in fummer the whole townfhip ap- pears like an e.\tenfive garden. The public buildings are a Dutch church, a courthoufe, and an academy, called Erafmus Hall, the mod flouri thing of all the academies in the ft.ite. It is in a pleafant and health- ful fituation, 4 miles from Brookliiie ferry. A bloody battle was fought near this town on the 27 Auguft, 1776, when the Americans were defeated by the Britilh with great lofs. The remains of the American army retreated to New-York under the co- ver of a thick fog. — Morse. FLATLANDS, a fmall townfliip in Kings co. Long-Illand, diftant from New- York city 6 or 7 miles. It contains 423 inhabitants, of whom 44 are qualified to be eleftors, and 137 are flaves. — ib. FLAT Rock, is an expanfive, clear, flat rock, but a little above the furface of the ground, and near the banks of a delightful rivulet of excellent water, which is one of the head branches of Great Ogeechee river, in Georgia. This is a common rendezvous or camping place for traders and Indians. — lb. FLATTERY, Gate, fo named by captain Cook, on account of its promifing at a diftance what it deni- ed on a nearer approach. Lat. 48. 15. long. 235. 30. E. This cape, captain Ingraham of Bofton, found to be the S. fide of the entrance of the ftraits of Juan de Fuca. N. lat. 48 25. W. long. 124. 52. — lb. FLEMINGTON, a fmall po.1 town of New-Jerfey, in Hunterdon co. lies about 6 miles N. eaftward of Amwell on Delaware river, z^ N. N. W. of Trenton, 9 S. of Pittftown, and ^7, N. E. by N. of Philadel- phia. It contains about a dozen compadf houfes. — ib. FLETCHER, a townfliip in Franklin co. Ver- mont, containing only 47 inliabitants. It has Cam- bridge on tlie S. E. and Georgia W. — ib. FLIE or Fly, that part of the mariner's compafs on which the thirty-two points of the wind are drawn, and over which the needle is placed, and faftened un- derneath. FLINT River, a confiderable river of Georgia, which rifes in the country of the Creek Indians, and running a S. and thence a S. W. courfe, joins the Appalachicola, at its entrance into Florida. The Flint is about 30 rods wide, and from 12 to 15 feet deep in fummer, and has a gentle current. The terri- tory lying on this river, efpecially on the upper part of it, prefents every appearance of a delightful and fruit- ful region in fome future day ; it being a rich foil, and exceedingly well fituated for every branch of agricul- ture, and offers an uninterrupted navigation to the bay of Mexico, and Atlantic ocean, and thence to the Weft- India iflands and over the whole world. There are a number of villages of Creek Indians on this river. — Morse. Flint, a fmall river, about a8 miles long, in the Genelfee country, in New- York, which runs N. N. E. into Canandarqua creek. — lb. FLINTSTON, a plantation in Cumbeiland co. Maine, having 180 inhabitants. It has one eminence in it called S,;ddle-Back mountain, but the country in general Flatlandi y Flimfton. FLO C 47 ] FLO Flo»tiD£^ general is level enough for cultivation. One half of it are in the fame vertical line, fpontaneouflf overfets, un- Floati.-.g. is covered with pine and white oak. — lb. FLOATING BoDits are fuch as fwim on the fur- face of a fluid, of which the mod important are fliips and all l<.inds of veffels emplcyed in war and in com- merce. Every feaman knows of how much confequence it is to determii.e the (lability of fuch veffels, and the pofitions which they aiTume when they float freely and at reft on the water. To accomplilh this, it is necelfary to ftate the principles on which that ftability and thefe pofitions depend ; and this has been done with fo much ingenuity and fcience by George Atwood, Efq; F. R. S. in the Philofophical Traiifadions for the year 1796, that we are perfuaded a large clafs of our readers will thank us for inferting an abflraft of his memoir in this place. A floating body is prefled downwards by its own ■weight in a vertical line that p.iffes through its centre of grdvity ; and it is fuftained by the upward prefl'ure of a fluid, a(fling in a vertical line that paffes through the centre of gravity of the immerfed part ; and unlefs thefe two lines be coincident, fo that the two centres of gravity may be in the fame vertical line, the folid ■will revolve on an axis, till it gains a pofition in which the equilibrium of floating will be permanent. Hence it appears that it is necelfary, in the firll place, to af- certain the proportion of the part immerfed to the whole ; for which purpofe the fpecific gravity of the floating body muft be known; and then it muft be de- termined, by geometrical or analytical methods, in what pofitions the folid can be placed on the furface of the fluid, fo that the two centres of gravity already men- tioned may be in the fame vertical line when a given part of the folid is immerfed under the furface of the fluid. When thefe preliminaries are fettled, fomething ftill remains to be done. Pofitions may be afiumed in •which the circumftances juft recited concur, and yet the folid will alfume fome other pofition in which it will permanently float. If a cylinder, e. g. having its fpecific gravity to that of the fluid on which it floats as 3 to 4, and its axis to the diameter of the bafe as 2 to I, be placed on the fluid with its axis vertical, it vill fuik to a depth equal to a diameter and a halt of the bafe ; and while its axis is preferved in a verti- lefs fupported by external force ; and the equihbrium of indifference, or the infenfil.le eq.i;librium, in which the folid refts on the fluid inditf.-rent to motion, with- out tendency to right itfelf when inclined, or to incline itfelf farther. If a folid body fliats permanently on the furfice of a fluid, and external force be applied to incline it from Its pofition, the refiftance oppofed to this inclination is termed the ftability of floating. Amtmg various float- ing bodies, fome lofe tlieir quiefcent pofition, and fom; gain it, after it has been interrupted, with greater fa- cility and force than others. Some fhips at fea (<f.^. ) yield to a given impulfe rf the wind, and fuffer a gieater inclination from the per- pendicular than others. As this refiftance to heelliiT or pitching, duly regulated, has been deemed of impor- tance in the conllruflion of veficls, feveral eminent ma- thematicians have invelligated rules for determining tlie ftability of (hips from their known diraenfions and weight, without recurring to aftual trial. To this clafs we may refer Bouguer, Euler, Fred. Chapman, and others, who have laid down theorems for this pur- pofe, founded on a fuppofition that the inclinations of Ihips from their quiefcent pofitions are evanefcenr, or, in a practical fenfe, very fmall. " But Ihips at fea (fays our ingenious author) are known to heel through angles of 10° 20°, or even 30°, and therefore a doubt may arife how far the rules, demonftrated on the exprefs condition that the angles of inclination are of evanefcent magnitude, (hould be admitted as pradlically applicable in cafes where the inclinations are fo great." — " If we admit that the theory of ftatics can be applied with any effe^'l to the pra(5lice of naval architeflure, it feems to be necelfary that the rules, inveftigated for determining the ftability of veflels, fliould be extended to thefe cafes in which the angles of inclination are of any magnitude likely to occur in the praflice of navigation." A folid body placed in the furface of a lighter fluid, at the depth correfponding to the relative gravities, cannot change its pofition by the combined adlons of its weight, and the preffuie of the fluid, except by re- volving on fome horizontal axis wh'ch palfes throupii cal pofition by external force, the centres of gravity of the centre of gravity : but as many axes may be drawn the whole folid and of the immerfed part will remain in the fame vertical line : but when the external force that fuftained it is removed, it will decline from its upright pofition, and will permanently float with its axis hori- zontal. If the axis be fuppofed to be half of the dia- meter of the bafe, and be placed vertically, the folid will fink to the depth of three-eighths of its diameter ; and in tliat pofition it will float permanently. If the axis be made to incline to the vertical line, the folid will change its pofition until it fettles permanently with the axis perpendicular to the horizon. Whether, therefore, a fjlid floats permanently, or overfets when placed on the furface of a fluid, fo that the centre . f gravity of the folid and that of the part immerfed Ih.dl be in the fame vertical line, it is faid to be in a pofition of equilibiium ; and of this equilibrium there arc three fpecies, viz. the equilibrium of liability, in which the folid floats perma' ently in a given poli- tion : the equilibrium of inflability, in which the folid, though the two centres of gravity already mentioned through this point of the floating body in a dlretflioii parallel to the horizon, and the motion of the folid rc- fpeifts one axis only, this axis muft be determined by the figure of the body, and tlie particular nature of the cafe. When this axis of motion, as it is called, is de- termined, and the fpecific gravity of the folid is known, " the pofitions of permanent floating will be obtained, firft by finding the feveral politions of equilibrium througli wlilch the folid may he conceived to pafs, while it revolves round the axis of motion ; and feci nd- ly, by determining in wliich of thole politions the e- qulllbriuni is permanent, and in whlcli of thtni it is momentary and unftable." Such as we have now hricflv dated are the general principles, on which are founded Mr Atwood's invef- tigations for determining the pofitions alfiimed by ho- mogeneous bodies, floating on a fluid furface; and al> fo for determining the ftability of (hips and of other floating bodies. We cannot farther accompany him in his elucidation of them, in the problems to the folu- tiuu FLO [ 4B ] FLO jl'.atlrif. ticn of wliich they lead, and In the important pracli- ""'^''"^^^ cal purpofes of naval aichiteiflure to which they are re- ferred. Tiie whole pjper, comprehending no lefs than 85 pages, is cuiious and valuable; it abounds with a- nalytical and geometrical difquilitious of the moft ela- borate kind ; and it ferves to enlarge our acquaintance witli a fubji-ifl tliat is net only highly interelling to the fpeculaiive m.ithematician, but extremely ufeful in its prai^ical application. With this latter view, the author feems to liave di- refled his attention to the v.arious cbjeds of inquiry which this article comprehends. They are fuch as in- timately relate to the theory of naval architeflure, fo far as it depends on ihe pure laws of mechanics, and they conliibute to extend and improve this theory. The union of ihofe principles that are deduced from the laws of motion, with the knowledge which is de- rived from obfcrvation and experience, cannot fail to edablilh the art of conftrufting veffels on its true bafis, and gradually to lead to farther improvements of the greateft importance and utility. To this purpofe, the auth'ir obferves, that " If the proportions and dimenfions adopted in the conflruftion of individual veflels are obtained by exadl geometrical menfuratlons, and calculations founded on them, and obfervations are made on the performance of thefe velTels at fea ; experiments of this kind, fufficient- ly diverfified and extended, feem to be the proper grounds on which theory may be effedlually applied in developing and reducing to fyftem thofe intricate, fub- til, and hitherto unperccived caufes, which contribute to impart the greatell degree of excellence to veflels of every fpecies and defcription. Since naval architeflure is reckoned among the praiflical branches of fcience, every voyage may be confidered as an experiment, or rather as a feries of experiments, from which ufeful truths are to be inferred towards perfefling the art of conftruifling velfels : but inferences of this kind, con- fidently with the preceding remark, cannot well be obtained, except by acquiring a perfeiSl knowledge of idl the proportions and dimenfions of each part of the (hip ; and fecondly, by making and recording fufficient- iy numerous obfervations on the qualities ot the vefliel, in all the varieties of fituation to which a fliip is ufual- ly liable in the praflice of navigation." In the valuable m'fcetlany entitied the Philofophical Magazine, there is a paper on this fubjeift by Mr John George Englilli, teacher of mathematics and mechani- cal philofophy ; which, as it is not long, and is eafily underllood, we fhrfll take the liberty to tranfcribe. " However operofe and difficult the calculations ne- celTary to determine the flabilily of nautical veifels may, in fome cafes, be, yet they all depend, fays this author, tipon the four following fimple and obvious theorems, accompanied with other well known (Icreometrical and llatical principles. " Thuorem 1. Every fioaiingbody dlfplaces a quanti- ty of the fluid la which it floats, equal to its own weight : and confequently, the fpeclfic gravity of the fluid will be to that of the floating body, as the mag- nitude of the whole is to that of the part immerfed. " Theorem 2. Every floating body is impelled down- ward by its own elfential power, ailing In the direillon of a vertical line paffing through the centre of gravity of the whole ; and is impelled upward by the reaiflion of the fluid which fupports it, aifting in the direcilon flosting- of a vertical line paffing through the centre of gravity ^-''^'^"^ of the part immerfed : therefore, unlefs thefe two lines are coincident, the floating body thus impelled mufl revolve round an axis, either in motion or at rell, until the equilibrium is reltored. *' Theorer?! 3. If by any power whatever a veffel be deflefted from an upright pofition, the perpendicular dilVance between two vertical lines paffing through the centres of gravity of the whole, and of the part immer- fed refpeflively, will be as the (lability of the veflcl, and which will be pofitive, nothing, or negative, accor- ding as the mctacentre is above, coincident with, or below, the centre of gravity of the velTel. " Theorem 4. The common centre of gravity of any fyflem of bodies being given in pofition, if any one of thefe bodies be moved from one part of the fyftem to another, the correlponding motion of the common centre of gravity, ellimated in any given direftion, will be to thatof the aforefaid body eftimated in the fame diredion, as the weight of the body moved is to that of the whole fyllem. " From whence it is evident, that in order to afcer- tain the (lability of any ve(rel, the politlon of the centres of gravity of the whole, and of the part im- merfed, muft be determined ; with which, and the di- menfions of the ve(rcl, the line of floatation, and angle of defleftion, the (lability or power either to right it- felf or overturn, may be found. " In fliips of war and merchandize, the calculations iiece(rary for this purpofe become unavoidably very o- perofe and troublefome ; but they may be much facili- tated by the experimental method pointed out in the New Tranfaflions of the Swedifh Academy of Scien- ces, firft quarter of the year 1787, page 48. " In river and canal boats, the regularity and fim- plicity of the form of the veffel itfelf, together with the compaifl dlfpofition and homogeneal quality of the burden, render that method for them unneceifary, and make the requlfite calculations become very eafy. Vef- fels of this kind are generally of the fame tranfverfe feiSion throughout their whole length, except a fmall part in prow and ilern, formed by fegments of circles or other fimple curves ; therefore a length may eafily be affigned fuch, that any of the tranfverfe fefllons be- ing multiplied thereby, the produft will be equal to the whole folidity of the veffel. The form of the fedion ABCD is for the moft part either reflangular, as in fig. I. trapezoidal, as in fig. 2. or mlxtllineal as in fig. plate 3. in all which MM reprefents the line of floatation XXVII& when upiight, and EF that when inclined at any angle MXE; alio G reprefents the centre of gravity of the whole veffel, and R that of the part immerfed. " If the veffel be loaded quite up to the line AB, and the fpeclfic gravity of the boat and burden be the fame, then the point G is fimply the centre of gravity of the feifllon ABCD ; but if not, the centres of gra- vity of the boat and burden muft be found feparately, and reduced to one by the common method, namely, by dividing the fum of the momenta by the fum of weights, or areas, which in this cafe are as the weights. The point R is always the centre of gravity of the feiflion MMCD, which, If confiftlng of different figures, muftalfo be found by dividing the fiim of the momenta by the fum of the weights as common. Th«le two points being found, the PLATE xmn I'.rriloHiiU py,//. j^,^. ru/.3. L*wj<<njt . FLO [ 49 ] FLO Floiting. the next thing necefliiry is to determine the area of the " Now the fum of the momenra, divided by the fum Floating ^''''^'''^'*^ two equal triangles MXE, MXF, their centres of sra- , , n • 27S6i3"o8966ci6 . „ 5 , ? It- t ■ XI ) vti of the area?, will give — ,f-f,—, — - = 37"oo6 Fbr.di. vity 0, 0, and the perpendicular projected diltance n « ° 7528"78o8 •' \.^~y^^^ of thefe points on the water line EF. This being inches, the altitude of G, the centre of gravity of the done, through II, and parallel to EF draw RT=a feflion ABCD above the bottonn. In like manner, fourth proportional to the whole area MMCD, either the altitude of R, the centre of gravity of the fecTioa triangle MXE or MXF, and the diftance «n; through ,„,^^ .„ , r . . i 123003-08066016 T, and at right angles to RT or EF, draw TS meet- MMCD, will be found to be equal ^^f^-TZ^ ing the vertical axis of the velfel in S the metacentre ; _ ^yg^^ inches ; and confequently the.r difference, alib through the points G, B, and parallel to ST, draw ^^ ^j^g y^,„g of GR = i 2-072 inches will be found. NGW and BV ; moreover through S, and parallel to EF, draw WSV, meeting the two former in V and W ; then SW is as the (lability of the veffel, which will be pofitive, nothing or negative, according as the point S is above, coincident with, or below, the point Suppoi'e the veffel to heel 15°, and we lliall h.ive tlie following proportion ; namely. As radius : tanc^ent ot 15° : : MX z= 54 inches : 14-469 inches = ME or MF ; and confequently the area of either tiiangle MXl! or MXI'" = 390-663 fquare inches. Therefore, by G. If now we fuppofe W to reprefent the weight of theorem 4th, as 4936-7808 : 390-663 the whole ve/Tel and burden (which will be equal to the fedlion MMCD multiplied by the length of the veffel), and P to reprefent the requited weight applied at the gunwale B to fuftain the veffel at the given angle of inclination ; we fhall always have this propor- tion : as VS : SW : : W : P ; which proportion is ge- neral, whether SW be pofitive or negative ; it mufl — K n ~ ■f AB : 5'6975 inches = RT ; and, again, as radius ; fine of 15-^ : : 12-072 = GR : 3'i245 inches = RN ; confequently RT — RN = 5-6975 — 3'1245 = 2'57J inches = SW, the flability required. " Moreover, as the fine of 15° : radius : : 5*6975 ~ RT : 22013 = lis, to which, if we add 24-934, tlie altitude of the point R, we fhall have 46 947 for ilie only in the latter cafe be fuppofed to aa upward to height of the metacentre, which taken from 72, the prevent an overturn. whole altitude, there remains 25-053 ; from which, .md ■In the reaangularveffel.ofgiven weight and dimen- the half width = 54 inches, the difUnce BS is found fions, the whole procefs is lb evident, that any farther explanation would be unneceffary. In the trapezoidal veffel, after having found the points G and R, let AD, BC be produced until they meet in K. Then, fmce the two fedions MMCD, EFDC are equal, the two — 59'S-9 'uches very ivearly, and the angle SDV =: 80° — 06' — 42" ; from whence SV — 58645 inches. Again : Let us fuppofe the mean length of the vef- fel to be 40 feet, or 480 inches, and we fhall fiave the weight of the whole veffel equal to the area of the fee- triangles MMK, EFK are alfo equal; and therefore the tion MMCD = 4936-7808 multiplied by 480 = redangle EK X KF = KM x KM = KM' ; and 2369654-784 cubic inches of water, which weighs ex- fince the angle of inclination is fuppofed to be known, aiftly 85708 pounds avoirdupoife, allowing the cubic the angles at E and F are given. Confequently, if a foot to weigh 62-5 pounds, mean proportional be found between the fines of the "And, finally, as SV : SW (i.e.) as58-645 .- 2-573 angles at E and F, we Ihall have the following propor- tions : " As the mean proportional thus found : fine«:i^ E : : KM : KF, and as the faid mean proportional : fine ^^ F : : KM : KE ; therefore ME, MF become known : from whence the area ot either triangle MXE or MXF, : : 85708 : 3760 +, the weight on the gunwale which will fullain the veffel at the given inclination. There- fore a veffel of the above dimenfions, and weighing 38 ton?, 5 cwts. 28 lbs. will require a weight of i ton, 13 cwts. 64 lbs. to make her incline 15''. " In this example, the dellealiig power has been fup- the diftance n n, and all the other requifites, may be pofed to aft perpendicularly on the gunwale at B ; but found. if the veffel is navigated by fails, the centre velique " In the mixtilineal feftion, let AB = 9 feet = 108 mufl be found -, with which, and the angle cf deflec- inches, the whole depth = 6 feet = 72 inches, and tion, the projefted diftance thereof on the line SV may the altitude of MM the line of floatation 4 feet or 48 be obtained ; and then the power, calculated as above, inches ; alfo let the two curvelinear parts be circular neceflary to be applied at the prcjefted point, will be quadrants of two feet, or 24 inches radius each. Then that part of the wind's force which caufes the veffel to the area of the two quadrants = 904-7808 fquare heel. And converfely, if the weight and dimenfions inches, and the diftance of their ccnties of gravity from of the veftel, the area and altitude of the fiih, the di- the bottom = 13-8177 inches very nearly; alfo the reftion and velocity of the wind be given, the angle ot deflefti'in may be found." FLORIDA, atownlhip in Orange co. New-York, 6 or 8 miles S. of Gofhen, and 50 N. W. of New-York city. 377 of its inhabitants are qualified to be eleflori. therefore we It has been lately incorporated. — Morse. Florida, EaJ} and IVijI, belonging to Spain, fitu- ated between 25. and 31. N. hit. and between 80. and 91. W. loKg. about 6co milei in length. Its breadth is various ; the br..adcft p-nrt of Weil Florida is about I 30 miles, while the narrow penintula of E.itl Florida extends, in the fame direftion, from S. to N. 400 miles. It is bounded N. by Georgia, S. by the gulf of Mosi- 27ii6u-i>ii9(56oi6 co, E. by the Atlantic ocean, and W. by the Miflifiip- G pi. area of the included reftangle « ^ ; ^ = '44° fquare inches, and the altitude of its centre of gravity 12 inches ; in like manner, the area of the reftangle AB c d will be found = 5184 fquare inches, and the alti lude of its centre of gravity 48 inches Ihall have Momcnfuiu of^ tlie two quad. J Moment, oftfie 7 reilan. ,1 b i e 5 Moment.of tlieJ „ reilaii. AB c </ J —■>"•' 904-7808 X iJ'Si77 X li = 17280- X 48 =248832- l2jol-9Si;66oi6 1440- Sui'PL. Vol, 7528-7808 n. 1< I. o C 5' Florida, pi, which feparatcs it from Louifiana, anti is neatly of ^•^^^^**^ ihe form of the letter L. Among its i ivcrs t!-.:it fall into the Atlantic, St. John's and Indian rivers are the chiif. Seguana, Appalachicnla, Chatalntchi, Efcam- bia, Mobile, Pafcagoula and Pe;iil rivers all riie in Gecrgi.i, and run foulherly into the gulf of Mexico. T'he principal bays are St Bernard's, Afcenfion, Mo- bile, Penfacol.i, Dauphin, J.ifeph, Apalachy, Spiritu S.iRiflo ; and the chief cipes are Blanco, St Blai/.e, Anclote, and cape Florida at the extremity of the pe- ririfula. The climate is little diiTcrent from that ot Georgia. There are, in this country, a great variety of foils ; the eaflern part cf it, near to, and about St A\igufline, is by far the nioli unfruitful ; yet even there, two crops of Indian corn are annually produced. The banks of the rivers which water the Floridas, and the parts contiguous, are of a fuperior quality, and well adapted to the culture of rice and corn. The fine lands near the river Efcambia, are dcfcribed un- der the account of that river. The interior coun'ry, which is high and pleafant, abounds with wood of almoft every kind; paiticularly white and red oak, live oak, laurel magnolia, pine, hickory, cyprcA, red and white cedar. The live oaks, tho\igh not tall, con- tain a prodigious quantity of timber. The trunk is generally from 12 to 20 teet in circumference, and rifes 10 or 12 feet from the earth, and then brandies into 4 or 5 great limbs, wh.ich giovv in nejrly a hori- I'.ontal diredion, forming a gentle curve. " I have Hepped" ftys Bartram, " above 50 paces, on a ftra'ght line, from the trunk of one of thele trees to the extre- mity cf the limbs." They are ever green, and the wood almoft incorruptible. They bear a great quan- tity of fm.ill acorns, which is agreeable food when loaded, and from which the Indians extracft a fweet oil, which they ufe in cooking homrciny and rice. The laurel magnolia is the moll beautiful among the trees of the foreft, and is ufnally 100 feet high, though fome are much higher. The trunk is perfeiftly erefl, rifing in the form of a beautiful column, and I'upporting a head like an obtufe cone. The flowers, which are on the extremity of the branches, are large, white, and expanded like a rofe, and are the largeft and mod complete, of any yet known ; when fully ex- panded, they aie from 6 to 9 inches diameter, and have a moft delicious fragrance. The cyprefs is the largeft of the American trees. " I have feen trunks r.f thefe trees,'' fays Bartram, " that would meafure 8, 10 and 12 feet in diameter, for 40 and 50 feet ihaft." The trunks make excellent (hingles, board', and other limber; and when hollowed, make durable and con- venient canoes. The garden vegetables are in high j);rfe(ftion ; the orange and lemon trees grow here, without cultivation, to a large fize, and produce bet- ter fruit than in Spain and Portugal. The intervales between the hilly paitsof this country are extremely lich. The principal town in Weft Florida is Penfaco- la ; in Eaft Florida St Auguftine. The Spanilh Rrength in the Floridas, and Louifiana, in 1790, was as follows, according to Mr Melford's account : Troops and levies at St Auguftine and on St John's river, 400 — St Marks, 100 — Penfacola, 350 — Mobile and Tcmbigbee, 15c — at the Natchez, 2CC — Red river, 100 — Illinois river, 300 — inalli6oo men, called the Orleans or Louiliana regiment. 3 ] FLU The number of American families that have been Spanifh fubjefls fince 1783, amounts to 1720, viz. at Tenfau, near Mobile bay, 90 — on Tonibigbee river, 130 — at the Natchez on the MilTiflippi, 1500. All the fettlers in thefe dillrifls are under the immediate orders of the military commandants, and lu'njeft to martial law ; with an appeal from Itage to llage, up to the viceroy of Mexico. The property of the fub- jcdl at his deceafe is to be managed by the comman- dant, whofe fees, by law, are enormous. Until the year 1586 the continent of North-Ame- rica went by the name of Florida. It received this name from John Ponee, becaufe when he landed in N. laU 38. 8. in April 1513, he found the country there in lull bloom. Floridj has frequently changed mailers, belonging alternately to tlie French and Spaniards. Weft-Florida, as far as Perdido river, was owned and occupied by the French ; the remain- der, and all Eaft- Florida, by the Spaniards, previous to their being ceded to the Britilh, at the peace of 1763. The Britifh divided this country into E. and W. Florida. During the American war, both the Floridas were reduced by the Spaniards, and guaran- tied to the crown of Spain by the definitive treaty of 1783. — ib. Florida, Cape, the fouthernmoft point of land of the peninfula of EalUFhiriila. It is 100 miles N. of the illand of Cuba. N. lat. 25. 20. W. long. 80. 20. — ih. Florida Keys, or Martyr's IJlands, a number of rocks and land banks, bounded W. by the guif of Mexico, E. by that of Florida. The great fand bank extends from the peninfula of Eaft-Florida inward, to the gulf of Mexico, in the form of a hook ; its W. point is divided from the bank called the Dry Tortu- gas, by Tortuga channel. — ih. Florida, Gulf or, is the channel between tlie peninfula of Florida and the Bahama iflands, N. of the ifland of Cuba ; and through which the Gulf Stream finds a palfage, and runs to the N. E. along the Ame- rican coaft. — ib. FLOWERTOWN, in Pennfylvania, is a fmall village about 12 miles N. of Philadelphia, in Montgo- mery CO. — ib. FLUENT, or Flowing Quantity, in the doc- trine of fluxions, is the variable quantity which is con- fidtred as increafing and decreafing ; or the fluent of a given fluxion, is that quantity whofe fluxion being taken, according to the rules of that doiftrine, fnall be the fame with the given fluxion. See Fluxions. Encyc\. FLUIDS, Motion in. See Hydrostatics and Resistance of Fluids, Encycl. and Motion in this Supplement . FLUSHING, a town in Queen's co. New-York, fituated on the N. W. part of Long Illand, and on the S. fide of Hell Gate ; 7 miles E. by N. of New- York city. It contains 1607 inhabitants; of whom 210 are qualified elecSors, and 340 are flaves. — Morse. FLUVANNA, a county of Virginia, bounded N. by Albemarle, N. E. by Louifa, E. by Goochland, W. by Amherft, and S. by Fluvanna or James river, which divides it from Buckingham. It is about 22 miles long, and 20 broad, and contains 3.921 inha- bitants, including 1,466 ilaves. There is great plenty of FOR [51 of marble, both white and variegated with blue, red and purple veins, found here, on James river, at the mouth of Rockfifh; where it forms a large precipice, overhanging a navigable part of the river. — ib. FOGEDAR, the military governor of a fubordi- riate diilriifl in India, who has lometimes the addition- al office nf colleding the revenues. ] FOR FOGGY Cape, on the N. VV. coaft of N. America, is lituated on the S. eaftein fide of the peninfula of Alaflva, and W. of Kilhtac ifland. — Morse. Foggy I/le, on tlie fame fide of the peninfula as the above, lies a Ihort way S. by W. of Foggy Cape. —ib. FOLIATE, a name given by fome to a curve of the 2d order, expreifed by the equation x' -{-^'= axji, being one ipecies of defe<flive hyperbolas, with one a- fymptote, and conhlfing of two infinite legs eroding each other, forming a fort of leaf. It is the 42d fpe- cies of Newton's Lines of the 3d Order. FOLLOWFIELD, a townlhip in W.ilhington co. Pennfylvania. Eaft and Weft Followfield are alfo two townfhips, in Chefter co. Pennfylvania. — Morse. F"ONSECA, Gulf of, lies in New-Spain on the Pacific ocean, 40 miles S. E. of the town of St Miguel, and about 290 miles N. W. of Cape Blanco, on tlie weftern fide of the gulf of Nicoya — ib. FONTAIN, Belle, a fettlement in the N. V/. ter- ritory, fituated on the E. fide of the Mlfljffippi, about 18 miles N. of St Phillips, and 23 below Cahokia ib. FONT, or FoNTE, Straits de, lie on the N. W, coaft of N. America, in N. lat. 54. 35. W. long. 9. ^^. There is a large ifland in the middle of the entrance. This is thought to be the fame ftrait that De Fonte, a Spanifh admiral, difcovered in 1640, vi'hofe account of it has been long treated as fabulous. It has been feen by captains Gray and Ingraiiam, of Bofton. — ib. FORALONES, in the illand of Gunra, and coaft of Peru, in S. America, are old walls of fome ancient building in the time of the Yncas, which ferve here as light-houfes for the fhipping which fail from Callao to Paita, on the S. Sea coaft. — ib. FORCER, in mechanics, is properly a pifton with- out a valve. For, by drawing up fuch a pifton, the air is drawn up, and the water fellows ; then pulhing the pifton down again, the water, being prevented from defcending by the lower valve, is forced up to any height above, by means of a fide branch between the two. FORDYCE (James, D. D.) fo well known to feri- ous readers by his fermons to young women and other fpecimens of pulpit eloquence, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1720. His father was a man much e- fteemed, and held, more than once, the office of chief magiftrate in his native city ; and his mother was a wo- man of good fenfe, amiable temper, and exemplary pie- ty. This refpedable pair had the fingular felicity of tranfmitting fuperior talents to almoft every individual of a numerous family ; of one of which, viz. David Fordyce, the reader will find fome account in the En- (yclopdedia. The fubjeift of this memoir, who was their fourth fon, acquired, as well as his brother, the rudiments ot clafiical learning at the grammar fchool of Aberdeen, whence he was removed to tiie Marifchal college and u- niverfity in the fame city. Having completed a regu- lar courfe of fludy both in philofophy and theology, he was licenfed, when very young, according to the forms of the church of Scotland, to be a preacher vi the gofpel ; and was foon afterwards preferred to the place of fecond minifter in the collegiate cliurch t.f Brschin in the county of Angu'. After remaining there for fome years, he received a prefentation to the church of Alloa near Stirling ; and though the inhabi- tants of that parilh were prepofT^iFcd in favour of ano- ther minifter whom they knew, and prejudiced againft Mr Fordyce whom they did not know ; fo narrow niinded and totally deftitute of tafte was his cdleague in Brechin, that he judged it expedient to hazard the confequences of a removal. lie was aware that he entered on his new charge under a confidcrabl; degree of popular odium ; but he thought it more probable that he fliould be able to overcome that odium, tlian conciliate the aflFeftions of a four finatic. la this ex- peftation he was not deceived. The prejudices of the good people in Alloa were very quickly removed, not more by the able and impreiTive manner in which ho conduced the public fervices of the Lord's day, than by the amiable and condefcending fpirit with which he performed the more private duties of vifiting and ca- techifing in the different diftriifts of his parilh ; duties which, as they were wont to be performed by the Scotch clergy, contributed much more than preahing to the religious inftrudion of the lower dalles of the people. It was during his refidenceat Alloa that Mr Fordyce firft diftinguifhed himfelf as an author by the fuccellive publication of the three following fermons. The firft, upon the eloquence of the pulpit, was annexed to " the Art of Preaching" by his brother David ; the fecond, upon the methods of promoting edification by public inrtitutions, was preached at the ordination of the Rev. Mr Gibfon minifter of St Ninian's, a neighbouring parilh, in the year 1754, and publifheJ, with the charge and notes in 1755 ; and the tliird, upon the de- lufive and perfecuting fpirit ci pnpery, was preached the fame ye ir before the fynod of Stirling and Perth : and being pubhlh^d, came very quickly to a fecond c- dition. But the fernion which moft ftror.gly arretted the attention, both of the audience before which it w.ts delivered, and of the public to which, in 1760, it was given from the prefs, was that on ihe f',lly, infamy, and niifery of ur.Iazi.ful fleafnre, preached before the Gene- ral Affembly of the Church of Scotland. Thechoiceof fuch a fubjecf on fudi an occalion, excited the furprife of all his hearers, and tempted the younger part of them to fmile at the very reading of the text ; but thii unfeafonable mirth was foon converted into ferioufnefs. The pi(ffure exhibiterl in this fermon is the work of a mafter; and we have been alfured by a friend who heard it preached, that the fpirit and elegance of the compofitiou was io feconJed by the foleninity and a- nim.ation with which it was delivered, tliat it made a very ftriking imprelTion, not only upon the more rs- fpe<5fable part of the audience, but upon minds of no- ted levity : It raifod indeed its writer's fame as a pul- pit-nrator to an unrivalled eminence among his brethren in Scotland. About this time, and we believe in eonfequence of this fermon, Mr Fordyce received t"iom the univerfity of Glafgow a diploma, creating him Dot'lor in Divi- G 2 nity ; ForJjfc- F O R [ 52 ] FOR lordyc-. nily; anJ if there is yet any thing honourable in aca- ^"'"^^'^^ demical degrees, proftitiited as they have long been by an undiftinguirtii' g diftribuiion, the honour could not have been conferred with greater propriety on any man in the church to which he then belonged. In that church he did not long remain. Soon after the publication of this fingnlar fermon, and his confe- qnent acquifition of academical honours, he accepted of an invitation from a fociety of Protellant difTenters, who had their place of meeting in Monkwell-ftreet, London, to become colleague and fuccelTor to their pallor, who was then old and infirm, and who died in- deed in the fpice of a few months. This gave occa- fion to the Doftor to diiplay his oratory once more both from the pulpit and tJie prefs in a fermon on the death of Dr Lawrence. He was now fole paflor to the congregation of Monk well (treet ; and preached for many years, with great powers ot eloquence and fervor of piety, to an audience always crowded and often overflowing. When a preacher obtains, with or without merit, an uncommon Ihare of popularity, a confiderable pro- portion of his hearers will ever confill of thofe, wlio ;ire guided in their choice rather by curiofity and fa- Ihion, than by found judgment. The attachments of fuch people are as capricious and variable as their minds ; and they change their preacher as they change their drefs, not from their own tafte, for in general they have none ; but from the defire of being where others are, of doing what others do, and of admiring what others admire. Dr Fordyce appreciated jullly the value of fuch men's approbation, and knew it eventually by experience ; but he was more than com- penfated for the lofs of hearers of this defcription by the Heady adherence of others, whofe eftecm was molt dcflrable, becaufe it was grounded upon the didates of a found underllanding. At laft, about Chriftmas 1782, when his health, which had long been declining, lendered it necelfary, in his own opinicjn, and in the opinion of his phyficians, to difcintinue his public fervices, he refigned his charge in Monkwell-llreet, and retired to a villa in Hamplhirc, in the neighbourhood of the Earl of Bute, who ho- noured him with his friendlhip, and to whofe valuable library he had free accefs. Afterwards he removed to Bath, where having, whh Chriftian patience, fuffered much from an afthmatic complaint, to which he had been fubjefl for fome years, on the i ft of Oflober 1796 he expired without a groan. Were we to hazard an opinion of Dr Fordyce's intel- leftual powers from fuch a perufal of his works as we mull acknowledge to liave been hafty, we would fay that lie was a man of genius rather than of judgment ; that his imagination was the predominant faculty of his mind ; and that he was better fitted, by an addrefs to the paffions, to enforce the prailice of virtue, than, by the exertions of his own underllanding, to vindicate fpe- culative truth, or to deteft the fophillry of error. From this remark, we cannot be fufpected of a wifh to leffen his charafter in the public efteem ; for his talents, as they appear to us, are furely of more value to a preach- er than thnfe which are perhaps better adapted to li- Fordyce. teraiy or fcientific puifuits. In none of his work in- ^-^"^''^^ deed do we perceive any evidence either of profound fcience, or of various erudition ; though we doubt not but thofe works are every thing which their author in- tended them to be. Of his lermons to young women, which have attradcd mofl general notice, it would be prefumptuous in us to give a characfler ; for though we fat down many years ago to read them, we could not get through ; and we have never made a fecond at- tempt. As far as we can depend upon what we recoi- led of thefe far-famed difcourfes, the cenfure pafTed on them by Mrs Wollloncraft I'eems to be jirll. Their au- thor, however, was certainly qualified to excel, and ac- tually did excel as a preacher. We have a'.ieady men- tioned with approbation three or four ot his occafional fei mons j but perhaps the finefl fpecimen of pulpit ora- tory which ever fell from his pen, is the charge which he delivered at the ordination of his fucceilbr in the meeting of Monkwell-ftreet. It is indeed one of the moft valuable difcourfes of the kind that we have feen, and iliould be read with attention by every clergyman of every denomination, who wifhes to diicharge his duty with credit to hlmfelf and with advantage to his people. The effeifl of Dr Fordyce's addreffes from the pul- pit was much heightened, not only by an a<5lion and an elocution, which he Itudied with care and praflifed with fuccels ; but by the figure of his perfon, which was peculiarly dignified, and by the expreflion of his coun- tenance, which was animated at all time;, but animated moft of all when lighted up by the ardor of his foul in the fervice of God. By fome of his hearers, it was obfer- ved that, on many occaficn';, he feemed not merely to fpeak, but to look conviflion to the heart. His eye, indeed, was particularly bright and penetrating, and he had carefully attended to the effed which an orator may often produce upon an audience by the judicious ufe of that little, but invaluable organ. With refpeifl to his theological fentiments, we are affured (a) they were in no extreme, but liberal, rational, and manly. He feeras to have been untainted by that rage of innovation, which of late has fo completely dif- figured the creed, ?s well religious as political, ot the great body of Englifh dilfenters. The confequence was, that he lived in terms of fViendfhlp with men of very oppofite fentiments ; with Price a republican and Arian, and with Johnfon, who, though he hated a whig and a Prefbyterlan, refpefted talents and worth wherever he found them. We fhall conclude this (hort (ketch of Dr Fordyce's life and cliaracfter with the following lifl of his works, of which fome have been tranflated into feveral lan- guages. I. A Sermon and Charge, at the ordination of the Rev. Mr Gibfon Minilter of St Niuian' 1754- 2. Another Ordination Sermon on the Eloquence of the Pulpit, annexed to his brother's " Art of Pleach- ing," 1754. 3. A Sermon on the Spirit of Popery, 1754. 4. A Sermon on the Folly, Infamy, and Mi- fery of Unlawful Pleafure, 1760. 5. A Sermon on the Death of Dr Lawrence, 1 760. 6. Sermons to Young Women, 2 vols. 1765. 7. A Sermon on the Charadler (a) By his fuccelTor in Monkwell-ftreet, to whofe fermon, preached on occafioQ of the Doftot's death, our re;iders are indebted for every thing valuable in this ikon memoir. FOR [ Forefterton Charafter and Conducft of the Female Sex, 1776. 8. H Addreires to young men, 2 vols. 1777. 9. A Charge 1^^^!^,,^ at the Ordination of the Rev. James Lindfey, in Monkwell-ftreet, 1783. 10. AddrefTes to the Deity, 1785. It. Poems, 1786. 12. A DifcourCe on Pain, 1791. He alf) re-publillisd, wiih an additional charac- ter, " The Temple of Virtue, a Dream," written hy his brother David. FORESTERTON, a village in Burlington co. New-Jerfey, which lies between Ayerllon and Evef- ham ; about 15 miles E. of Philadelphia, and 11 S. of Burlington city. — Morse. FOREST, a fmall ifland in the Britifh territories at the mouth of Lake Ontario, between which and Grand Ifland is a narrow channel. It lies 9 miles foutherly of Fort Frontinac, and 6 N. wefterly of Roebuck ifland in the fame lake, and within the line of the United States. — ib. FORKED DEER, a navigable river in Tenneffee, which runs wellerly into Miffiflippi river, between the Oblan and Hatchy. It is about 76 yards wide, 7 miles from its mouth. — ib. FORKS, a townfhip in Northampton co. Pennfyl- vania. — ib. FORIVIULA, a theorem or general rule or expref- fion, for refolving certain particular cafes of fome pro- blem, &c. So \s -^^ \d is a general formula for the greater of two quantities whofe fum is / and difference d; and \s — \d is the formula, or general value, fjr the lefs qurntity. Alfo */ dx — .v^ is the formula, or general value, ot the ordinate to a circle, whofe diame- ter is d. and abfcifs x. FORSTER(John Reinhold, L.L.D.) profeflor of natural hiftory in the univerfity of Halle, member of the academy of fciences at Berlin, and of otiier learned focieties, was born at Dirl'chau, in Weft Prullia, in the month of Oftober 1729, and vvas formerly a Prote- ftant clergyman at Dantzick. He had a numerous fa- mily, and the emoluments of his office were flender. He therefore quitted Dantzick, and went, firft to Ruf- fia, and thence to England, in quell of a belter fettle- ment than his own country afforded. In the diffent- ing academy at Warrington he was appointed tutor in the modern languages, with the occalional office of leffuring in various branches of natural hiftory. For the firft department he was by no means well qua- lified ; his extraordinary knowledge of languages:, ancient and modern, being unaccompanied by a par- ticle of tafte ; and his ule of them being all barbar- ous, though fluent. A*: a natural hilfonan, a critic, geographer, and antiquary, he ranked much high- er; but, unfortunatel), ttiefe were acquifitions of little value in his academical department. At length he obtained the appointment of naturalift and philofopher (if the wnrd may be fo ufed) to the fe- cond voyage of difcovery undertaken by Capt. Cook ; and from 1772 to 1775 he accompariied that immortal navigator round the world. On his return he refided in London, till the improper condmS ot himltlf and his fon made it expedient for them both to leave the kingdom. Fortunately he received an invitation to Halle, where, for 18 year'-, he was a member ot the philofophical and medical faculties. Among his works are ; An Intrnduftion to Mineralogy, or. An accurate Claflitication of FoGlh and Minerals, &.c. 53 3 FOR . London, 1768, 8vo. A Catalogue of the Animals of North America, with llinrt Direclions for collec- ting, preferving, and tranfporting all kinds of Natu- ral Curii'liiies, London, 1771, 8vo. Obfcrvacions made during a Voyage round the World, on Phylical Geography, &c. London, 1778. He was the author of a great many produftions in Englilh, Latin, or Ger- man, and of feveral papers in the Philof'phical Tranf- aftions. He tranflated into Englilli, Bougainville's Voyage round the World, and Kalm's, Bnifu's, and Reidfel's Travels. He was employed llkewife, when in England, in the Critical Review; and he wrote va- rious detached papers on different fubjefls, which have been inferted in foreign journals and the tranfaiffions of learned academies. He died at Halle on the i6th of December 1798, in the 70th year of his age. FORSTER (George), the fon of the preceding, was born at Dantzick, and accompanied his father to Eng- land when he was about twelve years of age. He was entered a ftudent in the academy at Warrington, and foon acquired a very perfefl ufe of the Engliih tongue. He alfo diftinguifhed himfelf greatly by his attainments in fcience and literature in general ; adding to an ex- cellent memory, quick parts and a fertile imagination. His temper was mild and amiable ; in which he much differed from his father, one of the moft quarrelfome and irritable of men ; by which difpolition, joined to a total want of prudence in common concernf, he loll alnioft all the friends his talents had acquired him, and involved himfelf and family in perpetual difficulties. The cafe was very different with the fubjeiff of this memoir ; for when Dr Forfter was appomted naturalilt to captain Cook, his fon, through the intereft of the friends whom his good nature had made, was alfociated with him in his office. The voyage continued during the fpace of three years ; and on their return tlie two Forfters publifhed jointly a botanical work in Latin, contained the charaflers of a number of new genera of plants, difcovered by them in their circumnavigation. Thus far they afted properly in tlie fervice of govern- ment for the advancement of fcience; but in publilli- ing another work their conduct was not proper. The father had come under an engagement not to publifh feparately, from the authorifed narrative, any account of the voyage ; and this engagement he and his fon were determined to violate. An account of the voyage, therefore, was publKhed In Englifh and German by George ; and the language, which is cor- re<ff and elegant, was undoubtedly his; but thcfe who knew bot!) him and his father, are fatisfied that the matter proceeded from the joint ftock of their obfer- vations and reflexions. Several parts of the work, and particularly the elaborate invettlgations relative to the languages fpoken by the natives of the South Sea Iflands, and the fpcculatlons concerning their fuccef- live migrations, are tluuight to be ftrongly imprelfed with the genius of the elder Forfter. That a work thus furrcptltioully uihered into the world was not patronifed by thofe with whom the au- thors had fo ungratefully broken (alth, could excite no wonder, even though tiie publication itfelf had been oiherwife unexceptionable ; but this was far from being the cafe. It abounds with rerte^f ions injurious to the government whofe fcrvants tliey had been, and not juft to Forfter. F O R [ i4 ] FOR ForOcr. to ihe navigators employed on voyages of dil'covery. ~-^'~^"'~' Tl e yciinger Foilkr, too, had fonie time before pub- lillied a book replete with faiTtiL-^us fenliments ; and llie coldnefs with which he and his father were b.ith trc .ted in consequence of fuch conduc'l, determined tlieni to leave London. We have alieady related all that we know of the fa- ther, who was recommended to our notice only by his connexion with the illuftrious Cook ; and of the fon, thtre is a fhort account in the Monthly M.i- gazine, by Charles Pnugens, fraught with tho(e im- pious and fediiious refleiflions wliicli fo frequently dif- grace a mifccllany, wliich would otherwifc be highly valuable. According to this author, George Forfter was defiroiis to fettle in France. Avaricious of glory, and an idolator of liberty, Paris was the city molt fuit- able to his taftc and charadler of any in Europe. Not- withftanding tliis, he was foon conllrained to leave it : the inteiell of his family demanded this facrifice ; for a learned man, who fails round the world, may enrich his memory, but he will not better his fortune. He was accordingly obliged to accept the place of profcf- Tir ot natural hiftory in the univerfity of Caffel. But his factious fpirit accompanied him whitheifoever he went. It is well known, that the petty princes of Geimany have long been in the pradice of hiring out their troops to more opulent fovereigns engaged in war. This praflice, which we are not difpofed to de- fend, not only fcandalized our Cofmnpolite, but fo ir- ritated his temper and ofFended his pride, becaufe for- footh, the Prince of Helfe-Cairel would not by hi,n be perfuaded to telinquilli it, that he did every thing in his power, we are told, to withdiaw himfelf from a fi- tuation fo unfuitable to a thinking being. Every thing in his power ! Did the Prince retain him in the uni- verfity contrary to his inclination ? The univerflty of Caflel mud be contemptible indeed, if the preledions of fuch a man as George Forfter were of fuch confe- quence to it. He got away, however, and the fenate of Poland having offered him a chair in the univerfity of Wilna, F'orfler accepted of the invitation. But although this office was very lucrative, and the enlightened patriots of that country did not negled to procure him all the literary fuccours of which he flood in need, he could not be long happy in a femi-barbarous nation, in which liberty was futfered to expire under the intrigues of RulTia and Pruflia. On this, with wonderful confiftency, the man who could not endure the defpotifm of Helfe, or even the ariftocracy of England, accepted of the propofitions of that friend to liberty Catharine II ; who, jealous of e- very fpecies of glory, wiftied to fignallze her reign, by procuring to the Ruffian nation the honour of undertak- ing, after tlie example of England and France, a new voyage of dil'covery round the world. Unfortunate- ly for the pvogrefs of knowledge, the war witli tlie Ottoman Porte occafidned the mifcarriage of this ufeful prnjeifl. But Forfter conld not long remain in obfcurity. The diiferent publications witli which he occalionally enriched natural hillnry and literature, encrcafed his reputation. The Elcfto. ot Mentz accordingly ap- pointed him prefident of the univerfity of the fame name; and he was difchargiiig the funflions of his new Pougens, to pro- themfelves into a office when the French troops took pofTcdion of the Torfttr. capital. This philofophical traveller, who had ftudied **^~"'^*" focicty under all the vaiions afpecfts arifing from diffe- rent degrees of civilizalii'n ; who had viewed man fimple and happy at Ot.iheite ; — an eater of human flefh in New-Zealand, corrupted l)y commerce in England, depraved in France by luxury and atheii'm, in Brabant by fnperftition, and in Poland by anarchy; — beheld with wild enthufiafm the dawnings of the French re- volution, and was the firlt, fays M. mulgate republicanifm in Germany. The Maycncois, who had formed national convention, fent him to Paris, in order to fo- licit their nuntvH with the French republic. Cut, ia the courfe of his mifiion, the city of Mentz was be- fieged and retaken by the Pruffian troops. This event occalioned the lofs of all his property ; and what was ftlll more difaftrous, that of his numerous manu- fcrlpts, W'hich fell into the hands of the Prince of Pruf- fia. Our biographer, after conduL^ing his hero through thefe fcenes ot public life, proceeds to give us a view of his domellic habits and piivate principles. He tells UF, that he tormed a connexion (whether a marriage or not, the ftudied ambiguity of his language leaves rather uncertain) with a young woman named There-- fa Hayiie, who, lay the illumination of French philnfo- phy, had diverted herfelf of all the prejudices which, wc truft, the ladies of this country ftlll confider as their honour, as they are certainly the guardians of domeftic peace. Mifs Hayne was indignant at the very Kame of duty. With Eloifa flic had taken it into her head, that Love, free as air, at fight of human ties, Spreads his light wings, and in a moment dies. She was frank enougli, however, fays our author, to acknowledge the errors of her imagination ; and from this expreffion, and his calling her afterwards Forfter's wife, we are led to fuppofe that fhe was adlually mar- ried to him. But their union, of whatever kind, was of ihort duration. Though the lady is faid to have been pafllonately attached to celebrated names, the name of George Forfter was not fufficient to fatisfy her. He foon ceafed, we are informed, to pliafe her ; flie therefore transferred her affeiflioDs to another ; and, as was very natural for a woman who was indignant at the name of duty, (lie proved falfe to her huftjand's bed. Forfter, however, pretended to be fuch a friend to the modern rights of men and women, that he defended the charader of his Therefa againft crowds who condemn- ed her condufl. Nay, we are told, that he confider- ed himfelf, and every other hufband, who ceafes to pleafc, as the adulterer of nature. He therefore la- boured ftrenuoufly to obtain a divorce, to enable The- refa Hayne to efpoufe the man whom fhe preferred to himfelf. Strange, however, to tell, the prejudices even of this Cofmopolite were too ftrong for his principles. Wliile he was endeavouring to procure the divorce, he made preparations at the fame time, by the ftudy of the oriental languages, to undertake a journey to Thi- bet and Indoftan, in order to remove from that part of the world, in which both his heart and his perfon had experienced fo fevere a (hock. But the chagrin occa- fioned by his misfortunes, joined to a fcorbntic affec- tiOQ, F O R [ 5 Royal Fort tion, to which he hiid been long fubjeft, and which he II had contraifled at fea during the voyage of circumna- ^^|J1J^2^^ vigation, abridged his life, and prevented him from rea- liliiig this double projeft. He died at Palis, at tlie age of thirty-nine, on the 13th of Febiuary 1792. This is a llrange tale ; but we truft it will not prove ufelefs. The latter part of it at leaft Ihows, that when men dived themfelves cf the principles of religion, they foon degenerate from the dignity of philofophers to the level of mere fcnfualirts ; and that the woman, who c '.n, in defiance of decorum and honour, transfer her alTec- tions and her perfon from man to man, ranks no higher in the fcale of being than a female brute of ir.ore than common fagacity. It fhevvs likewife, that the contempt of our modern fages for ihofe partial attachments which unite individuals in one family, is a mere pretence ; th.it the didates of nature will be heard ; and the laws of nature's God obeyed. George Forller, though he was fuch a zealous advocate for liberty and equality, as to vindicate the adultery of his wife ; yet felt fo fen- fibly the wound which her infidelity inflifled on his ho- nour, that he could not i'urvive it, but perifhed, in con- fequence, in the flower of his age. RovAL FORT, is one whofe line of defence is at leaft 26 fathoms long. Star FokT, is a fconce or redoubt, conftituted by re- entering and falianc angles, having commonly from five to eight points, and the fides flanking each other. FORT BALIZE, at the mouth of Miffiffippi river, lies 105 miles below the city of New-Orleans. — Morse. Fort Blount, Hands on Cumberland river, in the ftate of Tenneifee. — il>. Fort Brewington, in New- York ftate, is fituated at the W. end of Oneida Lake, and on the N. fide of Onondago river, at its mouth in the lake. — ib. Fort Chartres, intheN.W. territory, is fituated on the E. bank of Mifliilippi river, 6 miles VV. by S. of St Phillips, and 19 W. N. W. of Kalkafkias village. — ii. Fort Dauphin, a fmall lake, or rather arm of Lit- tle Winnipeg lake, and weft of it. — il>. Fort Edward, a pleafant village in Wafhington CO. New- York, on the E. bank of Hudfon river, 49 miles N. of Albany. It has its name from the large fort built here in 1755; of which there are no re- mains but large mounds of earth. — ii. Fort Anne, a village on the head-waters of Wood creek, in Wafhington co. New-York, 60 miles N. E. of Albany city. It has its name from a fmall picket fort, erefted in the reign of Queen Anne, of which there is no veftige left. — it. Fort George, lies at the S. end of lake George, 62 miles N. of Albany. Here are the remains of the old forts, George, and William Henry. The fituation is pleafant, but there is hardly the appearance of a vil- lage. — ib. FoRTROYAL, in the ifland of Grenada. — ib, Fortroyal, one of the principal towns in the iflind of Martinico, in the Weft-Indies. It is the feat of go- vernment in the ifland; its ftreets are tegular, the houfes agreeable, and the people gay and luxurious. The citadel which defends the town colt the French j^. 325,000 fterling. The harbor here is one of the bell in the Weft-Indies, and the fliips of war winter in it. —ib. J ] F O U FORTUNE, a large bay towards the S. W. part of Newfoundland ifland ; acrofj the mouth of which lies Micklon ifland, and S. of it Peters ifland. This extenfive bay is interfperfed with fmall ifl.-5, and within it are many bays. It has great depth of water throughout. — ii. FOSSIL Meal, otherwlfe called /ac lunf, mineral argaric, and guhr, is, according the M. Fabbioni, a m-x- ed earth, which e.ih.tles an argilhceous odour, and throws out a light wliltifli fmoke when fprinkled with water. It is abundint in Tufcany, where it is em- ployed for cleaning plate. It d.ies not tlFervefce wi.h acids ; is in!ulibk in the fire, in which it lofes an eifbth part of its weight, though it becomes fcarcely diminifli- edin bulk; and, according to theanalyfis made by M. Fabbroni, conhfts of the fc^hwing component p irts : filiceous earth ^S' magnefia 15, water 14, argil 12, lime 3, iron i. With this earth, wliich is found near Caftcldelpiano in the territories of Sienna, M. Fabbro- ni compofed bricks, which, either baked or unbaked, floated in waisr. Hence he infers, that the floning bricks, whiili Pliny mentions as peculiar to Maflilna and Calento, tv.-o citii;s in Spjin, inuft have been made of foflll-meal. Bricks made of that fubftance relift wa- ter exceedingly well, and unite poifeiflly with lime ; they are fubjed to no alteration el;her by heat or Cild ; and about a twentieth part of argil may be added with advantage to their compofltion, without depriving them of the property (^( floating. M. Fablironi liied their refiftance, and found it very little inferior to that of common bricks ; but it is much greater in jiroportion to their lightnefs. One of thefe bricks, fcven inches in length, four and a half in breadth, and one inch ei'jht lines in thicknefs, weighed only I4:jth ounces ? wheieas a common brick weighed 5 pounds 6|ths ounces. Bricks of foflil-mcal may be of important benefit in the conftruiflion of reverberating furnaces, as they are fuch bad condudors oi heat, that a perfon may bring one half of them to a red heat, while the otlier is held in the hand. They may be employed alfo for buildings that require to be light ; for conftruiSing cooking places on board rtiips ; and alfo floating batteries, the para- pets of which, if made of thefe bricks, would be proof ag^inft red hot bullets ; and, laftly, for conftruJing powder magazines. FOSTER, a townfhip in Providence co. Rhode- Ifland, containing 2268 inhibitants ; 1 7 miles weftcrly of Providence, and 31 N. W. of Newport. — Morie. FOULAHS or Foolahs, a people in Afiica, in- habiting a country on ^he confines of the great defcit (f;e Sahara in tiiis SuppL) along the parall;! of nine degrees n^rth. Tney partake much of the negro form and complexion ; but have neither tlie jdty colour, thick lips, nor crij^cd hair of the negroes. They have alio a language dilliniff from the Mandinga, wliich is the prevailing one in this quarter. The FouUh's occu- py, at leaft asfovercigiis, fsveral provinces or kingdom?, interfperfed tliroughout the xx^Si comprehended be- tween the mountainous border of the couiitry ofSierrt Leona on the weft, and that of Tombuct.io on the call ; as alio a large traifl on the lower p.irt of the Senegal river; and thefe provinces are inlulated trom each .ither in a very remarkable manner. Their religion !.■< Malio- mcd.inifm ; but with a great mixture of Paganifm, and with Icfs intolerance than is ptadlifed by the Moors. Tke Foulahs Fox. FOX The principal ot' the Fnul.ih ft;ites Siena Leona ; and ot which Teemboo is the capit.il. The next in order appeiirs to be that bordering on the Ibuth of ih; Senegal river, and on tlie Jalofl's ; this is properly named Siratik. Others ot lefs note are lion- dou, with I'oota-'rorra adjacent to it, lying between the rivers Gambia and ralenic ; Foola-doo and lirootco along the upper part of tlie Senegal river ; Walicla be- yond the upper part of the Niger ; and Madina lower down on the fame river, and joining to Tombudoo on the weft. The kingdom oC the Fonlah?, fituated between the upper pan of the Gambia river, and the coaft of Sierra Leona, and along the Rio Grande, is governed by a Mahcmelan foveieign ; but the bulk of the people ap- pear to be Pagans. From the circumftances of their long hair, their lips, and comparatively light colour. Major Rennel is decidedly of opinion, that the Fou- lahs are the Leucxthiops of Ptolemy and Pliny. The former, as he oblerves, places the Leucithiops in the titnation occupied by the Foulahs ; and by the name which he gave them, he evidently meant to defcribe a people k/s black than ihe generality of the Ethiopians. Hence it may be gathered, that this nation had been traded with, and that fome notices refpedtlng it had been communicated to Ptolemy. It may alfo be re- marked, that the navigation of Hanno terminated on this coart; and as this was alfo the term of Ptolemy's knowledge, it may juftly be fufpeded, that this part of the coaft was defcribed from Carthaginian materials Thofe who have perufed the journal of Mtffrs Watt and Winterbottom through the Foulah country in 1794, and recollect how flattering a pidlure they give of ihe urbanity and hofpitality of the Foulahs, will be gratified on finding that this nation was known and diftinguilhed from the reft of the Ethiopians at a re- mote period of antiquity. The contraft between the Moorifh and Negro cha- rafters is as great as that between the nature of tlieir refpeflive countries, or between their form and com- plexion. The Moors appear to poli'efs the vices of the .Arabs without llieir virtues ; and to avail themfelves of an intolerant religion, to opprefs ftrangers : wliilft the Negroes, and efpecially the Mandingas, unable to com- prehend a doiflrine that fubftitutes opinion or belief fur the focial duties, are content to remain in their humble flate of ignorance. Tlie hofpitality fliewn by tbefe good people to Mr Park, a deftitute and forlorn ftran- ger, raifes them very high in the fcale of humanity : and I know of no (itter title, fays Mr Rennel, to con- fer on them than that of the Hindoos of Africa ; at the fame time, by no means intending to degrade the Ma- hnmedans of India by a comparifon with the African Moors. — See Major Rennel's Geographical llluflrations of Mr Park's Jourm-y, and of North Africa at large, printed for the African Aflbciation. FOXBOROUGH, a townlhip in Norfolk co. Maf. fachufetts, containing 674 inhabitants, 26 miles S. of Bofton. It was formerly a part of Dorchefter, and was incorporated in 177S. — Morse. FOX, a river in the N. W. territory, which rifes in the S. and runs about 50 miles N. where it approach- es very near to, and n .rallel with, Oaifconfui, a N. eaftern branch of the Miffillippi river. From the Great Carrying place here, tin ough lake Winnebago, it runs [ 56 3 F R A is that within eafterly, then N. E. to bay Puan, about 180 miles. From the carrying jilace to Winnebago it is naviga- ble for canoes 4 or 5 miles. From bay Puan its cur- rent io gentle ; from thence to Winnebago lake it is fidl of locks and very rapid. Its breadth is between 70 and 100 yards. The land on its borders is good, thinly wooded with hickory, oak, and ha/el. — ib. Fox, a northern water of Illinois rivei, 34 miles below the mouth of Plein river. — ib. FRAMINGiiAM, a townfliip in Middlefex co. MafTachuletts, containing 1598 inhabitants. It was incorporated in 1700, and is 24 miles W. S. W. of Bofton. — ih. FRANCAIS (Port des), the name given by Pc- roufe to a bay, or rather harbour, which he undoubted- ly difcovered on the north-weft coaft ot America. It is fituated, according to him, in 58" 37. N. Lat. and in 139° 50' W. Long. Irom Paris. When the two frigates which he commanded approached it, as they were ftretching along the coaft from fouth to north, he perceived trom his ftiip a great reef of rocks behind which the fea was very calm. This reef appeared to be about three or four hundred toifes in length from eaft to weft, and to be terminated, at about two cables length, by the point of the continent, leaving a pretty large opening ; fo that Nature feemed to have made, at the extremity of America, a harbour like that of Tou- lon, only more vaft in lier defigns and in her means : this new harbour was three or four leagues deep. Some officers, who had been difpatched in boats to reconnoitre this harbour, gave a report of it extremely* favourable ; and on the 5d of July 1786, the two fri- gates entered it, and anchored near its mouth in three fathorps and a half, rocky bottom. The bay, however, was quickly founded, and much better anchoring ground difcovered at an ifland in the middle of it, where the fhips might ride in 20 fathoms water with muddy bottom. This ground was taken pofletfion of, an ob- fervatory erected on the ifland, which was only a muf- ket fhot from the Ihips, and a lettlement formed for their ftay in the harbour. From a report made by one of the oQicers who had penetrated towards the bottom of the bay, Peroufe had conceived the idea of finding perhaps a channel by which he might proceed into the interior of America; but he was difappointed. The bottom of the bay, indeed, according to him, is one of the moft extraordinary places in the world. It is a bafon of water, of a depth in the middle that could not be fathomed, bordered by peaked mountains of an ex- ceffive height, covered with fnow, without a blade of grafs upon this immenfe coUedion of rocks, condemned by Nature to perpetual ftcrility. " I never (fays he) faw a breaih of air ruffle the furface of this water ; it is never troubled but by the fall of enormous pieces of ice, which continually detach themfelves from five different glaciers and which in tailing make a noife that refounds far in the mountains. The air is in this place fo very calm, and the filence fo profound, that the mere voice of a man may be heard half a league off, as well as the noife of fome fea birds which lay their eggs in the cavities of iheie rocks." It was at the extremity of this bay that he was in hopes of finding a patfage into the interior of America. He imagined that it migln terminate in a great river, of v.'hich the courfe might lie between two mountains ; and F R A C S7 ] F R A Fraiicaij. and that this river might take its fource in the great lakes to the northward of Canada. Two channels were indeed found, ftretching, the one to the eaft, and the other to the weft ; but both were very foon termi- nated by immenfe glaciers. In Port des Frangais the variation of the compafs is 28° eaft, and the dip of the needle 74". The fea rifes there feven feet and a half at full and change of the moon, when it is high water at one o'clock. The fea breezes, or perhaps other caufes, a<5t fo powerfully upon the current of the channel, that M. Peroufe faw the flood come in there like the moft rapid river ; while, in other circumftances, at the fame period of the moon, it may be ftemmed by a boat. In this channel he loft two Ihallops and twenty men. In his diflFerent excur- fions, he found the high water mark to be about 15 feet above the furface of the fea. Tliefe tides are probably incident to the bad feafun. When the winds blow with violence from the fouthward, the channel muft be imprafticable, and at all times the currents render the entrance difficult; the going out of it alfo requires a combination of circumftances, which may retard the de- parture of a velfel many weeks ; there is no getting un- der way but at the top of high water ; the breeze from the weft to the north-weft does not often rife till to- ward eleven o'clock, which does not permit the taking advantage of the morning tide ; finally, the eafterly winds, which are contrary, appeared to him to be more frequent than thofe from the weft, and the vaft height of the furrounding mountains never permits the land breezes, or thofe from the north, to penetrate into the road. As this port polTelTes great advantages, M. Peroufe thought it a duty incumbent on him to make its in- conveniences alfo known. It feemed to him that this anchorage is not convenient for thofe fliips which are fent out at a venture for trafficking in fkins ; fuch fliips ought to anchor in a great many bays, and always make the fliorteft ftay poffible in any of them ; becaufe the Indians have always difpofed of their whole ftock in the firft week, and all loft time is prejudicial to the interefts of the owners ; but a nation which (hould form the project of eftabliftiing fa<5torics fimilar to thofe of the Englilh in Hudfon'b Bay, could not make choice of a place more proper for fuch a fettlement. A fimple battery of four heavy cannon, placed upon the point of the continent, would be fully adequate to the defence of fo narrow an entrance, which is alfo made fo diffi- cult by the currents. This battery could not be turned or taken by land, becaufe the fea always breaks with fuch violence upon the coaft, that to difembark is im- poffible. The fort, the maj^azincs, and all the fettle- ments for commerce, Ihould be raifed upon Cenotaph Jfland (a), the circumference of wliich is nearly a league : it is capable of being cultivated, and there is plenty of wood and water. The fliips not having their cargo to feek, but being certain of having it colleded to a fingle point, would not be expofed to any delay : fome buoys, placed for the internal navigation of the SuppL. Vol. II. bay, would make it extremely fafe and eafy. The fet- tlement would form pilots, who, better verfeJ than we are in the fet and ftrength of the current at particular times of tide, would eufure the entrance and departure of the fhips. Finally, continues the author, our trathc for otters fkins has been fo very confidcrable, that I may fairly prefume there could not, in any part of America, be a greater quantity of them coUefled. The climate of this coaft feemed to Peroufe much milder than that of Hudfon's Bay in the fame latitude. Pines were meafured of fix feet diameter, and 14c high ; while thofe of the fime fpecies at Prince of Wales's Fort and Fort York are of a dimenfion fcarce fufficient for ftudding fail-booms. Vegetation is alfo very vigo- rous during three or f<'Ur months of the year ; and our author thinks, that Ruffian corn, as well as many com- mon plants might thrive exceedingly at Port des Fran- fais, where was found great abundance of celery, lu- pine', the wild pea, yarrow, and andive. Among thefe pot herbs were feen almoft all thofe of the meadows and mountains of France ; fuch as the angelica, the butter cup, the violet, and many fpecies of grafs pro- per for fodder. Tlie woods abound in goofeberries, rafpberries, and ftrawberries ; clufters of elder trees, the dwarf willow, different fpecies of briar which grow in the (liade, the gum poplar tree, the poplir, the fiUow, the horn-beam ; and, finally, fuperb pines, fit for the marts of our largeft fliips. Not any of the vegetable productions of this country are unknown in Europe. M. de Martiniere, in his different excurfions, met with only three plants which he thought new ; and it is well known, that a botanift might do the fame in the vicinity of Paris. The rivers were filled with trout and falmon ; and as the Indians fold thefe fifli to the French in greater quantities than they could confume, they had very little filhing in the bay, and that only with the line. They caught fome ling, a fingle thornback, fome plaice, Jti- tans or faitans, of which fome were more than ico pounds in weight (b), and a fifli refembling tlie whi- ting, but a little larger, which abounds on the coaft of Provence, where it is known by the name oi potr-prie/l. Peroufe calls thefe fifli capihns. In the woods they met with bears, martens, and fquirrels ; but they faw no great variety of birds, though the individuals were very numerous. " If the animal and vegetable produdlions of this country refemble thofe of a great many others, its ap- pearance (fays our author) can be compared to no- thing. The views which it prefcnts are more friglillul than thofe of the Alps and the Pyrenees ; but at tlie fame time fo pi.fturefque, that they would deferve the vifits of the curious, were they not at the extremity of the world. The primitive mountains of granite or fchiftus, perpetually covered with fnow, upon which are neither trees nor jilants, have their foundation in the fea, and form upon the fliore a kind of quay ; their flope is fo rapid, that after the firft two or three hun- dred toifes, the wild goats cannot climb them ; and all H the Praii (a) This name was given to the ifland in the bay from the monument creeled on it to the memory of tlieir unfortunate companions. (b) This is a flat fifli, longer and not fo fquare as the lurbet. Its bark is covered with fraall fcales ; and thofe which are taken in Europe are much lets than the flelaus of Port des I'rau^ais. F R A C 58 ] F R A rrancaU. tlic guUies which feparate them are immenfe glaciers, ^-^"""^^^ of which the tops cannot be difeerned, while the bafe is walhed by the fca. At a cable's length from the land there is no bottom at lefs than 160 fathoms. The fides of tlie harbour are formed by fecondary moun- tains, the elevation of which does not exceed from 800 to 900 toifes ; they arc covered with pines, and over- fpread with verdure, and the fnow is only feen on their fumnilts: they appeared to be entirely formed of fchif- tus, w hich is in the commencement of a ftate of decom- pofition ; tliey are extremely difficult to climb, but not altogether inacceQible. " Nature affigns inhabitants to fo frightful a country, who as widely differ from the people ot civilized coun- tiies as the fcene which has juil been defcribed differs from our cultivated plains ; as rude and barbarous as their foil is rocky and barren, they inhabit this land only to deftroy its population : at war with all the ani- mals, they defpife the vegetable fubftances which grow around lliem. I have ieen (fays our author) women and children eat fome rafpberries and ftrawberries ; but thefe are undoubtedly viands far too infipid for men, who live upon the earth like vultures in the air, or wolves and tigers in the forefts. " Their arts are fomewhat advanced, and in this re- fpeft civilization has made confiderable progrefs ; but that which foftens their ferocity, and polifhes their manners, is yet in its infancy. The mode of life they purfue excluding all kind of fiibordination, they are continually agitated by fear or revenge ; prone to an- ger, and eafily irritated, they are continually attacking each other dagger in hand. Expofed in the winter to periih for want, becaufe the chafe cannot be fuccefsful, they live during the fummsr in the greateft abundance, as they can catdt in lefs than an hour a fufficient quan- tity of filh for the fupport of tlieir family ; they re- main idle during the reft of the day, which they pafs at play, to which they are as much addidled as fome of the inhabitants in our great cities. This gaming is the great fource of their quarrels. If to all thefe de- flrudlivc vices they Ihould unfortunately add a know- ledge of the ufe of any inebriating liquor, M. Peroufe does not hefitate to pronounce, that this colony would be entirely annihilated." Like all other fivages, they are Incorrigible thieves ; and when they aifiimed a mild and placid appearance, the Frenchmen were fure that they had ftolen fome- tliing. Iron, of which they appeared to know the ufe, and of courfe the value, moft excited their cupidity ; and when our navigators were engaged in carefling a child, the father was fure to feize the opportunity of taking up, and concealing under his ikin-garment, every thing of that metal which lay within h'u reach, and was not too lieavy to be carried off. M. RoUin, furgeon major of one of the frigates, thus defcribes thefe people. " They have very little fimi- larity to the Californians ; they are taller, ftouter, of a more agreeable figure, and greater vivacity of expref- fion : they are alfo much their fuperiors in courage and fenfe. They have rather a low forehead, but more open than that of the Southern Americans ; their eyes are black and very animated ; their eyebrows much ful- ler ; their nofe of the ufual fize, and well formed, ex- cept being a liitk widened at the extremity ; their lips thinner ; their mouth moderately large ; their teeth fine Francals. and very even ; their chin and ears very regular. \,^~v^>m^ " The women alfo have an equal advantage over thofe of tlie preceding tribes ; they have much more mildnefs in their features, and grace in their limbs — Their countenance would be even very agreeable, if, in order to fet it off, they did not make ufe of a ftrange cuftom of wearing in the lower lip an elliptical piece of wood, lightly grooved on it? circumference and both its fides, and which is commonly half an inch thick, two in diameter, and three in length. " This fingular ornament, befides being a great defor- mity, is the caufe of a very troublefome as well as dif- gufting involuntary flow of faliva. This appendage is peculiar to the women ; and female children are made to undergo the preparatory operations iiom the time of their birth. For this purpofe, the lower lip is pierced with a kind of pin of copper or gold, which is either left in the opening, or its place fupplied with a ring of the fame material, till the period of puberty. The aper- ture is then gradually enlarged, by fubftituting firft a fmall piece of wood of the form mentioned above, then a larger one ; and fo on, increafing its fize by degrees till it reaches the dimenfions juft ftatcd. " This extraordinary cuftom (hows the great power of dilatation in the lip, and may encourage medical prac- titioners in their attempts to remedy delormities of this part by the ufe of the knife. "The general colour of thefe people is olive, a fain- ter tinge of which is apparent in their nails, which they fufferto grow very long ; the hue of the fkin, hov/ever, varies in different individuals, and in various parts of the fitme individual, according to their expofure to the aflion of the air and fun. " Their hair is, in general, neither fo coarfe nor black as that of the South Americans. Chefnut coloured hair is by no means unfrequent among them. Their heard is alfo fuller, and their armpits and parts of fex better provided with hair. "The perfect evennefs of their teeth led me at firft to fufpeifl lliat it vfas the effe<5t of art ; but after an attentive and minute examination, I could perceive no wearing away of the enamel, and I faw that this regu- larity is natural. They tattoo and paint their face and body, and bore their ears and the cartilage of their nofe. " Some writers have imagined, that the cuftom of painting the face and body, fo generally adopted by the Africans, Americans, and Wtft-Indians, is only in- tended as a prefervative againft noxious infeifls. I think, however, that I am warranted in afferting its fole end to be ornament. I found it to prevail among the inhabitants of Eafter Ifl^nd and the natives of Port <ks Frangais without obferving among them either venomous infers or reptiles. Befides, I remarked, that they wore paint only when they paid us a vilit ; for they made no ufe of it when in their own houfes." M. Peroufe himfelf fpeaks not fo favourably of the women as M. RoUin. " They are (he fays) the moft difgufting of any on the earth, covered with ftinking fliins, which are frequently untanned ; and yet they failed not to excite defires in fome perfons, in faifl of no fraall confequence : they at firft ftarted many diffi- culties, giving affurances by their geftures that they ran the rilk of their lives ; but being overcome by pre- fents. F R A : 59 3 F R A Francois. FranceC- fents, they kad no objeiftion to the fun being a witnefs, towu and abfclutely refufed to retire into the wood." There can be no doubt th.it this planet is the god of ihefe people, fince tliey frequently addrelTed themfelves to it in their prayers ; but our voyagers faw neither temple nor priell, nor the lead trace of public worlliip at ilaied times. Thev burn their dead. FRANCESTOWN, an interior townfhip in Hillf- borough CO. New-Hainplhire, on the E. fide of Conte- cook river, about 21 miles to the S. W. of Concord. It was incorporated in 1772, and contained in 1775, 200 inhabitarts, in 1790, 982. — Morse. FRANCISBOROUGH, a fettlement in York co. dirtiiifl: of Maine, containing; 311 inhabitants. — ib. FRANCIS, St a lake, or extenfion of the river St Lawrence, between Kingllon and Montreal, through which pafles the line dividing Upper from Lower Ca.iada — ib. Francis, St a river in the province of Lower Canada, wiiich rifes from lake Memphiemagog, and run.s northward into the river St Lawrence. It is not all the way navigable; elfe it would afford an impor- tant communication from the northern parts of Ver- mont to the n-.r.; kets of Montreal and Qaebec. — ib. Francis, St a fmall liver in Louihana, which runs a S. E. courfe into the Milllllippi, 108 miles above Arkanfas river, and 70 miles above Margot river, on the E. fide of the Miflifiippi. It is remarka- ble for nothing but the general rendezvous for the hunters from New-Orleans, who winter there, and colleft fait meat, fuet, and bear's oil, for the fupplyof that city. Kappas Old fort formerly flood at the mouth of this river, en the fouthern fide. It was built by the French during their wars with the Chickafaw Indians. Alfo, the name of a fmall river in the N. W. terri- tory, which runs a S. W. by W. courfe into Miffilfippi, between Cold and Rum rivers, 60 miles above St An- th' ny's Falls. The country a little above it is hilly, and the foil pretty good. To the N. E. are tiie fmall lakes called the Thouland lakes. The Milfiffippi here is not above 90 yards v.ide. — ib. F51ANCIS, St in Bra7il, S. America, a long and large river which runs N. eafterly, and thence S. E. till it empties into the ocean, N. E. of the town of Seregeppe del Rey. It has a number of towns and fettlcment=, cliiefly on its iiead waters. — ib, FRANCOIS, Cape St a jurifdiaion, city, and port in the N. weflern part of the ifland of St Domingo. This jurlfdidtion is in the North divifion of the ifland, in what was called the French p.irt of it ; and contains 13 parifhes. Its exports from Jan. i, 1789; to Dec. 31, of the fame year, were as follow : 31,187,6361b. white fugar, 7,267,5311^. brown fugar, 32,545,52416. coffee, 269,2401b. cotton, 245, 177}^. indigo; tanned hides, molallcs, fpiri^s, S;c. to the value of 21,789 livres. Total value of duties on exportation, 253,590 dollars, 37 cents. Cajie Francois exceeds Purt an I'rince in the viilue of its produdlions, the elegance of its buildings, and the advantageous fituation of its port. The rity, whicli is the governor's rcfidence in time of war, is fituated on a cape at the edge of a l.irge plain, 20 leauues long, and on an average 4 broad, between the lea and the mountains. There are few lands bet- ter watered, but there is not a river that will admit a fioop above 3 miles. This fpace is cut through by ftraight roads, 40 feet broad, uninterruptedly lined wi'h hedges of lime and lemon trees, intermixed wiiji long avenues of lofiy trees, leading to plantations which produce a greater quantity of fugar than any fpot of the fame fize in the world. The town, which is fitu- ated in 'he mod unhealthy place of this extcnfive and beautiful plain, had, fome \ears fince, feveral elegant public buildings, as the governor's houfc, the barracks, the magazine, and two hofpitals, called the houfei of Providence, founded for the bcnevi lent and hiimanc purpofe of fupporting thofe Europeans who came thi- ther without money or merchandi/.e. The harbour is admirably wt!l (ituatcd for (bps which come from Eurrpe, being only open to the N. from whence fliips receive no damage, its entrance being fprinkled over with reefs that break the force of the waves. Before its deftrudtion in 1793, '^'^ "^'^y contained about 8000 inhabitants ; whites, people of colour, and llaves. — ib, Francois, Old Cape, the north-eafternraoft point of the ifland of St Domingo or Hiipaniola ; having Balfamo bay N. W. and Scotch bay S. S. E. — ib. FRANCONIA, a townftiip in Grat'ton co. New- Hampfnire, 14 miles N. E. of Haverhill (N. H.) on Conneflicut river. Incorporated in 1764, firft called Morrifiovvn. It contains 72 inhabitants. — ib. FRANKFORT, a townllijp in Hancock co. dillrift of Maine, on the W. fide ol Penobfcot bay. It bas a few houfes, regularly built, and lies 8 miles W. of Penob- fcot, 123 W. of Paifamaquoddy, and 258 N. E. of Bailon. The townflrp contains 891 inhabitants. — ib, Frankfort, or FraniforJ, a pleafant, thriving viU lige, in Philadelphia co. Pennfylvania, feaied on the N. E. fide of a creek of the fame nam;, a rriile and an half from Delaware liver. It contains about 50 houfes, chiefly of Hone, an Epifcopal and a German church ; on elevated ground, about 5 miles N. E. cf Philadel- phia. — ib, Frankfort, a new townfhip in Herkemerco. New- York, E. of WhiteRcwn, adjoining. — ib. Frankfort, a thriving village in Hampfhire co. Virginia, on a creek which empties into Potowmack river. It is 13 miles N. W. of Rumney, 4 miles S. of the Potowmack, and 10 S, S. E. of Furt Cumber- land. — ib. Frankfort, the capital of Pendleton co. Virginia, is fituated on tlie W. fide of a S. branch of Putow- mack river. It contains a court-houfe, gaol, and about 30 houfes; 180 miles N. VV. of Richmond. — ib, Frankfort, the metropolis of Kentucky, is fituat- ed in Franklin co. on the N. E. bank of Kentucky river, about 50 miles from its confluence with the Ohio, It is a flourilhing town, regularly laid out, and has a numlier of handfome houles. The ll.itc houfe is a handfome Rone building. Here is alio a tobacco wate- houfe. It is 30 miles N. of Harrodlburg, 40 N. by W. cf Danville, 125 from L- uilville, and 790 W. by S. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 38. 14. VV. long. 95. 28. —ib. FRANKLIN (Dr Berjamin), the celebrated Am;- ricau philofophcr and ll.itilVnan, w.:s born at Br.fion in 1706 of tefpecfablc, but not we.illliy p.)reiits. Tlic proiiipiitude wuh wli;cli, from his intancy, he liacj learned t • lead was fuch, that he faid he did not re- member to have been ever without tkis acquiri:Dicnt, H 2 At F R A [ 60 ] F R A Frantlin. At e!g}it years of age he was fent to a grammar fchool, ''•'^^^^^^•^ his father having intended him for the church, but con- tenipl.iting the expence of a collegiate education, re- called him, within a year, and fent him to learn arith- metic and writing : he foon wrote well, but made no progrefs in arithmetic. At ten he was called home to affift his father in his bufinefs of foap boiler and tallow chandler, a bufinefi which he difliked, and two years afterwards was bound apprentice to his brother who was a printer. In this employment lie made great pro- ficiency, and having accel's to more books than former- ly, he devoted much of his leifure time to reading. He acknowledged that the perufal of jhafiefbury and Col- lins made him a fceptic completely, having been pre- vioufly fo with refpe*.^ to many doctrines of chriltianity, and that he found the Socratio mode of realbning en- abled him to embarr.ifs even perfons of ruperlor uiider- ftanding, and to obtain for him vicli'ries which neither his caufe nor his arguments merited. During his ap- prenticelhip he wrote feveral pieces for the newfpaper vhich were appioved, but kept himfelt unknown. After frequent difputes with his brother, he determined to leave Bofton, where in conlequence of his iudifcreet dilputes about religion he had begun to be looked upon by pious men with horror as an apellate or an atheift. He privately got on board a floop and foon arrived in New-York, where he applied for employment to Mr Bradford, who could not employ him, but advifed him to go to Philadelphia, where after a very unplc.i- fant and dangerous journey he at lall arrived, and with fome difficulty got employment with one Keimer, with ■whom he continued fur fome time, till by the advice of Sir William Keith, then governor of Pennfylvanl^i, he failed for England, where he arrived in 1724. Difap- pointed by not having letters ot recommendation from the governor, he applied for and obtained employment as a journeyman Printer, where he improved his know- ledge and faved lome money. Here he pub'ilhed his Dilfertation on Liberty and necefllty, and alfociated with Lyons, Mandeville and others of that clafs. After nearly two years refidence in London he returned to Piiiladelphia with a Mr Denham as his clerk and af- fiitant in a (tore. On Mr Denhani's death Franklin returned to Keimer in capacity of foreman, which con- tinued with little interruption till he fet up a printing- office himfelf. In this period of the hiftory of his life vritten by himfelf he gives the following llatement of his principles. " Before I relate the particulars of my entrance into bufinefs, it may be proper to inform you what was at that time the Hate of my mind as to moral principles, that you may fee the degree of influence ihey had up- on the fubfequent events of my life. My parents had given me betimes religious impref- fions ; and I received from my infancy a pious educa- tion in the principles of Calvinifm. But fcarcely was I arrived at fifteen years of age, when, after having doubted in turn of ditFerent tenets, according as I found them combated in the different books that I read, I began to doubt of revelation itfelf. Some volumes againll deifm fell into my hands. They were faid to be the fubllance of fermi ns preached at Boyle's leifture. It happened that they produced on me an effeift pre- cifely the reverfe of what was intended by the writers ; for the arguments of the deifts, which were cited ia order to be refuted, appeared to me much more forci- Frankli*. ble than the refutation itfelf. In a word, I foon be- ^■^'''''*" came a perfeft deill. My arguments perverted fome other young perlons ; particularly Collins and Ralph. But in the fequel, when I reccllcAed that they had both ufed me extremely ill, without the fmalleft re- morl'e ; when I confidered the behaviour of Keith, another freethinker, and my own condudl towards Vernon and Mifs Read, which at times gave me much uneafiiiefs, I was led to fufpeS that this doiftrine, though it might be true, was not very uf.tul. I be- pan to entertain a lefs favourable opinion of my Lon- don pamphlet, to which I had prefixed, as a motto, the following lines of Dryden ; Whatever is, is right ; tho' purblind man. Sees but part of the chain the neared link. His eyes not carrying to the equal beam That poifes all above. and of which the obje.51 was to prove, from the attri- butes of God, hisgoodnefs, wifd' m, and power, that there could be no luch thing as evil in the vi'orld ; that vice and virtue did not in reality exill and were nothing more than vain diltinflions. I no longer regarded it as f) blamelefs a work as I had formerly imagined ; and I lufpected that fome eiror n.ull have imperceptibly ha' e glided into my argument, by » hi h all the inferen- ces I had dr.iwn from it had been affcdled as frequently happens in metaphyfical rcafonings. In a word, I was at lalt convinced that truth, probity, and fincerity, in tranidftions between man and man, were of the utmoft importance to the happinels of life ; and I refolved from that monient, and wrote the refolution in my journal, M pra(5fife them as long as I lived. Revelati in indeed, as fuch, had no influence on my mind ; but I was ot opinion that, though certain ani- ons could not be bad merely Hecaufe revelation piohi- bited them, or good becaiife it enjoined them, yet it was probable that thole actions were prohibited becaufe they were bad for us, or enjoined becaiile advantage- ous in their nature, all tilings confidered. This per- fuafton. Divine Providence, or fome guardian angel, and perhaps a concurrence cf favourable circunilfances co-operating, preferved me from all immoraliiy, or grofs and voluntiiry injuftice, to which my want of reli- gion was calculated to expofe me, in the dangerous period of youth and in the hazardous fituations in which I fometimes found myfelf, among ftrangers, and at a diflance from the eye and admonitions of my father. I may fay -u^luntary, becaufe the errors into which I had fallen, had been in a manner the forced refiilt either of my own inexperience, or the diflionefty of others. Thus, before I entered on my new career, I had imbibed folid principles, and a charafler of pro- bity. I knew their value ; and I made a f ilemn en- gagement with myfelf never to depart from them." He now began bufinefs in partnerfhip with Mr Meredith which lafted till 1729, when Franklin took the whole bufinefs into his own hands. In the mean time he had united the majority of well informed per- fons of his acquaintance into a club, known by the name of the Junto, for the purpofe of mutual improvement, which met every Friday evening to confider queftions of morality, politicks, or philof^iphy, which became a very uieful inftitution and which coutiaued almoft forij F R A fwatlin. forty years. On entering into bufinefs by himfelf he found himfelf in embarralTed circumftances from which he was relieved by the generous affiftance of William Coleman and Robert Grace, wbofc kindnefs made a deep impreffion on his mind. He now opened a fmall ftationer's Ihop, was indullrious, fteady, and fuccefsful, and in 1730 he married the daughter of Mr Read, who was now a widow. Having had frequent occafion to quote books in the club, he llarted the idea of efta- blilhing a public library, which V7as carried into eifeft in 1 73 1 and became the foundation of that noble inlli- tution which was incorporated in 1742, and now does honour to the city of Pliiladelphia. This inUitution was greatly encouraged by the friends of literature in America and in Great Britain. The Penn family dillinguilhed thetnfelves by their donatirns, and the late Peter Collinfon, befides liberal donations from himfelf and obtained from other-, voluntarily undeitouk to manage the bufinefs of the comp:iny in London for which hii extenfive knowledge and zeal for the promo- tion of fcience eminenily qualified him, recommend- ing fuitable books, purchafing, and fhipping them for thirty years, which he communicated to the diieitors every improvement and difcovery in the arts, agricul- ture and philofophy. In 1733 Fianklin began to publifh Poor Richard's Almanack, remarkable for numeioub and valuable concife maxims, tending to promote induftry, and fru- gality : the demand for it was fuch that 10,000 have been fold id one year. Thefe maxims h.ive been colleifled in an addrefs entitled. The Way to Wealth, which has appeared in vaiitais publications. In 1736 Franklin waa chofen clerk to the General AlTembly of Pennfylvania, and in 1737 he was ap- P' inied poft-maller: in 1738 he formed the fiill Fire Cimpany in Pniladelphia, and fomc time afier fuggell- ed the plan ot an idficiati'm for inluriiig houfes Irom lofs by tire, which has been a very valuable inftiiu.ion. In 1744 during a war between France and Britain, feme French and Indians had made inroads upon the frontiers of Pennfylvania, whole inhabitants were un- provided for fuch an attack. The governor recom- mended to the Affsmbly to pafs a militia Ijw, but owing to fome difputes between the governor and Aflembly it was not done, the fituation of the Pro- vince was alarming, and deftitute of the means of de- fence. At this criiis Franklin (lepped torth and pro- pofed to a meeting of the citizens of Philadelphia, a voluntary alfociation for the defence of the Province. This was approved of and figned by 1200 perfons im- mediately, and in a fhort time the number increafed to 10,000. Franklin was chofen colonel cf the Philadel- phia regiment but chofe to decline the honour. In the year 1745 Mr Collinfon fent to the Library Company of Philadelphia an accnunt of the experi- ments in eleflricity which had a' that time engaeed the attention of the philof pheis in Europe. Mr Kinner- fley and others applied themfelves to the fubjeft, and Franklin foon made a diftinguiflied figure in this courfe, his experiments and difcoveries are fo numcr- OU', and fi well known as to render an account of them in this place fii|>eit]uous. The praftical ufe of his difcoveries in the application of pointed condudors for the purpofe cf Iccuring houfes from injury by light- [ 61 ] F R A ning is well known and in general ufe in America, and rrankUn. in many places in Europe. s.^-v->^ In 1 747 he became a member of the General Affem- bly of Pennfylvania, where his influence was very con- fiderable. He felJom fpoke, and never attempted ora- tory, but frequently by a fingle obfervation determined the fate of a queftion. Perceiving that the beR way of fecuring permanently the rights of the people was, by the general dlffufion of knowledge and information to all clalfes, he drew up a plan of an Academy to bi ere.aed in the city of Philadelphia, not only adapted to an infant colony, but alfo as a foundation on which pnflerity might ered a more extenfive feniinary. The conllitution was drawn up and figned in 1749, and in 1750 the Latin and Greek, Mathematical and Englilh fchools were opened, and a Charily fchool for 60 boys and 30 girls. This inftitution was incorporated in '753' 2""^ ^n additional charter was obtained in 175;. In 1752 he had joined in the fcheme fuggelled by Dr Bond, and on application to the Aflembly obtained from the public ^'.2000 for eftabllftiing the Hofpital for the poor when vifited by difcafe. In 1753 he was appointed deputy poft-mailer general for the Britifli Colonies, and in his hands this department was fo well adminiltered that its annual produce was faid to be more than double that of Ireland. In 1754 Franklin, as commldioner from Pennfyl- vania, met at Albany with the ci.mmiflioners of feveral of the other colonies, and produced a plan which has been called the Albany Plan of Union ior the defence and general government of the colonies. After feveral days difcuilion it was unanimouflv agreed to, and a copy of it tranfmitted to each chmial Alfembly, and one to the king's Council. The fate of it wa^ fingular : it was rejec^tid by the miniftry of Great Britain, be- caufe it gave too much power to the rcprefentaiives of tlie people, and it was rejeifted by all the alfemblies as giving to the prefident general, the reprefentative of the Crown, an influence greater than appeared to them proper in a plan ot government intended for freemen. The dekat of Braddock fpread a very great alarm through the colonies. Franklin introduced into the Alfembly a bill for organizing a militia, the bill palfed and he was appointed colonel of a regiment in Phila- delphia of 1200 men ; the frontier being invaded, he repaired by order of the governor, with a body of men, to the place at which their prefence was necef- fary, built a fort, and placed a garrifon in fuch a pof. ture as to withllanJ the inroads to which the inhabi- tants had been expofed. In 1757 he was app-inted agent ior the province of Pennfylvania to prefent to the king a petition for redrels from the attention ot the proprietaries to their private int red, who would not conlent that their ellatcs Ihould be taxed to bear a (hare of the public burdens. Agreeably to the inllruc- tions which he had received from the Icgifliture he en- deavoured to prevail on the pr. pnetaries to give up the point in conteft, finding them obltinate, he laid his petition before the council, where after much oppoli- tion it was agreed that tlie proprietary eftatcs (h^iuld pay their due proportion of taxes on Mr Fianklin en- gaging that their burdens (hould not exceed the due proportion. Alter tranquillity had been re-ellablilhed by las abilities and integrity as agent for Pennfylvania, his F R A [ 62 ] F R A rrnnia;ii. his ctstifive knowledge of the fituation of the colonies ^•^'^^*~' occaiicneJ his appointment as agent for MullachufeUs, MaryUnd, and Georgia, in which fituation his con- dnA rendered him d:ar to his countrymen. _ He had n.iw the rewards of literary and philofophical merit aburd.intly heftoweJ on hirn, by being admitted iel- low of many learned focieties. The degree of Dcclor of Lmws wjs couteired on him by the Univerfilies of Sc Andrews, Edinburgh, and Oxford, and his correfpon- dence fou^'ht for by the mr ft eminent philofophers of Kiirope. During this period he Ihev^ed in a pamphlet the advantages which would accrue from the conqueft cf Canad<i, which was Ihiitly after accomplilhed. He continued his philofophical refearches and experme'its with great fuccef-, and after a variety of experiments on Mr Pucker;dge"s difcoveiies he formed that elegant inllrutnent which he called the Hatmonicj, and in his return in 1762, obfcrved the elltd of oil on the fur- face of the ocean. Having received the thanks of the AfTembly of Pennfylvania, and a vote of ;C.5000 for his fervices, he refumed his feat as a member ot that body, with as much popularity as bef ire. In 1764 he was again fent to London as provincial agent, and in 1766 was examined at the h\T <^( the Houfe cf Commons refpeding the repeal of the ftamp aft. The fame year he vifited Holland and Germany, vhere he was well received by men of fcience, as he was alfo in France in the following year. Several let- ters from Hutchinfon, Oliver and others came into the hands of Dr Franklin, containing violent invefiives againll the leading charaiSers in Maifachufetts and iVrenuoufly advifing vigorous meafures to compel the people to obedience, thefe he fent to the legiflature, by whom they were publilhed, attefled copies were fent to Great Britain, with a petition to the king to remove the writers from oflice. Dr Franklin dei:lared that he had fent the letters, but retufed to give information > f the manner in which they came to his li.mds ; the pe- tition was rejeded. The meafures which the miniftiy purfued in laying taxes on the colonies Dr Franklin ufed his utmoR endeavours to induce them to change but without fuccefs, and finding all his efforts to re- llore harmony ufelefs he returned to America in 1775. Jufl after the commencement of hoftilities, he vifited Canada to perfuade the citizens to join in the common caufe, but did not fucceed. In 1776 he was joined with Mr Adams and Mr Rutledge to lesrn the extent of the powers of thofe commiffioners who came with Lord Howe, but finding that they were only empow- ered to grant pardons on fubmiili n, nothing could be done. He gave his voice decidedly for independence, and had great influence in bringing over others to the fame vievvs. The public mind had been in fome mea- fure prepaied for this by Paine's pamphlet Cominon Senft : there was good reafon to believe tliat Dr Fr unk- lin had a conliderable fhare in this work. The fame year he was cliofen prefider.t of the Convention which met in Philadelphia to form a new conftitution tor Pennfylvania. In the latter end of th.e year he was appointed to adilf in the negociations wh'ch had been fet on foot in Fiance by Silas Dcane, but n thing c<.uld be accomplilhed till the news of the capture of Burgoyne's army by llie Americans decided the con- dud of France : to this alfo was owing the facility with which loans in Holland and France were negcciated. Frantliw He was one of thofe who figned the provifional arti- ^•^~^<"'*^ cles of peace in Nov. 1782, and the definitive treaty on the 30th September 1783. He was <ine of thi commillioners appointed to examine Mefmer's Animal Magnetifm in 1784. In 1785 he arrived in PhiladeU phia, where he was chofen member of the fupreme executive council, and Ihortly afterward was elected Prefident of it. In 1787 he was appointed delegate for Pennfylva- nia in the grand convention and figned the conftitu- tion of the United States. He was a member of feve- ral political and benevolent focieties. His infirmities incrsafini; prevented his re'iul.ir attendance in the council chamber, and in 1788 he retired from public life. He was attacked with a calculous comphint in 1 78 1 which continued to his deith, which took place on the i7ih of April 1790, at the age of Eighty-tuur years and three months. The following epitaph on him, was written by him* felf many years previous to his death ; THE BODY of Benjamin Franklin, Printer, (Like the cover of an old book. Its contents torn out And flrip; of its lettering and gilding) Lies here food for worms ; Yet the work itfelf fhall not be loft. For it will (as he believed) appear once more. In a new And more beautiful edition, Correiffed and amended by The Author. Franklin, Fort, is in Alleghany to. Pennfyl- vania, near the poll called Venango, and was eredfed in 1787 in order to defend the frontiers of Pennfylvania from the depredations of the neighbouring Indians. It is feated on the S. W. bank of Al'eghany river, oppo- fite the mouth of French creek. N. lat. 41. i. 40. W. long. 79. 41. ; 53 miles S. S. E. of Prefque Ifle, and 6^ noriliward of Pittfburg. — Morse. Franklin Co. the north- wefternmoft in Vermont, bounded N. by Lower Canada, and W. by lake Cham- plain. It was lately taken from Chittenden co. and contains 20 townlhips. — ib. Franklin Co. in Pcnnfvlvania, bounded N. by Mffl n, N. E. by Cumberland, E. by York, S. by Walhington co. in Maryland, W. by Bedford co. and N. W. by Hunterdon. It is computed to contain 800 fquare miles, equal to 512,000 acres. It lies chiefly between the N. and S. Mountains, and comprehends the middle part of the beautiful and rich valley of Conegocheague ; which is watered by the creek of its name, whicii falls into Potowmack at Williams Port in Maryland. Th's county exhibits a moft luxuriant landfcipe in fummer, from the top of South Moun- tain. Iron ore is found here fufHcient already to furnifn work for a furnace and forge. I'he county is divided int > 11 townihips, which C(nuain 1^,6^^ in- habitants, (f whom 330 are flaves. — ib, Franklin Co. in Kentucky, is bounded N. by Scott CO. F R E C 63 ] F R E Frauklin II , Fredcrica. CO. N. W. and W. by Shelby, S. E. by Fayette, and S. by Woodford. Chief town, Frankfort. — ib. Franklin Co. in Halifax diftriil, N.Carolina, con- tains 7559 inhabitants, of whom 2717 are flaves. It is bounded N. by Greenville, S. by Jijhnfton, N. E. by Warren, S. W. by Wake, and W. by Orange co. Chief town, Lewifljurg. — ib. Franklin Co. in Virginia, is bounded N. by Bed- ford, K. W. by Botetourt, W. by Montgomery, S, W. by Henry, S. by Patrick, and E. by Campbell co. It is about 40 miles long, and 25 broad, and contains 6842 inhabitants, including 1073 laves. A range of the Alleghany Mountains pafles through it on the N. W. It is confequently hilly in general. — ib. Franklin Co. in Georgia, is fituated in the Upper Diftrift, bounded E. and N. E. by Tugulo river, which feparates it from the flate of S. Carolina ; W. and N. W. by the country of the Cherokees ; S. by the head branches of Broad river, and S. E. by Elbert co. It-contains 1041 inhabitants, of whom 156 are flaves. The court-houfe is 17 miles from Hatton's Ford on Tugulo river, 25 from Elberton, and 77 from Wafh- ington. — ib. Franklin, a townfliip in Norfolk co. Maflachufetts ; taken from Wrentham, and incorporated in 1778, and contains 17,000 acres of land. It has iioi inhabit- ants ; is bounded N. by Charles river, which feparates it from Medway, and lies 30 miles S. of Bofton. — ib. Franklin, a fmall ifle at the mouth of St George's river in Lincohi co. Maine; 4 leagues fouthward of Thomafton. — ib. Franklin, a new townfliip in Dutchefs co. New- York. By the ftate cenfus of 1796, it appe.irs there are 2 10 of its inhabitants qualified to be electors. — Alfo, a new townfliip in Delaware county, of whofe inhabit- ants 239 are cleflors. It lies S. W. from, and bor- ders on Harpersfield, and its W. line runs along the S. eaftern bank of Sufquehanna river. Tiiis town was divided by an aft of the Legill'.ture, 1797 — ib. Franklin, a townlhip in Wellmorsland co. Penn- fylvania. — Alfo, 3 others in the fame Hate, viz. in York CO. Fayette co. and in Wafhington co. — ib. Franklin, a townlhip, the northernmoft in New- London CO. Connefticut, 6 miles N. W. of Norwich. It contains above 1000 inhabitants, who are chieHy wealtliy farmers. — ib. FRANKSTOWN, a townfliip in Huntingdon co. Pennfylvania, fituated on the Frankllown branch of Juniatta river, 20 miles W. of Huntingdon. — ib. FRAYLES, an ifland near the coall of New-Anda- lufia. Terra Firma. — ib. FREDERICA, a village in Kent co. ftate of Dela- ware, fituated between the two main branches of Mo- ther Kill, a ftream which falls into Delaware 7 miles from the town, and 3 S. E. of Jame's creek, which leads up to Dover. It contains about 40 houfes, and lies 12 miles E. of Dover, and 88 from Philadelphia. — '^■ Frederica, a town of Glynn co. in Georgia, is fituated on St Simon's Ifl.ind, in a very pleafant fitua- tion, and was built by General Oglethorpe. The for- trefs was beautiful and regular, but U now in ruins. The town contains but few houfes, wliich ftand on an eminence, upon a branch of Alatamaha river, wliich waflies the W. fide of this agreeable ifland, and forms a bay before ihc town, affording a fafe and cominodi- Frcdcrict. ous harbor for veffels of the largell burden, which "^•^"^"^-^ may lie along the wharf. It was fettled by fome Scotch highlanders, about the year 1735, who accept- ed of an ellablilhnient both here and at Dirien, to defend the colonv, if needful, againft the neigh- bouring Spaniards. N. lat. 31. 15. W. long. 80. — )b. FREDERICK Co. in Maryland, is bounded N. by Pennfylvania, W. and N. W. by Wafliington, E. by Baltimore, and S. W. by Potowmack river. On the Monocacy river and its branches are about 37 grift- mills, a furnace, iron forge, and a glafs manufa<5tory, called the E'na glafs works, which are in a thriving ftate. This county is about 30 miles each way, reckoning from the extreme parts. The Cotoftiny Mountain extends from the Potowmack in a N. di- reflioii through this county into Pennfylvania, between the South Mountain and Monocacy Creek ; the eadeni parts are generally level. It contains 30,791 inhabit- ants, including 3,641 flaves. Chief town, Frederick- town. — ib, Frederick Co. in Virginia, is bounded N. by Berk- ley, S. by Shamndoali, W. by Hampfhire, and E. by Shanandoah river, which feparates it from Loudon CO. It is 30 miles in length, and 20 in breadth, and contains 19,681 inhabitants, of whom 4,250 are flaves. Iron ore is found here in great plenty ; and works have been erefted which produce 160 tons of bar iron, and 650 tons of pig, annually. In one year 300 tons of bar iron were manuta(ftured. Pots and other utenfils, caft thinner than ufual of this iron, may be fafely thrown into or out of the wagt;on, in which they are tranfported. Both this and Berkley co. has a good foil. Between the waters of Opeckan creek and the Shanandoah is the richeft limeftone land in the eaftein parts of the ftate. Near the North Mountain in this county is a curious cave, by fome called Zancy's Cnve. Its entrance is on the top of an extenfive ridge. You defcend 30 or 40 feet as into a well, from whence the cave then extends, nearly horizontally, 460 feet into the earth, preferving a breadth of from 20 to 50 feet, and a height of from 5 to 12 feet. After entering this cave a few feet, the mercury, which, in the open air, was at 50. rofe to 57. of Fahrenheit's thermometer. After thii may be added the Natural Well on the lands of Mr. Lewis. It is fomewhat larger than a common well, and rifes as near the furface of the earth as in the neighbouring artificial wells ; and is of a depth, as yet unknown. It is ufed with a bucket and windlals as an ordinary well. It is faid there is a current in it tend- ing fenfibly downwards. Chief town, Winchefter — ib. Frederick Nouff, a trading ftation in Upper Ca- nada, on the head water cf Abbitibbe river. N. lat. 48. 35. W. long. 82. 6.— a. Frederick, a fort in Wafliington co. Maryland, fituated on the N. E. bank of Potowmack river, near the S. line of Pennfylvania. — ib. Frederick, a towfliip in Montgomery co. Pennfyl- vania. — ib. FarDERiCK, a town on the N. fide of Salfafras river, in Cecil co. Maryland, and fcparated by tlut river from George Town in Kent co. It lies 6 miles S. W. of Warwick, and 14 E. of Grove point in Cl.efa- peak bay. N. lat. 39. 22- 3=— '*• j-reDE- Frctlcrickf- burg II Ire J; itts. F R E C 64 ] Fredericksburg, a poft town in SpotfyU-ania co. north-weft Virginia ; lituaied on the S. \V. bank of Rappahan- nock river, 110 miles from its mouth in Chefapealc bay. It is an incorporated town, and regularly laid out into fcveral ftteets, the chief of which runs parallel v/uh tl'.e river, and in all contains upwards of 200 hoofes, two tobacco warehoufes, and feveral (lores of well aflbrted goods. Its public buildings are an Epif- cop.il churcli, an academy, court-houl'e and gaol. It ii a place of confiderable trade and contains about 2000 inhabitants, of whom 587 are Haves. A forge in lliis neighborhood made, fometime ago, about 300 tons {'f bar iron in a year, from pigs imported from Maryland. It is so miles S. S. W. of Alexandria, 68 N. Ly E. of Richmond, 102 S. W. of Baltimore, and 205 S. W. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 38. 22. W. long 77. 36. — iL FREDERICKSTOWN, a towndiip in Dutchefs CO. New-York, which contains 5932 inhabitants, of whom 188 are qualified to be elcdors, and 63 are flaves. — li. FREDERICKTON, a confiderable townftiip in the province of New-Brunfwick, yo miles up St John's river, which is thus far navigable for floops. — ik FREDERICKTOWN, a poft town of Maryland, and capital of Frederick co. (ituated on both fides of CarroUs' creek, a fmall ftreani that empties into Mono- cacy river over which are two bridi^es. The ftreets are regularly laid out, interfedlng each other at right angles. The dwelling-houfes, chiefly of ftone and brick, are about 700 in number, many of which are handfome and commodious. The public edifices are, one church for Prefbyterians, two for German Luther- ans and Calvinifts, and one for Baptifts, an elegant courthoufe, a gaol, and a brick market-houfe. It is a very flourifliing town, and has confiderable trade with the back country. The Etna glafs works are fiiuated 4 miles above the town, on Tulkarora creek. Fredericktown is 4 miles E. of Cotoflin mountain, 47 W. by N. of Baltimore, 24 E. of Sharpfburg, and 148 S. W. by W. of Philadelphia, N. lat. 39. 24.—;*. FREEHOLD, a town in Monmouth co. New- Jerfey, 15 miles AV. of Shrewfbury, and 20 S. E. by 6. cf New-Brunfwick. In this town was fought the obftinate battle called the Monmouth battle, on the 28th of June, 1778. There is an academy in this town. Freehold contains 3785 inhabitants, of whom 627 are flaves. — lb. Frlehold, a townfhip in Albany co. New- York, containing 1822 inhabitants, of whom 562 are quali- fied eledtors, and 5 are flaves. — id. FREEPORT, a townfliip in Cumberlard co. dif- tria of Maine, fituated at the head of Cafco bay ; ad- joining to Durham on the N. E. and to North Yar- mouth on the S. W. ; about 10 miles N. E. of Port- land, and 140 N. by E. of Bofton. It was incorpo- rated in 1789, and contains 1330 inhabitants. — iL FREESTONE-GAP, a place fo called, in Tennef- fee, 25 miles from Hawkin's courthoufe, and 35 from Cumberland mountain. — it. FREETOWN, a thriving townflnp in Briftol co. Maffachufetts, incorporated in 1683, contains 2202 inhabitants, and lies 50 miles foutherly of Bofton. — il>. FRE'GATES Fran?aise Baf^ de, die name given by La Peroufe to a dangerous reef of funken rocks which he difcovered in the Pacific ocean. On the F R E extremity of this reef they perceived an iflet orfplit rock from 20 to 25 fathoms in height and about 50 toifes in diameter. From this iflet the reef extends more than four leagues to the fouth-eaft ; and upon the extremity of the point in that direction, the frigates had almoft ftruck before the breakers were obferved. This was during a fine clear night and fmooth fea. With great propriety, the Commodore returned in the morning to afcertain the geographical fitiiaiion of this unknown rock ; and he eftimated the iflet to be in 23° 45' N. Lat. and 168° 10' W. Long, from Paris. FRENCH, a fmall river in Maflachufetts, has its fonrce in a fmall pond, on the borders of Leicefter and Spencer, in Worccfter co. and runs through Ox- ford and joins Quinebange river, in Thompfon town- fiiip, in Conne<5licut. It derives its name from the French Proieftants, who obtained a fettlement in the town of Oxford, after the revocation of the edidl of Nantz, in 1685. — Morse. French Broad, a navigable river in Tenneflee, which rifes on the S. E. fide of the Great Iron and Bald mountains, in N. Carolina. It is formed by two main branches, which receive feveral ftreams in their courfe. Thefc unite about 58 miles from the fource of the Nolachucky, the eaftern branch ; thence it flows N. wefterly about 25 miles, and joins the Holfton 11 miles above Knoxville, and is 400 or 500 yards wide. The navigation of this branch is much interrupted by rocks, as is alfo the Tennelfee branch, which joins the main river 50 miles below this. A large, clear, medicinal fpring, faid to be efficaci- ous in curing many difeafes, has been lately difcovered on the waters of this river, about 30 miles in a diredt line from its mouth. The water is fo hot, that a pa- tient at firft going into it can fcarcely fupport it. Nearer the mouth of the river, a valuable lead mine has been difcovered. — lb. French Creek, a N. weftern water of Alleghany river, into which it falls along the N. fide of Fort Franklin, 80 miles N. by E. of Pittfburg. It affords the neareft paffage to lake Erie. It is navigable with fmall boats to Le Beuf, by a very crooked channel ; the portage thence to Prefque Ifle, from an adjoining peninfula, is 15 miles. Thii is the ufual route from Quebec to Ohio. — ib. French Licl-, in Tenneflee, is the name of a fait fpring, near which the town of Nafhville now ftands. —ib. French Town, in Cecil co. Maryland, lies on the E. fide of Elk river, a mile S. of Elkton, from which it is feparated by Elk creek. Elk ferry is 6 miles be- low this. — ib. FRENCHMAN'.; Bay, lies on the fea coaft of Lincoln co. Maine, and is formed by Mount Defert ifland on the weftward, and the peninfula of Goldlbo- rough townfliip on the eaftward — Round Mount De- fert ifland it has an inland circular communication with Blue Hill bay. — ib. FRENEUSE Lake, a large colledion of water, through which St John's river in New-Brunfwick, paf- fts. In fome maps this appears only as a dilatation of the river; but in others it appears as a large lake of very irregular figure, and receiving confiderable ftreams from the circumjacent country. — ib. FRIC F R I FriiSion. FRICTION, in mechanics, is a fubjeifl of great iro- ^^'^''^'^^ portance both to the pradlical engineer and to the fpe- culative philofopher. It i? therefore cur duty to cor- reft, in this Supplement, the miftakes into which we fell when treating of that fubjeifl in the Encyclopiedia. What we have there taught oi fricllon (fee Mecha- Kics Seft. 11. (J 8.) is tjken from Fergufon ; but it has been (hewn by Mr Vince, that the experiments from which his conclufions were drawn were not properly inftituted. That eminent mathematician and philofo- pher therefore entered upon the inveftigation of the fubjefl anew, and endeavoured, by a fet of experiments, to determine the folh^wing queftions : 1. Whether friftion be a uni.'ormly retarding force ? 2. The quantity of fridlicn I 3. Whether the friiSion varies in proportion to the prelfure or weight ? 4. Whether the friflion be the fame on whichever of its furfaces a body moves ? 1. With refpefb to the firft of thefe queftions, the author truly obferves, that if friction be a uniform force, the difFerence between it and the given force of the moving power employed to overcome it muft alfo be uniform ; and that therefore the moving power, if it be a body defcending by its own weight, muft defcend with a uniformly accelerated velocity, juft as when there was no fri(5ii0n. The fpaces defcribed from the beginning of the motion will indeed be diminilhed in *ny given time on account of the fridlion ; but ftill they muft be to each other as the fquares of the times employed. See Dynamics in this Supplement. 2. A plane was therefore adjufted parallel to the ho- rizon, at the extremity of which was placed a pulley, which could be elevated or deprelTed in order to render the ftring which connedled the body and the moving force parallel to the plane. A fcale accurately divided was placed by the fide of the pulley perpendicular to the horizon, by the fide of which the moving force de- fcended ; upon the fcale was placed a moveable ftage, which could be adjufted to the fpace through which the moving force defcended in any given time; which time was meafured by a well-regulated pendulum clock vibrating feconds. Every thing being thus prepared, the following experiments were made to afceitain the law of fridion. 3. Exp. 1. A body was placed upon the horizontal plane, and a moving force applied, which, from repeat- ed trials, was found to defcend 524 inches in 4" ; for by the beat of the clock, and the found of the moving force when it arrived at the ftage, the fpace could be very accurately adjufted to the time : The ftage was then removed to that point to which the moving force would defcend in 3", upon fuppofition, that the fpaces defcribed by the moving power were as the fquares of the times ; and the fpace was found to agree very ac- curately with the time : the ftage was then removed to that point to which the moving force ought to de- fcend 2" upon the fame fuppofition, and the defcent was found to agree exai511y with the time : htftly, the llage was adjufted to that point to which the moving force ought to defcend in i", upon the fame fuppo- fition, and the fpace was obferved to agree with the time. Now, in order to find whether a dilFerence in the time of defcent could be obferved by removing the ftage a liitle above and below the pofitions whicli cor- buppL. Vol. II. C 65 ] F R I refponded to the above times the experiment was tried, Friaion. and the defcent was always found too foon in the for- ^-'~^'^^- mer, and too late in tlie latter cafe ; by which the au- thor was alfured that the fpaces firil mentioned corre- fponded exadly to the times. And, for the greater certainty, each defcent was repeated eight or tea 'times ; and every caution ufed in this experiment was alio made ufe of in all the following;. Exp. 2. A fecond body Was laid upon the horizontal plane, and a moving force applied which defcended 41 i- inches in 3"; the ftage was then adjufted to the fpace cor- refponding to 2", upon fuppofition that the fpaces de- fcended through were as the fquares of the times, and it wab found to agree accurately with the time; the ftagi was then adjufted to the fpace correfponding to i", upon the fame fuppofition, and it was found to agree with the time. Exp. 3. A third body was laid upon the horizontal plane, and a moving force applied, which defcended 59^ inches in 4"; the ftage was then adjulled to the fpace cor- refponding to 3", upon fuppofition that the fpaces de- fcended through were as the fquares of the times, and it was found to agree with the time ; the ftage was then adjufted to the fpace correfponding to 2'', upon the fame fuppofition, and it was found to agree with the time ; the ftage was th;n adjufted 10 the fpace corre- fponding to i", and was found to agree with the time. Exp. 4. A fourth body was then taken and laid upon the horizontal plane, and a moving force applied, which defcended 55 inches in 4" ; the ftage was then adjufted to the fpace through which it ought to defcend in 3'', upon fuppofition that the fpaces defcended through were as the fquares of the times, and it was found to agree with the time ; the ftage was then adjufted to the fpace correfponding to 2", upon the fame fuppofi. tion, and was found to agree with the time ; laftly, the ftage was adjufted to the ijiace correfponding to i", and it was found to agree exaflly with the lime. Befides thefe experiments, a great number of others were made with hard bodies, or thofe whofe parts fo firmly cohered as not to be moved inter Ji by llie fric- tion ; and, in each experiment, bodies of very different degrees of fiiflion were chofen, and the refults all agreed with thofe related above ; we may theref re con- clude, that the fricl'ion of bard bodies in motion ii a mii- formly retarding force. But to determine whether the fame was true for bo- dies when covered wi;h clotli, woollen, &c. experiments )vere made in order to afcercain it ; when it was found, in all cafes, that the retarding force increaled with the velocity; but, upon covering bodies with paper, the confequences were found to agree with thofe related above. 4. Having proved that the retarding force of all hnrd bodies arifiug from irifc'on is uniform, the quantity of fridion, confidered as equivalent to a wciglit without inertia drawing thebidy on the horizontal plane btck- wardi, or ading contrary to the moving force, may be imiiieJiiitely deduced from the foregoing experiments. For let M — the movin;.; force exprelied by ics weicjht ; F = the fridion ; W = the weight of the body upnu the h ~rizontal plane ; S =: tlie fpace through which tlie moving force defcenJod in the time / exprelfed in feconds ; r — iG A feet; li.cu the whole accclcrative I force F R I [ 66 ] K R I rriclk) M- force (the force of gravity bein^ unity) will be ^^ . hence, by the laws of uniformly accelerated motions, M- ■X r/* = S, confequentlyF = M- M X \v X S m . iirX r/' = i>,conlequentlyr = lyi— ■ t M -f- W rt To exemplify this let us tdke the cafe of the bft ex- periment, where M — 7, W = 25}, S = 4r'T feet, / = 4"; hence F - 7 — ^l\^'^^l = 6.417 ; con- fc')uently the friction was to ilic weight v( the rnhbing body as 6.4167 to 25. 75. And tlie ureat accur icy ot determining the friiilion by tliis m^tiud is ni.inifell from hence, that if an error of I inch had been made in the dcf-ent (and experiments carefully made may always determine tlie fpace tn a much greater ex.K'lneis), ic would not have affet^ed the conclufiun ^i^j-dih part ot the whole. 5. We conne in the next place to determine, whether fricflion, culcrh paribut, varies in proportion to the weight or prelliire. Now if the whole quantity of the fiiftion of a body, meafured by a weight without Iner- tia equivalent to the friction drawing the body back- wards, increafes in proportion to its weight, it is mani- fell, that the retardatic n of the vel city of the body aridngfiom the fiiftion will not be altered; for the re- . . . Quiintity of fri>?li<'n , .^ tardation varies as ^= = ; hence, it a Quan'.iiy ot master body be put in motion upon the hoiizontal plane by any moving force, if both the weiglit of the hody and the moving force he increafed in the fame rat n, the hc- celeration arifing from th It moving t>'rce will remain the fame, bccaule the accelerative free varies as the moving force divided by the wiiole quantity of matter, and both are iucreafed in the fame ratio; and if the quantity of frifllon incieafes .ilfi as the weight, then the retardation arifing from the triflion will, from what has been faid, remain thefjrrie, and theretoie the whole acceleration of the body will not be altered ; confe- quently tiie body ought, upon tliis fi ppofition, lllll to defcribe the fame fpace in the fame time. Hence, by obfervlng the fpaces defcribed in the fame time, when both the body and the movinc; force are iucreafed in the fame ratio, we may determine whether the fiiftion increifes in proportion to the weight. The following experiments were therefore made in order to afcertain til if matter : Exp. I . A body weighing 10 oz. by amoving firce of 4 oz. defcribed in 2' a fpace of 5 1 inches ; by loading the body wi'h to 07. and the moving force with 4 oz. it defcribed 56 inches in 2" ; and by loading the body again with 10 oz. and the moving force with 4 oz. it defcribed 63 inches in 2". Exp. 2. A body, whofe weightwas i6oz.by amoving force of 5 oz. defcribed a Ipace of 49 inches in 3"; and by loading the body with 64 oz. and the moving force with 20 oz. the fpace deli:ribed in the fame time was 64 inches. £*/>, 3. Abody weighing 6 oz. by amoving force of 2\ oz. defcribed 28 inches in 2" ; and by loading the body with 24 oz. and the moving force with 10 oz. the fpace defcribed in the fame time was 54 inches. Exp. 4. A body weighing 8 oz. by a moving force of 40Z. defcribed 33^ inches in 3"; and by loading the l/ody with 8 oz. and the moving foice with 4 oz. the fpace deicribed in the fame time was 47 inches. Exp. 5. A body whole weiaht was 9 oz. by a moving force of 4 1 oz. defcribed 48 inches in 2' ; and by loading the body with 9 oz. and the moving force with 4[- oz. the fpace d-jfcribed in the fame time was 60 inches. Exp. 6. A body weighing 10 o/,. by a moving force of 3 oz. defcribed 20 inches m 2" ; by loading the body with 10 oz. and tlie moving force with 3 oz. the fpace defciibed in the fame time was 31 inches; and by load- ing the body again with 30 oz. and the moving force with 9 oz. the Ipace defcribed was 34 inches in 2''. Fiom thife experiments, and many others which it is not ntcclTary here to relate, it appears, tliat the fpace defcribed is always iucreafed by increallng the weight of the body and the accelerative force in the fame ra- tio ; and as the acceleration aiiiing from the moving force continued the fame, it is manifeft, that the retar- dation arlfing from the friflion muft have been diminilli- ed, for the whule accelerative force mull have been iu- creafed on account of the incre.ife of the fpace delciibed in the fame ume ; and hence (as the retardation from Qiiantiiy of fiift'o \ . --^=^ ' ''■-' quantify of ri'iClion. itiei/ friflion varies as-,^ (^ainity ot nut frilJion increafis in a left ratio than the quantity cf mat- ler or ivd^ht of the botly. 6. We come now to the lafl. thing which it was pro- pofed to determine, that i;., whether the friftion varies by varying the furface on which the body m jves. Let us call two of the juriaces A and a, th» form r h-ing the greater, and the latter tlie lei's. N>w the weight on every given part of ii is as much greater than the wc'ght on an equal part of A, as A is greater than a ; if th-trefore the fridlon was in proportioj to the weight, Citttris panbus. it is manifeft, that the friiftion on u would be equal to the tiiftion on A, the whole iriiiion being, upon fuch a fuppolition, as the weight on any given part of each furface multipl.ed into the number of fuch parts or into the whole arja, which produfts, from the proportion above, are equal. But from the IhH experiments it has been proved, that the Irie'iion on any given furface increafes in a lefs ratio than the weight ; confequently the friiftion on any given part of a has a lefs ratio to the fricllon on ao equal part of A than A has to a, and hence the fniftion on a is lefs than the frlifllon on A, that is, the linallelt furface has always the leall fiiiflion. As this conchilion is contrary to the generally re- ceived opinion, Mr Vince thouglit it proper to confirm it by a fet of experiments made wiih diffennt bodies of exaflly the fame degree of roughneli on their two fur- faces. Exp. I. A body was taken whofe flat furface was to its edge as 22 : 9, and with the fame moving force ihe body defcribed on its flat fide 33^ Inches in 2", and on its edge 47 inches in the fame nnie. Exp. 2. A fecond body was taken whofe flat furface was to its edge as 32 : 3, and with the fame moving force it defcribed on US flit fide 32 inches in 2", and on its edge it defcribed 37I inches in the fime time. Exp. 3. He tO'k another body and covered one of its furfaces, whofe length was 9 inches, with a fine rough paper, and by applyin:; a moving force, itdelcri- bed 25 inches in 2" ; he then took off fome paper from the f R I [ C; ] F R I ths middle, having only -J of an inch at the tv.'o ends, ' and with the lame moving force it defciibed 40 inches in the f ime time. Exp. 4. Another body was taken which had one of its furfaces whofe lenith was 9 inches, covered with a fine rough paper, and by applying a moving force it defcribed 42 inches in 2" ; i'cme nt the |>aper was then taken off from the middle, leaving only i\ inches at the two ends, and with the fame moving force it de- fcril'ed 54 inches in 2"; he then took off more paper, leaving only 4 of an inch at the two ends, and the body then defcribed, by the fame moving force, 60 inches in the fame time. In the two lad experiments the paper which was ta- ken off the furface was laid on the body, that its weight might not be altered. Exp. 5. A body was taken whofe flat furface was to its edge as 30 : 17 ; the fin fide was laid upon the ho- rizontal plane, a moving force was applied, and the flage was fixed in order to ftop the moving force, in confequence of which the body wouhH then go on with the velocity acquired until the fridion had deftroyed all its motion; v^hen it appeared from a mean of 12 trials that the body moved, after its acceleration ceafed, 5f inches before it (topped. The eigd was then ap- plied, and the moving force defcended through the fame fpace ; and it was found, from a mean of the fame number of trials, that the fpace defcribed was y-j- in- ches before the body loft all its motion, after it ceafed to be accelerated. Exp. 6. Another body was then taken whofe flat furface v.'as to its edge as 60 : 19, and, by proceeding as before, on the flat furface it defcribed, at a mean of I 2 trials j-j- inches, and en the edge 6^^ inches, before it flopped, after the acceleration ceafed. Exp. 7. Another body was taken whofe flat furface was to its edge as 26 : 3, and the fpaces defcribed on thefe two furfaces, after the acceleration ended, were, at a mean of ten trials, 4^ and 7tV inches refpe^flively. From all thefe different experiments it appears, that the fmalleft furface had always the leaft friftion, which agrees with tlie confsquence deduced from the confider- ation that the friftion does not increafe in fo great a ratio as the weight; we may therefore conclude, that the fr'tFiion of a body does not continue the fame 'when it hat different furfaces applied to the plane on 'which it moves, but that the fmallefi furface luill ha'ue the leafl friSion . To the experiments inflituted by Mr Fergufon and others, from which conclulions have been drawn fo dif- ferent from thefe, our author makes the following ob- jsflions : It was their objeft to find v.hat moving force would yay? put a body at rell in motion ; and having, as they thought, found it, they thence concluded, that the accelerative force was then equal to the iridion. But it is manifcft, as Mr Vince obferves, that any force which will put a body in motion muft \^<i greater than the force which oppofes its motion, oiherwife it could not overcome it ; and hence, if there were no ether ob- je(fKon than this, it is evident, that the fiii.^ion could not be very accurately obtained : but there is another objedlion which totally dellroys the experiment fo far as it tends to fhew the quantity cf frifticn, which is the ilrong cohefion of the body to the pl.ine when it lies at rell ; and this is confirmed by the following ex- periments. I/?, A body of 12^ 07.. was laid upon an friflio*. horizontal plane, and ilicn loaded v.ith a weight <if ''-^~~^^- 81b. and fuch a moving force was applied as would, when the body was jull^u/ in motion, continue that motion without any acceleration ; in which cafe the friaion mufl be juft equal to the acceleraiive force. The body was then flopped, when it appeared, that the fame moving force which had kept the body in motion before, would not/w/ it in motion, and it was found ne- ceffary to take off 4I 07. from the body before tlie fame moving force cwv/,/ put it in motion; it appears therefore, that this body, when laid upon the plane, at reft, acquired a very Itrong coheQon to it. zd'.i, A body whofe weight was 16 oz. was laid at re!l upon the horizontal plane, and it was found that a moving force of 6 oz. would juft put it in motion ; but that a moving force of 4 oz. wjuU, when it was jufl put in motion, continue that motion without anv acceleration, and therefore the accelerative force mull then have been equal to the fiiftion, and not when the moving force of 6 oz. was applied. From thefe expeiinients therefore it appears, how very coniiderable the cohefion was in proportion lo tlie fridion when the body was in motion; it being, in the latter cafe, almoll |d, and in the former it was found to be very nearly equal to the whole frifliion. All the conclafions therefore deduced from the experiments, which have been inftituted to determine the fridion from the force neceflary to /a/ a body in motion, have ma- nifeftly been totally falfe ; as fuch experiments only fhew the refiflance which arifes from the cohefion and friflion conjjintly. Our author concludes this part of his fubjeifl with the following remark upon n° 5 : " It appears from all the experiments (fays he) which I have made, that the. proportion of the increafe of the fiiiflion to the increafe of the weight w-as different in all the diflerent bodiei which were made nfe of; no general rule therefore can be ertablifhed to determine this for all bodies, and the experiments which 1 have hitherto made have not been fufiicient to determine it for the fat.e body." He then proceeds to eftabhfli a theory upon the principles which he has deduced trom his experiments. That theory is comprehended in five propofitions, of which the objedl of the firft is " to find the time of defcent, and the number of revolutions made by a cy- hnder rolling down an inclined plane in confequence of its fri(Sion. II. " i'o determine the fpace through which a body, projeded on an horizontal plane vith a given velocity, will move bsfore it flops, or before its motion becomes uniform. III. " To find the centre cf fViiflion. IV. " To determine, from the given velocity with which a body begins to revolve about the centre of its bafe, the number of revolutions which that body will • make before all its motion be deftroyed. V. " To find the nature of the curve defcribed by any point of a body affedled by ftiftion when it defcends down any inclined plane." To give the folutions of thefe problems, with tlie co- rollaries deduced from them, would fwell this article to very little purpofe ; for they would be unintelligible to tlie mere mecinuiic, and the mathematician will eitlicr folve tliem for liiinfclf, or have recourfe to the original I 2 memoir. Triedturg II irij'orific. F R I C 68 ] F R I memoir, where he will Bud folutions a( once elegant large corks, at proper diftances, placed on its bottom, Frigorifie. and p?rf(iiriii'us. to ferve as refts for the jipanned pail which was now ^•^^^''^^^ FRIEDBURG, a Moravian f-'ttlement in Wacho- put into the pan. The corks anfwered the purpofe of vin, or Surry co. N. Carolina. — Mont. infulating the inner velTel, while the exterior one kept FKIEDENSHUETTEN, a Moravian fettlemcnt, ofl' the furrounding atmofphere, and prel'erved the air whole name lignities Tents of Peace, fituated on Sufque- betv/een the two at a low temperature- hanna river, in Penniylvania, about 24 miles below To the 5 lb. of muriat of lime which had been cool- Tioga pf^int ; eftablilhed by the United Brethren in ed, as already noticed, to — 15", and which Rill re- 1765. It then confided of 13 Indian huts, and up- mained in the metallic veiTel, was now added fnow, un- ■wards of 40 houles, built alter tlie European manner, comprelfed and tree fiom moifturc, at the ufual teni- with a neat chapel. Next to the houfes the ground peratureof+ 32°. In lefs than three minutes the niix- vas laid out in gardens; and between the feillcment ture gave a temperature of — 62° : a degree of cold and the river about 250 acres were divided itilo regu- which perhaps was never before produced in this coun- lar plantations of Indian corn. — lb. try, being 94** below the freezing point of water. FKIEDENSTADT, or Town of Peace, a Mora- The mercury, which by immerfion in the fecond vlan felllenient which was eftabli(h;d between Great cooling mixture to which it was expofed, was, by this Beaver and Yellow creeks ; about 40 miles N. W. of time reduced to — 30", was now, by the means em- Pittlbirg. It was abandoned in 1773. — ib. ployed before, cautioutly put into the la(l made mixture FRIGORIFIC Mixtures, are tliofe which expe- of the teaiperature of — 62". A hoop, with net-work rlence has taught philofophers to employ for the pur- fattened to its upper edge, and of fuch a breadth in the pofe of producing artificial cold. Some of thefe mix- rim that the net work, when loaded with the bladder tures are enumerated under the title Cold (Encyc/J, of mercury cfuld not reach its lower edge, was at the and a much more accurate lift of them is given, toge- bottom ot the mixture, to prevent the bladder from iher with the principle upon which they produce their coming in contad with thevelfel; by which means the effcd, in tlie article Cmfmistry, n° 202. {Suppl.) mercury was fufpended in the middle of the mixture. There is one mixture, however, not mentioned in that As foon as the bladder was fately depofited on the net- lill, which was employed by Seguin, and feems, on work, the vetfels were carefully covered over with a many accounts, to be the moll eligible that has yet cloth, to impede the paiTage of heat fiom the furround- been propofed. Confidering the muriats (fee Che- ing atmofphere into the freezing ni.iterials. The con- i.\isr!t.\-/nc/ex-SiipJ>l.) as a clafs of falts beft fuited for denfation of moifture from the atniolphere by the ageu- the purpofe, he gave the decided preference to muriat cy of fo low a temperature was greater than could have of lime in chrydals ; and his method was to mix the been expecled : It floated like lleam over the velfels, cryftals, previoufly pulverifed, with an equal weight and, but for the interpofed covering, would have given of uncomprelfed fnow. the mixture more temperature than was defirable. By means of this mixture Mr W. H. Pepys junior. After one hour and forty minutes they found, by of the London Philofophical Society, with 'he afliltance means of a feaicher introduced for the purpofe, that of fome friends, froze, on the 8th of February 1799. the mercuiy was folid and fixed. The temperature of 56 lbs. averdiipoife of mercury into a fnhd mafs. The the mixture at this time was — 46, that is 16° higher mercury was put into a ftron>j bladder and wel! fecured than when the mercury was put into it. at the mouth, the tempeidtute of the laboratory at the Our young philofophers having negleffed to fling time being 4- 33". A mixture cor.fillin? of muriat of the hoop and net-work in fuch a manner as might lime 2 lb. at -j- 33°, and the fame wei'^ht of fnow at have enabled them to lift it out of the mixture at once, + 3^° g''^^ — 4^° ^*)" The mercury was put as with the bbuider and its contents, were obliged to turn gently as polTible into this mixture (to prevent a rup- outthe whole contents of the pail intoalarge evaporating lure of the bladder), by m^-a.s of a cloth held at tlie capfule made of iron. This was not effected without the four corners. When the cold mixture had robbed the mercury Itriking againll its bottom and being fr.idured, mercury of fo much of its heat as to have iCb own tern- though it received a confiderable inci eafe ol temperature perature thereby railed from — 42° to -|- 5, another from the capfule. Thefraiflure was limilar lothat of zinc, mixture, the fame in every refpeft as the lalt, was but with parts more cubical. The larger pieces were made, which gave, on trial with the thermometer, kept for fome minutes before tu.lon took place, while — 43°. The mercury was now received into the cloth, others were twifted and bent into various forms, to the and put gently into this new mixture, where it was left no fniall gratification and furprife of ihofe who had to be cooled (fill lower than before. never witnclfed or expeiSed to fee fuch an effeCf pro- In the mean time five pounds of muriat of lime, in a duced on fo fufible a metal, large pail made of tinned iron, and japanned infide and In experiments of the kind here defcribed, all the outhde, was placed in a cooling mixture in an earthen- exterior veliels fhould be of earthen-ware or wood, ware pan. The mixture in the pan, which confided of which being bad conduftors of heat, prevent the ingre- ^Ib. of muriat of lime and a like quantity of fnow, of dients from receiving heat from the atmofphere and the fame temperature as the former, in one hour redu- furrounding objeifls with the fame facility that they ced the 5 lb. of muriat in the pail to — 15". The mix- would through metals ; and, for a fimilar reafon, the- ture was then emptied out of the earthen pan, and four interior veffels are bel\ of metal, that they may allow the (a) The thermometer made ufe of in this experiment was filled with tinged alcohol, and accurately divided according to Fahrenheit's fcale. FRO Frigorific II Frontinac. [ 69 ] F U E • "The Ph, tofophicdl the heat to pafs more readily from the fuhftance to be cooled into the frigorific mixture employed for that purpofe. Miiriat of lime is certainly the mod powerful, and at the fame time the moft economical fubllance that can be employed for producing artiricial cold ; for its firft coft is a mere trifle, being a refiduum from many chemical procelTes, as the diltillation of pure ammonia, &c. and often thrown away : befides, it may be repeat- edly tiled for fimilar experiments, nothing being ne- cefFary for this purpofe but filtration and evaporation to bring it to its tirftftate. The evaporation Ihould be carried on till the folution becomes as thick as a ftrong fyrup, and upon cooling the whole will be cryllallifed : it mull then be powdered, put up in dry bottles, well corked, and covered with bladder or cement to pre- vent liquefadtion ; which otherwlfe would foon take place, owing to the great affinity the muriat has for moillure. The powerful efFeifts produced by the frigorific mix- ture of muriat of linne and fnow, prefent a wide field for experiments to determine the pofTiijility of fixing fome of the gafes by intenfe cold. And we arc hap- py to be informed by Mr Pepys, that, as foon as an opportunity offers, he and his friends mean to make fome experiments with that view, and to communicate the refult of them to the editor of the valuable mifcel- . lany* from which we have taken this account of his experiment on mercury. FRIO, a fmall ifland on the coall of the Brazils, fi- tuated in 32° 2' fouth lat. and 41° 31' 45" well Ion. The land of Frio is high, with a hollow in the middle, which gives it, at a diflance, the refemblance of two le- parate iflands. The palfage between the illand and the continent is about a mile broad, and feemed to Sir E- rafmus Gower to be clear from fhoals. FRONTINAC, Fort, a fortrefs in Canada, fitu- ated at the head of a tine bay or harbor, on the N. W. lide of the outlet of Lake Oritario, where all forts of vefTels may ride in fafety. It is a league from the mouth of the lake, and a Ihort diflance S. of King- fton, and about 300 miles from Qu^ebec. The winter about this place is much fhorter than at Quebec j and the foil is fo well cultivated, as to produce all forts of European and Indian corn, and fruits. Here is one of the moll charming profpetls in the world, during fpring and fummer. The St Lawrence and the mouth of Lake Ontario, contain a number of beautiful and fertile iflands of different magnitudes, and well wood- ed, and the bay often prefents to the view velfels at anchor, and others pafTuig to and from the lake. But the misfortune is, that the advantageous communica- tion between this lake, Montreal and Quebec, is f 'me- •what difficult and dangerous, on account of the river being full of rocks and water falls. This, together ■with the ambufcades of the Iroquois Indians, induced the French to abandon and deliroy the flrong works they had erefted here. This happened in 1689. After this they retook and repaired the place. At length the Britifli, under col. Bradllreet, took it in 1759, to whom it was confirmed at the peace in 1763. A river has lately been furreyed by the deputy fur- veyor general of Canada, from its entrance into the lake at Kenty, near Cadaraqui, to its fource in lake St Clie i from which there is an eafy and Ihort portage acrofs N. W. to the N. E. angle of Lake Huron, and another that is neither long nor difficuh, to the fouth- ward, to the old fettlement of Toronto. This is a , fliort route from Fort Frontenac to Michillimackinack. ' — Morse. FROST, as is well known in Scotland, is particu- larly dellruaive to the blolTom of fiuit trees ; and the following method of fecuring fuch tiees from being da- maged by early frofts may he acceptable to many of our readers. A rope is to be interwoven among the branches of the tree, and one end of it brought down fo as to be immerfed in a bucket of water. The rope, it is faid, will aift as a conductor, and convey the ef- feds of the froll from the tree to the water. This idea is not new, for the f )llowing paflage may be found in Colerus : " If you dig a trench around the root of' a tree, and fill it with water, or keep the roors moill till it has bloomed, it will not be injured by the fri ll. Or, in fpring, fufpend a velVel filled wiih water from the tree. If you wifh to preferve the bloom from being liurt by the froll, place a velfel of water below it, and the froll will fall into it." Pbilofophi^al Mai^aiin:, n"^ 1 1. FROWSAC Channel, or the Gut of Canlo, a llrait between Nova-Scotia and Cape Breton Illand, 5 French leagues long, and one broad. — Morse. FRYDUFFRIN, a townfhip in Cheller co. PennfyU vania — lb. FRYING PAN, a dangerous fhoal fo called from its form. It lies at the entrance of Cape Fear river, in North Carolina ; the S. part of it is in N. lat. 33. 32. 6 miles from Cape Fear pitch, and 24 S. E. by S. from the light-houfe on Bald Head. FRYSBURGH, or Fryburg, a townfhip pleafantly fituated in York co. in the dilfriift of Maine, in a bow formed by the N. branch of Great Ollipee river. It was incorporated in 1777, has a flourithing academy, and contains 447 inhabitants. This is the ancient Indian village Peckw.dket, through which the upper part of Saco meanders ; 60 miles from the fea, and 120 N. by E. of Bollon. N. lat. 44. 2. W. long. 70. 47. 30 — ib. FUCA, Straits of Juan oe, he on the N. W. coall of N. America. The entrance lies between Cape Flattery on the S. fide, in N. lat. 48. 25. W. long. 124. 52. to the oppofite coall of the Qiiadras ifles, in N. lat. 48. 53. 30. I: communicates with Pintard's found, and thns forms Quadras ifles ; in the S. eaflern coall of which lies Nootka found. The Spaniards, jealous of their right to the American coatl, eflablilhed a fettlement at this place. — ib. FUEL, whatever is proper to burn, or make a fire, either for warming a room or dreffing vidluals. The fuel moll generally uled in Great Britain is pit coal, which is a very expenlive article ; and that expence is greatly increafed by the wafte of coal occafioncd by the injudicious manner in which tires in open chimneys .ire commonly managed. The enormous walfe of fuel in London, for inllance, may be ellimated by the vafl dark cloud which continually hangs < ver that great metro- polis, and frequently overlhadows the whole country far and wide ; lor this denfe cloud is cert.iinly compofcd almoll entirely of unconfumed coal, which has etcaped by the chimneys, and continues to fail about in the air, till, having lofl the heat which gave it volatihty, it falls iu a dry Ihowcr of extremely due black duU to the ground, Proft II Fuel. F U E C 7^ ] F U L Fusl. jTound, obfeoring the atmofphere In Its dercent, and fcqr.enily changing the biighieft day into more than r.;;; piian daiknels. "•♦I never (f^ys Count Rumford) view fiom a di- fiance, as I come intn town, this bl.ick cloud which lianas over London, without wilhing lo be a'.)lc to coni- pntc'ihe immeiile number ol" chaldrons of coals ot which it is compofed ; for could this be afcert.iired, I nm per- fuaded fo Rrikii.g a fad would awaken the curiolity, and excite the altonilliment of all ranks of the ii. habi- tants ; and perhaps tuin their minds to an objefl ol eco- nomy to which they have hitherto paid little attention." The objea to which tlie benevolent au'hor more particularly vilhes to direa the public attention, is the lighting of a coal fire, in which more wood ihould be employed than is commonly ufed, and fewer coals ; and lis foon as the fiie burns bright, and the coals are well lighted, and not before, more coals fliould be added lo increale tlie fire to its proper fize. Kindling balls, compol'ed of equal parts of coal, — charcoal, — and clay, the two former reduced to a fine powder, well mixed and kneaded together, with the clay mcifiened with water, and then formed into balh of the fize of hens eggs, and thoroughly dried, might be ufed with great advantage inflead of wood for kin- dling files. Thefe kindling balls may be made fo in- riammabie as to take fire in an inRant and with the fmalleft fpark, by dipping them in a ftrong folution of nitre and then drying them again : and they would nei- tlier be evpenfive nor liable to be fpoiled by long keep- in". Perhaps a quantity of pure charcrnl, reduced to a very fine powder, and mixed with the folution of nitre in which tliey are dipped, would render them flill more inflammable. The Count thinks that the fires which are made in the open chimneys of elegant apartments might be greatly improved by preparing the fuel ; for nothing (f^yshe) was evermore dirty, inelegant, and difgulting than a common coal fire. Fire balls, of the fize of goofe eggs, compofed of coal and charcoal in powder, mixed up with a due pro- portion of wet clay, and well dried, would make a much more cleanly, and in all refpefls a pleafanter fire than can be made with crude coals ; and, he believes, would not be more expenfive fuel. In Flanders, and in feveral parts of Germany, and particularly in the duchies of Juliers and Bergen, where coals are ufed as fuel, the coals are always prepared before they are ufed, by pounding them to a powder, and mixing them up with an equal weight cfclay, and a fufficient quantity of water to form the whole into a maf'^, which is kneaded together and formed into cakes ; which cakes are after- wards well dried, and kept in a dry place for ufe. And it has been found, by long experience, that the expence attending this preparation is amply repaid by the im- provement of the fuel. The coals, thus mixed with clay, not only burn longer, but give much more heat than when they are burnt in their crude Rate. It will doubilefs appear extraordinary to ihofe who have not confidered the fubjca witli fime attention, that the quantity of heat produced in the combuftion cf any given quantity of coals fhould be increafed by mixing the coals with clay, which is certainly an incom- bullible body ; but the phenomenon may be explained in a fatisfaaory manner. The heat generated in the combuRion of any fmall Fulling, particle v^ coalexilting under two diRlna forms, name- '^^'^'^^ ly, i;) that v/hich is combined witii tl;c flame and fmoke wliicli rife from the fire, and which, if means are not found to rtop it, goes olF immediately by the chimney and is loR, and the radiant heat which is fent otF from the fire in all direaions in right lines: — It is therefore reafonable to conclude, that the particles of clay, which are I'urrounded nn all fides by the flame, arrcR a part at leaR of the combineJ heat, and prevent its efcape ; and this com!)iiied heat, fo arreRed, jie.uing the cl.iy red hot, is retained in it, and being changed by this oper.iton to radian: beat, is afterwards emitted, and may be dircaed and employed to uleful purpofes. In the co'mpolition of fireballs, the Count thinks it probable that a certain proportion of chaiF, of Rraw cut very fine, or even of faw diiR, might be employed with great adv.uitage. FULLING OF Vv'OOLLEN CLOTHS (fee the method of performing the operation under the article Fulling, Eiicycl.) depends, like Feltino, fo entirely upon the Rruaure of wool and hair, that the following obferva- tions, which are not uniaiportaiit, will be intelligible to everf reader who has perufed that article in this Stip- plemeril. Tile afperities with which the furface of wool is every where furrounded, and the difpcfition which it has to affume u progrelTive motion towards the root, render the fpinning of wool, and making it into cloth, diffi- cult operations. In order to fpin wool, and afterwards to weave it, we are obliged to cover its fibres with a coating of oil, which, filling the cavities, renders the afpcrities lefs fenfible ; in the fame way as oil, when rub- bed over the furface of a very fine file, renders it Rill lefs rough. When the piece of cloth is finilhed, it mud be cleanfed from this oil ; which, befides giving it a difagreeable fmell, would caufe it to foil whatever it came in contaa with, and would prevent its taking the colour which is intended to be given to it by the dj'er. To deprive it of the oil, it is carried to the fulling-mill, where it is beat with hammers in a trough full of wa- ter, in which fome clay has been mixed ; the clay com- bines with the oil, which it feparates from the cloth, and both together are walhed away by the frefh water which is brought to it by the machine ; thus, after a certain lime, the oil is entirely wafhed out of the cloth. But the fcouring of the cloth is not the only objeft in fulling it ; the alternate preffure given by the mallets to tlie piece of cloth, occafions, efpecially when the fcouring is pretty far advanced, an efFea analogous to lliat which is produced upon hats by the hands of the halter ; the fibres of wool which compofe one of the threads, whether of the warp or the woof, affume a pro- grelTive movement, introduce themfelves among thofe of the threads neareR to them, then into thofe which fol- low ; and thus, by degrees, all the threads, bo*h of the warp and the woof become felted together. The cloth, after having, by the above means, become (hortened in all its dimenfions, partakes both of the nature of cloth and of that of felt ; it may be cut without being fubjeft to ravel, and, on that account, we are not obliged to hem the edges of the pieces of which clothes are made. Lartly, As the threads of the warp and thofe of the woof are no longer fo diRina and feparated from each other, the cloth, wliich has acquired a greater degree of ihicknefs, forms a warmer clothing. Knit worfled alfo F U L C 7^ ] F U L Fiilmmat- alfo U, by fulling, rendered Icfs apt to run, in cafe a This liquor will yield another pellicle \n the fame Fuiminat- .^iH^:,^ ftitcli iliould drop in it. way ; but the third orf.urth pellicle will be p;iler than i«S- FULMINATING Gold. 7 See Chemistry .?!//>//. the former, and weaker in the explolion. The firll ^■^'^''"^^ Fulminating isdver. J nos S49 and 850. pellicles, when (lowly dried, explode by the touch of a Mr Berthollett, the inventor of fulminating filver, ha- feather, or by their being heated to about q(y. ring contented himfelt with a general and concife de- The quantity of water in the ordinal v aiiu.i ammo- fcription of this fubjidV, many piaiftical cheniifts have niae piiia: renders it kfs aflive in tlie fnhitii.n of ihe failed in the'r attempts to prepare it ; and others, form- oi)'i, and is an imp^'diment to the fpeedy formation ing their opinions from the fiiecimens which they had and feparation of the fulminating Alver ; and aneipeii- made, have been expofed togreat danger: as will appear menter who hns ol'ten ufed twenty grains of the oxyd from the following relation : to produce fucceffive pellicles of fulminatin'^ filver. An ounce ot fine filver was dilToIved in thecourfeof which may be fcp.uattly exploded with fafery, and who eight hours in an ounce of pure nitrous acid, of the has perceived that the p;llicles never explode v;hilil wet, London PhmmacopcEia, diluted previoully with three if they be not heated, would, in all probability, refdvc ounces of dillilled water in a glals nntrafs. The foln- on the following improvement, and cxpofehimielf to the tion being poured ofl', the reliduary black powder and unforcfeen danger of it. the matrafs were walhed with feven or eight ounces cf Dillilled water was impregnated with as much pure warm dillilled water, and this was added to the folution. ammoniac, as it could eafily retain under the ordinary The black powder, being gold, was rejefled ; fome temperature of the air. A quantity of this llrong am- gold being tluis feparable from any filver of commerce, moniacal liquor, equal in bulk to a qiiaiter of an ounce To the foregoing diluted f ilution, pure lime-water of water, was placed in a fnvall bottle, and 24 "Trains of prepared with diilil'ed water was added gradually ; for the oxyd of filver, gnund to fine powder, were added, the fjlution ought not to be poured into the lime wa- The bottle, being almoft tilltd, was corked, to prevent ten When about thirty pint-, of lime water had been the formation (t that film which ufually appeared in expended, and ihe precipitate hadfubfided, more lime- confequence of the exhalation of the ammoniac in other ■water was added, by fucceffive pints, as long as it cau- experiments. fed any precipitai- n. For it wai deemed fitter tliat During the folution of the oxyd, bubbles of the ga- the precipitation Ihould not be perfeded, than that an feous kind arofe from it, and the folution acquired a cxcefs of lime-water Ihould be ufed ; the earthy pellicle blue colour. As no film appeared, the bottle was aei- cf the excelEve lime-water being apt tJ mix with the tatcd three or four times in ihecouife of as many hnurs, precipitate. The clear liquor being poured away, the in order to promote the folution of a fmali quantity of precipitate v^.u poured off, and waihed into a filter. blackened oxyd which remained at the bottom. The When the faline liquor had drained fioni it, two experimenter conlldering this as an ample provifion for ounces of dillilled water were poured on the magma; twenty different charges, to be exploded in different and u hen this water had pafl'cd, frclh portions weie foe- circumllances, in the prefence of tlie fociety, intended ceffively added and pilled, until the whole quantity of to pour off the folution into as many fmall velLls, and v.'ater thus expended in walhing away the nitrous cal- to we.gh therefiduary black powder, after allowing two carenus fait amounted to a quart. The filter being then unfolded, to let the magma of oxyd of filver fpread on the flattened p.iper, it waa pla- ced on a chalk-llone to accelerate the exiiccation, and was gradually dried in the open air ; a cap of paper be- ing placed loofely over it to ey.chide the dufl. hours more for the folution. On the fixth hour he took his ufual precantion of wearing fpeflacles ; and obferving that a fmall quantity of bl.ick powder ftill remained undiffolved, and tlial no film was yet formed at the furface, he took the l)ottle by the neck to (hake it, knowing that it might explode When the weather ferved, the cap was removed, to by the heat of bis hand, if he were to gral'p it, and that expofe the oxyd to the rays of the lun ; although this the explofion in this circumllance might wound him was not deemed neccellary ; and exficcation was promo- dangeroufly . ted by cutting the oxyd into thin dices. When per- In the inllant of fhaking, it exploded with a report fcifly dry it weighed i oz. 4 dwts. and about one-fifth that llunned him. The bottle was blown into frng- of it was confidcred as oxvgen. ments fo fmall as to appear like glafs coarfely powder- When aqua ammonia: purx of any pharmacopoeia is ed. The hand which h-ld it was imprelfed as by the ufed with thi4 oxyd, either in the fmall quantity which blow of a great hammer, and loll the fenfc of teclinpf blackens it completely, or in a greater quantify, the for fome leconds ; and about 52 Imall grains ot glals black matter which fubfides, and which has been repre- were lodged, many of them deeply, in the Ikin of the fented by fyflematic writers as the fu'.minating com- palm and fingers. The liqunr llained his whole dref^, pound, has no fuch property, any tarther than may be and every part of the fkin that it touched. Thus it owing to the matter depofited from the alkaline folution appeared that fulminating filver may be made which during the exficcation. will explode even when cold and wet, by the mere di- The alkaline liquor containing the fulminating filver fturbauce of the arrangement of its parts, in the aque- ought to be poured off fmm the in("luble powder, and ous fluid, expofed in a (hallow velfel to the air. In confequence In fubfcquent experiments, privately and carefully of the exhalation, black (hinintj cryQals form on the fuiface only, and foon join to form a pellicle. As this pellicle adheres a little to the (ides of the velfel, or maintains its figure, the liquor may be poured ofl" by a gentle inchaation of the vell'el. condui5lcd, it feemed that the property of exploding in the cold liquor, by mere commotion, depended on the unufual ([uantity or proximity of the explolive molecules in a given bulk of the liquor. And the Hit bottoms, as well is the fides, of the tliick veifcls of glaf» or pot- ters< GAG [ 72 3 GAL Fuiidy. FunSion ters-ware, whether they ftood on boards or iron plates, !• were always beaten to fnuall iragments. This afforded a •urious inftance of the poffible equi- librium between the powers tending to retain the ca- loric and thofe which elTetfl the expuKionof it; and expe- riments and conftderations of this kind feemed to pro- mife a true folution of the phenomena of Rupert's drops. FUNCTION, a term ul'ed in analytics for an alge- braical expreffion any how compounded of a certain letter or quantity with other quantities or numbers ; and the exprelTinn is faid to be a funflion of that letter or quantity. Thus a — 4.V, or ax -J- j.v', or 2.\- — a 1/ a'^ — .x', or .x"^, or c", is each of them a function of the quantity x. FUNDY, a large bay in N. America, which opens between the illands in Penobfcot bay, in Lincoln co. Maine, and Cape Sable, the S. wellern point of Nova- Scotia. It extends about 200 miles in a N. E. direc- tion ; and with Verte bay, which pulhes into the land in a S. W. diredion from the ftraits of Northumber- land, forms a very narrow illhmus, whicli unites No- va-Scotia to the continent ; and where llie divifioii line runs between that province and New-Brunfwick. Ficm its mouth up to Palfamaquoddy bay, on its N. W. fide, fituated between the province of New-Brunf- wick and the diilricfl of Maine, are a number of bays and iilinds on both fides, and thus far it contra>Ss its breadth gradually. It is 12 leagues acrofs from St John's, in New-Brunfwick, to the Gut of Annapolis, in Nov-Scotia ; where the tides are rapid, and rife 30 feet. Above this it preferves nearly an e(jual breadth, until its waters are formed into two arms, by a penin- fula, the weflern point of which is called Ciipe Cliig- nefto. At the head of the N. eaflern arm, called Chig- neflo cliannel, wliicli, with bay Verte forms the ifth- mus, the tides rife 60 feet. In the Bafm of Minas, which is the E. arm or branch of this bay, the tides rife 40 feet. Thel'e tides are fo rapid as to overtake animals feeding on the fhore. — Morse. FURD-Y-HucKEECuT, in Bengal, fignifies a paper of defcription. FvRD-y-Sozful, paper of requeft. FUST, in architeiflure, the (haft of a column, or the part comprehended between the bafe and the capital, called aUb the naked. G. Gabori /~^ ABORT, a bay on the S. E. coaft of Cape Breton It V_T ifland. The entrance into it, which is not more ^^JI^I^^ than 20 leagues from the iflcs of St. Pierre, is between iflands and rocks about a league in breadtli. The bay is 2 leagues deep, and affords good anchorage. — Morse. GABRIEL, St an ifland in the great river La Plata, S. America, difcovered by Sebaftian Cabot, in the year 1526. — ib. GAGL's Toiun, a fettlement in Sunbury co. New- Brunfwick ; on the lands granted to general Gage, on the W. fide of St John's river, on the northern fliore of the bay of Fundy. The general's grant confifts of 20,000 acrcb of land ; the up-land of which is in general very bad. There is fome intervale on the river fide, on which are a few fettlers ; exclufive of thefe fettle- ments, there is very little good land of any kind. — ib. GAGUEDI, a tree peculiar to Lamalmon, in A.byf- finia, is thus defcribed by Mr Bruce. The leaves are long, and broader as they approach the end. The point is obtufe. They are of a dead green, not unlike the willow, and placed alternately one above the other on the ftalk. The calix is compofed of many broad fcales lying one above the other, which operates by the pref- fure upon one another, and keeps the calix fhut before the flower arrives at perfsftion. T'he flower is mono- petolous, or made of one leaf; it is divided at the top into four fegments ; where thefe end, it is covered with a tuft of dovi'n, refembllng hair, and this is the cafe at the top alfo. When the flower is young and unripe, they are laid regularly fo as to inclofe one another in a Galett*. circle. As they grow old and expand, they feem to G»guedi lofe their regular form, and become more confufed, till at la ft, when arrived at its full perfedlion, they range themfelves parallel to the lips of the calix, and perpen- dicular to the ftamina, in the fame order as a rofe. The common receptacle of the flower is oblong, and very capacious, of a yellow colour, and covered with fmall leaves like hair. Tbe ftile is plain, fimple, and upright, and covered at the bottom with a tuft of down, and is below the common receptacle of the flower. Our author fays that he has obferved, in the middle of a very hot day, that the flowers unbend themfelves more, the calix feems to expand, and the whole flower to turn itfelf towards the fun in the fame manner as does the fun-flower. When the branch is cut, the flower dries, as it were inftantaneoufly, fo that it feems to contain very little humidity. GALEN, a military lownfhip in the ftate of New- York, fituated on Canadaque creek, 12 miles N. W. of the N. end of Cayuga lake, and 13 S. by E. of Great Sodus. It is bounded S. by Junius. — Morse. GALETS, an ifland at the E. end of lake Ontario, and in the ftate of New-York, 5 miles S. weftward of Roebuck ifland, 5 northerly of Point Gaverfe, and 31 S. E. of Point au Goelans. — ib. GALETTE, La, a neck of land in the river St. Lawrence, in Canada. From the point oppofite to rifle de Montreal, a road might be made to Galette, fo as to fave 40 leagues of navigation, which the falls render GAL [ 73 ] GAL GiHWs II Gallan. render almoft impraflicable, and always very tedious. The land about La Gulette is very good ; and in two , days time a barque may Ail thence to Niagara, with a good wind. L,^ Galecte is a league and a half above the fall called les Gilots. — ii. GALIBIS, or Chara'iles, a nation of Indians in- habiting near Niw-AndaluCia, in S. America ; from which the Charaibes of the Weft-Indies are thought to be defcended. — ib. GALICIA, an audience in Old Me.vico or New- Spain, containing 7 provinces. Guadalaxera is the capital city. — ib. GALIPAGO IJles, the name of feveral uninhabited ifles in the South Sej, on both fules the equator, not f?.r from the coaft of Terra Firma ; belonging to Spain. They lie between 3. N. and 4. S. lat. and between 83. 40. and 89. 30. W. long. There are only g of them of any confiderable fize ; fome of which are 7 or 8 le.^gues long, and 3 or 4 broad. Danipier faw 14 or 15 of them. The chiet of thefe are Norfolk, neareft the continent, Wenmore among the N. wcllernmoll and Albemarle the wefternmoft of all. A number of fmall illes lie W. from thefe, on both fides the equa'or ; one of which, G.illego ifland lies in the ill degree of N. lat. and 102 of W. long. Many of thefe ifles are well wooded, and fome have a deep black mould. Vaft quantities of tlie finefl turtle are to be found among thefe iflands, where they live the greatell part of the year ; yet they are faid to go from thence over to the main to lay their eges, which is at leaft iro leagues diftant. — ib. GALLAN, St a fmall illand on the coaft of Peru, in lat. 14. S. 5 miles N. of the high land Morro Feijo, or Old Man's Head ; between which ifland and the GalUcrolj high land, is a nioft elegible Uation to cruize for veCels I bound for Callao, N. or S. ib. (JallowjT. GALLIOPOLIS, ap'.ft town in the N. W. terri- ^'^'"'"'^ tory, fituated on a bend of the Ohio, and nearly op- pofite to the mouth of ilie Great K^inhaway. It is faid to contain about 100 h.ufcs, all inhabited by French people. It is 140 miles eaftward c f Colum- bia, 300 S. W. of Pitifljurg, and 559 S. W. of Phila- delphia. N. lat. 39. 2. W. long 83. 9. This town is faid to be on the decline, their right to the lands not being fufficiently fccurcd. ib. GALOTS, the loweft of ti.e falls on the river St Lawrence in Canada. Between the neck of land la Galette and les Galots is an excellent cr^uut:y, and no where can there be feeii finer forefti. ib. GALOrs, l'isleaux, an illand in the river St Law- rence, in Canada; 3 leagues beyond I'ifle aux Chevres, in N. lat. 43. 33. — ib. GALLO, an illand in the province of Popayan, S. America, in N. lat. 2. 40. Captain Damp er fays it is fituated in a deep b,iy, and that eft this ifland there is not above 4 or 5 iatiiom water ; but at Segnetia, which is on the N. fide, a veffel may ride in d;ep wa- ter, Iree from any d.inger. The ifland is high, pro- vided with wood and good water, and havini? good fandy bays, where a Ihip may be cle.ined. — ^Alfi, the name of an ifl and (t the S. fea, near the coaft of Peru, which was the firft place pc ill-Jed by the Spani- ards, when they attempted the conqueft of Peru. — ib. GALLOWAY, a lownfliip ia Gloucefter co. New- Jerfey. — ib. GALVANISM. Galvanilm (T^ ALVANISM, is the name now commonly given improperly XJT to the influence difcovered nearly eight years ago called a/a- by the celebrated Galvani, profeflbr of anatomy at Bo- "" logna, and which, by him and fome other authors, has been called animal elcSricity. Wc prefer the former name, becaufe we think it by no means proved, that tlie phenomena difcovered by Galvani depend either up- on the eleftric fluid, or upon any law of animal life. While that is the cafe, it is furely better to diftinguilh a new branch ot fcisnce by the name of the inventor, than to give it an appellation which probably may, and, in our opinion, certainly does, lead to an erroneous theory. M. Galvani was engaged in a fet of experiments, the object of which was to demonftrate, if poflible, the de- pendence of mufcular motion upon eledricity. In the courfe of this inveftigation, lie liad met with feveral new and ftriking appearances which were certainly eleflrical ; foon after wliich, a fortunate accident led to the difco- j very of tlie phenomena which conllitute the cliief fubjedt Difcovcry of this article. The ftrong refemblance which thefe of galvan- bore to the eleflrical fadls which he had before obferv- ''■"• ed, led almoft irrefiftibly to the conclnlion that they all depended upon the fame caufe. Tliis opinion he immediately adopted ; and his fubfequent experiments and reafonings were niturally dircfled to fupport it. The fplendor of his difcovery dazzled the imaginations SupPL. Vol. II. of thofe who profecuted the enquiry ; and for fome time his theory, in fo far at leaft as it attributed the whole to the agency of the eleflric fluid, was fantlioned by univerfal approbation. Of late, however, this opini mi has rather loft ground; and there are now many philo- fophers who confider the phenomena as totally uncon- ne(5led with elcdlricity. 3 We propofe, in ihifrjl place, to enumerate the chief Objcft of fafts which have been afcertained on the fubje^ ; we '*>" =^"-'* (hall then enquire, whether or not the caufe of the ap- pearances be the cle<fl:ic fluid ; and, thinlly, we fhall examine how far it has been proved, that this caufe is necelFarily conneifled with animal life. Whilll Galvani was one day employed in diirecling a frog, in a room wliere fome of liis friends were arau- fing themfclves with electrical experiments, one ot ihem having liappcned to draw a fpaik from the ronduclor at the fame time that tlie profeflbr touched one of the nerves of the animal, its whole body was inftantly flia- ken by a violent conviilfion. Aftoniflied at the pheno- menon, and at firll imagining t!;at it might be owing to his iiaving wound.-d the nerve, he pricked it with the point ol his knife, tJ alfare hinifelf whether or not this was the c ife, but no motion of the frog's body was produced. He now toiiclied the nerve with the inftni- nicnt as at firft, and dircfled a fpark to be talicn at the K fame 74 GALVANISM. 4 H« enga- ged much fcicntific attcjitiou. fame time from tlie macliine, on which the contractions were renewed. Upon a third trial, the animal remain- ed motionkis ; but obferving that he held liis knife by the handle, which was made of ivory, he changed it for a metallic one, and immediately the movements took place, which never was the cafe when he ufcd an elec- tric fubftancc. After having made a great many fimilar experiments with the elciflrical machine, he refolved to profccute the fiibjeifl witli atmofpheric tle>5lricity. With this view he raifed a ronduiftor on the roof of his houfe, from which he brought an iron wire into his room. To lliis he attached metal conductors, conneifled with the nerves of the animals delUned to be the fubjefts of his experiments ; and to their legs he fallened wires which reached the floor. Thefe experiments were not confi- ned to frogs alone. Different animals, both of cold and warm blood, were fubjectcd to them ; and in all of them ccnfideral>le movements weretxcited whenev.r it lij;ht- ned. Thefe preceded iluinder, and correfpoiided with its intenfity and repetition ; and even wlien no lijjht- ning appeared, the movements took place when any llormy cloud pafl'ed over the apparatus. That all thefe appearances were produced by the eleflric fluid, was obvious. Having foon after this fufpended fome frogs from the iron palil'ades which furroundej his garden, by means of metallic hooks fixed in the fjjines of their backs, he obferved that their mnfcles contrafled frequently and involuntarily as if from a fliork of eleiflricity. Not doubting thattlie contraflinns depended on the eleiftric fluid, he at firfl fufpeded that they were conncfled ■with changes in the ftate of the atmofphere. He foon found, however, that this was not the cafe ; and having varied, in many different ways, the circutnllances in which the frogs were placed, he at lengtli diicovered that he could produce the movements at p'eafuie by touching the animals with two different metals, wiiich, at the fame time, touched one another citlier immediate- ly or by the intervention of fume other iubltance capa- ble of conducing elcdricity. All the experiments that have yet been made miy be reduced to the following, wliich will give the otlicr- wife uninformed reader a precife notion of the fubjefl. Lay bare about an inch of a great nerve, leading to any limb or niufcle. Let that end of the b.ired part which is farthift from tlie hmb be in clof'e ctinta(^t wiih a bit of zinc. Touch the zinc with a bit of (ilver, while another pait of the filver touches, either the naked nerve, if not dry, or, whether it be dry or not, the limb or muicle to which it leads. Violent con- traiftioiis are produced in the limb or mafcls, but not in any nuifclc on the other fide of the zinc. Or, touch the bared nerve with a piece of zinc, and touch, with a piece of filver, either the bared nerve, or the limb; no cinvullion is obferved, till the zmc and lllver are alfo made to touch each other. A fadf fo new, illuflrated by many experiments and much ingenious reafoning, whicn ProtcfTir Galvani foon publilhed, could not tail to attraft the attention of pbyfiologilts all over Europe; and the refult of a vaft number of experiments, equally cruel and Airprlfinp, has been from time to time laid before the public by Valli, Fowler, Monro, Volta, Humboldt, and others. Frogs, unhappily for themfelves, have been found the moft convenient fubjeifts for thefe experiments, as they retain their mufcular irritability and lufceptibility of the galvanic influence very long. Many hours after they have been decapitated, or have had their brain and fpinal marrow dellroyed, llrong €onvulficin> can be pro- duced in them by the applicatic n of the metals. A leg feparated from the body will often continue capa- ble of excitement for feveral days. Nay, very dilciiiifl movements have been produced in frogs pretty far ad- vanced in the procefs of putrefaiftion. DifFereiit kinds of filhes, and many other animaU both of cold and warm blood, have been fubjefled to fimilar experiments, and have exhibited the fame phenomena ; but the warm blooded animals lofe their fufceptibility of galvanifni, as of every other ftimulus, very foon after death. Almofl any two nieials will produce tlie movements; but, it i? believed, the moll powerful are the f 'llowing, in the order in which they are here placed : i. Zinc; 2. Tin; 3. Lead; in conjunfliou with, i. Gold; 2. bilver; 3. Molybdena ; 4. Steel; 5. C.'pper. Upon this point, however, authors are not perfcflly agreed. The procefs by which thefe fingular phenomena are produced, confifls in efTefling, by the ule of the exci- ting apparatus, a mutual communication between any two points of contaft, moie or lefs d Ifant from one another, in a fyttem of nervous and mulcular organs. The fphere of this mutual communication may be re- garded as a complete circle, divided into t«o part-. That part of it which confills of the org ins of the animal under the experiment, has been called ihe nni- malatc; that which is formed by the galvanic inltru- ments has been called the exci'.alory arc. The latter ufually confifls of more pieces than r:ne ; of which forae are named_/?«>'j, truces, &.C. others communicitors, from their refpe(5tive ufes. A very numerous train of experiments on galvanifm has been made by a committee of the I'iiyfical and Ma- thematical Clafs of the National Inftitute of France ; and as their report comprehends a valt number of the moft important fads which are yet known on the fub- jed, we fhall prefent our readers with the fubliance of "(a). The immenfe mafs of matter which refulted from the experiments of the committee, is, in their report, pre- fented, not in the order in wliich the experiments were made, but in a fort of clallification, Iiy means of which a more dillinft knowledge of the fubjeft is obtained at one view. The fads are arranged under thefe fix heads. I/?, Refults of the different combinations and difpofi- tions of the parts of the animal arc. 2d, Accou^it of what has been cbftrved of the nature and the diiVeren? difpofitions of the excitatory arc. ^d, Circumftanccs not enteiing into the compofiiion of tiie galvanic circle, which, tieverthelefs, by their influence, modify, alter, or entirely prevent tiie fuccefs of the experiments. 4/A, Means prop^fed for varying, dimuiifliing, or relloring the fenfibility to galvanifm. 5//1, Attempts to compare the Tliemetali. Animal ^nd excitatory 7 Experi- ments of the French Inftitute. (a) Themembersof the committee were, M. M. Coulomb, Sabbatier, Pellctan, Charles, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Guyton, alius Morveau, and HuUe. M. M. Veniuri, De Modciie, and M. Humboldt, aflilled in the experiment. GALVANISM. the phenomena ofgalvanifm with thofe of eleiSricity. miifdes together, or of nerves alone, without mufcles. 6lh, Additional experiments, performed by M. Hum- (b). boldt, in the prefence of the members of the committee; 2. Nerves are, tliertfore, the eflential part of the •which have a reference to feveral of the proofs ftated in animal arc ; for the mufcles are always more or lifs in- 8 the foregoing articles. terfeded by the nerves ; and are, con/equently, in part, On the ani- I. To the number of twenty experiments were made a r.ervous organ. nial arc. on the animal arc. The firft feven of ihefe were di- 3. All the parts of the animal arc mud be eitlicr reified to afcertain the relations between the nerves and mutually continuous, or at leall contiguous to one ano- thofe mufcles over which they are di(tributed. In the ther. But even contiguity is fufficient to enable the laft thirteen, the nerves were cut afunder, or fubjeifted galvanic phenomena to take place, to ligatures; the feiflion or ligature being always be- 4. The feftion or ligature of a nerve interrupts not tween the extremities of the arc. Nerves taken from the galvanic phasnomena, if the parts which are cue difi'erent animals, or from different parts of the fims afunder or bound up ftill remain in clofi ccntiguily to animal, and joined in one and the fame arc, were among one another. the particular fubjecls of theie experiments; as were 5. No diverfity of the parts forming the animal arc, alfo the folitary nerve, and the f .-litary mufcle, included though thele be taken I'r* m dilferent parts of the fame between the exrremi'ies of the cicilatory arc. Tlicre aniin^sl, or even from difltien: animals, will have pow. were interpoled, too, in the couife of thele experiments, er to impair its galvanic fufceptibility, provided only portions of nerves, and of mufcles, diltind from thofe that thefe parts be lliil mutually contiguous, parts. And, in feme of the experiments, the animal 6. If the integrity or gilvanic fufceptibility of the was without the fkin and the epidermis. animal arc be fulpsnded by the feparation of any of its The following are inferer.ces which have been dedu- parts to fome dillance from one another, it may be 9 ced from thefe experiments: reftored by the interpofition of fome fubftances, not of Inferences. I. The animal arc may confift either of nerves and an aninul n uure, between the divided paits. Metallic K 2 fubftances (b) We are ftrongly inclined to doubt the truth of tliis proportion. Dr Fowler was at firft led to think tint contradlions could be excited in a limb without the metals having any communication with it, except through the medium of the nerve. Recolledling, however, that a very fmall quantity of moifture ferves as a conduiftor ofgalvanifm, he fufpeded, and our opinion perfeflly coincides with his, tb.at in every cafe v/here contraflions are produced in a limb, without any apparent communication between the metals and the mufcles, except through the medium of a nerve, the communication is in fad completed by the moifture upon the furface of the nerve. In this cafe, the animal arc may be coniidered as confifting cf three pieces, difpofed in the following order ; the nerve, the mufcle, and the water adhering to the furface of the nerve. The latter, indeed, ought rather to be confidered as a part of the excitatory arc. " When a nerve (fays Dr Fowler,), which tor fome lime has been detached from furrounding parts, is either carfully wiped quite dry with a piece of fine muflin, or (left this (hould be thought to injure its ftruflure) fuffered to remain fufpended till its moifture has evaporated, no contradions can be excited in the mufcles, to which it is diftributed, by touching it alone with any two metals in contad with each other; but if it be again moiftened with a few drops of water, contradions in- ftantly take place. And, in this way, by alternately drying and moiftening the nerve, contradions nny at plcafure be alternately fulpcnded and renewed for a confiderable time. It may, indeed, be contended, tliat the moifture foftened, and thus reftored elafticity and free expanfion to the dried cellular membrane furrounding the fibres, of which the trunk of a nerve is compofed ; and tlius, by removing conftraint, gave free play to their organization. " But from obferving, that in every other inftance where contradions are produced by the mutual contad of the metals, a conduding fubftance is interpofed between them and the mufcles as well as between them and the nerve ; I think it would be unphilofophical net to allow, that, in the inftance in quefticn, the moifture, ad- hering to the fuiface of the nerve, formed (hat requifite communication between the metals and the mufcles." We know of no accurate expeiiment by wliich it has ever been fhewn, that contradions can be produced In a limb withiut a communication being eftabliftied between the metals and nerve, and again between the mufcles and the metals, either diredly, or through fome medium capable of conduding galvanilm. To remove the only objedion which can be made to Dr Fowler's experiment, and of which we have fcen that he was himfelf aware, namely, that the nerve while dry is incapable of performing its fundions, we repeated it in the following manner : A fmall, but vigorous and lively, male frog was decapitated, and the fciatic nerve being laid bare from the knee upwards, was cut through where it palfes out of the pelvis. Fifteen minutes after the head was cut off, the nerve havina; been cautiouily feparated fr.im the furrounding parts, and coated with tinfoil in the uiual manner, a filver probe was applied to it and its coaling, without any other communication with the mufcles, ai:d ftrong contradions took place in the leg. The neive was now very carefully dried with a piece of fine linen, and the probe was applied as before to the tinf'il and the nerve; no movement whatever took place. Things remaining precifely in this (iiuation, one end of the probe being ftiil in contad with the nerve and Its coating, the other end v/as aiplied to the mufcles of the (high, and the log immediately contraded as ftrongly a, ev-rr. Upon moiftening the neive, the contr.tdions were again produced by applying the probe to the nerve and tinfoil alone. We find from this experiment, which we have feveral times repeated with the utm.oft care, and with tlie Ame refult, that the dry nerve retained its fuudions completely. This appears to us perfedly decifive of the qucftion. 75 76 GALVANISM. fubllances are iii particuhr fit for this ufe. But the mined, i ft, The application of metallic fubftances to mutual contiguity of all the fubftances entering into form it: in refpeifl to wli'ch they endeavoured to af- the coinpofitjon of the arc muft ever be carefully pre- certain the number and the diverfily of the pieces of feived. Mr Humboldt difcovered that a bit of frelh metal, of which this arc may be compiled ; tlie metal- morel'e Helvella mitra Linn.) will fupply the place cf lie mixtures or alloys which are cipable of being em- a pait of the nerve. ployed fur this ufe ; the particular degree of the fiic- 7. The mufcular organs vhich indicate, by contrac- tion of cne metal open another, whicli is favourable to lion, the prefence of the galvanic influence, are always the exhibition of the phjenomena, the ditFerent Rales, thofe in wliich the nerves of a complete animal arc have in refpeft to g^Ivanifm, of metals differently minerali- thtir ukimate termination. zed. zJly, 'I'lie effcifls of the ufe of carbonic fubft ui- From this it follow?, that the mufcles affeifled by ces in forming the excitatmy arc. 3dly, The etftds galvanifm are always thofe correfponding to that ex- in the fame lormation, cf bodies, which are either non- tremity of the arc which is ;he moft remote from the conduiflor?, or elfe very impertedt conductors (f elec- otigin of the nerves of which it is coinpcfed. iricity, fuch as jet, aiphahu', fulphur, amber, fealing- 8. When all the nerves of the animal arc originate wax, diamond, &:c. 4thly, 'i'lie con:tquences of the towards one of its extremilie?, then ftily thcfe mufcles interpofition of water, and (.f fubftances moiltencd with which correfpond with the oppofite extremity are fuf- Wntsr, between the different paits of the excitatory ceptible of galvanic convulfions. arc. In forming tiieir excitatory arcs, too, they made 9. When an animal arc confifts of more than one themfelves the chord of tire arc ; they introduced into fyltem of d liferent nerve?, which have all their origifi it animal fubftances which had loft their vitality ; they about the middle ot the arc, then will the mufcles of rubbed the liipporters with the dry fingers, fo as to thefe feveral fyftems of nerves be moved alike at both mark them with notlilng but the traces of the petfpi- the extremities of the arc. ration from the ikin. They made, likewife, fome ex- 10. It feems likewife to appear, from a variety of periments for the purpofe of afcertaining the relations thefe experiments, that the opinion of thofe is inadmif- between, on the one hand, the extent and magnitude fjble, who afcrlbe the phxnomena of galvanifm to the of the furfaces of the parts compofmg the arc, and on concurrence of two different and reciprocally corre- the other, the effeifli prodirced by its energy. From fpondlng influences, one belonging to the nerve, the their experiments they have alfo drawn fome inferences other to the mufcle, and who compare the relations concerning the relative etliclencies of the feveral con- between the nerve and the muftle, in thefe phanome- ftituent parts of the exciting arc. It is impoftlble for na, to thofe between the interior and the exterior coat- us here to relate in detail all this train of experiments, ing cf the Leyden phial. The following corollaries exprefs the fubftance of thofe 11. It appears, laftly, that the covering of the epi- general truths, which their authors were led to infer dermis, in the entire animal body, nAs as an obftacle from them. j, to the decifive difplay of the effeds of galvanifm ; and i. The excitatory arc poffeffes the greateft power of Inference* that, though from its extreme tenuity, it may not al- galvanifm, when it is compofed of at leaft three dillindl together prevent thefe effeds, yet it cannot but very pieces ; each of a peculiar nature : the metal-, water, to materially diminilh them. and humid fubftances, carbonaceous matters, and ani- Iiperi- II. The Excltd/ory Arc is ufually formed of three mal fubftances, ftripped of the epidermis, being the incntu on different pieces made of different metals. Of thefe, only materials out of which thefe pieces may be for- e cicita- p^g muft be in contafl with the nerve ; the other muff med. touch the nnifde ; and the third muft form the mean 2. Neverthelefs the excitatory arc appears to be not cf communication between thefe two. Tlrls arrange- deftitute of exciting energy, even when it conlift;. but ment, though not indifpenfably neceffary, is at leaft the of one piece or ot feveral pieces, all of one proper fub- moft convenient. rtance(c). In general it muft be owned, identity of la refpeft to the excitatory arc, the committee exa- nature in the conftituent pieces, and particularly in the fupports (c) We d") not think it has ever been proved, that one piece of metal, or feveral pieces of the fame metal, are capable of torming the excitatory arc. It is admitted on all hands, that the (lighteft alloy communicates galvanic energy to a piece of metal ; that is, renders it capable of forming the excitatory arc. It is alfo known, that metallic oxyds are much lefs perfeifl conduflors of galvanifm than their correfponding reguli, to make ufe of an antiquated expreffion. It appears to us, that in all cafes where one metal appears to ail, more efpecially where iriftion with tlie fingers, or breathing on a piece of metal formerly inert, give it galvanic powers ; in all thefe cafes, we think it probable that a flight degree of oxydation, produced in fome part of the furface of the metal, gives it activity by deftroylng the homogeneity of its nature. We do not find that this circumftance has been in general futficiently attended to. Dr Wells having difcovered that charcoal aifls power- fully as an exciter when applied along with a metal, found that by fridion it alio can be rendered capable of afting fingly. What change is thus produced in it we can only conjedure ; but that it is fomethlng which de- ftroys the identity of its flrufture, rendering it in fome meafurea heterogeneous fubftance, muft be admitted. Candour forces us to acknowledge, that in one of M. Humboldt's experiments, it feems very difticult to point out any want of homogeneity in the exciting arc. He put into a china cup fome mercury exaflly purified ; he placed the whole near a warm ftove, in order that the entire mafs might affume an equal temperature : the furface was clear, without the appearance of oxydation, humidity, or duft. A thigh of a frog, prepared in fuch a manner GALVANISM. fupports forming the extremities of the arc, diminifhes, in a very fenfible manner, its galvanic energy. 3. The fllghteft difference of n.iture induced upon the parts, whether by any feeble alloy, or by friction with extrineous fubftances, is at any time fufficient to communicate to the excitatory arc th:it full power in which the identity of its compofition may have niade it deieiftive. 4. As the animal arc is fufceptible of being in part made up of metallic fubftances, or fuch others as are adapted to enter into the compofition of the excitatory arc; fo, on the other hand, the excitatory arc admits of being in part formed of thcfe fubif inces which are the proper components of the animal arc. 5. The energies cf b;ith the excitatory and the ani- mal arcs are alike fufpenJed by the reparation of their component parts, or atleall by the feparation of thefe parts to a certain diftance. 6. Even the fmalleft degree of moiftnre is fjfficient to join the parts cf the excitatory arc, and to deter- mine their effects upon the animal arc. 7. The influerce of the Itate cf the atmrfphere, and of furrounding circumR^nces, upon the fuccefs of the experiments ot galvanifni, is, confequently, very great. In order, therefore, to peiform thefe experiments with due accuracy, the ftate of the hygrometer, and of o- ther meteorological inllruments, muft be vigilantly in- fpected during their progrcis ; and the influence of the perfons making the experiment upon the fphere within ■which it is made, mull likewife be carefully attended to. 8. The experiments which were made to afcertain the nature of the anim-il arc, together with thofe made upon the excitatory arc, with a vie .v to the comparifon of the effe<f^s of the flelh of an;mils, with or without the epidermis, and of the different effei5is of this epi- dermis, when it is wet, and when it is dry, appear to fuggeft to us, that the epidermis is one of thofe fub- ftances which diminilh or interrupt tlie efficacy of the excitatory arc. The epidermis is, as well as the hairs and bridles of animal bodies, among the number of thofe fubftances which deferve the appellation of idio- eleBrics. 9. Examine the fubftances which are fit for the forma- tion of the excitatory arc, andyou will find thatthe great- er part of tlr fe which have been fuccefsfully put to this ufe are fubftances capable of aifling as conduiftors of the eledrical fluid ; but that the fubftances which interrupt the operation of galvanifm are generally fuch as aie well known alfo to reliil the tranlmiftion of electricity. 10. Laftly, it appears, that the galvanic energy de- pends, not only upon the nature and arrangement of the component parts of the excitatory arc, but on their extent too, and on the magnitudes of their tranfmitting furfaces. 77 III. The committee appear to l.ave ufed no lefs i: care and difcernment in experiments upon thofe cir- J^»P"i- cumrtances which, diough uiffercnc from the liruclure T"'" «!»- of the galvanic circle and its two conftituent arcs, have, cumft"n"f however, a dey,Jrje influence vpon the exhihitkji rf the different pha.nomcna of ^alv,i:nfm. Some curious oLfervations from the were made on the differences in the ftate of the parts "«• expofed to the g:-.lvanic aflion. It was afceriained, thrtt frogs frelh ironi the ditches did by no means ex- hibit the fame phccnomena as thofe vhich liad been during feme days preferved in the houfe ; nor did the limbs of animals, when recently (tripped of the (kin, prefent the lame appearances as after tl;ey had been fubjecled to a v.inety of galvanic experiments; nor were the fame effects to be produced upon t!.e parts of animal bodies which, aftet a certain number of trials, had been left for a while at reft, and then taken up a- gain, as upon thofe which had been fubjefled to one continued train of experiments. The committee next examined the variations in tlie fuccefs of the experi- ments upon a ftrong lively frog, which may be pro. duced by varying the mode in which the c mmunkalor is carried from the ont fupporlir to the other : when the communicator is brought into contact with the fup- porier, or is withdrawn from aclual contaift with i: ; when the communicator is brought (lowly, or when it is brought rapidly. Into contact with ihi fupporlcr ; the effefts are nearly the Ame ; and a (mart convu'fion Is, in all thefe cafes produced at the moment of the com- mencement of the mutual contact, or of its ce(ration. But when tlie frog is fatigued, the eff-as are diffe- rent. Thefe (uccelfive experiments likewife affecl the refultsof one another, by means even of their fucccf- fion folely. And they are alfo naturally fubjeil to he influenced by the nature of the media amidft whicli they are performed ; fuch as common air, water, an e- lecfrlcal atmofphere. The following are the inferences which have been deduced from this clafs of thefe expe- riments. ,, 1 . In many cafes the galvanic energy is excited by Inferences. exercll'e, is exhaufted by continued motion, is renova- ted by reft. 2. Tlie muhipliclty of the caufes by which the ex- periments of galvanilm aie liable to be influenced to fuccefs or failure, Is i'o great, that we cannot, as yet, be too cautious in either rejecting or believing thefe ac- counts which we hear of the fuccefs of any fuch ex- periments ; unle(s wlien we are able accurately to ap- preciate all the influencing circumftances. 3. This is remarkably confirmed by a facV, which the committee have related in their paper, and which refpedls the continuation of the g.ilvanic fpafni. The communicator being iupported by the hand, and refting, feemingly, without change of polition, ftill upon a manner that a crural nerve and a bundle of mufcular fibres of the fame length hung down feparately, was fufpended by two filken threads above the mercury. When the nerve alone touched the furface of the metal, no irritation was manitefted ; but as foon as the mufcular bundle and tlie nerve touched tlie mercury topether, they fell Into convulfinns fo brlfk, that the (kin was extended as in an attack of tetanus. This is bv far the jnoft decilive experiment which has been tried on the fame fide of the queftion ; but as it muft be admitted, that in moft cafes two metals are abfolutely necelfary, and that a fingle metal often derives aaivity from circum- ftances (b flight, that we could not a priori have expeifled tliat they were capable <i( producing any change ; we feel OUT felves compelled to conclude, that in M. Hun.boldt's experiment fonie fimilar very flight circumftance had efcaped unobferved ; perhaps fome gilding, or ornaments with metallic colours, in a ftate of cxydation. 7^ 14 F.xpcrl- meiUs on the galva- nic fufcep- tibility of animal bo- dies, &c. G A L V A N I S M. npnn the fame pcitit of contaft, there is known to take in -vacuo by the difcharge of the ele<flric fpark. In that p'.ace a re.il change in tlie g.ilvanic contadl, although fiifFocaiion which was produced by fulpluirated hydro- the c-mmuuicator have leniainej tlius appareiuly mo- genous gas, by carbonic vapours, and by fubmerfion, in tionlffs. whiirli the animal was fufpcnded by the hinder feet, the From this, it may be farther inferred, that the fnuiU- galvanic fufcepiibility was entirely deHioyed. The gal- efl poGible change in the relative fituations of the vanic fufceptibility was only fufptndeJ by fviffocation parts f'f the galvanic circle and the c.\.:ilatory arc, is produced by the pure caibonic acid confined under capable of producirjj an ef "cift upiiu the fulceptille a- mercury. It was dim'nilhed, but not dellroyed, in nimal, and of occafioning mift:ikes in regard to ilic fuc- thofe cafes of fuffocation, which were cccafioned by cefs cf the experiment, if the utniofl care be not ta- fulphurated hydrogenous gas that had loll a prition of ken to notice and elUiiiitc every variation that can hap- its fiilphur by gas ammoniac, gas azote, or inch gafes pen. as had been exhaufled of their pure air by refpiration ; 4. Tlie tTU'.h cf the foregoing propnfition is farther and the f.ime thing was found to take place in animals confirmed by t!ie experiments upon the manner in which had perillied by total fubmerllcn. But the gal- which the galvanic n:ovement5 are affefled by the ad- vanic fufceptibility furvivcd unaltered in fufTocations v.mcirg cr the withdrawing cf tlie cnnimunic.itir. For brought on by fubmerfion in mercury, by pure hydro- thofe experiments fully evince the necefiity fir the moll genous gas, by carbonated hydrogenous gas, by oxy- vigilant (ibfervation of every movement in the proceA of genated muriatic acid, by fulphureous acid; as alfo an experime: t, not only colkdively, but in their fuc- when the fuffbcation was occalioned by llrangulation, celTion, and at the different periods cf the operation. by the abft.-aflion of the air in the air-pump, or by 5. It fliould fccm t!i2t there are, in the frrmntion of difchargcs from an eUftiioal battery. The refults of tlie excitatory arc, independently of its modes ( fading the experiments at the medical fchool fuggelled the in the ga' vanic operations, certain enervating, and cer- following refieclicns : i, tain exciting difpofilicns ; of whicli fomc not only i. Though it be true that all cafes of fuffocation re- Reflcclioitj augment or diminifh the energy in the prefent inllance, fcmilile one another in the privution of refpirable air, but, belldes, difpofe the animal to a greater or a fmaller and in the fufpenfion of the fundions of refpiration, fufceptibility, under fubfequent experiments. and oi the circulation cf the blood ; yet, in their other 6. In order to accuracy of experiment, and to the circumftances, they are fubjeft to great differences, corrcifl afcertaining of the effefts cf an experiment, it artfing from diverfity of nature in the fubftances by is of great importance to know the prccife Rate of the which they are occafioned. animal, the manner in which it has been prei'erved and 2. Ol thefe caufes, foine appear to afl with a more fuftained to the prefent moment, tlie ftate of the at- thorough efficacy, penetrating at once all pirts of the mofphtre, particularly as it is indicated by the hygro- nervous and mufcular fyllems. Others again f^em to aift but fupcificially-, producing only pulmonary af- phyxia, witli its immediate efifcds. 3. One of the molt remarkable changes not confined to the organs of refpiration, confills in the alterations ranged in the order cf their efficacy, and that there produced on the galvanic fufceptibility. In that re- might thus be formed a galvanic fcale, which (liould fpeifl the various cafes cf afphyxia differ greatly one help us to determine the precife degree of the galvanic from another. fafceptibility of any animal in this or that particular 4. The flite of the irritability of the mufcles, when ftate or pufition, ihould direi5V us in fubjci^ing every examined by means of bodies, the mechanical aflion of fuch animal only to experiments fuitable to its particu- which caufes the mufcles to contraifl by irritating them, lar fufceptibility; fhouM enable us to eftimate, from is far from always correfponding to the ftate of their the cfflcucy or inejpcacy of our experiments, the galvanic galvanic fufceptibility. value of the circumft.inces in which we every day find 5. Laftly, the caufes of fuflfocation or afphyxia, do ourfelves, and Ihould enable us to judge when the fuc- not aft upon all parts of the mufcular fyllem in the cefs or milcirriage ot an experiment can afford room fame manner; but the heart is very often found in a for certain conclulions ab.fblutely negative or affirma- ftate extremely different from tliat of the other mufcles. jg trve. V. The comparifon betiveen the ph^cnoniena of gcilva- Compari- IV. In their experiments upon //'i? 7.7?3n;- of -varyiti^, tiifm and iho/e cf eledricity is perhaps one of the moft f'ln of the JiminifJymg, and rawwin^r ihe fujceli':hility of animal bo- intereiling objedls of attention in the whrle body of P'"^'"™'^"* dies to the influence of galvanifm, the committee exa- animal pliyfiology. It is well known that Galvani was " g^iy-'a- mined, ift, the influence of electricity upon that fuf- accidentally led to his difcovery by oblerving the mo- ^^^^^^ „£ j. ceplibillty ; 2d, the effcCls nf the mufcular organs, and tions of fome frogs, at a certain diftance from an elec- kdrkity. of cert^iin liquors, fuch as alcohol, the oxygenated mu- trical macliine difcharging fparks. The committee riatic acid, the folutions of potafh and opium, upon the from the inftitute made, therefore, fome attempts to galvanic properties; 3d, and at the medical fchool of afcertain the relations between eleftricity and galvanifm. Paris they made a number nf experiments, in order to Having firft paid due attention to the fufceptibility of _^ afcertain what new modificiti'-ns the galvanic energy animals toward the influence of eleitricity, tliey then undergoes in various cafes cf fuffocation or afphyxia. fought to difcover to what precife degree animals di- Thefe laft-mentioned experiments were made upon hot- veiled of the natural covering of the epidermis were blooded animals, of which fome were reduced into the liable to be affefted by the variations of the eledrical ftate of alphyxia by fubmerfion, fome by ftrangulatiim, fluid in the atmolphere around them. Next, comparing fome by the aftion of gafes, while others were killed the fufceptibility of eledtttcity with the fufcepiibility of ireer, by the barometer, the thcnnomjtcr, and the e leffrometer. 7. It were to be wiflied, that in making a ftatemcnt of experiments of different forts, thefe Ihould be ar- GALVANISM. 17 Refulti of fome expe- ments by Humboldt. of galvanifm, they perceived that quantities of the elec- trical fluid, fuch as are dill capable of being very accu- rately mealured by the eledrometer, are, however, of- ten too weak to afl upon a frog that retains the moft perfeifl fenfibility to all the energy of galvanifm. The members of the committee purpole to profecute farther their experirnentb upon this part of the fubjed. VI. The following ate the general rcfults of the ex- periments made by M. Humboldt in the prefence of the conmiittee : 1. There is no truth in the alTertion of certain phy- fiologills, that the experiments of galvanifm fail when tried upon the heart and thofe other niufcles of which the contradions depend not upon volition ; for ihefe organs have been found to be adually fubjeifl to the influence of galvanifm (d). 2. The eiiedls of galvanifm are liable to be inter- rupted by the conftrnfllon of a nerve, whenever both the nerve and the conftrifling ligature are enveloped in the flefli of tlie animal body (e). 3. The powers of the exciting arc may be renovat- ed or deftroyed, even though its fupporters remain the fame, and although the extremities of the arc be un- changed. Only the relations of the intei mediate mat- ters require to be altered. 4. There are aimofpheres of galvanifm. 5. There are fubltances which, ihoujjh in an emi- nent manner conduiftors of eltiflricity, yet interrupt the motions ( i' g.ilvanil'm. M. Humboldt had pei formed alfo other experiments, ■which, wlien he attempted to repeat them before the committee, could not be brought to iucceed, on ac- count, as was fuppofed, of the feafon of the year. Such are the principal refults of this valuable train of experiments upon galvanifm. From them, our readers will perceive th it this interefting fubjed is fliU very imperledly underllood, and will (orm loiiie idea ot the importiince oi the difcoveries which a diligent profecution of it promifes to the philofopher and the phylician. The efledls of galvanifm upon fome of the organs of lenfe are no lefs llrikiiig than thole which we have ieen it capable ot producing upon the muicles. It the upper and under furiaces tf tlie tongue be coated wit!) two different metals, and thefe be brought into cont.id with each other, a peculi.tr fenfation, re- fembling taite, is pruiuced in the tongue the moment that the metals touch each other. With the greater number oi metals this ftnfation is fcarcely peiceptible ; but with zinc and gold, zinc and iilver, or zinc and molybdena, it is very ftrong and diiagrceable. Dr Fowler thinks it is lliongelf with zinc and gold ; to us it appears a good deal ftmntjer witli zinc and Iilver. It is fenlibly llionger when the zinc is applied to the up- per, and tiie f;!ver to the under fuiface of the tongue, than when this order is inverted. Tiie fenfation is moil dlftinifl whtn the tongue is of the ordinary temperature, and tliemet.ils of the lame tcni])cratiire with the tongue, Any coiillderable increafe or diiriinutiun ol heat in ei- ther 1,'reatiy lelTens tlic tffeift. Mr Sublir of Berlin, in his Tkorie i/es Platters, p. 155 (publiflicd in 1767), takes notice of the dilagreeable talte produced by iil- ver and lead in contaft upon the tongue. This is the firit inftance of galvanifm that has been made public. To enfure complete fuccefs to the experiment, the metals ought to be allowed to remain fome time in coii- taft with the tongue before they are made to touch each other, that the tafte of the metals themfelves may not be confounded with the fenfation produced by their mere contact. Whatever has a tendency to blunt the fenfibility of the tongue, as opium, alcohol, acids, and the like, diminifhes the elTedl of the metals. It is diflicult to d;fcribe the fenfation thus produced accurately. It has been called /j/Z-nr/V ,• but we think it more nearly lefembles t!:e effccl produced by allow- ing a grain or two of iiitie to lie upon the tongue for loine time, than any other taile \vith which we are ac- quainted. Joined to this, there is evidently a metallic talle, which varies with the metal emplo\ed; Ij-.it we are inclined to confider this as the ordiii iry elFcil of the metals upon the tongue, which cannot be [le.leclly dillinguilhed from that occafioued by thtir mutual con- tact. This tafte can alfo be produced by app'ying cne of the metals to the tongue, and the other to any part of the Scbneiderian mcnibrane. Profeifor Robifon l;as made many experiments of this kind, the refuh of which is contained in a letter to Dr Fowkr. " I F.nd (fays he), that it a piece of zinc be applied to the tongue, and be in contad with a piece of Iilver which touches any part of the lining of tlie mouth, n)ft;ils, ear, ure- llira, or anus, the fenfation lefcnibling tafte is felt on the tongue. If the e>:periment be inverted, by apply- ingthe Iilver to the Kngae, the imitation piojuced by the zinc is not fer.fible, except in the mouth and the urethra, and is very flight. I find the iiritation by the zinc lirongeft when the contact is very fligf.t, and confined to a narrow fpace, and when the contact of the filver is very extenfi>'e, as when the tongue is ap- plied to the cavity of a filver fpoon. When the zinc touches in an extenfive furfacc, the irritati.in produced by a narrow contaiTt of the fiver is very dillinft, ti^t- cially on the upper fide of the tongue, and along its margin. This irritation feems to be mere pungency, \\ ithout any rei'emblance to t.:(le, and it leaves a Irtfting impredi Jii like th.:t made by cauftic alkali. " When a rod of zinc, and rne o) filver, are applied to tlie root of the mouth, as far back as poJible, tlie ir- ritations produced liy bringing their outer ends into conta«5l aie very llrong, and that by the zinc rcfembles tafte in the lame manner as when applied (o the tongue." M. Volta found, that wlieii a tin cup, filled with an alkaline liquor, is held in one or both hands pievioutly mcillened wi;h water, if the point of the tongue is dip- ped in the liquor, an acid tafte is perceived. This is at firll dillinft and pretty fi.rong, but pradiiilly yields to the alkaline talle of the liquor. The acid tafte is fiill more remarkable, when, inftead (fan al-caline li- quor, an inilpid mucilage is made \^ie of. The fame piiilofoplict f .und, that when a cup made of tin, or what is better, of zinc, was filled with water, and pla- ced upon a filver fupport, if the point of the tongue was applied to the water, it was found quite iniipid, till he laid hold of the filver fuppoit, with the hand well 79 (d) This was demonfirated fix years ago by Dr Fowler. (k) Dr ValJi made this obfervation foon after the difcovcry of galvanifm. 8o O A L V A N I S M. well moi.lcr.eJ, when a very MWv.d and very Riong no efFsil whatever is produced."— Tne fliflies produ. aciil talk was imniedi.'.tely perceived. ced in this lall experiment are rather more vivid than If one ot the met.ils be applied to the tongue, nnd any which we have been able to cjcite by the other nie- the other to the b.ill of the eye, a pnlc luminous flalh ihods. The conviillive twitches are very dillinft, and i; perceived when they are brought into cont.ift with fumewhat painful, but quite different from the fenfa- each other, and the fenfaiim lefemUing talle is at the lion produced by an eledric (hock. If the edges of i»ine time produced in the toni;ue. A Halh is, in like the tongue be allowed to touch the plates of metal in nunncr, produced whon or.e of the met.ih is applied to the cheeks, the finf.uion refembling talle is felt very the eye, and the oiher to any part of the palate, fauces or infide of the chee!<. This expeiiment requires a jrood deal cf attemion in the pciforniance ; care muft be taken not to prel\ the piece of metal ag.iinfc the ball i.f the eye, left a flalh ihould be pi educed by the meie ibongly ; but this does not in the leafl impair the o- tber eifeds of the experiment. No method has yet, we believe, been difcovered of applying the galvanic influence fo as to affefl the fenfes cf fmeliing or hearing. We have tried many loerhanical pTelUirc. It ll.oulJ be cautiouily introdii- experiments with this view, chiefly on tlie organs of icd between the eye-lids, till it lull touch any part of fniclliiig, buthitherto without any fuccefs (f). Neither tl-.e ball ; and it Ihould be allowed to icmain in that fi- has the fenie ot touch been aiTeaed by it, unlefs, in- tuaiion for fome lime before it is brought into coniaft witli the other piece of metal, that the parts may bo fo lar accu[lomed to it as to admit of the fenfaiions pro- duced being properly att.-nded to. The experiment fuc- ceeds very well with tin and fiU er ; but tlieflifh is more bright when zinc and gold are ufed. 'ihe pi^ce of metal which is applied to the ball of the eye mull be finely p'liihed, otherwife the mechanical irritation is fometimes fo great as to prevent the flafli from being perceived. Dr Rohifon has obferved, diat the bright deed, the following experiment be conlidercd in tliat view : Let a fmall portion of the cuticle be removed from any part of the body by a fharp knife, and carry the inciiion to fuch a depth that the blood fhall jull begin to ooze from the cutis vera. Let a piece of zinc be applied here, and a piece of filver to the tongue ; when they are brought into contafl, a very fmart ir- ritation will be felt at the wotind. Some very Angular fads of this kind have been dif- covered by M. Humboldt, who had the refolution to mei;ts. One of the moll remarkable of thefe is the fol- lowing : He caufed two blillering plafters to be applied on the deltoid mufcle of both his own flioulders. When the left bliller was opened, a liquor flowed out, which left no other appearance on the Ikin than a flight varnifh, which difappeared by wafhing. The wound was after- vi-ards left to dry up : this precaution was neceflary, in order that the acrid humour which the galvanic irri- tation would produce, might not be attributed to the nefs of the fl ilh correfponds with the extent cf contaft niake himfelf the^^fubjed of jnany^weH-devifed e^xperi of the metal with the tongue, palate, fauces, or cheek. """" " ' If a piece of one of the metals be placed as high up as poflible between the gums and the upper lip, and the other in a fimilar fuuation with refpecl to the un- der lip, a very vivid flafli of light is obferved at the moment that they are brought into contafl, and ano- ther at the inftant of their feparation. While they re- main in contaifl, no flafh is obferved. When a rod of filver is ihrull as far as pofllble up _ one of the nofti ils, and then brought into contaa with idiofyncnlis of the velfels. This painful operation was a piece of zinc placed upon the tongue, a very llrong fcarcely commenced on the wound, by the application flafli of light is produced in the concfponding eye at of zinc and filver, before the ferous humour was dif- the inllant of contac^. We have fometimcs imagined, charged in abundance ; its colour became vifibly dark that the flafli in this exp;riment was produced before in a tew feconds, and lelt on the paits of the fl;iu where the metals aflually touched ; but in this we may have it palfed traces of a brown inflamed red. This humour been deceived. having defcended towards the pit ot the (lomach, and The following curious experiment was firll made by (lopped there, caufed a rednefs of more than an inch ProfelTor Robilon : «' Put a plate of zinc into one cheek, in lutface. The humour, when traced along the epi- and a plate of fllver (a ciown piece) into the other, dermis, left ftains, which, after having been walhed, ap- at a htile diflance from each other. Apply the cheeks peared of a bluilh red. The inflamed places, having to them as extcnfively as polhWe. Tliiuft in a rod of been imprudently waflied with cold water, increafed fo zinc between the zinc and the cheek, and a rod of fll- much in colour and extent, that M. Humboldt, as ver between the filver and the other cheek. Bring well as his phyflcian, Dr Schalleru, who aflifted at thele their outer ends flowly into contaft, and a fmart con- experiments, entertained fome apprehenfion for the con- vulfive twilch will be felt in the parts of the gums fitu- fequences. ated between them, accompanied by biiglit flallies in Having now taken notice rf the principal fa^s that tlie eyes. And thefe will be diflindly perceived before are hitherto known in galvanifm, we proceed to confi- conta'a, and a fecond time on feparating the ends of der fome of the leading opinions on the fnbjea-. tlie rods, or when they have again attained what may The firll writers upon the difcovery of Galvanlfeem be called the Jinking d'ljlancc. If the rods be alternated, almoll univerlally to have taken it for granted, that the phenomena (r) Proftfl"or Robifon has long ago obferved, that the flavour of a pinch of fnuff taken from a box made of tin-plate, vvhicli has been long in -ule, fo that the tin coating is removed in many places, is extremely different from that of fnuff when taken from a new box, or a box lined with tinfoil. The fame difference is obferved when we rub a piece of pure tin, or of pure iron and a half worn tinned plate, with the finger. Alfo, if we rub a ca(l-(leel razor, and a common table knife confilling of iron and lleel welded together. This is furely cwinsr to a caufe of the fame kind. Phenome- na of j^alva- nifni fup- pofed to re- fuk from e- Icflricity ; GALVANISM. phenomena depend on the eleflric fluid; and leaving this verf important queftion behind them, proceeded to ex- plain liov.'this fluid produces fuch effefls. The celebrated difcoverer of this influence himfelf confiders a mufcle as the perfefl prototype of a Leyden phial. When a 20 ThisfupfiO' fition ill founded. " Subftances which condu<fl eleflricity are ConduLlors likewife of the nervous fluid. "Subllances which are not conduftors of eleflricity do not condufl the nervous fluid. " Non-conduaing bodies, which acquire by heat the mufcle contrafls, tipcn a conneaion being formed, by property of conduding eleflricity, preferve it likewife means of one or more metals between its external fur- for the nervous fluid. 8i SI Trocfs hy wliich Villi endeavours to fupport it, face and the nerve which nerve, an elefirical difjharge takes place, which is the caufe of the contraclion of the mufcle. Thus the nerve is fuppofed to perform the ofiioe of the wiie conreaed with the internal furface of the phial ; and the excita- tory arc is cnnljdered merely as a conduaor. This theory appears to us juft as incapable of ex- penetrates it, M. Galvani " Cold, at a certain degree, renders water a non-con- contends, that, previoufly to this effea, the inner and duaor of elearicity, as well as of the nervous fluid outer parts of the mufcle contain different quantities of '< The velocity of the nervous fluid U, as far as we the elearic fluid ; that the nerve is confequcntly in the can calculate, the fame with that of ekarlcity. fame Rate, with refpea to that fluid, as the internal fub- " The obdacles which the nerves, under certain cir- ftance of the mufcle ; and that, upon the application of cumftances oppofe to elearicity, they prefciit likewife one or mo.-e metals between its outer furface and the to the nervous fluid. " Attraaion is a property of the ekarlc fluid, and this attraaion has beeu difcovered in the nervous fluid. " We here ke the greuteft analogy between thefe fluids ; nay, I may even add, the charaaers of their identity." That there is a confiderable analogy between fome plaining the phenomena of galvaiiifm as it is inconfiil- of the effeas of the ekaric fluid and fome of the phe- ent with the known laws which regulate the motions of nomena of galvanil'm, we readily admit ; but that " the the elearic fluid. We ihall not confider it minutely ; charaaers of iheir identity" are a;iy where to be found, for we hope it will foon appear highly probable, if not we abfolutely deny. In the above palfage, Dr Valli certain, that the elearic fluid has no fliare in the pro- confiders it as certain, that the nervous fluid is the caufe dufiion (f the phenomena in queflion. If this be the of the phenomena difcovered by Galvani. But it has cafe, all the different modifications of that theory mult never been demonftrated irrefragably, that any fuch of courfe fall to the ground. At prefent we lliallcon- thing as a nervous fluid exifts, and ftill lefs tliat this is tent ourfelves with afking the following queftions : the fime with the influence difcovered by Galvani. 1. How is it poflible for the elearic fluid to be con- That bodies are, in general, conduaors or non-con- denfed in a mulcle, which is wholly furrounded by fub- duaors of galvanilm, according as they are conduaors dances capable of conduaing that fluid ? or non-conduaors of elearicity, we believe to be true : 2. If we fiippofe there is fome non-defcript non-con- but this rule is by no means without exception, as it dua ng fubftance placed between the external and in- certainly would be, if galvanifm and elearicity were the ternal parts of a mufcle, which may admit of the one fame. There is an experiment cf Dr Fowler's, wliicli being pofitively, and the other negatively ekaritied at feems to fhew, that water is a more powerful conduc- the fime time ; how comes it to pafs that a difcharge tor of galvanifm than mercury ; though the rererfe is does not take place, and a confequent contraaion en- generally allowed as to ekarlcity. fue, when any fubllance whatever, capable of conduc- If the abdomen of a frog be filled with water, and a ting the ekaric fluid, is interpofed between the nerve filver probe parted through it fo as to touch the fciatic and the external furface of the mufcle ? For example, nerves, no contraaions are produced ; neither do they when th- nerve and mufcle are laid bare, and the ani- appear when the probe is touched above the furface of mal tlirnwn into water ; or when the nerve is cut tlie water with a piece of zinc. But if tlie zinc be ap- throuoh, and the end applied to the external furface of plied to the probe at the furface of the water, contrac- the mufcles. tions are produced as vigorous as if both the metals 3. How does it happen, when one difcharge aaual- touched the nerve. Here the water ferves as a con- Iv takes place, in confeqnence of the application of duaing medium between the nerves and the point where the excitatory arc, that the balance is not inftantly re- the metals touch each other: but if the abdomen be ftored .' That this does not happen, appears by the filled with mercury inflead of water, no contraaions fame mufcle and nerve bclig capabkot producing many are produced by applying the filver probe to tiie nerves, hundieds of fimilar, andequally ftrong dilcliarges, with- and touching the probe with the zinc at the furface of out any apparent means of the equilibrium being again the mercury. We do not fee how this experiment can diflurbed. be accounted for, except by allowing that watei is a We have never feen any anfwers to thefe queflions moie powerful conduaor of galvanilm than mercury, which appeared to us at all fatisfiacry ; and till we If this experiment flioiild be tliought inconcliifive, we have feen th?m anfwered, we mult be excufed for difbe- havctheauthority of M.Humboldt, and cflhecommittee lieving M. Galvani's theory. of the N.ntional Inditute of France, for fayinc;, that there One of the earlieft writers, and one of the mod af- are i'ubflanccs which, though in an eminent manner con- fiducus ir.velligatots of the phenomena of galvanifm, duaors cf ekaricity, yet interrupt tlie motions ot gal- is Dr Valli. He differs in i>iiinion from Galvani upon vanifm. Tliis is certainly fufficient to take away all ii Iiiconclo- five and feveral points ; but agrees with him in thinking elcclri- city and galvanilm the fime. Let us conllder the proofs by which he fupports this doarine. " I have afferted (fiys he) ihat the nervous fluid is the fame wiih ekaricity, aivd with good reafon ; for SuppL. Vol. II. weight from Dr V.iUi's two fiill reafons for confideting thefe two fluids as tlie fame, vi/. tiiat all conduaors of ekaricity are likewife conducfiors of galvanifm ; and tliat all bodies which do not condua the former arc aho non conduaors of the latter. Thefe two are by L far $2 GALVANISM. Tiiconfift- cnt with his own ex- ptrimentF, far the moil inipoitant of his leafons ; an J iflhey weie tins in ll'.sir iiill extent, ihey wnuld certainly lliew a very ftriking analopy, though they would by no means delervc ihe appell iiion ot " charaJlcrs of identity." As to the Dodor's two next propofitions, which re- gard the efi'efls of heat and cold in rendering; bodies condi'flf rs or non-condudors, tliey are, in tafl, only branches of the two firR; and as we have feen that thel'e are not nniverfally tiue, we might admit that they are correS in tliis particular without weakening our argu- ment. I'or this reafon we (hM not confider them mi- nutely ; but we nny obferve that Dr Fowler's experi- ments lhe«", th.it boiling water, and water cooled down to the freezing point, t-oih conduit this influence as well as water at the ordinary temperature of the atmof- phere. If any change in the condii>5ting power takes place beyond thcle points, It may witii gi eater probabi- lity beafcribed to the changes oi form which the water nndergces than to the iucre ife or diminution of its temperature. Wo confefs ourfelves perfe^flly ign^r.int rf any data upon wliich Dr Valii couKi f 'Ond a ca'culation, the re- lult of whicii could lliew that the velocity of the ner- vous fluid is the fame wiih that of eleflricity. Suppofe we (hould take it into our heads to alFcrt that the velo- city of galvanifm is the fame witli that of light, we ap- piehend our author could not ealily demonflrate the contrary. Neither, in all probability, w.uld he ci nfider this alfertion of ours as a fuffitient procf that galvanifm and light are the fame. With regard to the next propofuion, that " the r^b- flacles which the nerves, under certain circumllances, oppt'le to eleflricity, they prel'ent likcwife to the ner- vous fluid ;" we may remark, that any obllacle which deftroys the funftions of a nerve completely, will pre- vent tlie mufcles whi^h are fiipplied by that nerve from contracting upon the application of any ftimulus what- ever (g^. It dues nor, however, by any means follow, that the paifige ot either the galvanic or tlie electric fluid is prevented, 'ihe nerves may (lill be very good conduiflors of both, though the mufcle is deprived cf all power of conlraiSing. That there are obltacles, how- ever, which the nerves, under certain circum(lance«, prefent to the palfage of eleftricity, but which they do not under the fame cirtumltauces prelent to galvanifm, we think abundantly demonlhated by Dr Valli's own experiments. " I have frequently obferved (fiys he) that the legs, of which the nerves had been tied at a certain dillancc ■ from the mul'cles, did not feel the ailion of a certain quantity of artiricial clecti icity, although they were vio- lently convulfed by excitiiie that which was inherent and peculiar to them." What then was the caufe of the diiTerence obferved in thefc cafes between the efFefls cf galvanifm and electricity ? Was it, that the quantity <.r degree of the former exceeded that ot the latter ? Ee it fo. Dr Valli informs us, that in his experiments, an elec- tric charge whicli could flaQi through a thicknefs cf air equal to .0^5 of an inch, produced no iRovement in the leg of a iiog of which the crural nerve was tied, wliile the ether leg, of which the nerve was lelt free, underwent confiderable movements. That the influence difcovered by Galvani can pafs throngh an exceeding thin plate of air, is certain, as it is tranfmitted from link to link of a chain, where no confiderable force is ufed to bring the links into con- tact. Dr Robifon's experiment, too, in which the flaflies of light are difliniflly obl'erved before the rods of filver and zinc touch each other, is another proof of the fame faift ; and, if we be not deceived, the fama thing takes place when a rod of filver thrnft up xhs nodril is applied to a piece of zinc in contact vvith the tongue. But that it will only pafs throngli an exceed- ing thin plate of air, any man may convince himfelf by an experiment, firfl tried by Dr Fowler, which is eafily repeated. If a Hick of fealing-wax be coated with tin- foil, it will be found a very good conduilor ; but if, with a fliarp pen knife, an almoll imperceptible divlfion be made acrofs the tinfoil, even this interrupiion of contiruity in tiie conduiftor will be found fufficient ef- fectually to bar the paffage of galvanifm. We find, then, that a quantity of the electric fluid which can pafs through a plate of air of the thicknefs cf .035 of an inch, is obftrufted by a ligature upon a nerve, while the galvanic influence palfes readily along a nerve included in a ligature, but is (•bftruded com- pletely by making an almoft imperceptible divifion in a good condu(5tor. The plate ot air in this cale furely is not near .035 of an inch in thicknefs. It refults in- conteftibly, from a comparifon of thefe two experi- ments, that there is, between thefe two agents, fome other difference befides the mere degree of intenlity. We come now to the lall reafon which cur author afllgns for his beliet that galvanifm, or, as he choofes to call it, the nervous _fluiit, is the fime with elecftricity. It will be found a very important one. That property by which bodies charged with the eledric fluid attiacft or repel other bodies, according as they are in the fame or the oppofite flate of eleiftricity from themfelves, is fo fli iking, and at the fame time fo univerfal, that it has been very properly adopted as the meafure of this fluid. If it were true, then, that the galvanic influence pof- fefled the fame properties of attraiflion and repulfion as the eleiftric fluid, this circumltance would certainly iu- creafe the analogy between them very much. As ws have already feen, however, that they differ in other ef- fcntial points, even if it were true that they agreed in this, it could conflllute no procf of their identity. But if, on the other hand, we fhould find, that tliis alfer- tion of our author is founded on error, and that the galvanic influence polfedes in no degree whatever thole properties of attraiflion and repulfion which have al- ways been jufliy confidered as elfential cliarafteriftics of the electric fluid, we Ihall then be fully juftified in al- feiting, that thefe two agents, however much they may refemble eacli ot'ier in ionie hfs important particulars, are in their nature totally dillir.ifl and unci nnected. Let (g) We do not here mean that contraflion which mufcles are fufceptible of long after death, upon having their fibres mechanically irritated, which is produced by what phyfiologiils have called the -v'ls infta, and which is per- fectly known to our cooks, as it was to their predecellors in the Roman kitchens, as the foundation of the art of crimping. We at prefent confine ourfelves to contradlion produced through the medium of the nerves. 24 And with ihc know- ledge of e* }c<3rkity. i 15 Rcsfoning of Dr Wells oil the fame fubjed, 16 Inconclu- ilve like- ivifc. G A L V Let i;s fKamins the proofs by wliich Dr Valli's af- feition is lupported. He tells us, that he obL-rved the hairs of a mnufe, artacheJ to the nerves of frogs, by the tinfoil with which he furroiindfd them, alternately attrafted and repelled by each other, whenever ano:her metal was fo applied as to excite coniraflions in the frogs. We are veiy far from meaning to infinuate that Dr Valli did not fee, or think he faw, what he thus de- fcribes; but that the motion of the hairs muft hava Erifen fronn fnme caufe, dilFerent frjm that to which he afcrlbed it, cannot admit ot a donbt ; for hairs, in fuch a date of eledricity as he fuppofes, never attract, but always repel each other. Dr Fowler, who has paid particular attention to this part of his fubjfiS, has many times repeated this expe- riment, both in iho manner defcribed by Dr Valli and with every variation in the difpoliiiDn of the hairs which lie could devife: but wheiher they were placed on the metals, the reives, or the mufcles, or upon all at the fiime time, he has never in any inltance been able to obferve them agitated in the flighted degree. He has made fimilar experiments upon a dog, and upon a large and lively fkate, by difpofing, in the fame way that Valli did the hails of a monfe, flakes of the finelt flax, fwan- down, and gold leal: but although the contiadions produced in the fkate, by the contaift cf the meials, were fo flrong as to make the animal bound from the table, not the leall appearance of eledricily was indicat- ed. He next fufpended from a flick of glafs, fixed in the cieling of a clofe room, fome threads, five feet in length, of the flax ufed in the former experiment ; and brought fome frogs recently killed, and infulated up- on glafs, as near to them as pofllble without touching : but the threads were in no uif; affeded by the contrac- tions produced in the frogs. In a very ingenious paper upon galvanlfm by Dr Weils, which is publiflied in the London Philofophical Tranladions fur 1795, that gentleman maintains the opinion, that the influence dii'covered by Gaivani is electrical. He admits, thai it is not attended with thofe appearances ol attraiftion and repulfion which are held to be the ttfls cf the prefence ol electricity ; but he contends, that " neither ought figns of attraction and reix.iliion to be in this cafe prefented on the fuppofition that the influence is elefcrical ; fince it is neceflary, for the exhibition of fuch appearances, that bodies, after be- coming ele<5irical, fliould remain fo during fome fenfilile portion of time ; it being well known, for example, that the paifage of the charge of a Leyden phial, from one of its i'urlaces to the other, does not affeit the mofl; de- licate eleiflrometer, fufpended from a wire, or other fub- ftance, which forms the communication between them." That the charge of a Leyden phial does not, in paf- fing along a wire, aCeiS an eleftrometer, is ceitain ; and it is equally true, that we have no means ol applying an eledlrcimeter to a quantity of galvanifm in a date of red in a body. It this influence ever exifls in luch a date, we have no ted by which we can difcover its pre- fence ; and it is only from the eflects uhich it produces ('/; trorfitu that we know of its exiltence. But itie elec- tric fluid, in pairing from link to link of a chain, fenfi- faiy affeds an ele(5lrometer ; and in Dr Fowlers expe- riment with the ikate, tor example, as more than one piece of metal is employed as an exciter, the fluid, in paQing from one piece to another, (houlJ have afiecleJ A N I S M. the light fabdances v.hich were placed upon tlicni. This appears to us a fuflicicnt anfwer to the objeition darted by Dr Wells : but the fame objeaion having been late- ly made to us by a gentleman from whom we fliall al- ways receive every fuggellion with uncommon defer- ence, we thought it worth while to try the following experiment : Three hours after a frog had been decapitated, it fhewed drong figns of galvanic fufceptibility. One of the fciatic nerves being oaied with tinfoil in the ufual manner, the leg was laid upon a plate of zinc. A gen- tleman was delircd to lay h 'Id ol the nci ve and its coat- ing with the finger? of one hand, which had been pre- vioufly dipped in water, while with t!ie other hand, alio wet, he held the end of a fmall brafs chain about tv^-o inches in length. Another gentleman now took liold of the other end of the chain, and with a (ilver probe, held in his other hand, touched the plate of zinc. The influence b;ing thus made to pais tlirough the chain, the leg contraded vigoronfly; but a very fenfible elec- trometer, held fo near to the chain as almod to touch it, was neither attracted nor repelled. In performing this experiment, it was neceflary to have the hands wet, as the dry cuticle tends much to <ibUrui5i the paffage of galvanifm ; but the utmod care was taken that the cha'n fhould be perfifily dry, otherwifc the influence might h.ive been tr.inl'mitted by \\\z moidure upon its futlace wi'hout pafllng through the chain itfelf. To avoid the poflibility of this happening, the expe- riment was varied in the following man'ier : The frog's leg was laid upon a plate cf zinc, and the nerve upon a plate of diver. A gentleman now took a filver probe, and one end of the brafs chain in contad with it, in one hand ; and in the other hand he heid the other end of the chain in contact with a rod of yinc. He now truched the filver plate with the rod of filver, and the zinc plate with the rod of zirc. As the influence was not now to be made to pafs through his body, there was no necefllty lor his hands being wet ; tl^e whole ex- citatory arc was therefore made compleie'y dry. In this way very drong contracfti^ms were exoiied in the leg, and dill the eledtrcm.eter was not afltiited in the fnialled dctMCC when brought near the cluin. It is proper to obferve, that Dr \'alli, in his afleition that attraction is a property of galvanifm, does not reft entirely upon his own obfervation ; a coniniiitce of the Academy of Sciences at Paris performed the iV.llowing experiment along with him : " They placed a prepar- ed frog in a vefiel which contained the cicdronicttr of M. Coulomb, charged negatively and pofitivcly by turns. In both cafes, in exciting the animal in the common way, the ball of the eleetiometer was altraded." It appears to us that Dr Valli and the committee have been deceived, by the fiiftion produced by the motion of the animals under their experiments iiaving excited fo much electiiciiy as to afftc't the cL'itrometer. The fird time we tiied the experiment abnvemeiiiioned wi'h the brafs chain, we weie alnn^d milled by a fimilar cir- cumdance. Indcad oi an artilici.il tlcftronieter, wh'ch we happened not to have at h.ind, we m.ide ufe ( f a very long and (knoer hum.in h.iir ; and wc found tliat it was drongly atlraftcd by the chain. Upon an at- tentive examination, however, we found that tins did not arile from the aiftion of the influence pafiing ihiough the chain, but from the date of the hair itfelf, which L 2 was 8J S4 GALVANISM. »7 Hemon- ftration, that the fume caufe- was (o highly eleiflrical as to be ftrongly attraiJled by fenfible to the eye), becaufe the knife had been bluiU- eveiy ccndiiflinp fiibflance which it approached. Upon ed by the glafs in tlie firft operation. All divergency fubftituting .mother hair, which fliewed no mark of being of the eleiftrcmetcr was now at an end ; and although either pofnivdy or negatively eletlrificd, it was neither the machine was worked till the eleflric fmell was f^n- attrafted ncr repelled by the chain. From the above, or fible at the doer to a perfon who happened to come in fonie fimilar ciicumllance, it is probable that Dr Valli's at this time, no tendency to divergence was obferved. miftake has originated; but we arc confident, that {N. D. the top of the eleftromettr had no condufting •whoever will repeat the experiment with fuflicient at- fubftance about it, except the flip of tinfoil), tention, will find the refult prccifely as we have de- Tlie cut, being examined with a micrcfcope furnifli- fcribed it. ed with a micrometer, was T^l^jth of an inch. It was Pel haps it may dill be faid, that although we have now filled up, by binding over it anoth.er flip of tin- rever been able to difcover attraflion and repullion as foil. A plate of talc, whofe thicknefb did not exceed properticb C'f palvanifni, this may arife from our not be- the 900th of an inch, was coated on one iide in a circle ing able to accumulate this influence in fufficient quan- of i\ inch diameter. The eletftrometer was removed, tity. To this reafoning, if reafoning it can be call- and the coated fide of the talc was put into clofe con- ed, we oppofe the following conliJerations, which taiff with the flip of tinfoil on the glafs rod. A (land flate a diffiniilarity in the phenomena of eleflricity and of tin, whofj top was a plate of i\ inch diameter, phcromcna ggjyanifu,^ tjiat feems abfolutely irreconcilable with the fmeared over with mercury, was placed in contaifl with ifm^and'o'f identity of the caufe. the other fide of the talc, and they weie prefled into ckaiicity N'Uhing is more completely eftablithed in the fcience very dole and continuous contafl. refult not of eleflricity than this, that all ihofe appearances which The machine being now worked, the coated talc re- frora the ^.g g^U altraBicni, nfuljloiis, alJlriiBions, and accumula- ceived a charge in about 5 minutes fufficient to give a twn of e'eflric fiuul, aie precifely fimilar to what would very fmart lliock : and this was repeated with great re- be the appearances, if cleflriciiy were a fluid, whofe gularity every five or fix minutes. The windows were particles repel each other, and attraft the particles now thrown open, and the room cleared of its for- of other matter, according to a certain law (See Elec- mer contents of air, till none of thofe prefent could TRiciTV, Supt'L). Of all thofe phenomena, the mod perceive any elei5)ric fmell. The machine was now remarkable is the accumulation of cleftric energy (to worked again. But after half an hour, only a ve- cive it no more definite name), by means of thin idio- ry faint twitch was felt; but enough to (hew that elecfiics, coated with non-ele<5trics; fuch, namely, as an accumulation was taking place. The windows were are exhibited by the Leyden phial, the condenfer, the now half fhut. After working the machine about five doubkr, &c. minutes, a faint twitch was obtained ; after a quarter If the phenomena of galvanifm are produced by the of an hour moie, there was a moderate fhock. paffage of eledlric fluid from one extremity of the ex- In this flate of things, the apparatus was examined citatory arc to the other, this palfage will be regulated as a condenfer, by firft taking out the {harp point by by the known laws of eleftricity. It may therefore be an infulating handle, and then removing the tin ftand. accumulated (//i tranfiiu) by means of an apparatus fi- Examined in this way, it appeared plainly that, even milar to the coated pane, or to the condenfer. Profef- when all the windows were open, the accumulation be- for Robifon, with this view, made the following expe- gan almoft as foon as the machine was worked. Nay, riments : it was found, on another day equally favourable, that I. He made a part of the conduftor to his conden- a plate of talc -x^hj or -risis of an inch thick, took a fer, or collector of atmofpheric electricity, confill of a charge, although a cut of t44o "''"^^ did not allow the long glafs rod, on one fide of which was fattened eledricity to fly acrofs it. This is perfeflly fimilar to (with varnifli) a very narrow flip of tinfoil ; there was all our experiments on coated glafs. The thicknefs a fine p-^int at one end of this rod, and a gold leaf which admits an accumulation is almoft incomparably eleflrometer at the other. This apparatus was in- greater than the diftance to which a fpark will fly, or fulated at one end of a room 19 feet long, having a a concuflion is producible, in the fame intenfily of window in the middle of each fide. A fmall eleflric eledricity. machine was placed at the other end. On a dry day, 2. The above defcribed apparatus was infulated, and witii a gentle breeze in a direftion acrofs the room, a wire connefled with each end. To one wire was join- both windows were opened a little way, fo that there ed a thin plate of lac, coated on the fide next the wire ; was a continual llream of air acrofs the room. The and to the other a piece of moill leather covered with machine was worked ; and after a fhort time had elapf- tin-fill. Thefe plates were rubbed together l)y means ed, the eleiftrometer bei^an to diverge, gradually open- of infulating handles. The plate ot coated talc quick- ed, and at laft fttuck the condu<fting flips on each fide, ly took a charge. and then collapfed, and again began to diverge. The The fame plate of talc, and afterwards another plate windovi's were Ihnt ; and immediately, without working not more than half as thick, was now made part of the the machine, the eleflromcter diverged rapidly, and excitatory arc, and fometimes part of the animal arc. tcuched the fides of the phial every minute and half. Sometimes plates of varnilh, incomparably thinner than This continued fo long, that there feemed to be no end either of thefe, were employed. Eut all Profeflbr Ro- to it. The Profelfor now made a cut acrofs the tin- bifon's attempts to produce an accumulation of galvanic foil with a very fharp knife; the eleiflrometer now di- eneri^y in this way were fruitlefs. The fecond lorm of verged very feebly, and yi minutes elapfed before it the eleflrical expeiiment was adopted, as having a fome- touched the fides. He pafled the knife a fecond time what greater refemblance to the fuppofed procedure of through the cut. This widened it (though fcarcely galvanifm; but the well-informed eledrician will eafily perceive, GALVANISM. 2$ Farther confulera- tlont on e- le5;ricity Slid galva- ciTm. perceive, that the firll form is far more delicate and deciliTe. The internal procedure in the eleflric and galvanic convulfions is therefore fo different, nay, oppofite, that we cannot bring ourfelves to think that the appearances are operations of the fame agent (h). We have now gone over all the points of refemblance which, in Dr Valli's opinion, conftiiute the charadlers of the identity of galvanifm and eledriciiy. We think that, without going farther, we might fafely reft our afiertion, that thefe two agents are perfedtly diftincft and unconne'fted with each other. But there are feveral other circumftances which merit attention. No eleftrical phenomenon can take place between two bodie-, unlefs thefe bodies be in oppofite Hates of eledlricity with regard to each other. Now, how are we to account for the accumulation of eledlricity in any body, or part of a body, furrcunded en all hands by conducing fubllances ? The experiments of Galvani fucceed equally well, whether ihe fubjeifts of them be infulated or furrounded by conduflors ; whether per- formed in the drieft air or under water (i); whether, by means of an eleftrical machine, we charge the ani- mal and the metals till every part of them ftrongly affidl the eleflrometer, or whether we reverfe the experiment and eleflrify them negatively, ftill no change is produc- ed In the force or frequency cf the adions eicited by the application of the metals. Is there any electrical expel iment which could continue to give the fame refult in fuch oppofite circumftances? oris there any polUbi- lity of accounting for it confillently with the known laws of the eleflric fluid? The writers on this fuhje<5l who adopt the eleiflric theory, inftead of attempting to explain how the electric fluid can be condenfed in a body furrounded by con- ducing fubftances, have recourfe to the analogy of the gymnotus, torpedo, and other filhes of the fame kind. Here, fay they, we have in fad the ele<Sric fluid accu- mulated in fuch a fituation, and there is no reafoning againft fadls. We anfvier, that thefe animals are all furnifned with organs of a very peculiar ftrufture, which may poiljbly be filled for the purpofe of fuch a con- denfation. Belides, we apprehend it has never been in- conteftibly proved thit thefe fingular animals derive their powers from the eleJlric fluid. Without withing to enter into thi> quellion, which is foreign tn our pre- fent fubje<ft, we may remark, that Mr Wallh difcoveted, that the fhock of the torpedo would not pals through a fmall brafs cliain ; a circunift.ince in v\hiLh it dilfcrs re- mark,)bly both Irom eieiftricity and Irom th; influence dil'iovered by Gjlvani. It were worth \v hile to try ProfelTor RoUIfon's me- thods of accumulation in the examination of the con- vuUions occalioned by the torpedo. The Profefli'r fuf- peits that the popular horror at the lamprey, and the Sj accounts of cramps and pains produced by it, have their fource in fome fimilar powers of that animal. Dr Valli's reafoning on this part of the fubjed is very curious. He takes it for granted that the gym- notus owes its influence to the eleflric fluid. Then, though the gymnotus gives (hocks and emits fparks, while the torpedo only gives (hocks without emitting fparks, he fays it would be abfurd to alTcrt that the tor- pedo derives its influence from acaufe different fiom the gymnotus. Again, though the influence dlfcovered by Galvani neither gives fliocks nor emits fparks, it would ftill be abfurd to maintain that it is not the fame as the elcdric fluid, and as the influence of the gymnotus and torpedo. To diifent from any part of this very logical deduiflion, he declares would be contrary to the law^s of philolbphifing ! Rlj'um teneatis ? Afraid, probably, that his readers might be tempted to offend againft thefe new laws, he proceeds to ftitiigihen them by the analogy of animals and vegetables retaining an uniform temperature in mcdui, warmer or colder than their own bodies ; from which he argues that they may alfo have a power of accumulating eieiftricity, and re- taining it in a particular part, though their whole bo- dies are conductors. But the cafes are in no refpect fimilar. Neither animals nor vegetables accumulate ca- loric in any particular part of their bodies in preference to any other part. They have no power of ritaimng caloric in their bodies more ftrongly than any other bodies do; for if they are placed in a medium colder than themfelves, they are continually imparting caloric to that medium. Neither is there the imalleft proof, from any experiments yet publiflied, that when placed in a medium warmer than themfelves, they do not con- tinually abforb caloric from it. The exiilence of a fri- gorific power in animals appears to us exceedingly pro- blematical ; but if it were proved to exift, it would by no means dernonftrate that animals or vegetables have a faculty of declining to abforb caloric from bodies warmer than themfelves. It is readily admitted, that animals and vegetables have a power, within certain limits, of preferving their temperature higher than that of the furrounJing medium ; nor is there any thing furptifing in this, as the caloric, which they are continually receiv- ing by the dccompofition of oxygenous gas, is diflipat- ed flowly. But if we fhc'uld allow ihat animals have a fimilar faculty of generating tlie eleClric fluid ; from the nature of that fluid it muft be contirually commu- nicated, not only to every part of the bodies of the ani- mals themfelves, the whole of which are conductors, but to every conducting fubftance contiguous to lh;m : and this nuift take place, not flowiy, like the dlflipation of caloric, but inftantancoufly, fo as to nnder any fen- fible accumulation inipoflible. Galvanifm differs from eleftrlcity in nothing more DifTcrfnce remarkably than in the mode of its excitement and dif- in their charge, i»>ydcofcx- citcmcnt, »9 (h) What if it were called mctalhrgtifm, which tranflates exaflly metallic irritation, or mctallegerfifm, from ;uiT«A>,o., and iyi[Ti( excitnlio. (i) Dr Fowler mentions an exception to this. " When the feparated leg of a frog was held under water, and formed [>art of the circuit through which thi? influence had to pafs in order to excite another leg, it never contracfted J ahliough it did, and ftrongly, when held above the furfacc." In this cafe it is plain, tiiat the fiog's leg had in fad fonned no part of tlie circuit through which tlie iiifluscce puffed ; the influence had been iianf- mitted by the water in which the leg was held. 86 GALVANISM. their ef- feas. cl].in;e. To proJuce die pljcnnmen;i difcovered by Gal- vani, 110 operation at all fimilar to the friftion of an eleftiic upon a tondufliiiq; Aibilance is necelT.iry (i). Tlie nerves and irnifcles li^ive only to be laid bare, and a comnritniication formed betv^een them by means of the excitatory arc, wlien the conlradions immediately enfue. In the cafe of el.-diicity, a (ingle difcharge having re- llnred the cquilibritim, no fai tlitr effeifls can be produced till this lias been again dcf.royed by fi.nie means capalile ot producing a condenfation in one quarter, and a coni- jvirative raiefafliun in anotlier. The t'^ct is very dif- ferent with regard to galvanii'm ; for wilh it the num- ber of (liocks which may be given appears to be infi- nite. Nay, they frequently become (Ironger in propor- tion as they have been longer continued : tliis influence differing extremely in this particular, too, from the elec- tiic fluid, which, befides being itielf exhaulled, never fails in a remarkable manner to cxhaufl t! e contraiflile 30 power of the muftles. And in tlic The permanence of the efTecls of galvanifm is flill duration of ninrc flrikirg in tlie expel imcnts upon the organ of talle. When the metals are applied to the tongue, the fenfation produced is not fuddcn and tranfient ; but fo long as the metals are in crntaft with ihe tongue and with each otlier, fo long does tlie tafte continue ; and, after fome time, it becomes infufTerably difagrceable. M. Volta, who adopts tlie elecTiic theory with various modifications, fenfible of the permanence of the effeft, in his curious experiments abovementioned fiippol'es, that a flream of dedlricily pafTes from the tin cup to the liquor, fiom this to the tongue of the perfon making the experimert, then through his body, and returns through the water upon his hands to the cup ; and thus he fuppofes the fluid to move perpetually in a circle. It is fbrely unnecelfiry for us to obferve, that the fup- pofitionof 2 llream of elcciricity, coiitiiiually moving in a circle in this manner, is wholly inconfiffent with the laws which appear in evtry cafe to regulate the motions of that fluid. The fame obfervation applies to the man- ner in which he explains moft of the other phenomena of galvanifm. The elediic fluid cannot be put in motion but by deftroying the equilibrium to which it perpetually tends ; but whenever this is dellroyed, all that is requir- ed to produce a difcharge i?, that a fingle condnfling iubltance be placed bttwcen the two points in which it is unequally diifributed. Here again there is a very wide diltinflion between this fluid and the influence difcovered by Galvani. M. Volta divides all conduc- tors of galvanifm into two clafTcs ; ill, Dry conduflors. comprehending metals, pyrite;, fome other minerals, anJ charcoal ; and, 2d, Moifl conduiftors. He afT.rts, that it is abfolutely neceflay, in order to the produc- tion of the phenomena, iliat two conduclors of th.e fird cldfs touch each other immediately en one hand, wliile at their iilher extiemities they touch con- duiflors of the fecond clafs. Wlicther this be admitted or n >t, we have already (fated our opinion tliat the ac- tion of two diflerent fubllances is abfolutely necef- fary in order t>) excite contradlions : and although it is contended by fome writers that a (ipgle piece of metal ha: fonietimes been found fufHcient, yet even they mult allow that, in by far the greater number of cafes, it has been found necelfary to make ufe of two metals, and that the eStSl is even heighrened in general by em- ploying three. In the whole fcience of eleflriciry, we do not knovr a fingle fa>5f which bears the flightefl a- nalogy to this. Never in a fingle inflance has it been found, that the efFefts of a Leydeu phial have been in- creafed by ufing a condiiiffor formed of two or more metals in procuring the difcharge. ,j Before leaving tlie fubjecl of conduiffors, we may Some men take notice of a very curious and important faifl men- "o''-'^""- tioned by Dr Valli. " Amongd men," fays he, " there <i"*"" "f are fome individuals who are good condu<5lors, others ^^ ^^" who are Icfs fo ; and fome again who appear to be al- mofl non-conducfors. I was one day carrying on, witli three of my fi lends, fome experiments upon frogs. A frog was put in water, and we each by turn eflayed its power. Two of us excited flrong convullions, the third only feeble ones, and the fourtli none at all. This experiment was repeated frequently with the fume re- fult. This is not the only example I could adduce of the reality of this faft, but I do not think it necelfary to dwell any longer upon it." We have met with one individuil who is not fenfible of any peculiar fenfation when the metals are applied to his tongue. This feems in f ^me meafure to corroborate Dr Valh's obfer- vation. It is apprehended, Jiowever, that all men arc equally good conduiflors of eleiffricity. There is (fill anr.ther very marked diftinifVion be- tween the efFe(5ls ol galvanilhi and eleclricity. No fhnck at all refembling that produced by th.e eleiSric fluid has ever been felt by any perlon whole body was made a part of the chain conducing the galvanic in- fluence, while a very ("mall quantity of the eleif ric fluid is immediately felt ( k). In Dr Robifon's experiment w ith the plates of zinc and lilver in the cheeks, theie is no doubt a convulfive twitch diftiniflly felt in the gums ; but, as we have already obferved, the fenfation thus produced (1) It is true, as we have noticed above, that galvanic energy is fometimes communicated to a conduclin^ fubrtance by rubbing it upon fome other fubltance; but this has no refemblance to the excitement oi eleiftricity by friflion. The galvanic energy is communicated in this cafe to a corduSin^ fublbince, and it fucceeds as rea- dily when both the bodies are of this clafs af when one of ihem is an idio-eleiSric. But no ejetlric phenomenon has ever been produced by the fri(flion of two conducing bodies upon each other ; one of them muft be an idio- eleflric, and it is in this one that the excitement takes place. (k) There is an exception to this rule which ought to be taken notice of. M. Cntugno informs us, that W'hen he was one day employed in dilFec^ing a live m^ ufe, he received a ferfible ftiock from the animal. But BS neither he not any other perlon has ever been fimilarly affefted in any other inllance, it feems pretty certain that he was deceived into the belief of a (hock from the fenfation produced by the ftruggles of the animal he difTefled. GALVANISM. produced is quite difTerent from ihat v.hich is felt from an eleitrlc lli<ick (l). There is an experiment related by Dr Valli, which feems to fliew that nothing like an eledlric Ihock is felt, even when ibis influence is tranfmitted thr, '.igh a nerv; fo as to excite convulfions. Having laid bare the nerves of a fowl's wing, without cutting them, and without killing the fowl, upon applying the metals very fn.art mcveraents were produced, but the animal remained perfeilly tranquil. Nor was this owing to the fowl being in a ftate of infenfibility ; for wh^n the nerves were pricked or irritated it fcreamed violently. But all animals Ihew ligns of great uneafinefs from an elefiric Ihock. In general, it muft be conftfTed, that animals under expeiimenis of this kind Teem reliefs and uneafy. The great diftin^^ion of which ws fpeak at prefent, cor.fifts in this, that the eleflric fluid produces a fhock and uneal'y fenfation when any pait (if the body is in- troduced into the conduifing chain; while the influence difcovered by Galvani, on the contrary, when merely tranfmitted through the body in this manner, gives no (hock, nor any fenfation whatever, infomuch (hat we are not fenfible of its paffage. If this influence be made to aft direi5tly on a nerve, there is, no doubt, fome kind rf irritation produced, as appears from the efTect of the metals upon the tongue, the eye, and otlier ner- vous parts : but (till this adlion bears no analogy to that of the eledric fluid ; as the application of tlie metals to the organs of fenfe, produces in each organ the peculiar fenfatirn for which it is conflrufted, as tafte in the tongue, light in the eye, Sec. fo when nerves intended merely for mufcular motion are fubje^'led to the aiflion of galvanifm, the eifeft pro- duced is motion in the mufcles on which they are dif- tributed. If this view of the matter be ju^t, it will explain why no (hock is felt when the human body is made a part of the conducing chain. In that cafe the influence does not, in all probability, aft direftly upon any nerve ; and we fee that this influence polfelfes no power, like the eleftric fluid, of producing a convullive (hock, when merely paiTed through any part of the body ; but it has this peculiar property, when palfed direftly through a netve, it excites that nerve to peiform the fnnftion frr which it was intended by nature. To this it will no doubt be objefted, that contraftions may be excileJ in different pans of a Irog without any di- vifinn being made in its (kin ; and here it may be fup- pcfed thai the influence is not made to pafs direftly through a nerve. But it ought to be recollcfted that the (kin of ihefe animals is abundantly fupplied with nerves, whofe trunks communicate at differert places with thofe which fupply the mufcles ; and that the contraftions are always llrong and eafily excited, in proportion as they are applied near to the courfe of any of the nerves which go to the mufcles. B;" though we had no doubt that the influence might I: tranfmitted through the bodies cf thcfe animals, a well as through the human body, without any contrac- tions being produced, we have thought it worth whit, to afcertain the fa5l by the foil wing experiment. A frog was prepared in the ulual mannei by coal ing its fciatic nerve wiih tinfi'il, and laying the let- upon a plate ( f zinc. Another frog, in a very vigo« rous llite had its fore legs and chefl attached to a rod of filver, and its poflerior extremities to a rod of zinc. The filver rod was applied to the tinfol and ne:ve cf the prepared frog, and the zinc rod to the plate cf zinc upon which the hg was laid. Immediately very ftrong contraftions took place in the leg ; but no mo- tion, nor the (1 ghteil mark of uneafinefs, appeared in the other frog, through the body of which the influ- ence mull have palfed. It is necelftry in this experi- ment to dry the body of the frog which is to ferve as a conduftor very carefully, otherwife the influence might be tranfmitted by the water upon i'.s fuiface without pafflng through i's body. There is an experiment mentioned by Dr Fcwlcr, which fhews a (Inking dilTerence betv.'een eleftricit^ and galvanifm. It was inllituted witli a view to afcei" tain the effefts of the latter upon the blood velfels. The Doftor relates it as fi Hows : " Having laid bare and feparated from furrounding parts and from eacl other, the cruial artery and nerve in the th.igh of a full grown frog, I cut out the whole of the nerve betweeil the pelvis and the knee : I then inlinuated beneath the artery a thin plate of fealing-wax, fpreaJ upon pa- per, and broad enough to keep a large portion of the artery completely apart from the reil of the thigh. The blood (lill continued to flow through the whole courfe of the artery in an unJiminiihed dream. The artery, thus partially infulated, wastouchcd with filver and zinc, which were then brought into contaft with each other ; but no contraftion whatever was produced in any mufcle of the limb. This experiment w;>.s fre- quently rep-'ired upon ieve'al different frogs, both in whom the nerve wis and in wlu m it was notdiviJed. The refult was unif rmly tiie fame. But vivid con- traftions were prtdaceJ in the whole limb when an c- L-ftiic 87 (l) " No one (faysM. Humbcldt) can fpeak more decidedly on tliisfu'ijeft than myfclf, hiving made fc- veral experiments on my own pcif.u, tlie feat of which, in fome inllances, was the (bckct ot a toi th wliicli I had caufed to be extrafted ; in others, certain wounds which I made in my lund ; and in others, the excoria- tions produced by four bliftering plaflcr^." The fo'lowtng is the refult of thcfe painful exprriments The galvanic irritation is always paintul, and the mere fo in prop rtion as tlie irritated part is more injured, and the tune of irritation mote prolonged. The (irft ffrokcs are felt but fliglitly ; the five or f,x fallowing are much more fenfible, and even fcarcely to be endured, until the irritated nerve becomes infenfible from continued lll- muUis. The fenfation does not at all refcmble that which is caufed by the eleftric commotiMn, and the eleftric bath J it is a peculiar kind of pain which is neither (harp, pungent, penetrating, nor by intermifli ins, like that which is caufed by the ekftric fluid. We may dillingudh a violent (Iroke, a regular prell'ure, accompanied by an unintermitting glow, which is incomparably more aftive when the wound is covered with a pUte of diver and irritated by a rod of zinc, than when the plate of zinc is placed on the wound, and ihs (ilver pincers arg ufcd to eilabldh the communicalicn. 88 GALVANISM. 3» The galva- nic influ- ence pro- bably fo- reign ft cm a^mals. leflric rparV, or even a full ftream of the aura was paf- fed into the artery." Before taking leave of this branch of our fubjeft, it may be proper to take notice of one faft, which may be thought to militate agaiiill the doflrine we have en- deavoured to citablifti. It is faid that a frog, exhauft- ed and brought near to a charged elcdrophorus, has been found to refume its fufceptibility. We think this faiS may be accounted for without admitting any con- nexion between galvanifm and eleiSricity, merely by fuppofing that the irritability of the mufcles, which had been exhauded, was reftored by the application of a moderate ftimulus, (:he ele(5>ric fluid), of a kind dif- ferent from thofe by which it had been exhaulled. Such of our readers as are acquainted witli the writ- ings of modern phyriologifts on the fubjedl of mufcular iiritability, will know that fafls cf tins kind are very common. Thus it has been found by M. Humboldt, that the oxygenated muriatic acid has often reftored irritability. To this explanation it will no doubt be objefted, that the application of other flknuli, as alco- liol and a fdution of potafh, inlleadof reftoring, total- ly deftroy the fufceptibility of galvanifm. Sufpefting, tliat although thefe fubftances in a concentrated ftate deRroy the fufceptibility, yet that when fufficiently di- luted, they might be found to liave the oppofite effefl, ■we tried the following experiment, which confirmed our conjevfture. A frog, 57 hours after It had been decapitated, had ceafed for above an hour to be capable of excitement by the application of the metals in any way that could be devifed. A few drops of alcohol being diluted with about a tea-fpoonful of water, the nerve and the mufcles which had been laid b;'.re, as well as the whole fkin of the animal, were wet with it. Upon the ap- plication of an excitatory arc, compofed of four pieces, gold, zinc, filver, and tinfoil, a few very flight contrac- tions of ihe toes were diftinflly obferved. After this, BO means that we could think of produced the fmalleft excitement. Alcohol was now applied in a more con- centrated (late, but withnut any efFed, The fame four pieces of metal which produced the contraiftlons of the toes, had been ufed before the diluted alcohol was applied, but without efleft. We liave not tried the application of potalh much diluted. From what has been faid, we think we are fully warranted in faying, that although feme of the phxno- mena difcovered by Galvani bear a ftrikingrefemblance to fome of thofe produced by the ele(flric fluid ; yet there are others, and thefe not the leall important, which dilVer fo widely from any efFeiSs which have ever been feen to arife from that fluid, that they muft derive their origin from fome other caufe. Our read- ers may probably think that we have dedicated too much time to this queftion ; but as we conceive it to be the moli important point which can be difcufled on this fubjefl, we thought it wortli while to confidcr it at fome length ; and we were the more convinced of the neceflity of doing fo, from thisconfideration, that there nre flill fome writers of high authority who maintain ■ the hypothefis, that galvanifm and eledliicity are the fame. The next queflion that occurs to us with regard to the nature of galvanifm is, whether or not it depends upon any law of animal life .' To us it appears rather more probable, that the influence which incites the mufcles of animals to contraiV in the experiments of Galvani, is fomething quite foreign to the animals them- felves ; zs much fo as tlie eleflric fluid of the Leyden phial is to the animal which receives a (heck from it, in both cafes the body of the animal afting as a mere conduflor. Upon this queftion, however, we confefs tliat we have neither farts nor arguments to adduce fuf- ficient to warr.int our drawing any certain conclufion. It will doubtlefs be afited, if this influence be fome- thing foreign to the bodies (f animals, why do we ne- ver find it afling anywhtre but in their bodies ? why is it net, like the eleflric fluid, capable of beitig made evident to tlje fcnfes by its effefls upon inanimate mat- ter .' The only anfwer which we are in a condition to give to this queflion is, that it may very pollibly be capable of producing important efFerts upon inanimate matter, nay, thefe effefls may be the fubjeft of our daily obfervation ; but for want of our being fufiicient- ly acquainted wi-li galvaniim to point out the lelition between thefe elTcfls and their caufe, the eff'efts them- felves are either not explained at all, or afcnbed per- haps to fime other power, with which they have no connexion. In like manner, the eleftric fluid has doubtlefs been producing moft important efFerts from the beginnin;; oi time; but, prior to the difcovery of that fluid, thefe were eithei not explained at all, or confidered as originating from fome caufe which, in ia.£i, had no fhare in tlieir produiftion. The great difficulty is to obtain fome tefl: by which we may deteifl tlie galvanic influence when adlualiy pre- fent in inanimate matter. Hiiherto we have no fuch ted ; nor Ihouid we know that fuch an influence exifts, but for the effefls which it produces upon the bodies of animals through the medium of their nerves. If we had any means of afcerta'uing its exillence, either in a feparate flate, or coijoined with inanimate matter, the fcience would make a rapid progrefs, as it would be eafy to diverfify experiments fo as to difcover its na- ture and effi;<fls. To deied it in a f:parate ftate is, ia all probabil ty, impofTible ; but that the zeal and inge- nuity ol philofophers will one day be able to difcover fome tefl of its pretence in inanimate matter, there feems no reafon to doubt. We have made many experiments with a view to difcover fuch a tefl, but hitherto without the fmallell fuccefs. In the trials we have already made, our views have been chiefly confined to the difcovery of fome che- mical efi> i5ts of this influence upon inanimate matter. M. Volta and other writers, having confidered the fen- fation produced by it upon the tongue as fimilar lo that occafioned by acids, we were not without Iropes that it would be found to refemble that clafs of fubftances in fome of its other properties. We have therefore tranf- mitted it thuough liquids tinged with the moft delicate vegetable colours ; but no change in thefe colours has been eff'eifled by the tr:infmiir)on ot many galvanic (hocks. We have alfo tried, in the fame way, alkaline liqui>rs, without any eiFeft. We next diiFilved in water dilFetent neutral falts, and other compound bodies, of which the parts are held together l>y the weakeft affini- ties ; but no change has been obferved to be produced in them by the tranfmilTion of this influence. Our want of fuccefs, however, (hall not deter us from continuing our efforts ; we (hall vary the nature of our experiments in (GALVANISM. In e^'ery way that fliall occur to us as likely to be attend- ed with advantage ; and if we fl;Ould ultimately fail, we truft that others will be more fortunate. Every new faft which is difcovered upon the fubjeil tends to facilitate this inveltigation, by furnlfhing us with new „ guides to direiS the courfe of our experiments. Dr Fowler Dr Fowler is of opinion, that this intluence, what- hffitatcson ever it may be, is not derived from the metals alone, i}\i» point, ijut t}jat xhi animals at lead contribute to its produc- tion, as well as indicate its prefence ; and he feems lo have been led to adopt tliis theory chiefly from two Lconfiderations, neither of which appears to us to have much weight. They are the following : The neceffity of a communication between the metals and the mufcles, as wtU as between the metals and the nerves ; and the obfervation, that animals have a more complete con- troul over its effcils than one would expe<5t them to have over an influence wholly external to them. But the communication between the metals and the mufcles may be neceifiry to the contraction of the latter, tho' not to the produftion of galvanifm ; which, liowever, for want of any obvious eirefl, is not obferved. That animals have fome controul over the effec'Js of galvan- ifm upon themfelves, may be very true ; but this cir- cumftance docs not appear to us capable ot proving any thing, as 'Iiey have a controul over the effeifls of other ftimuli in the fame way. Thus, an animal of any refo- lution can bear, without betraying any uneafy fenfation, a blow which, inflnfted unexpefledly, would have pro- duced a convulfive Hart. The will does not in any de- gree controul the elFecls produced by galvanifm upon our fenfes of tafte, feeing, &c. ; that is, the fenfations are produced, though we may have rcfolalion not to betray them. Cut, fays Dr Fowler, the will is not able to controul the efFeifls of eleftricity, when the eledlrici- ty is otherwife fufficiently ftrong to excite mufcles to contraftion. This argument may tend to iliew, that galvanifm differs from electricity ; but as it muft be ad- mitted, that we can refift the contraftions naturally produced by the application of other foreign ftimuli, it by no means proves that animals have any power of preventing the excitement or tranfmifflon of galvanilm. Befides, though we cannot prevent an involuntary con- traftion of our mufcles from taking place when an elec- tric ihock of confiderable ftrcngih is palled through them, yet any man may with his hand draw fparks from the prime conduftor ot an eleclric machine with- out fhrinking, though even thefe fparks would, if he were off his guard, produce a convullive llart. If the galvanic inRuence cxilled ready formed in the mufcles or nerves ol' animals, the only thing requifite to the produiftion of the contiaflions would be to make a communication betv.cen the nerves and mufcles, by means of any fmgle fubftance capable of conducing this influence ; as water, for example : but the reverfe is known to be true. It may be faid, however, that, although theie is no proof that any influence naturally refides in the nerves or mufcles capal)le ol producing the efftifts mentioned by M. Galvani, thefe fubftances may flill, by fome power independent ot the propei ties they pf^ffefs in common with dead matter cotilriliu:^ to the excitement of the influence, which is fo well known to exill in ibem after a ctriain application rf metal-. Upin this pait of the iubjefi, the obfervatiors ol Dr Wells will be i'ound to merit conGderable attention. SuppL. Vol. II. 34 We think .without " It IS known (f^ys that gentleman), that if a mufcle and its nerve be covered with two pieces of the fame metal, no motion v^ill take place upon con- nefling thofe pieces by means cf one tr more different metals. After making this experiment one dav, I ac- cidentally applied the metal 1 had ufed as the connec tor, and which 1 ftill held in one hand, to the coating of the mufcle only, while with the other hand I touched the limilar coating of the nerve, and was furprifed to find that the mufcle was immediately thrown into contraftion. Having produced motions in this way fufficiently often to place the id& beyond doubt, I next began to confider its relations to other f.ifts for- merly known. I very foon perceived, that the imme-^ diate exciting caufc of tliefe motions could not be de- rived from the aflion of t)ie metals upon the mufcle and nerve to which they were applied ; otherwife it muft have been admitted, that my bodv, and a metal formed tog:ther a better conduitor f f the e^citir."- in- fluence than a metal alone ; the contrary of which I had known, from many experiments, to be the cale. The only fource, therefore, to which it could poflibly be leferred, was the adion of tlie metals upon my own bo- dy. It then occuired to me, that a pioper opportuni- ty now offered itfelf of determining whether animals contribute to the produflion of this influence by means of any other property than their moifture. Wi;h this view, I employed various moilf fubftances, in which there could be no fufpicion cf life to conllitute, with one or more metals, difftrint from that of tne coatings of the mufcle and nerve, a ccnneifting medium be- tween thife coatings, and found i\\a\. they produced the fame effefl as my b idy. A fingle dr.^p of water was even fufficient for this purpofe ; ihonth in gene- ral, the greater the qu<!ntiiyot the nviilure whi h was ul'ed, the more readily and powerfully were contraflions of the mui'cle excited. But if the mutual opcratio.i c f metals and rcoiflure be fully adequate to the excite- ment of an ir.fluence capable of occafionlng mufcles to contract, it follows, as an immediate confequcnce, diat animals adl by their moifture alone in givirg origin to the fame infitience in M. Galvani's experiments, ur.Ieis we are to admit more caufes of an effcift than what are fufEcient tor its produilion." We do not quote the above reafoning as perfectly condufive, lor it by no mean; appears to us to be fo ; but it certainly givef fomi probability to the opinion, that galvanifm is, at M. Volta fuppofes, the refult of the a(ftion cf two dry conductors, which touch each other immediately on one hand, while at their other extremities they touch conduiftors of what he calls the fccond clafs, (tliat is, moifture, for all the condudors of the fecond clafs con- tain water), and that the bodies of animals aft merely as moifture. One of M. Humboldt's experiments related above, appears to us to ftrengihen the conclufion, that the in- fluence difcovered by Galv.ini is foniething perfciflly foieign to the bodies of animals. Can it be fuppofcj that any fubftance which naturally rcfides in our bo- dies, fhould, in a few ftconds after it i^ put in motion, convert the fimple ferous difcharge c f a bliftcr into a dark coloured fluid, of a nature f i acrid hs io irritate and violently inflame the ikin wherever it touches it ? We do not fay that this is impoffible, for we are t "i little acquainted v.'ith the laws of fecrction to fay with cer- M tainty S9 90 GALVANISM. 55 The c:iufe known. tainty what ma}', or what may not, produce fuch a No ccutraftion enfued from touching the coating change; but we know no fimiUr alteration produced /n only, or the nerve only, or the mufcle only, wiih the a fell} [ecomh, by a mere change of adlion in the velfcls filvsr. themfelves. Continuing the contafl did not occafion any repeti- We (hall not undertake to determine the nature of tion of the contractions, except in fome cafes, where wliich pro- (jie caufe which produces fuch aftonilhing cfFeSs. We the filver was drawn along different parts of tlie coat- auccstlie x.\\\\\V it is certainly not the eleclric fiuid, and probably insr, while its other end remained in cuntaft with the feds un- fomething wh'.ch relides or is termed m tl)e excitatory nerve. arc, but we confider our knowledge of galvanifm as The contraiSions took place only in the mufcles to Hill in its infancy, and our (lock of fa^^ls as infinitely which the nerve led. too fmall to admit of our forming a ju(l theory on the Their ftrength and duration were greater when the fuhjeft. Fortunately, however, the difcovery of G.^1- furfaces of contaft were greater, aird when the two vani has aitraflcd fo much the attention of philofo- metals touched each other in points or (harp edges. phers in every part of Europe, that new fafls m.iy be A ligature, with a fdk thread below the coating expected to ccnie to light every day ; and we hope the (that is, between the coating and the mufcle, or part time is not very didant, when thefe may be fo clafs- of the nerve touched by the filver), prevented all con- ed, as to entitle the fub]ei5l to be ranked among the tratftion ; but not if the ligature was between the coat- fciences. ing and the brain. If the nerve was cut through be- low the coating, and the parts feparated a quarter of While this article was in the prefs, we were favour- an inch, no contradion followed by touching the coat- ed by a friend with an account ot fome German diifer- ing and the nerve or mufcle: but it took place, if rations on the fubjcc^t, which we are obliged to infert the parts were brought into contaift ; or even if a piece in this irregular manner. of any other nerve was put between the parts. Mr Creve, furgeon in Wurtzburg, had an opportu- If a confiderable part of a bared nerve was infulated nity of obfcrving the galvanic irritation on the leg of and coated, partly with tinfoil and partly with filver, a boy, which had been amputated far above the knee contraflions were produced in the mufcle to which it in the hof[.it..l of that city. Immediately after the am- led whenever the two metals were brought into con- pu'ation, Mr Creve laid bare the crural nerve (knie- taifl. kehlnervtn) and furrounded it with a flip of tinfoil. If one crural nerve be coated with tin, and the He touched, at once the tinfoil and the nerve with a other with filver, ccntraftions are produced in both French crownpiece. In that inftant the moft violent legs by bringing the metals into contaft. convulfions took place in the leg both above and be- If the nerve be dry under the coating, or when the low the knee. The remainder of the thighbone bent filver touches it, or in both places, we have no contrac- with force toward the calf; the foot was more bent tions ; but they begin as foon as we moiften the nerve, than extended. All thefe motions were made with Dr Pfaff infers from thefe phenomena, that the much force and rapidity. None were produced when nerve alone is fubjed to the irritation produced by the the tinfoil was taken away, or when a Heel pincer was two metals. ufed in place of a piece of filver, or when the tin or If the prepared frog be immerfed in water, fo that filver was covered with blood : but they were renew- ed when thefe obftacles were removed. Thefe pheno- mena continued till 38 minutes alter the amputation, when the limb became cold. the coating touches the water, contraiflions are pro- duced by touching the coating above water with the filver, while another part of the filver touches the nerve, or the mufcle, or even dips pretty deep in the Dr Chriftopher Heinrich Pfaff (/« D'ljfertatione de water. EleSr'tcilale Anhnal'i, Stutgardt, 1793 • '"'^^ ^''° Gren's No fiich thing happens in oil; or, at befl, the con- journal dir Phyjik, T. viii. p. 196, &c.) has claff:d traftions are very flight. the phenomena in a very orderly and perfpicuous man- Dr Pfaff could not produce contradions without ner ; and the refult of the numerous experiments made employing two metals, or a metal and charcoal. by himfelf and others correfponds very nearly with oiir A very thin covering of mufcular flelh on the nerve inferences in the preceding pages. I. Phenomena of mufcular contra^iion did not altogether prevent the contraflions, and in many cafes did rot fenfibly diminilh them. If a piece of filver be laid on the mufcles of the bread or belly, and be brought into ccntadl with the The general form of his experiments is the fame tin-coating on the lumbal region, only the mufcles of with that which we have placed at the beginning of the breaft or belly are affefted, but not thofe of the this article ; but the following varieties were obfcrved : legs. The nerve being coated with tinfoil, it was always Dr Pfaff fays, that the involuntary mufcles are not obferved that the contraftions were ftronger when the affeded by galvanifm ; and refers ior convincing proofs filver firft touched the mufcle, and then the coating, to a differtation by Dr Ludwig, (hewing that the heart If it touched the coating firlt, the effeiSs were always, is not furnifhed with nerves, [^Scriptor. neurolog. minor^ and very fenfibly, weaker. fcka. vol. 2.). They were dill ftronger when the filver did not touch the mufcle at all, but only the nerve and its coating. When the contraflions were weaker at the begin- ning, they alfo ceafed fooner. II. Irritation of the Organs of Scnfe. Here Dr Pfaff's dilTertation contains nothing re- markable. III. GALVANISM. III. Conjectures at to the Cnufe. Dr Pfaff ufes the fame arguments that we have em- ployed to refute the opinion of a fimilarity between the animal organs and the Leyden phial, and the opinion that ekdricity is the agent. He mentions the opinion of thofe who maintain tliat the agent is a fluid put into motion by means of its relation to the metals only, in their aflion on each other, and v^ho confider the animal as merely ferving as a conduiflor; and alfo ferving, by its irritability, to give us the information of the pre- fence ot fuch a fluid, in the fame manner as another kind of irritation, fomewhat analogous to it, indicates the prefence and agency of the eleflric fluid. It may there- fore be called the Metallic Irritation ; a term which will fufficiently diftinguifh it. But Dr PfafF feems rather to think that the agent refides in the animal, and that the metals are the con- duflors (See a dilTertation, entitled, Farther Contri- butions to the Knoivledge of Animal Eledrlcily, in Gren's Journal der l^hjjii, T. viii. p. 377J. This fluid he conceives to be intimately blended with the principle of life; nay, perhaps, to be the fame. He mentions a thought of Profelfor Kielniaycr, " that it may refemble the magnetic fluid in its manner of afling, giving con- nexion to the diftant particles of a nerve, as we o'blerve a magnet give an infiantaneous connexion to each of a parcel of iron filings ; all of wliich it would arrange in a certain precife manner, if they were fufficiently move- able, by giving momentary polarity to each." This fomewhat rcfembles Newton's hypothetical whim read to the Royal Society, defcribing what maybe done by- means of an xther (See Birche's Hijlory of the Royal Society ) . But all this is vague conje.51ure, and merits little at- tention. This will be better be(loft-ed on an obfervation of M. Humboldt of Jena, "that a bit of frefti morellc (the Hehella mitra of Linnxus) may be fubilituled for a bit of nerve in the animal arc in ihefe experiments." This is the only vegetable fubftance yet difcovered to have this property. If the nerve be laid on the morelle, we have only to touch th; morelle v.i'h the zinc, and tlie mufcular coniradions immediately follow. 9» JM^SlEJ^^^'^^^*' GAR GALWAY, a townfhip in the new county of Saratoga, in New- York. By the (late cenfus of 1796, it appears that 491 of its inhabitants are qualified to be eleflors. — Morse. GAMBLED Station, a fort about 12 miles from Knoxville, in Tennelfee. — ib. GAMMON, Point, anciently called Point Gilbert, by Golnold, forms the eaftern fide of the harbor of Hyanis or Hyennes, in Barnftable co. Maifachufetts. —ib. GARAZU, a town in Brazil, and province of Per- nambuco, 25 miles N. of Olinda. — ib. GARDECAUT, or Guard du Cord, in a watch, is that which ftops the fufee when wound up, and for that end is driven up by the fpring. Some call it Guard-ccck ; otiiers Guard du Gut. GARDEN (Francis), better known to the public by the tide of Lord Gardenjloite, was born at Edin- burgh June 34th, in the year 1721. His father was Alexander Garden ot Troup ; an opulent landholder in .'\berdeenlhire ; his mother was Jane, daughter of Sir Francis Grant of CuUen, S.C. I. After palling through the uUial conrfo of liberal education at the fchool and the univerfity, he betook hinifelf to the ftudy of law for his piofelhon. In the year 1744 he was admitted a member of the Faculty of Advocates, and called to the Scottilh bar. In his pradlice as an advocate he foon began to be dlftinguiihed, by a flrong, native re<5titude of under- (landing ; by that vivacity of apprelienfion and imagi- nation, which is commonly denominated Genius ; by manly candour in argument, often more perfaafive th.in fubtlety and fophiltiial artifice ; by powers which, with diligence, mii;ht eafily attain to the highell eminence of the profeilion. But the fame ftrength, cpcnncfb, and ardour of mind, wliich diflinguilhed him fo advan- tageouily among the pleaders at the bar, tended to give him a iondneis for the gay enjoyments of coiivi- GAR vial intercourfe, which was unfavourable to his progrefs in juridical erudition. Shining in tlie fecial and con- vivial circle, he became lefs folicltoufly ambiti-ius than he might othervvife have been, of the character of an eloquent advocate, or of a profound and learned law- yer. The vivacity of his genius was averfe from au- ftere and plodding ftudy, while it was captivated by the fafcinations of polite learning, and of the fine arts. Nor did he always efcape thi fe excelfes in the purfuit of pleafure into which the temptations of opening life are apt, occafionally, to feduce the moll liberal and in- genuous youth. But his cheerful conviviality, his wit, humour, taftc, good-nature, and benevolence of heart, rendered him the delight of all his acquaintance. He became his M.ijefty's Solicitor July 3d, 1764. At length the worth of his chataifter, and his abili- ties as a lawyer, recommended him to the office ( f a Judge in the Courts of Sellion and Julliciary, tlie lupieme judicatures, civil and criminal, for Scotland. His place in the Court of Sefilon he continued to oc- cupy till his death ; but had, ibme years b;fore, re- figned the office of a Commiffioner of Jufliciary, and in rccompence got a pcnfion of 200!. per annum. Clear difcernment, llroiig good fenle, confcicntious ho- nefty, and amiable benevolence, remaikably diflinguilh- ed all his opinions and conduct as a judje. We not unlrequenlly fee the gay young men of the prefent age, to turn, as they advance towards middle life, fiom the headlong purfuit of ple^'fure to a fordid and contracted felfininef>--, wliich excludes even ihofe few good qualities lliat fecmed to accompany their fiid tlioughtlefs days. I'heir life is divided between fenfu- ality and that anxious inhuman! avarice and ambition whofe ultimate objeifl !«, to provide gratifications to fenfiiality and pride. The kindling light of re>flitudc, and the firft fparks of generous humanity, are exiin- gudlicd in tl-.cir brcalls, as foon as thofe ebullitions of youihlul puilion and inexjieriencc are over, by whic.'i M t the Gardrii. GAR [ 9 Garden, tlie ufeful efficiency of thelf early good qualities was ^^^^^"^ preventeJ. Hardly have they heccine tolerably well acquainted with mankind, when the milk of human kindnefs is turned ir.to gall and venom in their hearts. It was far otherwife with Lord Gardenftone. As he advanced in years, humanity, talle, public fpirit, becaTTie ftill more and more eminently the predomi- nant principles in his mind. — He pitied the condition of the pertfjntry, deprcfied rather by their ignorance of the moll Ikilful modes of labour, and by their re- motenefs from the Iphere (if improvement, than by any tyranny or extortion of their landlords. He admired, proU'iflcJ, and cnltivated the polite arts. He was the ardent votary of political liberty, and friendly to every thing that promifed a feafible amclioraticn of public econc>niy, and the principles of government. In the year 1762 he purchaled the ellate of John- flon, in the county of Kincardine. Wiihin a few years after he began to attempt a plan of the moft li- beral improvement of the value of this ePiale, by an ex- tenfion of the village of Laurencekirk, adjoining. He offered leafes of fmall farms, and if ground for building upon, which were to laft for the term of one hundred ye:;rs ; and of which the conditions were extremely in- viting to the labourers and tradefmen of the furround- ing country. Thefe offers were eagerly liitened to. More defirous to make the attempt beneficial to the country tlian to derive profit from it to himfelf, he was induced, wiihin a few years, to reduce his ground- rents to one-half of the original rate. — Weavers, join- ers, (lioe-makers, and other artifans in a confiderable number, rcforted to fettle in the riling village. His Lnrdlhip's earnednefs for tlie fuccefs of his projeft, and to promote the profperity of the good people whom he had received under his proteflion, led him to engage in feveral undertakings by the failure of which ; he incurred confiderable loifes. Pioje(!ls of a print- field, and of manufaiflures of linen and of ftockings, attempted with fanguine hopes in the new village, and chiefly at his Lordlliip's rifk and expence, milgave in fuch a manner as might well have finally difgulfed a man of lefs fteady and ardent philanthropy with every fuch engagement. But the village dill continued to advance. It grew up under his Lordlhip's eye, and was the fa- vourite objed of his care. In the year 1779, he pro- cured it to be erecfed into a burgh of barony ; having a magiftracy, an annual fair, and a weekly market. He 7)rovided in it a good inn for the reception of travel- lers ; and witli an uncommon attention to the enter- tainment of the gn^Rs who might refort to it, furnilhed this inn with a library of books for their amufement. He invited an artifl for drawing, from the continent, to fettle at Laurencekirk. He had the pleafure cf feeing a confiderable linen ma;iufa(5fure at length fixed in it. A bleachfield was alfo ellablilhed as a natural counterpart to the linen-manufrtdure. Before his Lordiiiip's death, he faw his plan of improving the condition of the labourers, by the formation of a new village at Laurencekirk, crowned with fuccefs beyond his molt fanguine hopes. He has acknowledged, with an amiable franknefs, in a memoir concerning this village, " That he had tried, in fom.e meafure, a variety of the pleafurcs which mankind purfue ; but never relifhed any fn much as the pleafure arifing from the progrefs cf this village." J ] GAR In the year 17S5, upon the death of his elder bro- ther Alexander Garden of Troup M. P. for Aberdeen- fhire, Lord Gardenllone fucceeded to the poffefllon of the family eftates, which were very conliderable. Un- til this time his Lordlhip's income had never been more than adequate to the liberal expence into which his rank and the generofity of his nature, unavoidably led him. But the addition of a foitune of about three thoufand pounds a-year to his former revenue, gave him the power of performing many afls of bene- ficence with which he could not before gratify his good heart. It was happy, likewife, that his fuccef- (;on to this ample income, at a period when ihe vigour of bis conftitution was rapidly yielding to the infirmi- ties of old age, enabled him to feek relief, by a partial cedation from bufinefs, by travel, and by other means, which could not have been eafily compatible with the previous (late of his fortune. In the month of Sept. 1786, he fet out from Lon- don for Dover, and palled over into France. Alter vifit- ing Pari?, he proceeded to Provence, and fpent the winter months in the genial climate of Hieres. In the fpring of 1787 he returned northwards, vifiting Ge- neva, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and the Dutch provinces, and palling through Germany into Italy. With a fond curiofity, attentive alike to the wonders of nature, to the noble monuments of the arts, and to the awful remains of ancient grandeur, with which Italy abounds, hevifited all its great cities, and furveyed almoft every remarkable and famous fcene that it exhibits. His firft objtifl, in thefe travels, was to obtain the refloration of his declining health by the influence of a milder climate, by gentle, continued, and varied eier- cife ; by that pleafing exhilaration of the temper and fpirits which is the bell; medicine to health, and is moft fuccefstully produced by frequent change of place, and of the objeflb of attention. But the curiofities of na- ture and art, in thofe countries through which he tra- velled, could not fail to attrafl, in a powerful manner^ the curiofity of a mind cultivated and ingenious as his. He, whofe breaPc glowed with the moft ardent philan- thropy, could not view the varied works and manners of a diverfity of nations of his fellow men, without be- ing deeply interefted by all thofe circumftances which, might appear to mark their fortunes as happy or wretched. He eagerly collected Ipecimens of tliefpars, the fhells, the ftrata of rocks, and the veins of metals, in the feveral countries through which he parted. He amaffed alfo cameos, medals, and paintings. He en- quired into fcience, literature, and local inflitutions^ He wrote down his obfervations, from time to time ; not indeed with the minute care of a pedant, or tiie ollentatious labour of a man travelling with a d;fign to publilh an account of his travels ; but fimply to aid memory and imagination in the future remembrance of objeifls ufeful or agreeable. After an abfence of about three years, he returned to his native country. The laft years were fpent ii> the difcharge of the duties of his office as a judge; ia focial intercourfe with his friends, among whom was the venerable Lord Monboddo, and other,; of the mod: refpedtable charaifers which that country has to boaft of ; in the performance of a thoufand generous offices of benevolence and humanity ; in cherilhing thofe fine arts, of which he was an eminent admirer and judge ; and Gatdcib GAR L 93 1 GAS ^rfen^ an J above all, in promoting the comfort, and encou- confeffed, tha: he contraifled intimacies with men un- Girdn« raging the induftry of his, de^endints, and in lending worthy of his reg;ird; and tliat his a:t:Khment to li- his aid to every rational attempt at the improvement of berty made him form expe(ftatioiis from the French puUic economy and public virtue. revolution, which even the events which he fiw ought St Bernard's Well, in the neighbourhood of Edin- to have reprclLd. But his mind was by that time burgh, had been, longfmce, diftinguifhed for the me- weakened by difcafe ; and it would be very unjuft dicindl virtues cf its waters. But various circuniftan- to balance tlie imprudeiicies t f one rr two years ces had alfo concurred of late to thiow it into n^glsL't. againit the meritorious a<5>ions cf a whole life. Be- Yet its waters being ftrongly mineralized by a fulphu- fides his travelling memorandums and his poems, h's rated hydrngenous gas, were, by tliis means, unquef- Lordlhip publithed a Leller to ihe Inhahiinnts of Lau- tionably qualified to operate, with highly beneficial ef- nncekWk, the moll valuable, in our opinion, of all his fefts, in the cure ot various difeafes. The qualities of publications ; for it contains peihaps the mo:! filutary this mineral water falling under Lord Gardenflone's advices which were ever offered to the inhabitants of a notice, he was induced to purchafe the property of the manufacluring town, for the regulation of their con- well, to dircfl it to be cleared from furrounding ob- duift towards each other. That the people of Lau- flades, which contaniinated the virtues of the water, or rencekirk have followed thefe advices, it would give us made it inacceffib'e ; to erefl a beautiful and commo- pleafure to learn on good authority, dious edifice over it ; and to appoint proper perfons to GARDNER, a townlhip in Wc^rcefter co. MafTa- diftribute the water, for a very trivial compeulation, to chufetts, incorporated in 1785. It contains about the public. The well lies at a diftance from Edin- 14,000 acres, well wateied, chiefly by Otter river, burgh, which is very convenient for a fiimmer morn- Tlie road from Connei5licut river, ihrougii Peterfham, ing's walk. Within the few years which have palled Gerry, and Templeton on to Bcfton, palFss through fmce Lord Gardenilcns's benevulent care brouglit it it. It contains 53 i inhabitants and is 26 miles N. by into notice, it has attiacied many of the inhabitants of W. of Worcefter, and 60 N. W. of Bolion. — Morse. that city to vifit in the mornings of fpring and funimer. Gardner'^ IJlaiul, or IJie of U'ighi, lies at the E. And, undoubtedly, tlie agreeable exercife to which they end of Lon-.;-llland, in New-York ilate, (heltered with- have thus been allured, and the falutaty effeds of the in Oyfler Pond and Montauk points; 10 miles N. \K. water, have contributed, in no mean degree, to difpel of the latter, and as far S. W. of Plumb Itland. It dlfeafe, and to confirm or re-eflablilh health. Such contain* about 3000 acres of fertile land, the property monuments are worthy to preferve the memory of a of one perfon, and yields excellent grafs, wheat and patriotic and a good man ! corn. Fine iheep and cattle are raifed on it. It is an- As an amufement for the laft two or three years of nexed to Eall Hampton, and lies 40 miles fouth-we!l- his life, when his increafing infiimities precluded him erly of Newport, Rhode Illaiid. — ib. from more adlive exercife, and from mingling fo fre- GAS. See that article, Encyd. and Chemistry — quently in the foclety of his friends as was agreeable Index in this Supplement. We have introduced the to his fecial and convivial temper, he bethought liim- word here, to notice fome expeiiinents made by Pro. felfof revifing fome of the jVzfx </'i^W/, and light fugi- feffor Jacquin of Vienna, at the defire of Dr Cidadni, live pieces, in v/hich he had indulged the gaity of his on the diflrerent gafes as the vehicle of founds. A glafs fancy in his earlier days ; and a fmall volume oi poems bell was luinillied \vit)i a metallic ftnpper cemented to was publilhed, in which the beft pieces are, upon good a neck at the top : and in the bcre of this cock, within authority, afcribed to Lord Gaidenftone. He revifed the glafs, a fmall flute or pewter (etain) about fix inches alfo the memorandums which he had made upon his in length was fixed. The gla'.s being then placed on travels, and permitted them to be lent to prefs. The the fhelf of the pneumatic veil'cl, and filled with any two former volumes were publilhed one after another particular kind of gas, a bladder alfo filled wiili the while his Lordlhip was yet alive; the tiard after his fame gas, and provided with a ock, was adapted to the death. They met with a very fivourable reception in external aperture of the cock belonging to the bell- the world, and were honoured witli the high approba- glafs. In this d fpofition cf the apparatus, the flute tion of the moft refpeiflable writers of periodical criti- was made to found by gently prelliug the bladder. Com- cifm. They convey much agreeable information, and parative experiments were made with atniofpheric air, befpealc an elegant, enlightened and amiable mind, oxygen, hydrogen, cirljonic acid, and nitrous gas. The The laft volume is filled chiefly with memorandums of intcnfity of the found did no't va.-y ; but when compa- -his Lordfhip's traveU in Italy ; and contains many in- red with that produced by atmofpheric air, the o.tygen terefting criticifms upon lime of the m^blelt pioduc- gas gave a found half a tone hiwer ; azotic gas, prcpa- tions of the fine arts of painting and Iculpiure. red by difierent methods conftintly gave a found half His Lordfhip's health had long been declining ; and a tone lower ; hydrogen gas give nine or eleven tones he died a baclidor on the 22d of July 1793, lamented higher ; carb mic add gas gave one-iliird lower, and by his relations and friei.d;, by his tenant.s and humble nitrous ga> alfo very nearly a third lower. A mixture depend ints, and by all true patriots and good men to of oxyuen gas and azote, in the proportions of llie at- v/hnm his merits and virtues were known. mofjiheric air, affoided the tone of this lall ; that is to Such is the account of Lord Gardenflone's life, fay, it was half a tone higher than eich ot the compo. which was prefixed 10 the third volume of his travel- nent parts alone. When the two gales were rot uiii- ling memorandums; and though it was no doubt an formlj mixed, the f<'und was abomwiably harlh. CMa.'ni efFufion o{ fond friendlhip, we bdieve that the praife intends to give a fuller account of thcfc in-e.elling ex- ■which it bcttows on his LLrdfhip is not much cxaggc- pcremen: . 'Journal ile P hyfi qii^. Vol. IV. N. S. p. 57. rated. In the latter years cf his life, it mull indeed be GASPEE, or A'u:nrjiiit Poitit, 7 miles S, of Provi- dence Gdfpc GEN [ 94 ] GEO dcnce (Rliods Illaiul) projeding from the wetlernfliore of Providence river, remarkable as being the place whcie the Britilli armed fchooner, called the Gafpee, was biiMit, June lo, 1772, by about 60 men from Providence, painted llice Narraganfet Indians, For the caiife of this tranfaflion, fee Gordon's Hift. of the Amcr. Rev. vol. I. p. 311. — Morse. GASPESIA, a trafl of country on the S. fide of the mouth of St Lawrence river, and on the N. fide ol Chaleurs bay, in Lower Canada. Its E. extremity is Cape Rofiers. Tlie Indians called Gafpefians inha- bit here. — ib. GATES Co. in Edentnn eaftern diftrifl, N. Caroli- nn, is bounded N. by the Hate of Virginia, S. by C'hjwan CO. It contains 5'^92 inhabitants, including 22i9flaves. Chief town, Hertford. — ib. GAY Head, is a kind of peninUila on Martha's Vineyard, betv/cen 3 and 4 miles in leiigtli and 2 in breadth, and almnft feparatcd from the other part of the ifland by a large pond. The Indians inhabiting this parr, when lately numbered, amounted to 203. The foil is good, and only requires cultivation to pro- duce mod vegetables in perfe<5tion. There are evident marks of there having been volcanoes formerly on this peninfula. The marks of 4 or 5 craters are plainly to be feen. The moll fouthcrly and probably the moll: ancient, as it is grown over with grafs, now called the Devil's Den, is at lealt 20 rods over at the top, 14I: at the bottom, and full 13c feet at the fides, ex- cept that which is next the fea, where it is open. A. man now alive relates that his mother could lemember when it was common to fee a light upon Gay Head in the night time. Others fay, their anceftors have told them, that the whalemen ufed to guide themfelves in the night by the lights that were feen upon Gay Head. I'he fea has made fiich encroacliments here, that, within 30 years, it has fwept oif i; or 20 rods. The extremity of Gay Head is the S. W. point of the Vineyard. N. lat. 41. 20. W. long, from Greeii- wich 70. 50. — ib. GAZONS, in fortification, turfs, or pieces of frefh earth covered with gral's, cut in form ol a wedge,about a foot long, and half a loot thick, to line or face the outfide of works made of earth, to keep them up, and prevent their mouldeiing. GENESSEE Country, a large traft of land in the (late of New-York, bounded N. and N. W. by lake Ontario, S. by Pennfylvaula, E. by the wcllern part of the military tovvnfiiips, in Onondago co. and W. by lake Erie and Niagara river. It is a rich trai5l of country, and well watered by lakes and rivers ; one of the latter, Genelfee river, gives name to this traft. It is generally flat, the rivers fluggilh, tiie ioil moill, and the lakes numerous. — Mone. GENEVA, a lake in Upper Canada, which forms the W. exticmily of lake Ontario ; to which it is joined by a fli.ort and narrow ftrait. — ib. Geneva, a poll town in Onondago co. New- York, on the great road from Albany to Niagara, fittiated on the bank of the N. W. corner of Seneca lake, about 74 miles W. of Oneida calUe, and 92 W. cf Whitef- town. The Friends fettlement lies about 18 miles below this. Here were 20 log-houfes, and a few other buildings feveral years ago, which have much increaf- ed fince. — ib- Genevieve, St o\ Mifftre, a village in Louifiana, Genevieve on the wellern bank of the Mifhffippi, nearly oppnfite It , to the village of Kalkafkias, i 2 miles foutherly of Fort ^^I^^^X^ Chartrcs. It contained about 20 years ago, upwards of 100 houfes, and 460 inhabitants, befides negroes. —ib. GEOCENTRIC Place cf a planet, is the place where it appears to us trom the earth ; or it is a point in the ecliptic, to which a planet, feen from the earth, is referred. GEocR.^nkic Latitude of a planet, is its latitude as feen irom the earth, or the inclination of a line con- nes-ling the planet and the earth to the plane of the earth's (or true) ecliptic: Or it is the angle which the faid line (connci.'ting the planet and the earth) makes with a line drawn to meet a perpendicular let fall from the planet to the plane of the ecliptic. Gf-ocrktric Lotigitutle of a planet, is the dhlance meafured on the ecliptic, in the order of the iigns, between the geocentric place and the firft point of Aries. GEOMETRICAL Method of the Ancients. Tiie ancients ellablilhed the higher parts of their geo- metry on the fame principles as the elements of that fcience, by demonflrations of the fame kind: and they were careful not to fuppofe any thing done, till by a previous problem they had fhev/n that it could be done by aflually performing it. Much lefs did they fup- pofe any thing to be done that cannot be conceived ; fuch as the line or feries to be adlually continued to in- finity, or a magnitude diminilhed till it become infinite- ly lefs than what it is. The elements into which they rcf lived magnitudes were finite, and fuch as might be conceived to be real. Unbounded liberties have of late been introduced ; by which geometry, which ought to be perfeiftly clear, is filled with myfleries. Geomf.tsic.-i/. Solution of a problem, is when the problem is direftly refolved according to the llrirt rules and principles of geometry, and by lines that are truly geometrical. This expreffion is ufed in contradillinc- tion to an arithmetical, or a mechanical, or inllrumental folution, the probhm being refolved only by a ruler and comp.^lfes. The lame term is likcwife ufed in oppofition to all indirect and inadequate kinds ot folutions, as by ap- proximation, infinite feries, &c. So we have no geo- metrical way of finding the quadrature of the circle, the duplicature ofthe cube, or two mean proportionals, though there are mechanical ways, and others, by in- finite feries, &c. GEORGE'S, St a cape and iflands nearly oppofite to the river Apalachicola, on the coall of E. Florida. Cape St George's lies about 6 leagues to the eallwarJ of Cape Blaize, being an elbow ct the largell of 6c George's iflands, in N. lat. 29 38. There is a large flioal running out from it a conliderable way, but how far has not yet been afcertaineJ. The coall between it and Cape i31aize, forms a kind of hollow bay, with deep foundings and a foft bottom. There are two iflands to the N. W. of St George's Cape ; that near- ell to it is fmall, and remarkable for a clump of Itrag- gling trees on the middle cf it ; the other is pretty lar^e, and of a triangular form, and reaches within 3 leagues of Cape Blaize, having a paflage at each end of It for fmall craft into the bay, between thefe iibnds and GEO . C 95 and the river Apab.chicola ; but this bay is full of fl'.oals and oyfter-bank!, and not above two or three feet water at moll, in any of the branches of that river. — Alorse. George, Fort, was fituated on Point Comfort, at the mouih of James river, and 5 miles N. E. of C.'a- ney iiland, at the mouth of Elizabeth river, in Virgi- nia. — lb. George, Fort King, an ancient fort in Georgia, which flood 5 miles N. E. of the town of Darien, in Liberty co. lituated at the head of a creek which flows into the ocean oppofite Sapelo ifland. It is now in ruins. — lb. George, Lake, in Eaft Florida, is a dilatation of the river St Juan, or St J )hn, and called alfo Great Lake. It is about 15 miles wide, and generally about 15 or 20 feet deep, excepting at the entrance rf the river, where lies a bar, which carries 8 or 9 feet water. The lake is beautified with two or three fertile iflanJs. The lareed is about 2 miles broad, and commands a moft delightful and extenfive profpecl: of the waters, iflands, E. and W. fliores of the lake, the capes, the bay and mount Royal ; and to the S. the view is very extenfive. Here aie evident marks ol a large town of the aborigines, and the ifland appears to have been once the chofen refidence of an Indian pilnce. On the fcite cf this ancient town (lands a very pompous Indian mount, or conical pyramid cf earth, from which runs in a ilralght line, a grand avenue or In- dian higliway, through a magnificent grove of mag- nolias', live oaks, palms and orange trees, terminating at the verge of a large, green, level favanna. From fragments djg up it appears to have been a thickly inhabited town. — 'b. George, Lake, lies to the fouthward of lake Champlain, and its waters lie about 100 feet higher. The portage between the two lakes is a mile and a half; but with a fmall expenfe might be reduced to 60 yards ; and with one nr two lockh might be made na- vigable through, for batteaux. It is a moll cle.ir, beautiful colledlon of water ; 36 miles long, and from 1 to 7 wide. It embofnms more than 200 iflands, fome fay 365 ; very few of which are any thing more than barren rocks, covered with heaih, and a few ce- dar, fprnce and hemlock trees, and fhrubs, and abun- dance of rattle-fnakes. On each fide it Is ikirted by prodigious mountains; from which lirge quai. titles of red cedar are annually carried to N-'w-York for fliip- timber. The lake is full of f.flres, and fome of the bell kind, as the black or Ofwego bafs, alfo large fpeckled trouts. It was called lake Sacrament by the French, who, in former times, were at tlie pains to procure this water for factamental ufes in all their churches in Ca rada : hence probably it derived its name. The re- mains of Fort George ftand at the S. end of the lake, about 14 nilles N. by W. of Fort Edward, on Hudfon river. The famous fort of Ticonderoga, which flood on the N. fide of the outlet of the lake, where it dif- charges its waters into lake Champlain, is now in ruins. — ib. Georges, St an ifland and parifh belonging to the Bermuda ifles, in the Weft-Indies. N. lat. 32. 45. W. long. 63. 30. — ib. George's St a large and deep bay on the W. fide of Newfoundland ifland. N. lat. 48 12. — ib. ] GEO George's Bank, St a filhing bank in the Atlantic George's, ocean, E. cf Cape Cod, In Maffixhu'etts. It extends ^•■'''~'''~'*^ from N. to S. between 41. 15. and 42. 22. N. l.it. and between 67. 50. and 68. 4.0. W. long. — ib. Geoege's KtY, St was one of the principal Briiiflr fettlements In the bay of Honduras. It was taken by the Spaniards duiing the American war, but retak.-a by the Biltlfli foon after. The Brllilli fettlements on the M fquito fhore, and in the bay of Honduras, were furrendercd to the crown of Spain, at the Spanlfli convention, figned at London, the 14th of July, 1786. — ib. George's IIiver, St in St Mary's co. Maryland, is a very broad but ilioit creek, whofe mouth lies be- tween Piney Point and St Mary's river, on the N. bank of the Potowmack, oppofite the ifland of the fame name. — ib. George's River, St in Lincoln co. dillriil of Maine, or raiher an arm of the fea, lies about 2 leagues S. W. ot Penoblcot bay. Four leagues from the mouth of this livtr ftands Thomallon. This river is navigable for brigs and fliips of a large burden up to the narrows ; and from thence about 4 miles higher, to neatly the head of the tide, for !l ops and fchooners of 80 or 90 tons. It is about half a league wide up to the narrows. Of late feveral confiderable velTels have been built in this river, which are employed ia coaftlng, and fometlmes in foreign voyages. There are now owned In this river, though it does not in all exceed 4 leagues in length, i brig, 2 lopfail fchooners, and 9 floops : In all about iioo tons. The navigation, however, is generally in'.errupted in winter, when not only the dreams through the coun- try, but the fait water rivers are lacked up until fpring. Fifli abound here, of almoft all kinds, in their feafjn ; and even lobfters, oyfters, clams, and other delicacies of the aqueous kind, are plenty in this river. — ib. George's, St a village nearly in the centre of NewcalUe co. Delaware, on a creek of its own name, which falls into Delaware river, 4 miles below, a llltle above Reedy Ifland. It is 17 miles S. by W. of Wilmington, and 45 S. W. of Philadelphia. — :b. Georges, St the capital of die Ifland of Grenada, in the Weft-lnJies ; formctly called Fort Royalc, which name the fort ftUl retains. It is fituated on a fpacious bay, on the W. or lee-lide of tlie Ifland, not far from the S. end, and polll-lfes one of the fafefl and moll commodious harbors In the Britifh W. Indies, which has lately been fortified at a very great expenfe, and declared a free jiort. This town was deftroyed by a dreadful fire in 1771, and on November i, 1775, it met with the like misfortune ; and the lofs was valued at ^.500,000 The town now mnkes a very handfome appearance, has a fpacious fqu ire or pa- rade ; the h> ufes are built cf brick, and tiled or flat- ed ; fome few are built of ftone, excepting the ware- houfes and dwelling-houfes round the harbor, which arc niollly wooden building?. Thtf.- are in a great meafure feparated from the town by a very deep and rocky hill, the houfes on which, with the trees which ferve for fiiade, have a rcmuuic appearance. Tlie town is computed to contain about 2000 inhabitants, many of whom are wealthy merchants. This was its fituation hefore the infurreiJlion of the negroes ; of its prcfent ftate wc have not authentic inform ition. — ih. GEORGE- 6corg;- town. GEO [95 GEORGETOWN, the chief town of Snffex co. Delxwaie, is fitiiateil 16 miles W. S, W. of Lewillown, and 103 S. of Philadelphia. It contains about 30 houl'cs and has lately been made the feat of the county court". — ii. GeorgiiTOWn, a port town in Maryland, fituated in Kent en. on the E. fide of Chefapeak bay, of about 30 lionfes. It is (j miles from the month of the river Saifafras, bcinu; featecl on the S. fide oppofite to Fre- deric, Oo N. K of Cheacr, and 65 S. W. of Philadd- phia. — ii. Georcltown, a village of Fayette co. Pennfylva- nia, fituated on the S. E. fide of Monongahela rivtr, at the mouth of George's creek. Here a number of ] G E 6 boats are annually built for the trade and emigration to the weftern country. It lies 16 miles S. W. of Union. — ib. Georgetown', a port town and p; rt of entry, in Montgomery co. Maryland, and in the territory of Co- lumbia. It is pleafintiy fituated on a number of fmall hills, upon the noithern bank of Potowmack river; bounded ea(tw:ird by Rock creek, which feparates it from Walliington city, and lies 4 miles from the capi- tol, and y N. of Alexandria. It contains about 230 houfes, fevcral of which are elegant and commodious. The Roman Catholics have eflablifhed a college here, for the promotion of general literature, which is at prefent in a very flourifhing ftate. The building being found inadequate to contain the number of Undents that applied, a large addition has been made to it. (ileor^etown carries on a fmall trade with Europe and tiie W. Indies. The exports in one year, ending Sept. 50, 1794, amounted to the value of 128,924 dollars. It is 46 miles S. W. by VV. of Baltimore, and 148 S. \V. of Philadelphia.— /■*. Georgetown, in Lincoln co. diflricfl of Maine, is fituated on both fides of Kenebeck river. It was in- corporated in I 716, is the oldeft town in the county, and contains 1333 inhabittints. It is bounded fouth- erly by the ocean, wefteily by the towns of Harpfvvell and Brunfwick, N. vveflerly by Bath, and eaflerly by Woolwich ; being entirely furrounded by navigable waters, excepting about 2 miles of land, which divides the waters of Winnajiance creek, a part of the Kenne- beck, from an arm or influx of Cafco bay, called Ste- phen's river. The entrance at the mouth of Kennebeck river, is guided on the E. by P.irker's ifl.ind, belonging to this lowrthip. It contains about 28,000 acres of land and fait maifh, and is inhabited by more than one third part of the people of the toMufliip. This was the ipot on which the Europeans firft attempted to colo- nize New-England, in the year 1607. It is a part of what was called Sagadahock ; and the patentees of the Plymouth company began here to lay the foundation of a great Hate. They fent over a number of civil and military cfBcers, and about 100 people. By vari- ous misfortunes they were forced to give up the fettle- jnent, and in 16&8, the whole number who furvivsd the winter returned to England. There was a tradition among the Norridgewalk In- dlan>i, that thefe planters invited a number of the na- tives, who had come to trade with them, to draw a thereby killed and wounded feveral of them. The rc- fentment of the natives at this treacherous murder, ob- ligi;d the Europeans to reimbark the next fummer. Gsorgetown is 15 miles S. of Pownalborough, and 170 N. by E. of Boflon. — ii. Gbor.GETowN, a poft town of Georgia, in the co. of Oglethorpe, 50 miles S. W. of Augulla, furround- ed by a poor country ; but, never thcleis, exhibits marks of growing profperity. — iL Georgetown, a large maritime difliiifl in the lower country of S. Cirolini, fituated in the S. E. corner of the Rate; bounded N. E. by the Kate of N Carolina, S. E. by the ocean, S. W. by Santee river, which di- vides it from Charlefton diftrift. and N. W. by Cam- den and Cheraw diftriiffs. It is about 112 miles from N. to S. and 63 from E. to W. and is divided into the pariflies of All Saints, Prince George, and Prince Frederick. It contains, according to the cenfus of 1790, 22,122 inhabitants, of whom 13,131 are flaves. It fends to the flate legiflature 10 reprefcntatives and 3 I'enators, and pavs taxes to the amout of ^.3585-12-6. —ik Georgetown, a poft town, port of entr)-, and ca- pital of the above diflrift, is fituated on a fpot near which feveral ftreams unite their waters, and form a broad ftream called Winyaw bay, 1 2 miles from the fea. Its fituation conneifts it with an extenfive back country of both the Carolinas, and would be a place of vafl importance, were it not for a bar at the en- trance of Winyaw bay, which interrupts the entrance of ved'els drawing above 11 feet water, and is in ma- ny refpeifts a dangerous place. It contains above 300 houfes, built chiefly of wood. The public buildings are a court-houfe, gaol, and academy ; 3 churches, of which the Epifcopalians, B^iptilb, and Methodifts have one each. There is heie a fmall trade to the Well-Indies. The exports for one year, ending Sept. 30, 1795, were to the value of 21,511 dollars. It is 60 miles N. E. by N. of Chailelton, 127 S. W. of Wilmington, N. Carolina, and 681 from Philadel- phia. N. lat. 33. 24. W. long. 79. 35 — ii, GEORGIA WESTERN TERRITORY. Under this name is included all that part of the State of Georgia which lies weft of the head vvaters of thofe rivers which fjll into the Atlantic Ocean. This ex- tenfive trail of country embraces fome of the finell land in tlie United States, is interfered with a great num- ber of noble rivers, which mny be feen by an inTpetflion of the map, and is inhabited (except fuch parts where- in the Indian title has been extingiiifhcd) by three na- tions of Indian?, viz. the Mufliogulge or Creek, the Chaifiaws, and Chicafaws. The Cherokees alfo have a title to a fmall portion of the northern part of this territory, on the Tenneffee river. Thefe nations to- gether can furn'fh between 8 and 9000 warriors. About 2COO families of while people inhabit thofe parts of this territory where the Indian title h^s been ex- tinguilhcd, chiefly at the Natchez, and the Yazoo river, en the banks of the MifljlTippi, and a coniiderable number on the Tombigbee river, and fcattcred among the Creek Indians. Tiiis territory, for reafons which will hereafter appear, has lately become an objeft of much public attention and inquiry, in Europe, as well George* to\Tn II Gcorgi* Wcilcrn Territory. fmall cannon by a rope, and that when they were rang- as in the United States ; and on this account, the fol- ed in a line, the white people difcharged the piece, and lowing delci iption of it and Ratement of fafls relative to GEO [ 97 3 GEO Georgia to the Me of certain parts of it, and the claims of the en the W. Tlie free navigation of this noble river ij Ororgia TTrritory ^""^'^ States, &c. have been colkaed and arranged nnw enjoyed by the inhabitants of the United States. Wclicn, v,^_v^ With great care from the moft authentic fources that It empties, by feveral mouths of different depths, from "'""^"•'""T- can be obtained, and j;iven und»r this head for the in- 9 to 16 feet, into the Gulf of M.-xico, in about lat. ^"^"''^*~' forniaticn of the public (a). This Territory, lying be- 29 N. The bars at the mcuth of this riv;r frequent! tween the 3 1 a and -jjih degrees of N. latitude, is not ly ihift ; after pafDng them into the river, there is fubjecl to the eitrernej cf heat or cold ; the climate is from 3 to 10 fathoms of water, as far as the S. W. temperate and delightful tlirough the year; and except pafs ; and thence to the MilFouri, a diftance of 1,142 in low grounds, and in the neighbourhood of Itagnant computed miles, from 12, 15, zc, and 30 fathoms it waters, ib very healthful. White frofts, and fometimes the general depth. thin ice, have been feen as far S. as the 31ft degree of In afcending the Miflifllppi there are extenfive natu- latitude; but fnow is very uncommon in any part of ral meadows, v.-itli a profp'.fl of t!ie Gulf of Mexico this territory. A perfon refiding at the N.itcliez writes on eacli fide, the diftance of jz miles, to a place call- to his friend, in the eaftern part of Georgia, that ed Detouraui-Plaquemines, in W. TTorida. Tlience "this country aJords the beft fpring water; every 20 miles to the fettlements, the banks are low and mar- perfon almoft is in blooming health." (b) Others who Ihy, generally overflowed and covered with thick wood, have vifited it, fay of that pait of the territory which palmetto bullies, &c. apjiarentiy impenetrable by m.in borders on the Mifhllippi, that " the water is good for or beaft. Thence to Detcur-des Anijloif, at the bcnj 20 miles back from the river, and the country healthy of the river, the banks are w ell inhabited ; as alfo from and plealant, and of all others that they have feen the hence to New-Orleans i8 miles, which diflan:e there moft defirable." Mr Hutching, ipeaking of the fame is a good road for carriages. Vcifsh pnfs from the trafl, fays, " the climate is healthy and temperate, mouth of this river to Ncw-Orlears icj miles, in 7 or the country delightful and well watered, and the prof- 8 days, commonly ; fomctimos in 3 or 4. pe& is beautiiul and extenfive; variegated by many in- From New-Orleans, the capital or" Louifiana, there equalities, ai'.d fine meadows, feparatcd by innumera- is aneafy cnmmnnic.ition with Wefk FlriJa by Bayonk ble copfes, the trees of which are of different kinds, Cr.ek, which is a water of lake Ponchartraiii, navi- but moftly of v/alnut and oak. The elevated, open, gable for veirds driv/lng four feet water, fix miles up and airy fituation of this country, renders il lefs liable from the lake, to a bnding-pldce two miles from Kew- to fevers and agues (the only diforders ever known in Orleans For nearly 50 miles, as you proceed up the its neighbouihood) than fome other parts bordering on river, both its banks are lettled and highly cultivated, the Miihirippi, where the want of a fufficient defcent to in part by emigrants from Germany, who furnilh the convey the waters off, occafions numbers of ftagnant market with indigo of a fuperior quality, cotton, rice, ponds whofe exhalations infeifl the air." Another beans, myrtle wax, and lumber. In 1762, fome rich traveller defcribes the country between the Tombigbee planters attempted the cultivation of canes and tlic ma- and the Coofa and Alabama as being healthy, well king of fugar, and erected mills for the purpofe. This watered with many pleafant rivulets, affording delight- fugar was of an excellent quality, and, fome of the ful fituacions for fettlements, and the water pure aud crops were large ; but fome winters proving fo fevere very good. as to kill the canes, no dependence can be placed on TogiveajuPt view of the rivers, and to afcertain the culture of that article. the advantages derived from them to this Territory, The fettlemsnts of the Acadians, which were begun it is neceifary to trace them from their mouths in the in the year 1763, extend on both fides of the river, Gulf of Mexico. The Milliffippi bounds this territory from the Germans, to the river Ibberville, which is 99 SuppL. Vol. IL N miles (a) The fources whence the author has derived his information, in dravn'ng up the following account, are Capt. Thomas Hutchins's " Hiflorical narrative and topographical defcription of Louifiana and Weft-Flori- da," comprehending alfo many of the rivers and fettlements In the Georgia Weftern Territory ; publilhed in 17S4. Private letters and journals ; minutes taken from verbal defcriptions of genthmen of veracity and in- telligence who have refided in that country. The journals and laws of the State ot Georgia — St.itc pjpeis, and Reports both printed and M. S. ot Congrefs, and of Agents of the feveral companies who have purchaled lands in this territory. (b) The letter here alluded to contains the following paragraphs: " Our navigation is excellent ; our high lands preferable to Bejch Ifland, ( 1 ) when in its bloom ; ftock is as eafy come at as where y>u are ; lands are rifing faft, at\d I expefl will be very high in a few years. The canes in common, on the high lands, larger than m the river-fwamps, [meaning in the eadern part of GeoigiaJ from 30 to 35 feet high, and upwards, and in many places (land fo thick, that one can fcarcely walk a mile in h^lt an hour. Some temilics mull be coming to this moll fluuiilhing country in the world. I wilh you to advife any of niy relations you lee to come with all halle; if they can get here, and are turned out naked in the world, in one year thtv mijht bi fixed again. I am furc could I have time to fay as much as I wi:li to fiy, you would be wilh me thi» iall. I could venture to almoft promife, if you would be wife and conie, to make good any deliciencies yon might Hnd in llie place." The author is in poil'etVioii of the original letter, above men.ioRed, wliith has every mark ot authenticity ; and the above extr.<Cls are infertcd, as containing the (imple, honeft defcription o( a plain tarmer ; and en which more dependence is to be I'l.^ced, than on the muft elaborate and elegant delcripiions, of interelled indiv-iduals. ( I ) Alluding to a remarkably feitile illaud in the caftern part ot Georgia, in the neighbourhood of the writ- er's correfpondent, and with which both were well acquainted. s GEO [ 98 ] GEO Gcorpi miles atove Nc-.v-Orb^rs, and 270 from Penfdcola, Weiltrn [^y .^yjy pf lj]^ej Ponchat train imd M.iurepas. 2^^'^^ At Point Coupee, 35 miles above the Ibberville, are ;'ettlfrr.<.ii;s cxiemiiiig 20 miles on the W. fioe of the liver, whicii, 30 yeais aj;o, haJ 2,000 v.'hite inhabit- ant?, and 7, coo flaves, who weie employed in the cultiv:rion i>f tobacco, indigo, Indi;in corn, &c. for tht Nf.v-O: leans maiket, which they fuinillieJ alfo wiih poultry, ar.d abundance of fqii.ired timber. Haves, &c. Mr HutcLir.s, fjoni h's ^'sikv.A knowledge, de- fcribes the country on both fides of the M fliTippi, be- tween the litiludes 30 and 3!, bcrd.eriiig on Georgia, as follows : " AUliough this country might produce all the va- luable articles raifed in otlier parts of tiie globe, fitiiit- ed ill th.e f.irnt latitudes, yet ihe inhabitants principally cultivate ir.digo, rice, tobacco, Indian com, and feme wheat ; and they raife l.nrie flocks of black rattle, 1)01 fe-., mules, hogs, Di-'p and poultry. The (heep are f.iid to ma'-'c i'.-: iv.tvlcrt mutton in the world. The bl.ick c.iltle, \vl:en fat enough for file, which they commonly are the year round, are driven acrofs the country to New-Oijean?, where there is always a good market. This country is principally timbered with all the different k'n^'s of oak, but mollly with live-oak, of the lar;reft and beft qiialiy, uncommonly large cy- prcfs, black walnut, hickory, white afii, cherry, plum, poplar trets, and grape vines ; here i:, found alfo a great variety of Ihiubj .ind me.iicinal roots. The lands bordering the rivers and lakes, are generally well wooded, bat at a fmall dillance from them are very extenfive n.-.tural meadows, or favannas, of the m ft luxuriant foil, compofed of a black mould, about one and a half feet deep, veiy loofe and rich, occafioned in part, by the fiequtnt burning of the favannas ; below the black mtuld is a ftifF clay cf diffv-'ient co- lou)s. It is fiid, this clay, after being expofed fome time to the fun, becomes fo hard, tiiat it is difficult either to bieak or bend, but v.hsn wet by alight Ihow- er of rain, it flackcns in the fame manner as lime does when expofed to moidcre, and becomes locfe and moulders away, after which it is foui.d excelUnt for vegetation." After pafErg the 3 iff degree oF N. lat. from W. Florida into Georgia, you enter what is called the Nat.-hez C'/umry, bi-.rJeiing on the I.I fiiffippi. Fort Rofaile, in this ccun:ry, is in lat. 31 40, 243 miles above New-Orleans, " I'he foil of this country is fuperior to any cf the lands on llii borders of the river MiQiliippi, for the prodiidion cf many article^. Its fitustion being high- er, affords a greater variety of fcil, and is in a more favourable climate for the growth cf wheat, rye, bar- ley, oats, &c. than the country lower down, and nearer to t!;e fe^. The foil alfo produces in equal abundance, Indian corn, lice, hemp, Hax, indigo, cottrn, potherbs, pulfe of every kind, and paftur age ; • and the tc bicco made here, is etleemed preferable to any cultivated in oiher parts of America. Hops grow wild; all kinds c.t European fruits arrive to great per- fection, and no part of the known world is more fa- Georgia vourable for the raifing of every kind (f llock. The Weftem rifing ground-, which are cloathed witli grafs and other rJIl^^^Tl^ herbs cfthe tineff verdure, are well adapted to the cul- ture of vines : the mulberry trees are very numcrcus, and the winters fuiflciently moderate fcr the breed of filk worms. Clay of different colours, fit for glafs w. rks and pottery, is found here in great abundance; and alf? a variety of ftatcly timber, ti: for lioule and fhip building, SiC." Another gentleman, well infortned, (c) fiys, " The lands on the Mifllfiippi, extending eaftward about 20 mile;, are hilly, without flones or land, extremely rich, of a deep black foil, covered thick with canes, white and black oak, walnu', hickory, alli, fome fugar ma- ple, beech, and dogwood ; that there are very few dreams or fprirgs of water ; that the water is not good, and t.ifles as if impregnated with fu'phur; that the country is mtich infefled with iiifcifls ; that the land is hi:;h and bluff three-fourths of the dillance along the river MifliQippi, and a part overflowed and drowned." But it is appiehended that this defcrip'ion is not per- feiffly jull, fo far as it applies to the fcarcity and bad- nels of the water ; as a gentleman of relpeclable cha- r.ifter, who refided 9 mon'hs at the Nntcliez, fays, " The finds on the MilFilfippi are more level, and bet- ter watered, than is above reprefenred ; and that the' water is good, and the country healthy and remarka- bly pleafant." This country was once famous for its inhabitants, the Natchez Indi.ins ; who, from their great number;, and the improved ftate <f fotieiy among them, were confidered as the moft civilized In-Jiaiis on the conti- nent d America. N 'thing now remains of this nation but their name, by which their country continues to be called. The dilfriift of the N'.tchez, as well as all ah'ng the eallern bank of the jNIiiiillippi to the river Tbbervillc, was fettling very faft by emigralions from the northern States, till the capture of the Dritilh troops on the Miffillippl, 1779, put an entire flop to it. " From fort llofailie to the Petit Goufre is 3 li miles. There is a firm reck on the eaft l"ide of the Millitlippi for near a m le, which f;ems to be cf the nature of lime-llone. The land near the river is much broken and very high, with a good foil, and feveral plantati- ons on it. From the Petit Goufre to Stoney river, is 4-} nides. From the mouth to what is called the fork of this river, is computed to be 21 miles. In this dif- tance there are feveral qiidriies of ft me, and the land has a clay foil, with gravtl on the furface of the ground. On the north fide of this river, the land in general is low and rich ; that on the fouih fide is much higher, but broken into hills and vales ; but here ths low lands are not often overflowed ; both fides are ftaded with a variety of ufcful timber. At the fork, tire river parts almoft at right angle:, and the lands between and on each fide cf them are faid to be clay and iiurl foil, not fo uneven as the Unds on this river lower down. Froni Stony river to Loufa Chitto, or Big lilack river, is 10 miles. This river, at the mouth, is about 30 yards wide, but within, from 50 to 50 yards, and is faid to be navigable for canoes jo or 4.0 leagues. About a mils (c) Mr Ifaac Perry, of Buik county, Georgia. GEO [ 99 ] GEO •corgia mile and n half up llils liver, the high lands are clofe Wcilcvn f,„ ti)£ light, ;ind are much broken. A mile and a ^\^![i^5^^ half further, the higli lands appear again on tlie right, where tiiete r.ie ieveral fpilngs of water, hut nnne a; 3-et have been difcovercd en the left. At about 8 mile; i'urlher, the high lands are ne ir the liver, on the left, and appear to be the lame ranae that comes fiom the Yazoo rlift^. At ux m.ihs fuilher, the high lands are near the liver on both fides, and continue for two or three miles, but broken and full of fprinj;s of water. This land on the left was chofen by Gen. Putnam, Cipt. Enos, Mr Lyman, and other New-Englani adventur- ers, as a proptr place for a town ; and, by order of the govsrnor and council of Weft-Florida, in 1773, it was refcrved for the capital. The couiitiy round is very fit for fett'.oments. For four or five miles above this place, on b)th fides of the river, tlie land is rich, and not fo much drowned, nor fo uneven, as f ime parts lower down. About fix m les and a half further, tliere is a rapid water, ftones and gravel bottom, 160 yards in length ; and in one place a firm rock almoll acrofs the river, and as much of it bare, when the water is at a moderate height, a; confines the dream to nearly 20 feet ; and the channel is about four feet deep. From the Lnufa Chitto to the Yazoo Cliff-;, is 40 miles. From this clifFthe high lands lie norih-caftward and fouth-fouth eaftward, bearing off from the river, .full of cane and rich foil, even on the very highell ridges. Jufl at the S. end of the cliflV, the bank is low, where the water ot the Miffifllppi, when high, flows back and runs betv,-ecn the bank and high land, which ranges nearly northerly and ibyih-fouth-eafieily to the Loui'a Ch'ilo, occafioning much wet ground, cyprefs fvamp, and ftagnant ponds. From the Cliffs, i; I'even miles and a half to the river Yazoo. The mouth of this river is rpwards of 100 yards in width, and was found by Mr Gaul to be in lat. 3237, and by Mr Purcell in 32 28 N. The water ( f the Milliffippi, when the liver is liigh, runs up the Yazoo feveral miles, and empties iift-lf again by a num^er of channels, which direcl their coiirfc acrofs the country, and fall in above the Walnut Hills. The Yazoo runs from the N. E. and glides thronp;!i a healthy, fertile and pie ifant coun- try, greatly rcl'trr.bling ih.u about the Natchez, paiti- cularly in the luxuiiancy and divei fity of its foil, variety of timber, temperature of climate, ijnd delightful fitu- ation. It is rematkably wtll watered by fprings and brooks; many of the Utter afford convenient feats for mills. Further up this liver the canes ate hfs freqient, and fmaller in fize, and at the di (lance of 20 miles there are fcarcely any. Here the country is clear of under- wood, and well watered, and the foil very rich, which continues to the Chaitaw and Cuickafaw towns, on the eaflern and nonh-v/eRern branches of Yazoo river. Thefe branches unite 50 miles from the Millilllppi, following ilie courfe of the river; the navigation to their junction, comm<^r.ly called tlie Fork, is ))rac- ticable with very large boats in the ipring feafm, and with fmaller ones a coiifideraijle way further, witli the interrupti-Mi of but one fall, where they are obliged to make a (hovt portage, 20 miles up the N. W. branch, and 70 miles from the Millitlippi. The country in wliich the Cha.Tavv and Chickafavv towns are fituatcd, is f.iid to be Eis h.c.ilthy as any part of the continent, the na- tives fcaiccly ever being iick. Such of them as fre- quent the MiffitTippi, leave its banks as the fummerap- Cror^ix proaches, left tliey might paitake of the fevers tha' }^''ft'r>> (ometimcs vifit the low, fuampy lands bordeiing upon 3^^!^^ that river. Wheat, it is faid yields better at the Ya- zoo than at the Natclie?, owing probibly to its mrre northern fituatinn. One very confiderable advantage will attend the fettlers on the river Yaz^.o, which thofc at the Natchez will be deprived of, wi.hout going to a gre.at eypenfe ; that h, the building with flone, th<re being great plenty near the Yaz -.n, but none has yet been difcovered nearer to tlie Natchez th.in the Petit Goufrc, or Little Whirlpool, a dillance of about 31 miles. Between this place and the Bali/.e, there is not a flone to be feen any where near the river. Though the quantity cf good land rn the Miffiillppi and it* branches, fiom the B ly of Mexico to the river Oliio, a diflance of nearly one thoufand miles, is valHy grea', and the conveniences attending it j fo likewife we may eltccm that in the neighbouihood of tlie Natchez, and of the river Yazoo, the flower of it all. About a mile and a half up the Yazoo river, on the N. fide, there is a large creek, which communicates with the Miirulippi above the livei St Franci?, about 100 leagues higher up, by the courfe of the river. It partes through feveral lakci by the v.-ay. At the dif- tance of 12 miles from the mouth of the river Yazoo, on the S. fide, are the Yazoo hills. There is a cliff of folid rock at the lindirg place, on which are a variety of broken pieces of fei faells, and foinc entire. Four miles further up, is the place c.illcd the Ball Ground, near which a church, fort Sc Peter, and a French f;t- tlement, formeily flood. They we:e deflroycd by the Yazoo Indians in 1729. Tint nation is now entiiely extincl." [Huldiit.^ From about 20 miles eafiward of the MilliiTippi, to Half way or Pearl river, the diflance of about 60 miles, (fbnie fay let's) is " a fine, level country, very fertile, and better watered than rearer the MilfilTippi. There is fome mixture of find with loam, the timber the lame, with the addition of bl ick-j ick, and poll-oak. This tradl is interfperfcd with what the French call Prairies or Savannas, which are extenfive intervals of 1,000 and 2, coo acres <f excellent land, of a deep black foil, free of all limber and trees. It is this kliij of land which the Indians cultivate. From the Millif- fippi to this river, there are no Indian^. To a traifl of this country, extending along the Mifiillippi from the 311! degree of litituJe to the Yazoo river, at the S. end, 30 rniles wide, and narrowing as you proceed northerly to the width of 15 miles, the Indian title lias been citinguilhed. It was at firll purciiafcd by tlu Englifli ; l!Ut they, not having crn pitted llie payment for it, before it fell into the hands of the Spaniards, they, (the Spaniards) in the year 1792, paid the ba- lance. At Walnut Hills, the Spaniards have a fort, which, according to tro.ity, is to be gnen up (if not already dene) to the Uu'ttd .States. To the country N. of the Yazoo, the Indi in title is not yet citinguifh- cd. About one half of llie f"uihcrn part, a dill.ance of about $0 miles up the Yazoo, is o«Tied l)y the Chaflaws, the nortlurn half by th; Ciiickafaws." The gentleman wlio gives the above information, and who was in t!-.is country in the year 1792, fiys, " that the Yazon is about 00 yards vv'idc ; is boittbie ico miles; th'.t he cioil'id the counliy by diifrrcr.t routes, 3 or 4 N 2 times GEO [ loo ] GEO Georgia times frcm the M (Tifllppi to the Tombigbee ; palTcd miles long, and from lo to 12 wide. The tide flows 60 or Wefttrn pvj,- [}jg Yazoo feveial nmes ; went up and down llie ^J^JJi^Ji^ river on the (Lore, and fays that tlie lands to the E of the Y.izO'i ('he diftance of about 100 miles) are very excellent " Pearl river is about 40 yards wide ; a branch of it pafling E. of the Natchez ar.d iieareO, in Coxe's n.ap, 7C' miles above this bay, and is fo far navigable for fca velfcls. 'I'hence 150 or 200 miles north, is good boat ravigatinn, fniooth water, pererally I CO to ijo yards wide, and H to 10 feet deep." £M. S. Mimt!es fiom Mr Puny ] " The bay of Mobile terminates a litile to ih: n<:iih eaftward of the trwn, in a number of maillies Gfcrgit Vdlcrn Tcrritorjr. bears the name of ButTalre river. On the E. fide of and lagoons; which fiibjcdl the people to feveis and Pearl river, coitinience tlie Ch.iflaw fctllemcr.t', and agues, in the hot feafon.(A) The river Mobile, as extend thick to the Chitkalaw Hay river; thence, you afccnd it, divides into 2 principal branches, about ab< ut 40 miles eallward, the fettlements are fparfe, 40 miles above the town ; one of which, called the and extend near to the Tombigbec. This is a numer- Tanlaw, falh into the ead purt of the bay ; tlie other ous nation, contnining about 30CO hunters, a peaceable emi'ties itfc!f clofe by the town, where it has a bar of and friendly pe.'ple. The couiaiy it.liabited by tliefe 7 feet ; but tliere is a brancli a little to tlie ejllwjrd c f Indians is noted in Coxe's map, to be " poor and bar- this, called Spanilh river, where tliere is a channel of rtn land, covered generally wiih long leafed pine." y or to feet, when ihe water is high; but this joins Otlier accounts repicfent it as much the fame as that Mobile river about 2 leagues above the town. Two between the MilTilTippi and Peail rivers, with the addi- or thiee leagues above tlic 'i'anlaw branch, the Alaba- tion of fonie pine land, and bttttr wateied. The ma liver falls into Mobile river, after running from ftreams en which the ChatTaws are fettled, as laid the north-eall a courfe of about 130 miles; that is, down on Coxe's map, are, proceeding from W. to E. from Alabama fort, lituated at the confluence of the the HoinacJiitta, (called by Purcell Holbpliatcha) Coofa, and Talipoofee, both very confiderable rivers; Chaftaw, and Souhawtee, which unite, and the main on which and iheir branches are the chief fettlements llream retains the name of Homachitta till it empties of the Ujiper Creek Indians. The French fort at Ala- into the Gulf oi Mexico. 'Jhis is probably the fame bama was evacuated 1763, and has not fince been gar- river that Hutchins calls Pafcagoulr. Tlii head rifonsd. Above the conHusnte of Alabama and Mo- branches of this river fpread extenfively through th.e bile, the latter is called the Tombigbee river, from the northern part of this Territory, chiclly wellward < f lort of Tombigbee, lituated on the well lide of it, the Chaiftaw nation. White, or Bluff river, on Coxe's about 96 leagues above the town of Mobile. The map, appears to rife in about lar. 33. N. takes a courfe fource of this river is reckrned to be about 40 leagues to the E. of the Cha>.^a\vj, and empties into the Tom- higher up, in the country of the Chick.ifaws. The bigbce, foine diflance below the head of tl-.e tide water, fort of Tombigbee was talcn pofTellion of by the Eng- and is laid down as about the fize of Pearl river. lifh, but abandoned again in 1767, by order of the From the compae'f fettlements of the Chaftaws eaft- commandant of Peafacola. The river is navisrable for ward to the wcflern branches of the Tombigbee, the fliops and f'ehooners about 35 leagues above the town land is tolerably good; the timber generally oak and of Mobile. The banks, where li'w, are partly over- pine, with f'ome hickory, well watered and level. Of flowed in the rainy fiafbns, which adds greatly to the this kind is the country a diftance of about 40 miles foil, and adapts it particularly to the cultivation of rice. W. of the wellern branches of the Tombigbee ; ihence The fides of ihe liver are covered in many places with to the Tombigbee, the land is more uneven, interfperf- large canes, fo thick that they are almoft impenetrable ; ed with large favannas, and the whole generally good there is alfo plenty of remarkable large red and white l.tnd, and pretty well watered; the water, however, cedar, cyprefs, eim, p.fh, hickory, ai.d various kinds has a limy tafte. The natur.d growth mueh the fame of oak. Several people have fettled in this river, who :is on the Miflidippi. The inteivale, or as they call it find the foil to anfvver beyond expectation. T!:e lands in this coimtry, the lollom hiruls, are generally about near the mouth ft the Mobile river are generally low; a mile wide on the river, extremely rich, and thicklv as you proceed upwaras, the land grows higher, and overgrown with c.ines. This general defcription will may with propriety be divided into three llages. Firll, apply to the whole traft belorging to the " Georgia low rice lands, on or near the banks of the liver, of a Milllirippi Company." Mr Coxe, on h's map, re- moll excellent q'jality. Secondly, what are called by- marks that, " On the Tombigbee and Alabama rivers the people of the country, fecond low lands, or level there are bodies of tine rich land, but low down, to- flat cane lands, about 4 or 5 feet higher than the low wards Mobile IJ-iy, unhealthy." rice lands. And, thinily, the high upland or open We have now arrived eallward to the Mobile, the country. The lirll, or low lands, extend about an half principal river in this territory. " On the bar at the or three-quarters of a mile from the river, and may entrance of the bay of Mobile, tliere is only about 15 alnioft every where be eafily drained and turned into or 16 feet water; two-thirds cf the way through the moft excellent rice fields, and are capable of being laid bay, towards the town of Mobile, there is from 2 to 3 under water at almod all feafons of the year. They fathoms ; and the deeped water to be depended on in the are a deep Hack mud or flime, which have in a fuc- upper part of the hay is only 10 or 12 feet, and in many cefTion of time been accumulated, or formed by the places not fo much. Large vetfels cannot go within 7 overflowing of the river. The fecond low grounds miles of the town." \_Hulchins.'\ "Tliis bay is about 30 being, in general, formed by a regular riling of about 4 or (a) Mr Coxe, in his map, extends Mobile Bay fome diftance north of the 31ft degree of latitude. Other accounts fay this bay does not extend into the State of Georgia. GEO lOl GEO C«orgia 4 or 5 feet higher than the low lands, appear to have The country is pleafant and healthy, being generally Georgia ■Wefterii \,een originally the edge of the river. The fecond overgrown with high grafs, well calculated for farm- ^\'«0«rn y^l^^lS^ clafs or kind of land is in general extremely rich, and ing, particul.irly for railing cattle. There are many .J^^^J^^^^ covered with large timber and thick llrong canes, ex- e.wenfive and rich bottoms of cane land on the Ala- tending in width upon an average three-quarters t ( a bama. The river which tails into the Tombigljee next mile, and in general a perfefl level. It is excellent above Scprey's river, has much rich land on its b.inits, for all kinds of grain, and well calculated f r the cul- and is boaiable fome dillance in fmall boats, and tuie of indigo, hemp, flas, or tobacco. At tl;e e.t- fpreads into many branches, through a pleafant, hcal- tremity ol thefe fecond grounds, you come to what is thy, and well watered country." [6'o.\-c'/ Jil. S. Let- called the high or uplands, which is covered with pine, Ar.] As you advance ealhvard of the Alabama, in oak, and hickory, and other kinds of large ti.iiber. the Territory we are defctibing, you come fiilt to the The foil is of a good quality, but much inferior to the Efcambia river, and then to the Chatta Hatcha, or fecond or low laud. I: anfwers well for raifing Indian Pea river, which Capt. Hutchins thus defcrihes — " The corn, potatoes, and every thing elle that delights in a river Efcambia is the moil conliderable that falls into dry I'oil. Further out in the country again, on the the Bay of Penfacola. The Chatta Hatcha or Pea well fide of this river, you come to a pine barren, with river, which alfo heads in the Georgia Weftern Terri- extenlive reed fwanips and n.itural meadows or favaii- tory, emoties from the N. E. into Rofc bay, which is nas, which alTord excellent ranges for innumerable 30 miles 1 ng and from .| to 6 broad. The bar at the herds of cattle. On the ea(l ot the river Mobile, to- entrance iiito the bay has only 7 or 8 feet water, at wards the river Alabama, is one entire extended rich deepeft ; but, after crofling the bar, has 16 or 17 feet, cane country, not inferior, perhaps, to any in Anic- The mouths of the river (for alrnolt all the Luthern rica. Whenever port; ges are made between the Mo- rivers have fcveial mouths) are fo iho.il, that only a bile and Tennelfee river, or their brar.ches, which are imall bo.it or canoe can pafs ihcra. Mr Hutchins af- probably but a few miles apart, the Mobile will be cended tliis river about 75 miles, and tound that its the hid river for commerce (the Miirulippi excepted) bauks very much refembkd thofe of Efcambia. Fur- in this part of the world, as it affords tlie (hotteft and ther eail are the Appalachicola, Flint, and Alabama moll direifl communication to the fea." \_Hutcljins.~\ rivers, which are defcribed under their refpeiflive heids. In addition to, and confirmation of, the above ac- The noithein parts of thii Territory are watered by count ( f Capt. Hutchins, feveral otlier gentlemen of tlie great bend of the Tennelfee, and its tributary intelligence who liave been in this country, fay that ftreams. This noble river bends fouthward as fir as " the Tombi^bee is navigable for itx velfel- 60 miles latitude 34. I J according to Capt. Hutchins' map, into the State of Georgia ;"^ b) others, that " it is navi- and divides, into nearly equal parts, the purchaie of gable in boats of 20 tons up to the juuiftion of 10 and the Tenneffn Company. N'.rtli of the Tennelfe-', in this 20 Mile Creek. The Alabama and Coofa are n.uiga- purchaie, there is not an Indian inhabitant. From the ble for boats of 40 tons, as high as the big (hoals of fouth, the Tennelfee, in its courfe through Georgia, Coofa river. The piincipal rivers w-hich meander receives, bofides fmaller llream^, the Hiwalfee, Chic- thrt>ugh this tra<5t of country, are Seprey's and Cane camaug.i, and Occochappo or Bear Creek. Travel- Brake rivers, both which tall into the Tomblgbee, and lers fpeak of the lands on the bend of the Tenneflee, are navigable for boats as high as the 33d degree of in terms of die highelt commendation. latitude ; and the Cawh^wbon river, which falls into Of the Territory defcribed above, the State of Alabama river, below the junftion cf Coofa and Oak- Georgia, by ad of their legiflature, palfed Jan. 7, fulkee, are beatable as far N. as the rivers lall mentioned. 1795, fold about twenty-two millions of acres to four The !oil on the E. fide of Tombigbee, is of a reddilh different cnmp.inies, whofe names and the limits of call, producing naturally oak, hickory, and abundance their relp^>ilive purchafe?, as defined by the ail, follow-. of vciy high grafs. The country appears well calcu- i. " All that tr.ift or parcel oi land ir.cluding lated for the culture of whe.it, corn, rye, oats, and iflands, beginning on Mobile hay, where die lat. 31. barley. The bottoms or intervales on the rivers are N. of the equator interleils tie lame, running thence not fubje<fl to inundations, and are exceedingly rich, up the faid bay to the month of the lake Tenfaw ; The country is well watered with good wholefbmc wa- thence up the faid lake Tenfaw, to the Alabama river, ter. Further north, the country becomes uneven and including Curreys and all other illaiids tlicrein ; dience fomewhat hilly, that part particularly whicli divides up the faid river Alabama, to the junifli'in of the the waters of Tombigbee from Tennelfee river, but as Coofa snd Oakfulkee rivers; thence up the Ccoia you defcend to a lower latitude, the country is more river, above the Big Shoals, to where it interfeifls the level; and down about the mouth of Cane Brake river, latitude of 34. N. of tlie equator; ihcnce a due W. and thence acrofs to the Alabama, is almoft one entire courfe to the Miflllllppi river ; dieuce down the middle cane brake." of the faid river, to the latitude of 32. 40. ; thence a " The ridge which divides the Tonibigbee and Ala- due E. courfe to the Dan rr Tonibigbce river; thence bama rivers is llony, and the foil inferior to that on down the middle of the fiid river to its junction with the rivers ; of this defcription alio is the country lying the Alabama river ; thence down the middle r^i the between the Cawhawbon and Alabama rivers ; but the faid river to Mobile Bay ; thence down the faid Mol ile bottom lands on the water courfe? are exceedingly rich. Bay, to the place of bcijinning, ihall be fold unto James (b) Col. Hammond, late furveyor gen. of Georgia. fJcorgb Wedcin Tcrritcry GEO [ 1 Jimcs Gunn, Matiliew M'Allifler, anJ Georp;e Wal- ked and their affoci.ites, called The Georgia Cflw/).7n)." , 2 " All tKa: traft of country, including ifl ire's, witliin (he (dUowing boundaries, viz. beginning on tlic river Mdliirippi, at 31. 18. N. lat. thence a due E. cnurfe to llie middle of Dan or Tnnibigbee river ; thence i:p the middle of the faid river to N. lat. 32, 40; thence a due W. conrfe along the Georgia Coin- pany line, to the river Miflilllppi j thence down the middle of the fame, to the place of beginning, fhall be f'ld to Nicliolas Long, Thnmas Gla/Tcock, Am- hrofc Gordon, and Thomai Cnmmings, and their aifjciaies, called T/:e Georgia Liifijjipfi Conipany." 3. " All lliat trafl of country, including illands, within the following br nndaries, viz. beginning at the M fiifiippi river, where the n'rthcin boundary line cf the State ftril;;s the fame ; thjnce r.long the faid nor- thern bound.iry line, due E. to the Tenrci!".-; river; thence along the faid TennelTie river, to the niouih of Bear Creek ; thence up Bear Creek, to where the par,il!cl of latitude 25 Britifli (latuie miles S. of the northern boundary line of the Stale inleifeifh the fame ; thence along the lall mcntioncil parallel cf latitude, acrofs Tombigbec or Twenty Mile Creek, due W. to the Miiriffippi river ^ thence up the middle of the faid river, to the beginning, fliall be fi;ld to John B. Scott, J">hn C. Nighting.ile, and Wade Hampton, called The Ujfer Mijfijjqfi Company." 4. " All that lra(ft of land, including iflands, with- in the follow'ng boundaries viz. beginning at the mouth of Bear Creek, on the S. fide of Tennefice river; thence up the faid creek to the raoft fouthern fourcc thereof; thence due S. to lat. 34. 10. N. thence due E. 120 m.iles ; thence a due N. courfe to the Great T-'cnnelfee river; thence up the n)iddle of the faid river to the northern boundary line of the State ; thence a due W. cciirfe along the faid line to where it interfefts the Grc?t Tenntifee river, btlow the Mufcle Shoals ; thence up the f;;id liver to the place of beginning, fliall be fold to Zichariah Cox, Mathias Maher, and their RllL-ciate?, called The Teivicff'cc Company." The fame law en.vfls aim, " that all lands lying vveftward and fouthward of tlie ealtern boundary of the feveral Companies' purchafes, and not included therein, cllimated at one fourth of the whole lands lying weftward and fouthward of the eallern boun- dary of the faid purchafes, and fuppofed to contain 7,250,000 acres, iliall be, and the fame is hereby de- clared to be referved and fct apart to, and lor the ufe and benefit of this State, to be granted out, or other- wife difpc.fcd of, as- future legiflatures may dire.5i." [_Ap of Georgia Legif^ture of Jan. 1th, 1795.] The purcliafcmiuiy, amountirg to 500,000 dollars, was duly paid by the reipefdve Companies, into the State treai'iry ci'i Georgia, agreeably to the terms of the aft. 'I'iiis land was foon after fold by the original Companies, to vaiiov.s gentlemen, piincipally in the Middle and Eal'iern States. The fale of this territory excited a warm and violent cppcfr.ion in Georcia. The 7.Si authorifing th's fale, was by certain leading men in the State, declared to be " an ufurped at't, — repugnant to the principles of tlie Federal Conftitution, and cf the Ccnflitution of Georgia — oppofed to the good of the flale, and obtained by fraud, atrocious C2 ] GEO fpcculation, corruption and collufion " In confe- cpience of th«; rcprefentations, a determination was I'nrmtd by a poweiful party, to fet afide and annul, at the fucceeding fellion oi the legifiature, this cfF.;n- five, " ufurped afl." Efforts were accordingly made, and with fuccefs, to obtain a legifiature fuited to the accomplidiment of their cefigns. Accoidingly, on the i3ih of Feb. 1796, an aifl was pafTcd declaring the abovenientiorcd " ufurped aft" null and void ; and all tlie grants, rights and claims arifing there-from, of no validity or efFe(S ; and that the faid teniiory was the fo'e property of the State." To complete the ut- ter annihilation of ihisodicus aifl, as far as poffible, the leginiture ordered, that, in the'r prefence, and that of the public officers of tlie State, the ftveral records, do- cuments and deeds, in the fevcral public offices, fhould be " expunged from the faces and indexes of the books of record of the State ; and the enrolled law, or ufuipcd acft, publickly burnt." All this was accom- plithed three days afttr the paffing of the aift. Thefe unprecedented proceedings were attended and followed with mod difagreeablc and tumultuary eftedls. I'he original purchafers of thefe lands, the tiien holders, and all thefe who liad been intermediately concerned, who had by this time become a ntimerous and refpeft- able body, fcattcrcd through the United States, were, for the moir^ent, thrown into an unpleafant dilemma, and for a time this bufinefs was the general topic of converfation. The title to the lands purchafed by the above named companies, has been ftill further embar- ralfed by a claim brought forward in behalf of the United States. — ih. Gr.oRGM, a townlliip in Franklin co. Vermont, con- tains 340 inhabitants. It is fittiated on Lake Ch;im- plain, oppafite to the N. end of South Hero Ifland, and joins Milron on the S. and St Alban's on the north. La Moille river crolfes the extremity of the S. E. corner of this townfliip. — th. Georgia, Southern, a duller of bairen iflands, in the South Sea, and E. of the coad of Terra del Fuego ; about lat. 54. 35. S. and long. 36. 30. W. One of them is between 50 and 60 leagues in length. —ih. GEORGIUM SiDUS (fee AsTSONOMV-//K/>.V, Efl- cycl,) has no fewer than fix fatellites revolving round it, all difcovered by Dr Heifihel. Of the two which he firft difcovered, ('ue was found to revolve in 8 days 17 h, I m. 17 fee. at the dirtance of 33" from its pri- m:iry; and the other in 13 d. 1 1 h. 5 m. 1,5 fee. at the diflance of 44'',23. The planes of their orbits form fuch large angles with that of the planet itfelf, and ccnfequently of the ecliptic, as to be almod perpendi- cular to it. To this remaikable departure Ircm the a- nalogy of the old planetf, another ftiU moie fingul.ir has been lately announced. They move in a retrograde direction ! The new fatellites revolve as follows, the periodical times being inferred from their greateft elon- gations : The inteiior fateliite in 5 d. 21 h. 25 m. at the diftance of 25 ',5. A fatellite intei mediate bttween the two old ones in ic d. 23 h. 4m. at the diilance of 38", 57. The nearefl extciior fatellite at about druble the diftance of the farthcft old one, and confequently its periodical time 3O d. I h. 49 m. And the moft dif- tant fatellite full four times as far from its primary as the Georgia WeftirA 'lerritory « G'jorgium, G E R C I Gerard, the eld fecr.nd fatellite. Whsrxe it will take at lea.^ '•^'^^^^^^ 107 li. 16 h. 40 m. to complete its revolution. Whe- ther the motions of thefe four be dired or rctiogratie, is, ".ve fvippole, not yet determined. Froni forae cbfer\Mtion5 of the Doftor, with an ex- cellent fcven-feet telefcope, certain appeaianceb icf.m- blirjj tlidt cf two lings furrounding the planet, and eroding each other at right angles, were feen on fcver.il difFeiei t days. They were not altered in pofi'icn by turning the fpeculuni in its cell ; but (fays Mr Nichil- foii) there is little dcubt that they were optical decep- tions, becHufe they kept their pofilion with rei'pect to the tub;, after the relative pofition cf the par-iliel had been much changed by the earth's relation, and be- caufe they did not appear with larger tclefcopcs appl'eJ during the courfe of ten years. The Cvfk of the Geor- glum Sidus is flattened. It theiefote revolves with ccn- fiderable rapidity on its axis. Frnm the very f:'.int I'glu of the fatelhtes, ihey are obfeived to difappe.ir in thofe parts of their oibits which biingthcni apparently rear- ed the planet. This does not anfe from an atmolphere ; for the effefl is the fame, whether the fatellite be within or beyond the planet. GERAllD (Alexander, D. D.) was the fldell fon of the reverend Gilbert Gerard minilier of CbapelG.i- rioch, in the county of Aberdeen. He was born on the 22d of February, 1728, and received the fiill rudi- ments of his education at the pariih fchcel of Fuveran in the fame county. It may perhaps be proper to inform our rea.lers, that in every parifli in Scotland there is a fchool where, for very fmall fees, the youth of the pariih are not only taught to read the Englilh hingua^e, to wriie, and to perform the elementary c'perations of arithmetic, but are alfo inftruded in the Greek and Latin lan- guages. Of thefe fchools, many of the maimers were, about fixty years ago, eminent for clallical learning ; and it feems that Air Forbes, the mafter if the fthool of Foveran polTefTed fuch fame as a teacher, that Mr Gerard j\idged it more expedient to commit his fon to his care than to have him educated at the fchool of his own pariih, and underhisown immediate i.:lp-.<Sion. The attainments whicluhat fon afserwarJsmade in literature, evince that his judgment was correft,and thatthe fchcol- mader of Foveran deferved the fame whir!: he erjiyed. Young Gerard, however, did not remain long at Fo- veran. His father died when he was but ten years eld ; and his mother removing foon afterwards with her fa- mily to Aberdeen, he was of courfe put to the gram- mar- fchool i.a that city j but fo folid was the founda- tion which had been already laid, that in two yeais time he was deemed iit for the univerfity, and-was ac- cordingly entered a fludent in Maril'chal college. Such rapid progrefs fupplies the plice cf tiiit lellimony which we have not been ahla to procure, refpedling his early attachment to literature. After completing the ufua! aca-'emical courfe of four years in tlie Uudyot Gieek, Latin, oiathematits.and pht- lo.i)phy,he was ad.mitted to the decree of nialUr of arts; and iriimediately afterwards com.menced the fludy cf theology, which he profccutCiLi in the univcrfit'cs of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. In 1748, when he had little more tlian completed his tv\entielh year, ]\i was licenced to preach in the churtii of Scotl.mc!, and two 03 ] G E R years afterwards was chcf.n adiftant to Mr David For- Gcrar.!. dyce profefTor of philoli)f.hy in the Mariichal college ^*'""''^- and imivet dry of Aberdeen. In this capacity lie per- formed the duties of the abfcnt profclfur till the 7th of July 1752, when he was ajjpointed fuccelFor to Mr Fordyce «ho had been diowi-.ed, on the coad cf Hol- land, as has been already related in the EncyclopxJia. At that period it was the practice in ihe Marifchal college, as it continued to be in the King's, for the fame nrofedor t;j cairy forward a clafs (.f ftudenis f^r three inccedive years, through all the diir'erent branches ofphilofophy wliich were taugjit in the college. Theft: were. Logic, Ontology, PsEut^AT.cs, Morals, Politics, and Nati-ral Phiuosopmy ; and Mr Ge- rard carried cne clafs through this extendve courfe. Mathematics and the Greek language were taug!;: by leparate prrfilLrs. iVbout the yeir 1754, a very material alteration was made in the srd.r of teaching plilcl'ophy in the uaiver- fity of Aberdeen ; and in the I>Lriichal college each profelfor was reftricled to one department of fcience. The principal and prcfc-ffors in th;tt college, judly ob- ferving that the public is intereded in every thing which reiatcs to education, tliought it incumbent upon them to lay befcjre that public the reafcns which had deter- mined them to deviate from the arrirgement wliich they had hitl.erto obfsrved ; and they employed pro- fcllor Gerard to draw up tliefe realV.ns. This taili he performed in a fmall pamplilct, which, being printed by the appointment of llie coihge, appesrs to have given very general fatisfadiin. This, indeed, it cr-ulJ Iiardly fail to do ; for the ju- dicious author points out very clearly the inconveniences of the eld, and l!:e advantages of the new plan cf aci- demical lludy. Having o'oferved, that t!ie philofi'phy which had fo long kept ptfT^dion of the f;hcol<, con- fided, in a great meafure, rf verbal fubtleiies and theo- ries ill-grounded, though ingenioufly devifed, he pro- ceeds to contrail it with the philoli^phy of Bacon and Locke, and to fhow cf how little value the former is when compared with the la'ter. He then enters on a brief examination of thefcholadic logic, and proves, to the c( nviiiion of every impartial ju'g?, that the art ol fyllogizing, thougli a proper enough intioJuclion to a philofcpb.y '.vh'ch was bf.ilt on general princ'pl--?, ti;l-.cr taken for granted, cr founded on very narro-v and in- adequate obleivation, is by no means d'.ted to aili:! the mind in the cultivation cf th.at fcience which is d:du- ced by induiffion from paiticular facff. "The on- ly bads of philofophy (fays he) is now ackno'.\kdged to be an accurate and extendve hiftory r f niiurc, ex- hibiting an exaiS view of the various phenomena, lor which philoibjihy is to accour.t, and on wliiih it is to found its re?.fonings. This being the reformed date of phibf' phv, great inconveniences mud be found in proAcuting the fcholadic order o\' the fcicnres. The ftudcnt mud make a trandtirn ato.-cs iVr.m wcrJs ani languages to philofophy, wiiliout being previoufly in- troduced to th.e knowle-dge of fail^s the li.le Icund-ition of, and prfp.'.ralion for it ; he mud be hurried at tlie firil into the mod abdrufe, diilicult, and fubtle parts cf it ; he mud be put up.-n cxanruing the natuie, tcunda- tion and d ffercnt kinds of evidence and reafoning, be- fore he is arqua'ntcd with any fpecimens of thefe kinds ty G E R [ 104 <;fr:ircl. by wli'cli they may lie illuflr.iteJ. Arid In proportion '•^^^^^ ;is pliiloli'pliy is more improved, and more ihornughiy j(j)(iinicJ, tlicle incoiivcnitncei, wull become mote ien- (ibk-. '■The view ff tbefe (continues lie) induced the ma- flcrs of the Marilchal college to tliink of ahering the liithert" received order ; and after the mod mature deli- beration, made thtrn at lad refolve, that their fludcnts fliould, alter being inRiufled in languages and clalllcal karniug, he made acquainted with the elements of hif- tory, natural and civil, of geography and chronology, accompanied with tlie elements of mathematics ; tli at they Ihould then pnceed to natural j h;lofophy ; and, laft of all, to morals, politics, hgic, and metaphy fics." In vindicating this arrangement, he labours with great earncftnef'., and vpe lliinlc with complete fucceii, to lliew the propriity of mal.Ing logic the lall branch ot academical ftudy. " All fciences (fays lie), all de- partments ot knowledge whatever, mud be premifcd as ] G E R a ground- wot k to genuine logic. Hid ory hai kind of evidence, mathematics another, natural philofo- phy one dill diiFeriUt, the philnfophy of hunian nature another diftinfl from all thefe ; the fubordinate branches of thefe fevcral parts have dill minuter peculiarities in the evidence appropriated to them. An i:nprejud>ced mind will in each of thefe be convinced by tliat fpecies of argument which is peculiar to it, though it does not reHiSl hotv \t comes to be convinced. By being con- verfant in tliew, one is prepared for the diidy ot lug'ic ; for ti'uy fupply him with a fund of materials ; in t/jsm the different kinds of evidence and argument are ex- emplitied ; from tbcm only thofe illudrations can be ta- ken, wiihout which its rules and precepts muft be un- intelligible. " All jnd conclufions concerning the works of na- ture mud be founded on an indudlon of particulars. And as in natural philofofhy thefe particulars are fup- plied by obfervations and experiments on natural bodies ; lb in logic, the particulars, of wliich an Induifticn muft be made, are to be learned only from the body of arts andfcieiica. Thefe are the fubjeifls on which obferva- tions mult be made, in ord^r to lay down rules for in- vedigatingand proving the truths of which they are made up ; jud as the genuine performances of any art are what mud be conlidered and obierved in laying down the rules of that art. No folid precept can be formed in logic, except by examining arts and fciences, and attending to the method of reafoning ufed in them, and to the evidence that accompanies it. In propor- tion as they are cultivated, and no farther, logic may be improved. And what is true of the invention of lo- gic, is true hkewife of the lludy of it. It can be un- derdood no farther, than the feveral fciences which it reviews and criticifes are previoufly underdood. Ac- cordingly we find, that all the fydems of logic which lia\e not been compiled from a careful review and ex- amination nf the fsveral fciences, ccnfid more of inge- nious fublleties than oi ufcful precepts aHifting to the mind in the various parts of knowledge. And when logic lias been learned before the other fciences, the iubftantial parts of it have been fcarce attended to, or made any ufe of, in the profecution of them ; nor fo much as nnderUood, but in as far as the mind was gra- dually opened, and brought to recoiled them in its pro- grefs through the fciences. «' Logic Is preclfely the fame to philofophy that G«"rd. works ot criticifrn are to poetry. Tlie rules cf criti- "'^'^^''*^ cifm are foimed by an accurate fcrutiny and examina- tion ot the bed works of poetry. To one who had never read a poem, thefe rules would be obfcure and ufclefs i he could not comprehend them, far kfs would he be able to form a judgment of their judnefs, and of the leafons on which they are founded. If one perufes the bed poetical performances, he will acquire feme de- gree of tafte, though he has never profelfedly dudled the rules of criticKm ; and he will, at the fame time, lay in materials, and obtain a dock of examples, vhich may render thefe rules intelligible to him, and enable him to judge whether they are jud or not. And by afterwards dudying thele rules, he improves, refines, and coneflshis tade, perceives the principles on which he has founded xll hij judgments, though he did not in the mean time think of them, and gains addi:ional fe- curity againd his judging wrong. This may Illudrate what has been faid of the place which logic ought to hold among the fciences. The obfervations made in it, both concerning the methods of invention and of probation, are founded on, and deduced from, the feveral fciences in w-hlch thefe methods are ufed. Neither the obilsr- vations themfelves, nor the reafons on which tliey are built, can be fully comprehended by one abfolutely ig- norant of thefe fciences. In dudying the particular fciences, reafon will fpontaneoufly exert itfelf : if the proper and natural method of reafoning is ufed, the mind will, by the native force of its faculties, perceive the evidence, and be convinced by it, though it does not reflecfl hoiii this comes to pafs, nor explicitly confider according to what general rules the underdanding is exerted. By afterwards dudying thefe rules, one will be farther fitted for profecuting the feveral fciences : the knowledge of the grounds and laws of evidence will give him the fecurity of reJleSion, againd employing wrong methods of proof and improper kinds of evi- dence, additional to that of inJlinS and natural genius. And thus logic will greatly contribute to improvement in knowledge ; and more fo, v.hen it is ufed as a rcvic-jj of the method taken in the profeoution of fcience, of the foundations gone upon, and of the general rules that have been obierved, than when it is applied as an iiitroHuSion to the elements of fcience ; for in the for- mer cafe, its rules can be perfetflly underdood, fuffi- ciently Illudrated and put in praftice as they are learned, which in the latter is quite impoffibie," Having thus vindicated the new arrangement with refpefl to the place which it afligns to the dudy of lo- gic, he proceeds to inquire in what order the other fciences fhould fucceed each other. " Ethics (fays he) or moral philolophy is founded as well as logic on pneu- matics, and mud therefore come after it. Tlie conditu- tion of man, and his feveral ailive powers, mud be ex- plained, before his bufinefs, his duty, and his happinefs, can be dilcovered. Jurlfprudence and politics, taking a iTiore complex view of man than morals, by confidering his various dates, as well as his nature and powers, can- not, with any propriety, be introduced till morals have fird been dudled. " It only remains then to determine whether natural phiU)fophy or pneumatology ought, in the order of teaching, to have the preference. And many confide- rations feem to require that the former (hould be du- died Cerard. G E R [ I died firft. If it were not, pneumatology wonlJ be too far disjoined from the pradlical fciences founded on it ; one of whicli, logic, ought, as we liave feen, to be taught lalt of all. Befides, we ought always to be- gin with ti'e eafieft and moft obvious fubjects, and to pi ocet-'d gradually to tlie mofl difficult ; and in order to thii, we ought to comply as much as pollible with the natural openings and progrefs of the human mind. Now it is evidtnt, that the mind receives fiifl of all im- predions and ideas of thofe fenfible things with which it is i'urrojnded. It is not till a'ter it has e.xercifed its faculties about them that it refie<5ls on its own opera- tions, or acqnires perceptions of them. Vv'e are irom cur earlieft infancy accuftomed to obferve external thirgs, though often tranfiently and inattentively ; tl.ey lie alv.'ays in our view, they force thcmielves upon us, and we cannot avoid regarding them more or lefs. But we feldom attend to the operations cf our minds in our earlier years; it is late before we acquire dilliufl no- tions of ihem, or can eafily and readily miike them the cbjeds of our contemplation. Fartlier, external fenfa- tion, by which bodies are perceived, is a more palpable kind of evidence than internal, from wiiich all our knowledge of fpirits ii derived ; it ftrikes and afTecls us more. The philofophy of fpirits, as well as that of bodies, is founded folely on experiments and obferva- tions ; but in the latter it is much eafier to make tliefe than in the former : we can put bodies in any fituation that we pleafe, and obferve at leifuie their effefls on one another : but the phenomena of the n-.'mJ are of a Itfs conftant nature ; w-e mud catch them in an inftant, and be content toglejn them up, by obferving their ef- feds as they accidentally difcover themfelves in the fe- veral circumdances of life. The reafonings alfo by which condufions are deduced concerning mind are of a more abllrufeand difficult nature than thofe employ- ed in the fcience of bodies ; the ideas about which they are converlaiu are apter to be confounded with one a- nother, and are wi;h greater dilficuliy kept diltind. On all thefe accounts, natural philofophy mull be to young minds eafier than pneumatology, and confequent- ly fliould betauglit firft." For this long digreil'ion, if ftfch it fha'l be deemed, we ar2 perfuaded that thofe who retain any attach- ment to the phice where tlieir minds were firtl imbued with the piincipks of fcience, will think no apology reqiiifite, when they are inlormed, that the plan ot e- ducation, which is heie fo ably defended, was about the iarae period adopted by both colleges in the uiii- vcrfity of Aberdeen; that the writer of this article had his own education in the King's college; and that in the profperity of that college he Hill feels himfelt deep- ly interefted. Let it be reinenibeied, too, tliat the publication from which this extracTl has been made, fur- iiilhes a proof of profeffbr Gerird's abilities, and of the cllimation in which he was held by his colleagues at a Su?PL. Vol. II. 05 ] G E R very early period of life ; and then furely the digrtf- C.mxA. fion will not be thought impertinent. v.^-v^^ He was now profeffor of moral philofophy and logic, and of thefe fciences alone : but thnu.;h his//,;n »/ <•- ducallon in ihs Marijchal College fheivs die order in which his leftures were arranged, we have not been able to learn on what foundation he built his fyftem of ethics. As Hutchefon's Moral PluUfophy was then much read and admired, it will not detract from Mr Gerard's merits to fuppofe, that, with his prcdecedor Mr lordyce, he was an advocite for the rroral fenfc of that author; for there are but three or four founda- tions on which a fyttcm of ethics can be raifed ; and it may be doubted whether there be one cf them which is not as old as the age of Plato. It would indeed be ri- diculnus in any modern (a) to aim at giving a new foundation to moral virtue ; for virtue mull h;;v.- l)een praifliied upon fome fteady principle from l!ie eirliell period of human fjciety ; and the mod eminent profef- for will find i'uffic-ent rocm for the difplay of all his learning and ingenuity in illuftrating the principle which his own judgment has led him to adopt. Of this prcfedor Gei ard was fully fenfible; and whilll he was confcientioufly difcharging his duty to hi? pupils, he negUded no opportunity of improving himfeli. He was member of a literary fociety at Aberdeen, of which the refpeflabiliiy will not be queflijned, when it is known that it confided of fjch men as the late DoSors Blackwell, Gregory, Reid and Campbell, with Dr Bt.attie, and many others of per- haps equal talents, tliough not known to the world as authors (n). This fociety met regularly during the win- ter, we believe once every fortnight ; the members communicated their fentiments with the utmoll free- dom ; every novel opinion was fure to be ranvafied oa all fides with impaiti.ility ; the underftandings of the members were thus mu'.ually whetted ; and hence ori- ginated Reid's Inquiiy into tks Human Mind, Grego- ry's Comparati've Firiv, Gerard's Ej/iiy en Genius, Beat- tie's EJpty on Truth, and Campbell's Philofophy of Rhe- toric. On the 5th of September 1759 ^^i" Gerard was or- dained a minider of the Church of Scotland ; on the iith of June 1760, he was appointed profelfor of di- vinity in the M.irifchal coll-ge, and minifter of the Grayfriars church in Abeidet-n ; and at the fame time, as we fuppofe, created dodor in divinity. On the iSth of June i 771 he rehgned his ProfefTor- (hip in Mjril'chal ccUejie, together with !)is church- living, and was preferred to the thtolocicdl chair in the univerfity of King's College, then become vncinc by the death of profedbt Luniifden. In th.n flaiion he continued, piofecuting his Itudies, beloved by his colleagues, and revered by hi» pupils, till I. is birth-day 1795 ' ^^I's") having jult coiiip eteJ his 67-h year, he died without a groan. Hi» death was occaiionel by a O fchirrous (a) The friends of Mr G id win, who afledl to call his political juftice the nezv philofiphy, will, of couife, think this a r:'.(h aflertion ; but were it worth while, it would be no very ditficult t'flc to produce, from the atheiftical writers of ancient Greece, fomelhing fimilar even to his wildeft paradoxes. Dr Gerard was too well acquainted with the fubjefl, and too warm a fiiend to genuine virtue, to pietend to novelty in mor;J fcience. (b) Such as Piofe/Tor Tho-.ias G rdon, who read leflurcs in the King's College for 63 or 64 years, and whofe learning was equalled only by his virtues. G E R [ 10 Gerard, fcliirrous tumour, which began to appear on his face ^■^''^'"''•^ in ih5 year 17941 but without confining him to the houfe, or, except for a very few weeks, iuteirup- ting his ufual purl'iiits. It impaired, however, his heaUh, and gradu.illy undermined his conftiiution. Of this he was very foon fenfible ; but he faw his diliuhition approaching with the utnioft conipofure and relignation, and preferved to all about him (orrjuch <f that equ.ini- mlty and placidnefs of temper which had maiked the whole courfe of his life, that of him may truly be faid, Multls illi multos annos precantibus Diri caicinoniatis veneno contabuit, Nexiliufque vi as paul.itim relohitis, E terris, melioia fperans, emigravit. Were we to hazard an opini. n of Dr Gerard's intel- leiflual powers, from having attentively jjerufeJ his works, we would fay that he pofitlfed great rtiftitude of j'jdgment, rather than any rem^ukable vigour of mind J that he wascapabl,', by intenfe lhidy,i>f becom- ing mailer of almnlt wny fubjeifl, though perhaps he had not the imagination requilite fiT mak-ng difcov eriis in fcience ; and that his attainments were fnlid rather than biilliant. What he knew, he knew thornughly ; but to U';, his knowledge feems to have been the le- ward of labour. By one, to whom he was well known, and vho • Dr Bia:- himlelf llands high in the republic o: letters*, we are '''• affured that he had improved his memory to fuch a de- tvee, tliat, in liitle mc'te than an hcur, be could get by heart any ferraon of ordinary length ; though far frem availing himfelf cf this talent, as many would have done, he compofeJ with caie all the fermons that he preached. In early lile he made it a rule not to fiudy after fupper ; and from that rule he never deviat- ed, but amufed himfelf after that time, either with the converfation of his family, or with any light reading that cime in his w^ay, and he was generally in bed by half pafl eleven. He feems not to have approved of early more than of late lludy; for though, for a few years, when as profeiTor of philofophy he had various fciences to teach, he rofe regularly, during winter, at five in the morning, he difcontinued that pracffice as foon as he had it in his power, and did not enter upon ferious ftudy till after breakfift, generally about 10 o'elock. He was indeed very laborious through the day, and could with difHculty be peiluaded to take any bodily exercife; but being remarkably temperate in eating and drinking, he enjoyed very good heahh, v/hich was only cccafionally interrupted by thofe ft')- mach complaints, to which men of i'edentary lives are often fubjeft. The fruits of this inceflant ftudy were, befides the leflures which he lead to his different clalfes, i/l, j4n r.Jfay onTajie, to uliich, in 1756, was adjudged the gold medal by the Philcfophical Society of Edinburgh (See Societies, EncycL), which had propofed Tajle 3.^ the fubjefl fur a prize. Of this eifay there has been a feconii and a third edition ; of which the laft, which was publiflied in 1780, is confiderably enlarged and improved. 21I, D'lJf.'rtaUons on the Genius and E-vidin- ees of Ckrijiianity, publilhed in 1766. 3<V, An EJ'ay on Genius, publilhed in 1774. 4'^' Two volumes of Ser- vians ; ot which the firlt was publifhed in 17S0, and the fecond in J 782. ^tb, A part of his theological 6 ] G E R courfe, ent'tled The Pajloral Care, which was publifh- Gerard, ed in 1799 by his fon Dr Gilbert Gerard, who fuc- ^•^'~^~*'^ ceedcd him as profelfor of divinity in the King's col- lege and univeility of Aberdeen. Belldes thefe works Dr Gerard publilhed many fint'le fermons, which were preached on occallonal fufjeds. Of this amiable and refpeiffable inflrucfor of youth, we have been favoured with the following charafter, drawn by a man of talents and virMie-j-, who was firft -f ti^ r„, his pupil, and aftervvanls his fiicnd ; and though it Stan OgU- m.uJe part of a funeral fermon, we believe that, by """> '^'^ ■^- thofe who were moft intiuatelv acquainted with ]3i- *"''''"'• Gerard, the parjegyric wiruh it contains will not be deemed extravagant. " In dorneftic life, his conduit was amiable and ex- emplary. H^; polfelFed, in a high degree, tha kinJnefs of heart and afFihiliiy of manner which intercltcd him at all limes in the happinei:> of his dependants, I'rclerv- ed good hi'mour in his hi, ufe, and endeared him t > his taniily. He knew Iv w to check improprieties with- out harrtiiiefs, and when and how t') i)idulge \Mthout impairing his authority. Hi- natural good fenfe, ftea- dinefs and piudence, prevented him from being thrown into confufion by tlie ;-dveife incidents of life ; and e- nabled him, in prelling emeigencies, to adopt wife meaiures, and to adminifler falutary counfel. His ten- der fympathy fooihed th; troubled hour of forrow ; his rational and friendly advice gu'd^d his family thro' the perplexities o( life, and he feelingly rejoiced in all their innocent enjoyments. His attachments were not confined to his lamily or his relatives ; he was fufcep- tible cf warm triendlhip. In fekfling the objeifts of it he was cautious, always preferring thofe whole merits entitled them to confidence and regard. His attach- ment, flowly formed, was not to be (li iken by every oblique inlinuation, or by every idle report to the pre- judice of his friend. Sceady in his profelTions of re- gard, he was capable of conliderable and dilinterelled exertions to ferve thofe whom he really etlcemed. To his judicious advice they had ready accefs ; and his bed eiF(>rts to promote their good they could always com- mand. As a member of fociety, his houfe was ever the feat of hofpitality, and his door was always open to the ftranger. In entertaining his Iriends, he equal- ly avoided the extravagance and odentation which did not become his character 01 fuit his fortune, and the rigid economy which maiks the condufl of thofe who give with a reluiftant and a fparing hand. He neither anxioully courted, nor atfeifltdly lliunned learned con- verfatiou. Whili he never olitruded upon company fubjefls which, by the dilp'.ay of fuperior knowledge or abilities, were cilculated to gratify his own vanity at the expence of hurting others, he always (ludied, as far as propriety would admit, to adapt his converfa- tion to the temper and inclinations of his alfociaies. To pleafe the young, and to promote their liarmlefs fellivlty, was ever his delight ; with cheerfulnefs he de- fcended to their trivial amufements, and in his pre- fcnce they felt no rellrainlj but thofe which virtue and decency impofe. Though he often left lor a little Itudles in which lie was keenly engasjed, to enjoy the conveifation of a friend, he never fuffered his love of fociety, one of bis ib"ong;ll paffions, to induce him to ficrifice any imporr.ant literary purfuit, or to iiegleft any neceffary bufinefs. "As GER C107] GER Gerard^ « As a clergyman, the office wiiicli he held for feveral the proper manner of difcharging all Its duties, and to Gctitii. years in M.Ariichal collej^e lendcred it Ins duty to be a enable them, by the knowledge of Scripture, to form a '"^"> daily preacher, and gave him a feat in the ecclefiaftical juft and impartial judgment on controverted fubj-as. ^ courtb. But the unavoidable labour of preparing pre- Solicitous for their improvement, he was ever read)- to ^''""^^' leflions fnr his theological pupils did not prevent his encourage rifing merit by his warmeft approbation ; and v^^^^^ unremitting attention to his public exhibitions in the reluflant to damp even unfuccefbful efforts of "enius pulpit. Thefe weie marked by that diftmanefs of by deferved cenfure. Having a conflant eye lo^what arrangement, that julh.els ot reaf ming, and that accu- is praaically uftlul, rather than to uncdifying fpecula- racy of compyfilion, which cffeaually fecured the ap- tion, he enjoined no duty which he was tmwiHing to probation oi the ableft judges ; while by their plain- exemplify in his own londua. Hence that llria re- nefs and fimplicity, th;y tailed not of promoting tlie gard to the minillerial charafter which he unif.rmly edification ot the meaneft capacities. To the low arts difplayed, and hence his uncommon punauality in at- of acquiring popularity he never (looped; But his tending the public ordinances of relicricn." prudence, his good fenfe, hib exemplary cundua, and GERARDSTOWN, a neat little town, fituated in his minitierial diligence, ellablilhed his relpec'tability Berkely co. Virginia, containing about 30 or 40 and uiefulnefb, and procured him the full confidence houfes ; 10 miles from Martinlburg, and 254 from and elleem of his colleagues. Poireffing more than or- Philadelphia. — Morse. dinary excellence, envy never led him to depreciate the GERMAN, a towndiip in Fayette co. Pennfylva- merits of other preachers. Though one of tlie bell of nia. — ib. judges, he was always one of the moft candid hearers. German Flats, the cliief townfhip of Hcrkemer When by his tranflation to the univerfity of King's co. taken from that of Montgomery, in New- York, college, he was releafed trom the labour of conflant By the cenfus of 1790, it contained 1507 inhabitants preaching, far from Ihcwing any averlion to di!'chan;e including 20 (laves; by the State cenfus of 1796, the moft public minillerial duties, he was always ohe- 4194 inliabitants of w'hom 6S4 are ekaors. It lies dient to prefbyterial appointmems ; and while healih on the fouth fide o{ Mohawk river, oppofite Herke- and ilrength remained, willing to oblige his clerical mer. It is 24 miles E. of Whiteftown, and 60 miles friends by appearing in their pulpits. Nor in private weft of Scheneaady. — ib. life did he ever lofe fight of the charaaer of a clergy- GERMANTOWN, (N. Y.) in Columbia co. con- man. Having in a publication ably defended its re- taining 516 inhabitants. In 1796, it had 75 qualified fpeaability, in oppofition to the feoffs and fneers and voters. — \h. fophifm of modern fceptics ; he confidercd it as his Germantown, in Philadelphia co. Pennfylvania, is honour, in his lite and converfation to difplay its dig- fituated 7 miles nnrth of Philadelphia city, and was nity and importance ; and to Ihewthat the gravity of a efteemed the fecond town in the country, until feveral Chriftian paftor is perfealy conliftent with the good inltnd town; eclipfed it, by f\iperior eftablllliments and breeding of a gentleman, and with the cheerlulnefs, af- nu"iber of inhabitants. It is a corporation, confifting fability, and eaie of an agreeable ccmpan-on. chitily of High and Low Dutch, and contains about " Asa man of letters, his attainments were far above 250 houles, chiefly of ftone, feme of whicli are large, thofe at which the generality of ftudents ariive. In elegant and commodious; built chiefly on one ftreet, his literary purfuits, he had all the advantages of a ab'Ut two miles in length. The public buildings are judgment uncommonly clear and diftii a, aided, from a G;rman Calvinift and Lutheran church, a Friend's his earlieft years, by the moft indefatigable snJ perle- mceiing-lioufe, ai-.d an academy. Knit ftockings, of vering ftudy. The well-earned reputation with which, cotton, t.hread and worfted, are manufaaured here by before he was promoted to the theological chair, he incIividudK to a conliderablj extent, and of an excellent taught in Marifchal college different fcienccs, in- quality. It is an ancient town, plealantly (ituated, conteftibly proves that his powers, not confined to and by its vicinity to the metropolis, well adapted i. r one fubjea, juftly entitled liim to eminence in leveral manufaaurcs. Here is the principal congregation c/f branches of literature. Hi-; publications, feveral of the Mennonids, and the mother cf tint feci in Ame- which have been tranflated into other languages, pro- rica. They derive their name from Menno Simon, a mile fair to e.\end his fame, and to hand it down to learned man ot Wiimars, in Germany, one ot the re- generations yet unborn ; and his unremitting labours formers, born in 1505. Some of his followers came promifed ftill a farther contribution to th; gcueraUlock into Pennfylvania, from New-Yoik, in' 1692. There of learning. aie ibf lit 4000 (>f them in the State. Tliey do nor, " As a profefTor of divinity, he will belong and grate- like die I'unkers, believe in general falvation ; yet, like fully remembered by his numeruus pupils. This was them, they will neither fwcar nor fight, nor bear any his peculiar departinent, and in thii he fhone. Poff f- civil (flice, nor go to law, nor take mtcielt tor money, ting large ft'>res of theological knowledge, he was ju- thoucli many break that rule, 'i'hey ule great plain- ilicious in fekaiug his lubjias, happy and faccefstul nets in their drefs, &l-. and praaifc mativ of the rites in his manner of c'ommunicating iiillruait 11. He Jiad of the primitive Chiillian churcli. Tiiis town is alfo the merit if introducing a new, and in many refpeas .i rendered famous, by the battle foughl in it, on die 4th b';tter plan of theuligical education, than thofe (u of Oa. 1777.—/.';. which it had been formeily conducted. Liberal, but Germantown, a pod-town and the capital of Stokes rot loofe, in his ilntinients, his great aim was, not to co. N. Carolina. It is fituated rear die Town Fork of impole by his authority upon his pupils any favourite Dan river, and cont.iins a court-home, gaol, and about fyftem of opinions ; hut to imprcls tbem with a fcnfe 30 houfes. It is 528 miles S. \V. by S. of Philadel- cf the importance of the minifterial ofncc, to teach them pliia. — \b. O Ger- G E R [ io8 ] G E S German TOWN, the chief town of Hyde co. in New- bern diilrict, N. C.irolina. — 11/. GERMANY, a townfliip in York co. Pennfylva- nia. — il>. GERMINATION, among botanids is a very in- terelting. lubjed on which the late dilcoveries in clie- rniftry have thrown much light fii ce the article Gkr- MiNATiON was publillicd in the Encfchpirdia. In t'le year 1793, Mr Huml)oldt diicovticd that firople me- tallic iubllanccs are unlavourable to the I'ermina'ion ot plants, and that rnetallic oxyds favour it in prnpirtion to their decree of oxydation. This difcovery induced him to fearch for a fubnance wi'.h which oxyj^'en miglu be To weakly cirobined .1 ■ to be ealily fepirated, and he made choice ot ox)etnated muriatic acid gas mix ed with water. Crdlcs (lep'Jh^m fctlvum) in the oxygenated mur'atic ac:d lliewed gernis at the end of fix hours, and in coninicui water at rhe end ot 32 hours. The ai5tirn of the fii 11 fluid im the vegetable fibres is announced by an enormous qu.intity of air bubbles which cover the feeds, a phem menon not exhibited by water till at the end of from 30 to 45 minutes. Thcfe experiments announced in Huni'ooldt'i Flora Stihtirranea Frihsrgenjis-, and in his Aph'.rilms on the chemical phyfiology "f Plants, have been repeated by others (a ' . They were made at a teinperature of from 12 to I J Reaumur. In the fummer of 1796, Hum- boldt be»an a new feries ot exjieiiments, and found that by join'ng the ftimulus of caloric to that ot oxy- gen he was enabled llill more to accelerate the pro- gress of vea,etaiion. He tot k tiie feeds of ganlen crtife-T {Jcp'idhtm f,i'tvtim), peas, {j>ifum fath'um), French beans (pha/eoius vulgaris), garden lettuce (latluca fati- va), niignonetie (refeda odorata) ; cqu.d quantities of which were thrown into pure water an i the oxyi-ena- ted muria'ic acid at a temperature of 88' F. Creli'es exhibited germs in three hciirs in the oxygenated mu- riatic acid, while none were feen in water till the end of 26 houis. In tiie muriatic, nitric (b), or fulphuric acid, pure or mixed with wa'er, there was no g^rm at all: the oxygen feemed there '■. be too intimately unit- ed with bafes of .i/,ot or tulphivr, to be dilengaged by the jfEnitic^ prefented by the fibre-. c{ the vegetable. The author announces, that his difcoverles may one day be of great benefit in the cultivation of plants. His experiments have been repealed wi^h great inijuf- try and zeal by fevcral diiliiiguiilu-d philofophers. Pro- fetf'ri Prhl at Drefden caufed to germinate in oxyge- na'ti.i muriatic icid ihe teed of a new k:nd oi euphorbia taken fiom Bocconi's colleflion of dried plants, i to or 120 years old. Jacquin and Vander Schott at Vienna throw/ into oxygenated muriatic acid all the old feeds which had been kept 20 or 30 years at the botanical garden, every at'empt to produce vegetation in which had been fraitlefs, and the greater part of them were ftimulated with fuccefs. Even the hardeft feeds yield- ed to this agent. Among thofe which geiminited were the yellow bonduc or nickjr tiee (^iii,'andina bonduc), the pigeon ry'ifus or pigeon pea (cylifus ca- jiin'^,, the dodonta angujl'ifolia, the climbing miiiiofi (m;- moju fciindens), and new kinds of the l>om,cn. — Ther« are now lliewn at Vienna very valuable plants which are entirely owing to the oxygenated muriatic acid, and which are at prefent from five to sight inches in height. Humboldt caufed to germinate the cli'!.,i ro- Jiu, the feeds ot which had been b' night trom the Ba- h.ima iflands by Bo<il"e, and whic' before had retilted every eflirt to make them vegetate. For this pur- p"le he employed a new procefs, which feems likely to be much ealler for gardeners who have not an opp >r- lunity ot procurinv oxy.'enated muriatic acid : He formed a pdle by mixing the feeds with the black oxyd of m ng.in-ie, and then poured ovtr it the mu- riatic acid diluted with water. Three cubic inches of water were nnxed with halt a cubic inch of the mu- riatic acid. The vellel which co.. tains this mixture mull be c vered, bur not cloftlv lh.it ; elfe it might readily burlt. At the temperai.ire of 95° the muiia- tic acid becomes llrongly oxy.Jated ; the oxygenated muriatic gas which is dilengaged palFes through the feeds ; and it is during this pillkgt tliat irritation "f the vegetable fibres takes place. — P,iilJophk(il Mtigttzine. GERRY, a townlh'pin Wo^cellei c> MjiF.ichufetts. It was incorporated in 1 786 and contains 14,000 acres of land, on which are 740 inliab'ants. ll is 30 miles N W. of Wurceller, and 65 N. W. by W. of Bolton. — JlTorte. GESCHE EL AuRE, or GiR Gir, a fpecies of grafs growing plentifully near Ras e! Fnl on the bor- detoof Abyliinia. It begins frys Mr Bruce, to Ihoot in the end of April, when it firll feels the humidity of the air. It advances then fpeedily to its full height, which is about 3 feet 4 inches. It is ripe in the be- ginning of May, and decays, if not dePiroyed by fire, very foon afterwards. The leaf is !■ ng, pointed, narrow, and of a feeble texture. The itock trom which it fhoots produces leaves in great abundance, wtrich foon turn yellow ^nd fall to the ground. The goats, tlie only cattle tliefe miferable people have, are very fond of it, and for it a- bandon all other food while it is within their rea:h. On the leaves of f)me plants our author law a very fniall glutinous juice, like to what we fee upon the leaves of the lime or the pi me, but in much lefs quan- tity ; this is of the taQeof lugar. From the root of the branch arifes a number of ftilks, fometimes two, but never, as far as lie had feen, more than three. The flower and feed are defended by a wonderful perfe^Slion and quantity of imall parts. The head when in its maturity is of a purplilh brown. This Germina- tion II Gcfche. (a) See Ullar's Fragments of Phytology, Plenck's Phyfiology, Vllldenow's Dendrology, and Didionairc de Phyfique par Gehler. (b) The nitric acid, however, diluted with a great deal of water, accelerates germination alfo, according to the experiments of Candolle, a young naturalill, who has applied with great fuccefs to vegetable phyliohigy. This phen' m.ena is the more interefting, as chemiflry affords other analogies of the oxygenated muriatic acid and the nitric acid. Profeffor Pfafs at Kiel, by purfuing Humboldt's experiments, has fnind that frogs fuf- focateJ in oxv u,enated muriatic acid gas increafe in irritability, while thofe which perifli in carbonic acid gas are lefs fenlible of galvauifm. G H E [ 109 ] G H I Gettyf- burgh This fpecies of ^rafs was one of the acquifitlons of our author's travels. It was not bef le kn wn in Eu- rope, nor when he publilhed his botik had the feed produced a plant any where but in the garden cf the French king. GETTYSBURGH, a fm.ill town in York co. Peiinfjlvania, ijualed at the head of Rock Cieek, one of the head waters nf the Monococy, and contains about 30 lioufes. Ir i« 9 miles north of the Maryland lint. 8 miles from Millerll 'wn, 15 from Abbotltovvn, 36 fiom Williartifport in Maryland, and 118 W. by S, rf PhiUidtlphia Morse. GHEYSSIQUAS, a nitinn of Hotttntots which inhabits a dilirift of South Africa bordering on the country of Calf: aria. M. Vaillant viiired a horde of this people at no great diftance f:om Orange river, as he wa» reairning from his Uft Africin eicnil'ion to the Cape, and was Ihewn by them a chain of mountains to the ealt. which exten Jing to a diftante was loft in the north, and which, inhibited by their principal tribes, feparated them firm the C<tlFres, or at leaft from the Briquas and Brsm-.s, whom they confider as tribes of CafTrcs. With refpeift to fuch characSeriftics as are not ori- ginal and derived from nature, as the form of their drefs, weapons, inftruinents i.l mul;c, fondncfs for hunt- ing and dancing and the like, tlie Gheylliquas Jo not differ frt.m the furnmnding n.itions, except in having adopted a particular colour for their ornaments. All the ornaments of the Gheyffiquas are white, and com- pofed of the bones of a Cneep's leg or foot, to wliich they give a dazzling whitenefs by procefles peculiar to themfelves. Thus, as they fabricate their own neck- laces and other articles of luxury, and have no occa!';on to purchafe the materials, they have no dcpendance on the colonies with refpeifl to trade, excejt for a few ne- ceflary ai ticks which they want in common with o- ther favages. Accordingly this nation is lefs known and lefs vilited than any other. The women are well made, lively, and always ready to laugh or dance : yet, with all the gaiety of their dil- pofition, they have the rel'ervednefs of manners to which polilhed nations give the names of modeily and decorum, and which, in fo warm a climate and with fuch ardent conllitutions, appears to be a virtue of no eafy attainment. Our author fays tliat he no where met wi-.h a nation fo truly generous. Though he had nothing to give in exchange, yet during two days that he ftaid with them, he had bowls of m'lk brought to him as pre- fencs, night and morning, from every hut. The chief even obliged him to acctpt a Limb; anil though our traveller's attendants were not delti'iite ot provifion';, he would give them alfo feveral ilr;ep with which to regale themfelves ; a degree of geiierofity oi which a proper eftimate can be formed only by thofe who know ibmething of fjvage manners and lavage penury. The pradlice cl femi-caftration prevails among the Gheytliquas, and among them only cf all the H' tten- tot tubes; and it prev;<ils in all their hordes without exception. Our author convinced himfch of this fact by his own eyes ; f< r tlu men were fo complailant, that, if he had chofcn, he might have ir;fpeCtcd the whole horde. Many travellers have wiittcn upon the fubjeil of this v.himii^al op. i alien j but they do not GheylTi- quas II G liirijong. agree either as to iis oiigin, the motives that lead to Its invention, or the nation; by whtm it is praailcd. Kolben, who fays that it commonly confifls in the ex- traaion of the left teiticle, rcprefcnts it as a religious _ ceremony, a general and facred liw, with all the Hot- tentots indifcnniinately ; but this is unqucflionably falfe. (See Hottentots, Ency:I.) Otiiers attrihiile it to the defirc ot the Ghcyfflquas to rend.r ihemfrlves more fleet in running, au effea which it furely is not calculated t^ produce ; and fome have faid tint its in- tention is to prevent the too ainindant propagation of the fpecies.^ Yet Knll.en, though he feems inclined to this laft opinion, aflirms, that twins are not lire lei's common on account of the operation. According to thofe whom M. Vaillant quellion^d on the fubjeJl, it is merely a mark of dillindion which their anceftors, being at war with the nei;hbruring nr.tions, invented tor tlie purpofe of knowing one another; but, as he hi;Tifeif admi's, this is a very improbable account 01 the matter, as ihey would furdy have ad'iptcd, like llje Loangoes, Pomboes, and Cormatitins, marks of diftinc- tion more ealily difcerned. Be this as it mav, the o- peraiion among the Gneyfiiqias is performed by the father, commonly at the birth of the child, tiicugh Kimetimes not till he has complc'ed his third year. GHIRGONG, the capital oi'y/rf»; in Hindoftan \i, P.-mant'i according to Mr Pennant, fi'.uated in latitude 26"" 30' '''"'■ °f north. He does not ftate its longitude. It has four ^•"'''f'"' gates, and the city is encompalfed with a bound hedge of bamboos. The Rajah's palace is furrounded by a caufey, planted on each fide with a clofe hedge of bamboos, which ferves inftead of a wall. On the out- fide there is a ditch, which is always full of water. The Rajah's feat is adorned with lattice work and car- ving. Within and with nit have been placed plates of braf?, fo well polilhed, that when tlic rays of the fua ftrike upon them they fhine like minors. It is an af- certained faift, that 3000 carpenters and 12,000 la- bourers were cr.nftanily emplc ycd in this work during two years before it was linilhed. The Afiatic Refearches fpeak much of the wealth cf Af.ini, and of the plenty and excellency of its natural prodiK'iions, and that it abounds in all metals but tin. Gold is found in every part of the country by walhing the f.:nd of the rivers, and is one oi the four- ces of revenue; 12, coo, fome fiiy 20,coo people, are employed in that woik, each of whom his (ron> the Rajah a certain wages. Its gum lac is excellent, and it is very produiflive of filk. Among the fuiiti which this country produces are m an '.iOcs,pl.intains,j,icks, oranges, cilr.ns, limes, pine ap- ples, and puniala, a fpecies of tamarind, which h.is fiicii an excellent flavour, tliat every peifon who talles it pie- fers it to the plum. I'liere are alf > cocoa-nut trees, pep- per vines, and the areca trees. The fugar cane excels in foftntfs and fwcctncf., and is of thice colours, red, black and wliite. Tliere is gii'ger freo (rom fibres, and betel vines. The Itrepgthtf vcgetJtion and fer- tility of the foil are fuch, that whatever feed is fown or dips planted they always thrive. The environs cf Gbirgong furnilh fmall apiicots, yams, and pomegr.i- nates ; but as thefe articles are wild, and not aiJiltcd bf cultivation and ennraftmcnt, they arc very iaJilFeicnt. The principal crcp in iliis country coafills in lice and Icntiles. Wheat and bailey arc ntver fjwn ; lignuni ulc'CS G I B C " Ghirgong a'oas is alfo a prodiicllon of tliis country. The filk? II are Excellent, and refemhle thole of China, but they Gibbon. rn.inuf;i(5lure very few more tlrin are required for ufe. 'I'liey are fuccefsful in emliroidering with llcnvers and in weiving velvet. — One if their great fored'. is inha- bited by abiuid.ince of eleph ir.ts : 6 or 700 may be ta- k?n in ;t year, but they are nfglefted by the natives, ■who have neither horles, caineU nor alics, fuch as are bron^iln Irom other coiuitrits. AcC'Ttling to our author, " the people of Afjm are a baie unprincipled nation, ,uij have no fixed relij;ion. They follow no rule but that of their o«-n inclination, anti make their own vicious minds the toll ot the pro- priety ol' their ailions. They do not adopt any mode of uordiip praftifed either by healliens or Mahonie- dans, nor do they concur witli any of the knnvn fefls vhich prev.-iil aming mankind ; unlike the pagans ot Hindolhin, they do not rej^ft vifluals which have been drclL'd by Mcfl.ms, and they abllain from no flelh ex- cept juim^n. They even eat animals that have died a Biitural death." On this pall'age, one of the ableft of our literary jnur- ralills obferves, that in j'jfticeto the people of Afam, we inuft remark, that the above account, extracted from thememoiis (■{ Mir Jumla's expedition into that country, was compoftd by a rigid Mahomedan, at the court of that fanatic.il tvrant Aurengzebe. The au- thor and his mailer faw, in the Afamefe, only idola- ters ; and, in idolaters, the nieaneft of mankind. Their diet, though lefs rellriifled than that of the Hindoos of Bengal, is by no means promifcuous ; and their reli- gion does nn in any way differ from that of Hndof- tan, as might ealily be proved by their coins, infcrib- ed with the name^ of Hindoo deities. GIBBON (Edward Efq.), the celebrated hiftorian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was born at Putney in the county of Surry on the 27th of April 1737. He was the firii child of the marriage of Edward Gibbon, Efq; and Judith Porten, the youngeft datighler of a merchant ot London. The family of Gil)l)on appears to be ancient and ho- nfiurable ; and our author delights to trace his pedigree from John Gibbon architeifl to King Edward III. who poifelfed lands in the hundred and p uilli of Rolvenden, in the diftri>5l which is now called the Weald of Kent. In that dillrifl the elder branch of the family ftill ad- heres to its native foil, without much increafe or dimi- nution of property ; but the fortunes ot the younger branch, from which fprung the fub;eft (■•( this memoir, were fluiftuating. It is not, however, with his family, but with himfclf, that we are concerned. So feeble was his conllitution, and fo precarious his lite during hischilJidi years, that at the baptifni of each of hii brothers (and they were tive in number) his fa- tbei's prudence fucceltively repeated the name of Ed- ward, that, in cafe of the dea'hof the eldeft ton, this pat- ronymic appellation might dill he perpetuated inllie la- mily. His brothers and a lilier were all thatched away in their infancy; and, in terms of alTeftion-.te gratitude, he attributes his own prefervation to the more than maternal care of a maiden aunt, his motlier's tldefl filter. " M.my anxious and fulitary days (fays he) did thdt dear and eKcellenl woman confume in the patient trial of every mode of relief and amulement. Many v%-akefiil niglits did (he lit by my bed fide in trembling expe.-'lation ttiat o ] G each hour would be my 1 I B (t. Suffice it to fay, that while every pracflitiorer from Sloane and Ward to the Chevalier Taylor was fucceffivcly iummoned to torture or relieve me, the care of my mind was too frequently negleiJled in that of my health. Compafllon always fuggsftcd an excufe for the indulgence of the mafter, or the idlenefs of the pupil ; and the chain of my edu- cation wa; broken as often as I was called from the fchool of learning to the bed of ficknefs." His educition teems indeed to have been far from fyfteniatical. At the age ot t't:ven he was delivered in- to the hands of Mr Jehu Kirl-by, who exercifed about eighteen months the office of his drmellic tutor, and of whom he writes in terms of refpeiff. This man had been an indigent curate in Cumbeiland, and when for- ced by dilliets to leave his native country, he was in- troduced by his learning and his virtue to the family of Mr Gibbon, from whom he might have found at leaft a temporary fhelter, had not an adl of indilcretioii again driven him into the world. One day reading prayers in the parilh church, he moll unluckily forgot the nama of King Geiirge; and his patron, a loyal fiibjeifi:, dif- mitled him with fume reiudance and a decent reward. As our author defciibes his ancellors as hereditary To- ries, and fome of them as Jacobites, we think it not im- probable that M; Kiikby may have been accuftomed to omit the name of the King when reading prayers in the family; for other wife he would have pronounced it me- chanically in the church. Be this as it may, our author, upon the difmilllon of his tutor, was fent to Kingtlon upon Thames, to a fchool of I'eventy boys kept by Dr Woodefon and his aflillants. He does not reprefent himfclf either as happy or as having made great progrefs at that fchool. The want of ftrength and aiflivity difqualified him for the fports of the field ; his companions reviled him for the fins of his Tory anceftors ; and his ftudies were fre- quently interrupted by ticknels. After a real or no- minal refidence ol near two years at Kingfton, he was finally recalled (Dec. 1747) by the death of his mother. By this time he was well acquainted with Pipe's Ho- mer, the Arabian Nights Entertainments, Dryccn's Virgil, and a tranflatiuii ot Ovid's Metamorpholes , and the entertainment which he received from thefe books gave him a talle for defultory reading. After living a year with his maternal aunt, during which period he read many books on religious fubjefts too deep lor the coniprehenfion of a boy, he was in Ja- nuary 1749 entered in Weflminfter fchool, of which Dr John Nicoil was at that tiriie liead mafter. " There (fays he) in the fpace of two years, interrupted by dan- ger and debility, I paintully climbed into the third form ; and my riper age wa* left to acquire the beauties of the Latin, and the rudiments of the Greek longue. Inllead of audaciouily minghng in the fports, the (juar- rels, and the connexions of our little world, I was fliU cherifhed at hi-me under the maternal wingCif my aunt, who now lived in Ccllege ftrect ; and my removal from Wellminlter long preceded the approach of manliood." He was firil c^.rried to Bath tor the recovery of his health ; then to Winchefter, where he lived in thehcufe of a pliylician, then to Baih again, where he read with a cleigyman lome(>dts ot Horace and fome epii^ides of Virgil ; alt^r which an unfiiccefsful trial was made to re- new his attendance at Wellminfter fchool. "It might now be Ribbon. G I B Gilibon. be apprehendfd (fays he) that I fliould continue for life ^^^'^'—^ an illiterate cripple ; but as I approached my fixteenth year, nature difplsyed in my favour her myfterious ener- gies : ray conRitution was fortified and fixed ; and my diforders, inllead of giowing with my growth, and rtrengthening with my llrength, moft wcndeifully va- nillied. In confequence of this he was carried to Ox- ford ; and before he had accomplifhed his fifteenth year, was, on April 3, 1752, matriculated a gentleman com- moner of Magdalen college. For the honour of that celebrated uriverfity, ve would f.iin h'lpe that the account which Mr Gibbon gives ol Maidalen coll rge is greatly exaggerated. He reprcfen's his tuiors as wliolly regaidlels of his morals or h'i rtiidies. Speaking of the fiiftand beft of ihcm, for he had t«-o, he fay^, " N > plan crlhidy u'as recom- mended for my ul'e ; no exeicifes were picfcribed for his infppfti <n ; and, at ihe moll piecir.us feafon of youth, whole days and weeks were fiilF;red to elapfe witiiout labour or amufeiiient, without advice or accc'Unt," We fliall make no otl ei remark on this palfage tlian that from i>eruUnien, who mu:t have been conteiriponry with Mr Gibbon at Magdal-.n, we have received difier- ent accounts of the college ; and it is fuicly a very fin- gidar circumflance, that at this period of idienefs, our author fliould have become enamoured of Sir John Marfliam's Ceiion Chrnlciu, and have conceived the idea of wiiting an EJf'.y en ll:e age cf Sefojlris. Such, however, was the cafe. Not only was the tlfay plan- ned, but part of it was wriaeu ; and though he never finiflied it, lie declares, that his folulion of fome dilfi- culties in chronology was not devoid of ingenuity ; but he goes on to vilify Oxford. " It might at lead be ex- pe.fted (fay3 he), that an ecclefiallical fchool Ihould in- culcate the orthodox principles of religion. But our venerable mother had contrived to unite the oppofite extremes of bigotry and indifference : -an heretic, or un- believer, was a monfier in her eyes ; but (be was alnuays, or often, or foinellmcs (a), remils in the fpiritual educa- tion of her own children. Without a fingle lefture, either public or private, eitiier Chriftian or Protellant, without any academical fublcription, without any E- pifcopal confirmation, I was left by the dim light of my catechiirn to grope my way to the chapel and commu- nion table, where I was admitted, wiih'Ut a quellion, how far, or by what means, 1 might be qualified to re- ceive the facramcnt. Such alinoft incredible neglei!l was produiftive of the w.'rll milchiefs. From my child- hood 1 had been fond of religious difputaiion ; nor had the elattic fpring been totally broken by the weight of the atmufphere of Oxford. Tiie blind aiflivity of idienefs tjrged me to advance without aimour into 'he danger- ous mazes cf con troverfy; and,at tlieageof fixieen, I l)e- wildeicd mylelf in the errors of the chuich of Rome." Thus anxious is our author to account tor his recon- ciliation to the llf'mifh cliurch by the negligence of the tutors of his college. This e\eiit tui k place "n the 8ih of June 1753, ^ '"-'"> 't the feet of a priell in London, he fnltmnlv, though jirivately, abjured the errois o( hcrely. An elabora'econtr' V'.rfiki epilile, apji'^ved l)yhis direc- tor, and addreifed to his father, announced and jiiililied [ III ] G I B the f^en he had taken ; and the old gentleman, in the firft Gibbon. fally of palFion, divulging the fecret, the gates of Mag- ^■^"^'^^^ d.tleu college were Hint againfl the convert. It was ne- cclfiry therefore to foim a new plan of education ; and our young Catholic, by tlie advice of Mr Elliot (after- wards Lord Elliot), was fettled, on the 30th of June, under the root and tuition of Mr Pavilliard, a C;dvinifl ininider at Laufanne in Switzerland. He repiefeius his fituation there as at fird extremely uncomfoit.ible.. He could not avoid contr.Uting a fmall ch.irnber, ill contrived and ill fuinifned, with his eleDanc ap.trtnient in Magdvden college ; and M. Pavilliard be- ing ent-ulled wiili tlie management of his expences, he felt hinifelf dtgr.uled from the rank of gentl-man com- moner to that of a fchool-boy. He began, however, gradually to be reconciled to his fate ; and hit h've of reading reiurneJ, which, he f.^yt, had been chilled by the air of Oxfird. He rapidly acquired tlie I'rench language ; and of' his tutor, he fjys, " My obligations to tlie Itffons of Mr Pavilli.ird giaiitude will not futler me to forget. He was endued w'th a dear head and a warm heait ; his innate benevolence had altuaged the fpirit of the church ; he was rational, becaufe he was moderate : in the loutfe of his fluilies lie had acquired a jud though fuperfiiial knowledge of mod branches of literature ; by long pi aiftice he was fkilled in the arts of teaching ; and he laboured with affiduous patience to know the charafter, gain the atfedirn, and open the mind of his Englifh pupil." Under the tuition of lliis amiable preceptor he de- fciibes his progrefs in the French and Latin claflics, in hldory, geography, logic and metaphylic«, as uncom- monly rapid; and he allows to the lame man a hand- foiiie fliare of the iionoui of reclaiming him from the errors of popery. The vaiicus dilVriminaling articles of the Romilh creed difappeared like a dream ; and al- ter a full conviiftion, on Chridmas day 1754, l;e recei- ved the facramcnt in the church of Laufanne. Thus had our author communicated with three dillcrent fo- cielies of Chridiaus be!' re the completion of hi; eigh- teenth year; and as fuch changes from church to church are always dangerous, we need not wonder, that, in a mind fo ill fumdlied as Mi Gibbon's then was ftr tlie- ological invedigations, they paved the way for his lafl ch.inge to Deifm. At preieiu, however, he fufpended his leligi'His inquiries, acqiii^jfcing (ashefiy-) uith im- plicit belief in the tenets and mylleries wl icli ^le .dopt- ed by the general conlent ol Citholics and Prolclhiits. He continued t>'' prrfecnfe his d'ldics will) aulour. Under Mr Pavilliard he learned the Greek alph.ibct, the grammar, and tie pronunciation of tlie language acc>rding t" the French accent, and foon made hmifelt mader of the works of Homer, Herodotus, and Xeno- phon. Du'ing two winiets he ai'ended ihe private lec- tures of M. dcTravt .rrens, who exp'aincd theeKnients of algeSra and ge. mttry as far as the conic feflions cf the Martpiis de I'Hopil.il ; hut in traihenialiis hi was content (iefays) to leceive the palFive lir.prefllon ol his prolelibi'f leiftures, without any ailivc exercile ot his own powers. In the writings nf Groii\is and PufFcn- dorf he dudied tlie dunes of a man, the rights of a ci- tizen. (a) Surely always Anii fotiieiimis are words of veiy dilicrait import : vhy are ihey ufed then, iu this Icntcnce as fjnonymous ? G I B c 112 ] G I B C.i'iVon. tizen, the theory of juftlce, and tlie laws of peace and -^'^^^'^ war, which havs had Cime influence on the praflice of m'>dern Europe. " Locke's trealifj on government, (ffys he) iii!lri!vfled me in whig principle-, which are founded rather in reafcn than experience; but my de- light was in the frequent pcriifal rf Montefquieu, whole energy c{ flyle and bc^ldnefs of hypothefis were power- ful to a"al.en and (limuhi'.e the genius of the age." We have h;en thus niii:iite in our account of Mr Gilibnn's (Uidies, bec.iufe it furnifhe"; perhaps the mod nfefnl leflTun which cm be drawn from the whole liirtnry of his life. His educ;ition had been rendered irregul.ir, and had been often interrupted by ill-health and a fee- ble conftitutinn ; but as fot n as he was able, and had nn oppnitunity, he applied v.ith ardour to the cultivation of letters, and his works bear witncfs that his labour was crowned with fuccefs. " Tliis part of his (lory thfrefore (to ufe the words of Johnfon) well dcferves to be remembered. It may afl'ord uleful admonition and powerful cncouia;^ement to r:icn whofe abilities have been made, f,ir a time, ul'elcfs, and who, having loft one part of life in idlencf', are tempted to throw aw.iy the remainder in dcfpair." In the year 1757 Vtltaire arrived at Lanfanne, and our young (Indent's defire to fee the man who was at once a poet, an hiftoi ian, and, as he deemed liimfelf, the prince of philofcphtrs, was ardent, and eafily gratified. He was received by the vain and arrogant Frenchman with civility as an Englilh youth, but could not boall of any peculiar notice or diflincflion. " The highell gratilication (fays lie) which I received from Voltaire's relidencc at Lauiannc, was the uncommon circumftance of hearing a great poet declaim his own produiTlions on the llage. H'S declam.ation was lalhioned to the pomp and cadence of the old fiage ; and heexpreiftd the en- thnfiafm of poetry raihcrthan the feelings of Nature." Abi-'Ut this time JiTr Gibbon became enamoured cf Madenioiftlle Sufan Curchod, the daughter of the mi- iiiller of Craffy, in the mountains which feparate the Pays de Vaud from the county oi Burgundy. In terms of raptr.re he defcribes this lady as poli'effed of every ac- complifliment which could adorn her fex. She liftened to the voice of truth and pafllon ; her parents honour- ably encouraged the cor.nei5lion ; and our author indul- ged in the dream of felicity : but on his return to Eng- land, he difci veted that his father would not hear of this ftrange connexion, and that without his confent he was deftitute and helplef';. " After a painful druggie (fays he) I yielded to my fate. I fighed as a lover, I obeyed as a fon, and my wound was infenfibly healed by time, abfence, and the habits of a new life." The lady cnnfoled her(eU by giving her f.and to M. Neclcar, then a rich hanker of Paris, afterwards the miniller, and at lall one of the delhoyers of the French mo- narchy. In the fpring cf the year 1758 our author was recal- led to England. On his arrival in London he haftened to the houfe ol his aunt, Mrs Porten, who had been the guardian of his tender years ; for though his father was in town awaiting his ariival, he knew not how he fliould be received by a parent vvlio had parted with liim in anger, and g-ven him a ftepmoiher in his abfence. His receptic^i was more agret able than he cxpeifled. His father received him as a man and a iriend ; and the manners of Mrs Gibbon were fuch, that, after force re- fcrve on his fide, flic and he eafiiy adopted the tender Oiliho*. n.imes and genuine clriradters of mother and fon ; and, ^•^^'^'^ by the indulgence of thefe parents, lie was lei t at liberty to cnnfultliis own tadc or reafon in the cliolce of place, of comp.my, and of amnfeinents. In I^ondon he had few acquaintances, and hardly any Iriends ; and being accuftimied to a very fmall fociety at Laularne, he pre- ferred the retirement ct the country to the bulUe of that over-grown mctropoli;, where he found hardly any cntert linnient but in the theatres. Before he left Laiifanne he had begun a work on the (ludy of ancient literature, which was ("uggefled by the defire of juftifyir.g and praifing the objeifl if a favourite purfuit. " In France (f-iys he), to which my ideas wcve confined, the le.irning and language of Greece and Rome were negleifled by a philofophic age. The guar- dian cfiliof: (Indies, the Academy cf Inli^riptions, v.'as degraded to the loweft rank among the tliree royal fo- cietics of Paris : the new appellati-m of Erudils was contemptuoully applied to the fuccelfors of Lipfius and Cafiubon ; and I W'as provoked to hear*, that the ex- • .See Le crcife of the memory, their ible merit, had been fuper- Difcoun feded by the nobler faculties of the imatjination and the ^i''''""""" •IT V • • r 1 /•'"■ D'A- judgment. 1 was amiiitious ot proving by my own ex- ^ , ample, as well as by my precepts, that all the faculties I'Encychpr- of the mind may be e.verciled and dil'played by the (ludy dit. of ancient literature." Tliis laudable ambition conti- nued ; and in his father's houfe at Beriton in Hamp- fhire he finiflied his E/pti fur V Eliit!e de la Literature ; which, after being reviled by Mallet the poet and Dr Maty of the Britilh mufeum, was, in 1 761, publillied in a fmall lamo volume. The fubjeifts of talle, criticifm, and philofophy, which in this work came under our young autlior's confider- ation, could hardly proniife much novelty of remark. Some former obferrations, however, he appears to have placed in anew and pleafing point of view ; advancing, moi cover, fome ingenious cnijcflures, and difplaying no inconfiderable erudition. Yet, hyhisown account, he was at this time almoll a ftranger to the writers ot Greece ; and when he quotes them, it is probable that the quota- tions are given at fecond hand. To this efl'ay was prefixed a dedication to his f.ither in the Englifh language, v.-hich exhibits tlie author himfelf in a very amiable light ; but if his reputation had depended iolely upon this youth- ful attempt, the name of Gibbon would have been loft in oblivion. Yet he feems, even in his riper years, to have been deliehted with it himfelf, and to have confi- dered its merits a; equal to thofe of his later produc- tions ; but Milton, it is laid, preferred the Paradife Re- gained to the ?aradife Loft. Before the publication of this elLiy, the author, at his own defire, had been appointed a capt.iin in the South- Hampfhire militia, in which he ferved upwards of two years. At firll, the company o'i ruftic and illiterate of- ficers, and the buftle of a military life were extremely dii'agreeable to him, as they interrupted his ftuiies ; but he admits, tliat his military I'ervices, his bloodlefs and in- glorious campaigns, as he calls them, were, on the whole, beneficial, as they brought him acquainted with Englifh manners, Englilh parties, and Englilh principles, to which his foreign education and referved temper had hitherto kept him an entire llranger. In the cimp and in quarters he had even f amd leifure, after the fii It leven or eight months cf his fervice, to read a great deal of Creek, G I B CiiKbon. Greek, and to plan difFerent hiftorical works, to the '"^^"■'''^^ compoiition of which he feems to h;ive tliought lliat he was born with an innate propenfity. He always talks of hiir;f:;lf as a phllofopher ; but furely a more unphi- lofophical perfuafion than this h.is fcIJi-m been ad- mitted. Ai the end of the war he went again abroad, and reached Paris on the 28th of January 1763, only 36 days after the difoanJing of the militia, in which he had borne the commiilion of a captain. In that metropolis he ftaid not long. He vifited palaces, churches, gar- dens, and theatres, and was introduced to D'Alembert and Diderot, then conlidered as at the head of French fcience. From Paris he proceeded to Switzerland, and once more took up his refidence at his favourite Lau- fanne. Voltaire's impieties had forced him from that town to his own caltle a: Ferney, wheie our author onct vifited him, without (he fays) courting his more intimate acquaintance. The fociety in which Mr Gibbon mod delighted du- ring hisfecf nd refidence at Laufanne was a very fingu- lar one. " It confided of fifteen or twenty unman ied ladies of genteel families ; the eldell perhaps about tv/enty,all agreeable, feveral handfome, and two or tliree cf exquifite beauty. At each other's houfes they af- fembled almoft every day, without the controul, or even the prefence ot a mother or an aunt ; they weretrufted to their own prudence, among a crowd of young men cf every nation in Europe. They laughed, they fung, they danced, they played at cards, they a<5ted comedies ; but in the midll of this cnrelefs gaiety, they rcfpefled themfclves, and v/ere rsfpedled by the men ; the invili- ble line between liberty and licenticufnel's was never tranfgreffed by a gefture, a word or a look, and their virgin chaftity was never fullied by the breath of fcandal or fufpicion." We readily agree with our author that this fingular inflitution was exprelfive of the innocent fimplicity of Swifs manners ; and we only regret that he had not the fame refpect tor the ladies of his own country as for thofe Irolic females of Switzerland. He would not, in that cafe, have llained fome of his mod brilliant pages will) oblcene ribaldry. We (hall not follow him in his ramble through Italy, or repeat his remarks on the towns which he vilited. It is fiifficient, in fuch a fketch as this, to inform our rea- ders thai it was at Rome on the 15th of Ocftober 1764, as he fat mufing amidft the ruins rf the Capitol, tliat the idea of his great work firll (farted into his mind. But liis original plan was circunifcribed to the decay of the city rather than of tiie empire. From carrying even this contrafled plan into execu- li.n he was tor i'ome years diverted. On the 25th of June 1765 he arrived from Italy at his fithet's houfe in Hamplhire, and fi und that he had filial duties to per- form which inteirupted his ftiiJies and dillurbcd his quiet. His father had involved himfelf in difficulties, from which he c(;uld be extricated only by felling or mtrtgaging part of his edate; and to futh fale or mort- gage our author cheeriuily coiifented. He regrets on this occaficn that he had not " embraced the lucrative purfuits ot the law or of trade, the chances of civil of- fice i>r Indii adventure, or even the fat lliimbers of the church ;" and it is to be hoped that, when he thought even ofjlumierln^ in the chuich, he had dill feme taitii SupvL. Vol. II. C "3 ] G t B in revealed religion. He waded fome time in planning Oijbon. a hidory of the revolutions of Switzerland, and even ^■^~''''**' wrote part of it in the French language, which, by the advice of friends, he however fupprclfed. We neit find Lim engaged with a fiiend in a journal entitled 71/.-- moires Littrairrs Je la Gram/ Brelagne, of which two volumes for the years 1767 and 17^:8 were publifhed, and a third almod completed, when his friend, a native of Switzerland, was engaged, through his intered, as travelling governor to Sir Ricliard Woillcy, and the Journal v?as cf courfe, abandoned. He then entered the lids with Warburton ; whofe interpretation of the fixth book of the iEneid he attacked v>'i;l) great petu- lance and with much fucceis. The billiop of Gloceder was by this time in a date of great mcntil decay, which was peculiarly unfortunate for our author; for had his Lordlhip eiji)ed hU pridine vigour, he would probably have given Mr Gibbon fuch a chadifement as might have made him more moded alterwards wlien writing the hidory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. To th It great work he now fit down ferioufly ; and the hidory which he gives of his prejaratory dudies fufficientiy accounts tor the inaccuracy of his quotuions. Through the diiknefs of the middle ages he explored his way in the annals and antiquities of It ily by the learned Muratori and other moderns ; and feems to ac- knowledge that, from the beginning to the end of liis work, he frequently contented himfelf with authorities furnilhed at fecond hand. At lad, in 1776, the fird volume of his hidory was publifhed by Cadell the liookfeller and birahan the printer; and the fuccefs of it far furpalfed his expcfta- tion. The encomiums lavilhed on it by Dr Roberlfon and Mr Hume in letters to the author, and the fulfome compliments which thofc three eminent hidorians p^ij to each other, are melancholy fpecimens of lettered little- nefs and vanity. The fecond and third volumes ap. peared in 1781 ; the fourth, fitth and fixth in 1787; and Mr Gibbon's fame was edablilhed as a hidorian. I'he work was adiriired both by natives and by foreign- ers, and tranllated into feveral of the languages of Eu- rope. Dr Zimmetrran reprefents the author as ex- celling perhaps Hume and Robcrifin, who were hido- rians of the fird rank. " All the dignity ^he adds), all the charms of hiltoric d\le, arc united in Gibbcn : his peiiods are melody itfelf, and all his thoughts have nerve and vigour." This praiie, however, mud not be admitted without exception. Few writers, indeed, were pcd'efied of fuch popular talents as our hiilori.m. The acutenefs of his penetration, and the fertility of Iiis ge- nius, have been feldom equalled, and fcarcely ever fur- paifed. He feiies with fingular felicity, on all the mod intereding fai-^s and fituations, and thcfc lie em- bellifhes with toe utmoll luxuriance ff fancy and ele- gance cf dyle. Hisperiods aicfull and harmonious; l;is linguage is always well chofen, and is frequently didinguifli.-d by a now and pecidi.irly happy adaptation. His epithets, too, are in general beautitul and happy ; but he is rather too fond of them. The uniform datc- linefs of his dii-Tion fomctinics imparts to his narrative a degree of obfcurity, unlefs he dcfcends to the iniferable expedient of a note, to explain the minuter circum> dances. His dyle, on the whole, is much tooartificial ; and this gives a degree cf monotony to his peiiods, P vhich GIB [I (iibbon. which extends-, we had almoft faid, to the turn of his thoughts. A more ferious objedlion is his attack upon Chri- ftianity ; the looie and diiier[ic(5trul manner in which he mentions many pointsol molality regarded a? importarit on the principles oi' natural itligion ; and the indecent aliufions and expreirums which too ol'len occur in the work. An att;:ck upon Chriftianity is not ccnfurable merely as luch ; it may proceed from the purelt and nioft vir- tuous reotives : but, in th;:t cafe, the attack will never be carried on in an infidious manner, and with im- proper weapons ; and Chiiliianity itfeh, i'o far from dreading, will inviie every mode of lair and candid dif- cuffioii. Our liiiloiian, it mull be coi-feircd, often makes, when he cannot readily lind, an opportunity to infult the Chriftiaii religion. Stich, indeed, is his eagcr- nefi in the caufe, that he Itnops to the moll defpicable pun, or to the moll awkward perverfion of language, for the pleafure of turr.ing the fcripture into ribaldry, or cal.ingjefus aninipollor. Yet of the Clniliian religion has JNIr Gibbon himfelf obferved, that it " c( ntains a pure, benevcient, and uni- verfal fyllcm oi ethics, adapted to every diityand every condition of life." Such an acknowledgment, and from fuch a writer, too, ought to have due weight with a certain clafs of readers, and of authors likewile, and lead them ferioufly to conlider, how far it is confillent with the characler of good citizens to endeavour, by lly iniinuations, oblique hints, indecent fneer, and profane ridicule, to weaken the influence of fo pure and lenevo- Icnt a fyftem as that of CbriHianity, acknowledged to be admirably calculated for pre raf)ting the happiiiefs of individuals, and the welfare of fociety. Mr Hiyley, in his poetical Ellay on Hiftory, after a fplendid panegyric on the arduous labours of his friend, laments the irreligious fpirit by which he was afluated. Think not my verfe means blindly to engage In ralh defence of thy pi-ofaner page ! Though keen her fpirit, her attachment fond, Bafe fcrvice cannot fuit with Friendfliip's bond ; Too firm from Duty's facred path to turn. She breathes an honell figh of deep concern, And pities Genius, when his wild career (Jives Faith a wound, or Innocence a tear. Humility herfelf divinely mild, Stiblime religion's meek and modefl child. Like the dumb fon of Crocfus, in the llrife, Where force ail'ail'd his fatlier's facred life. Breaks filence, and with filial duty warm. Bids thee revere her parent's hallovi''d form (r) ! The part of the hillory which gave fuch offence to his own friend, as well as to the friends of the Chrillian religion in general, was the account which our hillo- rian has given of the progrefs and eilablilhment of Chri- 14 ] GIB ftianity in the two laft chapters of his firft volume ; in which he endeavours to piove, that the wonderful tri- \iniph of that religion over all the eflabliflied religions of the earth, was not owing to any miraculous attella- tions to its truth, but to five fecondary caufes which he enumerates ; and that Chrillianity, of courfc, could not be of divine origin. Several anlwers appeared on this occafion, written, as we may naturally fuppofe, with dif- ferent degrees ol temper and ability(c). Oiie of them, only, Mr D vis, who had undertaken to point out various inllances of mifreprefentation, in- accuracy, and even plauiarilm, in his account, did our hillorian tondefcend particularly to anfwer, and that in a tcne of proud contempt and confident fuperiority. To this Mr Davis replied ; and it is but jullice to obferve, that his reply bears evident marks ot learning, judgment, and critical acumen ; and that lie has conviifted our au- thor of fometimes quoting inaccurately to ferve a pur- pofe. At his other anfweiers Mr Gibbon merely glan- ced, treating Dr Watfon, however, wit!i particular re- ff eel ; but his poUhumous meinoirs ihew how much he felt the attacks made on him by Lord Hailes, Dr White, of Oxford, and Mr Taylor. To Dr Prieltley, who, in his Hijlory of the Corruptions of C!inf}ianitv, threw down his gauntlets at once to Bilhop Hurd and the hillorian of the Roman empire, and who prefented the latter with a copy of his book, declaring, at the fame time, that he fent it not as a gift but as a cbal- knge : he wrote in fuch terms as produced a corre- fpondence, which certainly added not to the honour of the dilfenting divine. At the beginning of the memorable conteft between Great Britain and America, our author was returned, by the interell of Mr Eliot (now Lord Eliot), for the borough of Lifkeard, and fupported with many a fin- cere and filent vote, the rights, though not, perhaps, the intereft, of the mother country. "After a fleeting illufive hope, prudence condemned me (lays he) to ac- quiefce in the humble ftation of a mute. I was not arm- ed by Nature and education with the intrepid energy of mind and voice. Vlncentcm Jirepttus, et nutum rebus agendls . Timidity was fortified by pride ; and even the fuccefs of my pen difcouraged the trial of my voice." That pen, however, was ufeful to the miniflry whom lie could not fupport by his eloquence in the houfe. At the i-equell of the Lord Chancellor and Vifcount Weymouth, then fecretary of Itare, he vindicated, in a very able manner, againll the French luanifello, the juftice of the Britifli arms, and his Memoirs yujiificatif, was delivered as a Hate paper to the courts ot Europe. He was rewarded for this fervice with the place of one of the lords commiflioners of trade and plantations ; and kept it, till the board was abolilhed by Mr Burke's re- form bill. For accepting this place he was feverely, but moll unjullly, blamed by fome of the leaders of the oppofition. Gibbon. (b) Herodotus relates, that a Perfian foldier, at the florming of Sardis, was preparing to kill Croefus, whofe pcrfon he did not know, and who, giving up all as loll, neglefled to defend his own life. A fon of the unfortu- nate monarch, who had been dumb from his infancy, and wlio never fpoke afterward, found utterance in that trying moment, and preferved his father by exclaiming, ' O kill not Crocfus !' (c) Dr Chelium, Dr Randolph, Dr Watfon (bifliopof Llandaff) Lord Hailes, Dr White, Mr Apthorp, Mr Davis, and Mr Taylor, the author of ' The Letters of Ben Mordecai.' G I B [ 1^5 ] G I B GiTjbon. oppofuinn, as if he had deferred a party in which he •^~"'^'^~' had never enlifted, and to the principles of which he was rendered inimical both by family prepoffelTion and by his own judgment. On the downfdl of Lord North's adminidration, Mr Gibbon was ofcourfe in the oppofition deprived of an office, without the falary of which he could not conve- niently fupport the expence of living in London, 'i'he coalition was indeed foon formed, and his friends were again in power ; but having nothing to give him imme- diately, they could not deta n him in parliament or even in England. He was lired of the bullk of the metro- polis, and fighed once more for the retirement of Lau- fanne, at which he arrived before the overthrow of the coalition miniftry, and where he lived happily till the laft years of his life. It was in this retreat that he wrote the fourth, fifth, and fixth volumes of his hillory ; and he left it only for a year to fuperinteni the publi- cation of thefe volumes in London. This great work being concluded, he returned to tlie banks of the Leman lake, but found his enjoyments damped by the dilfrefs and fopn aiterwards by the death oi' his oldelf and deareft Swifs friend. Laufanne had now loll much of its attradlion ; the French revolution had crowded it with unfortunate emigrants, who could not be cheerful themfelves or excite the cheerf ulnefs of others ; and the demons of democracy had begun to poifon the minds of the fober citizens with princijiles which Mr Gibbon had always held in abhorrence. Speaking of thei'e prin- ciples and their effedls in Switzeiland, he adds, " 1 beg leave to fubfcribe my aifent to Mr Carke's creed on the revolution of France. I admire his eloquence, I approve his politics, I adore his chivalry, and I can al- molf excufe his reverence for church eftablilhrnents. While the aiiftocracy of Berne protefls the hnpfyinefs, it is fuperfluous to enquire whether it be founded in the rights of men : the economy of the Itate is liberally fup- plied without the aid of taxes : and the magillrates mujl reign with ptuJencsand equity, fince they are unarmed in the midtl of an armed nation." It was againll the beneficent and mild government of Berne that the emilfaries of France contrived to ex- cite the difcontents of the people, by inililling into their fimple and untutored minds their own wild notions of liberty and equality. From the eflFedti of this Gallic phrenzv, which began to be very vilible fo early as the beginning of the year 1792, Mr Gibbon refolved to take ftieker in England, and to abandon, for fome time at leart, what he called his paradife at Laufanne. Dif- ficulties intervened, and forced him tn pollp'^ne his jour- ney from week to week, and from month to nicnth ; l)ut on receiving the accounts of Lady ShtfSeld's dc;ith, he haftened to adminilter confolaticu to his friend, and arrived fafe in London in the beginning of June 1793. He continued in good health ar,d fpirits through t; c vlioleof thefummer ; but his conlfitiiticn had luifered much from repeated att;.cks of the gout, and from an incipient dn piy in his ancle;. The fwellii g of his ancles, however, fubfided ; but it was only in confe- quence of the water flowing to another pl.ice ; and be- ing repeatedly tapped for a hydrocele, he at lafl ftink un- der it, and died at his lodgings in St J imes's Itreet, Lon- don, on the i6th of January, 1794- To draw a charaiiter at once general and jufl of tliis extraordinary man, would be dilBcult pcihaps to one who had enjoyed the pleafure of his acquaintance, and GibnltJ n-.uft be inipollible to thofe to whom his perfon was a ^•^~^~^ ff ranger. Of the extent oi his erudition there can be but one opinion ; but various opinions may be held re- fpeding the accuracy of his knowledge. Lord Sheffield, who knew him well, and loved him much, alfures us, that his converfation was iViU more captivating than his writings : but this could not refult from the brilliancy of his wit ; for of wit he declares himfelf that lie had none. His memory was cap.icious and retentive, hi^ penetration uncommon, and his colloquial eloquence ready and elegant ; forhat he could illuftrate almoft any topic of converfation from the copious (lores of his own mind. From his private correfpondence, and a journal not written for the public eye, he appears to have been a dutiful Ion, a loyal fubjc-a, and an affedlionate and fteady friend; but it is difiicult to reconcile witli fo much moral and political worth his unfair and unmanly fneers at the religion of his country. GIBRALTAR is a foitrel's of immenfe (Irengih, of which a very full account has been given in the En- cycl-.pad'ia. Nothing, however, is in that article faid of the natural hitlory of the mountain on which the for- trefs is built, though, to men cf fcience, that fubjeift mult be as intcrelling as a detail of lieges. This defect we are enabled to fupply by means of Mijor Imiie's miueralogical delcriptionof Gibraltar, which is publifhtd in ihe fourth volume of the Tranlaifions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh ; and, we are peifuaded, the fol- lowing abftraCt of that elegant memoir wiil afford ra- tional entertainment to many of our readers. " The form of this mountain is oblong ; its fummit a fliarp craggy ridge ; its diredion is nearly from noith to fouth i and its greatell length, in that dircdion, falls very little fhcrt of three miles. Its breadth varies with the indentations of the Ihore, but it no where exceeds three quarters of a mile. The line of its ridge is undu- lated, and the two extremes are fomewh.it higher than its centre. "^ " The fummit of the Sugar Loaf, which is the point cf its greatell elevation towards the fouth, is 1439 feet; the Rock Mortar, wtiich is the liighell point to ihe north, is 1350 ; and the Signal Houfj, which is nearly the central point between tliete two, is 1276 feet above the level of the fea. The wcftern fide of the mountain is a I'eries of rugged Hopes, interfpcrled with abrupt pre- cipices. Its nortliern extremity is peifeiflly perpendi- cular, except towards the north-we(l, where what are ^ called the Lines intervene, and a narrow paffage of flat ground that leads to the ilthniu", and is entirely cover- ed with fortification. The callern fide ct the moun- tain mollly confids of a range of precipices ; but a bank of land riling from the Mediterranean in a rapid accli- vity, covers a third of its perpendicular height. Its fiuthein extremity falls, in a rapid llope from the fum- mit of the Sugar Loaf, into a rocky flat ot confiderable extent, called Windmill Hdl. " Ttie principal mafsof the mountain rock confifts of a grey, denfe (what is generally called primary) mar- ble ; the different beds of which are to be examined in a face of 1350 feet of perpendicular height, which it prefcnts to Spain in a conical form. Thele beds, or ilrata, are of various thicknel's, fVom 20 to upwards of 40 feet, dipping in a diicdion from call to well, nearly at an angle of 35 dcijiees. In fomc parts of tlie folid P 2 luafi G I B [ ii6 ] G I B cn-raltar. mafs of this rock are found telt.iceoiis bodies entirely ^"^"^''"*""^ tranfmuted into the coniliiuent matter of the r( ck, and their interior hulloivslilled up with c.dcarcoui fpar ; but thefe do not occur oiten in iti cumpofition, and its beds are notfepaiaied by any intcrn>eci;ue ftrat.i. " The caves of Gibraltar are many, and foine of them of great extent. Tliat which moft dclerves attention and cianiiiia'.ion is called St Michael's Cave, which is htu- ated upon the fouthern part of the nicuurain, almoft equally diRant from the Signal Tower and the Sugar Loaf. Irs entrance is locoieet above the level of the fea : This entrance is formed by a rupid lloperf earth, which has fallen into it at various peiiods, and which leado to a fpacious hall, incrulled with fpar, and appa- rently fupported in the centre by a large mally tlala(5li- lical pillar. To this fuccceds a long feiics of caves of difficult accefs. In thefe cavernous recelfcs, the forma- tion and procefs ot ftalaflites is to be traced, trom the fiimfy quilt like cone, fufpcnded from the roof, to the rcbuft trunk of a pillar, three feet in diameter, which riles fiom the floor, -and feems intended by Nature to fupport the roof iiom which it originated. "'l")ie only inhabitants cf th.efe caves are bats, fome of which are oi a laige lize. The foil, in general, upon the mountain of Gibraltar is but thinly fown ; and in many parts that thin covering has been wathed ofiF by the heavy autumnal rains, winch have left the fuperfi- ces of the rock, for a confiderable extent, bare and ' open to infpeflion. In thofe fiiuations, an obferving eye may trace the efFefls of the flow, bu: conflant, de- compofuion of the rock, caufed by its expofure to the air, and the corn, lion tjf fea i'alts, which, in tlie heavy gales of eafterly winds, are depnfited with the fpray on every part of the mountain, 'i'hofe uncovered parts of the mountain rock alio (xpole to the eie a phenomenon worthy of fonie attention, as it tends cleat ly to denion- flrate, that, however high the furface o£ this rock may now be elevated above the level ot tiie fea, it has once been the bed of agitated waters. This phenomenon is to be obferved in many parts of the rock, and is con- ftantly found in the beds of torrents. It conftfts of pot- like holes, of various fizcs, hollowed out of the folid rock, and formed apparently by the attrition of gravel or pebbles, let in motion by the rapidity of rivers or currents in the lea. "Upon the weft ftde of the mountain, towards its bafe, fome llrata occur, which are heterogenial to the moun- , tain rock : the firll, or higheft, forms the fegment of a circle; its conve.K tide is towards the mountain, and it Hopes alio in that diredion. This ftratum confitts of a number of thin beds ; tlie outward one, being the thinnert, is in a Hate of decoinpolnion, and is moulder- ing down into a blackifh brov.n or ferrugmous coloured earth. The bedf, inferior to this, progrtllrvely increafe in breadth to 17 inches, where tlie flratification refts upon a rock of an argillaceous nature. '* This laft bed, wiiich is 17 inches thick, conftfts of quartz of a biackilh blue colour, in the fepla or cracks of which are lout»d fine quartz cryltals, colouilefs, and perfe<aly tranfpareiit. Thefe cryllals are comp'ifed of 18 planes, difpofed in hexangular columns, ternrinated at both extremities by hexangular pyramids. The largeft of tlicfe that Major Imiie law did not exceed one- fourth of an inch in hngth : They, in general, adhere to tLe rock by the fides of the column, but are detached without difficulty. Their great degree of tranfparency Gibraltas. has obtained them the name of Cfbraltar diamonJj." v^'v"^-' Much has been laid ol the folhl bones found in the rock of Gibraltar ; and the general idea vhich exills concerning them is, that they are found in a petrified ftate, and inclofed in the folid calcareous rack ; but this, fays Major Imrie, is a miftake, which could arife only from inaccurate obfervation and falfe defcription. "In the perpendicular filfures of the rock, and in fome of the caverns of the mountain (all of which afford evi- dent proofs of their former communication with the furface), a calcareous concretion is found, of a reddifh brown ferruginous colour, witli an earthy frafture, and conlidcrable induration, inclofing the bones of various animals, fome of which have the appearance of being human. Thefe bones are of various lizes, and lie in all directions, intermixed with (hells of fnails, fragments of the calcareous rock, and particles of fpar ; all of which materials are Hill to be feen in their natural uncombined ftates, partially fcattered over the furface of the moun- tain. Thefe having been fwept, by heavy rains at dif- ferent periods, trom the furface into the fituations abovi defcribed, and having remained fur a long feries of years in thofe places of reft, expofed to the permeating ailion of water, have become inveloped in, and cemented by, the calcareous matter which it dcpolits. "The bones, in this compofition, liave not the fmallefl appearance of being petrified : and if they have under- gone any change, ic is more like tliat of calcination than that of petrifaclion, as the moft folid parts of them ge- nerally admit of being cut and fcraped down with the fame eafe as chalk. " Bones combined in fuch concretions are not peculiar to Gibraltar : they are found in fuch large quantities in the country of Dalmatia, and upon its coalls in the iflands of Cherfo and Ofero, that fome naturatifts have been induced to go lb far as to aiierf, tlt.it there has been a regular ftratum of fuch matter in that country, and that its prefcnt broken and interrupted appearance has been caufed by earthquakes, or other convulfions, experienced in that part of the globe. But| of late years, a traveller (Abbe Alberto Foiti?) has given a minute defcription of the concretion in which the bones are found in that country : And by his account it ap- pears, that with regard to fituation, compofition, and colour, it is perfeflly fimilar to tiiat found at Gibraltar. By his defcription, it alfo appears that the two moun- tain rocks of Gibraltar and Dalmatia confift of the fame fpecies of calcareous ftone ; from which it is to be pre- fumid, that the concretions in both have been formed in the fame manner and about the fame periods. " Perhaps if the fiilures and caves of the rock of Dal- matia were ftill more minutely examined, their former communications with the furface might yet be traced, as in thofe defcribed above ; and, in that cafe, there would be at leall a Itrong probability, that the materials of tlie concretions of that country have been bi ought together by the fame accidental caufe which has pro- bably colleded thofe found in the caverns of Gibraltar. Major Imrie traced, in Gibraltar, this concretion, from tlie loweft part of a deep perpendicular frifure, up to the furface of the mountain. As it approached to the furfice, the concretion became lefs firmly combined, and, when it had no covering of the calcareous rock, a fmall degrte cf adbefion only leiimiucd, which was evi- dently GIB [II Gibraltar. Jently produced by the argillaceous earth, in its com- ^■"''^ "^ pofui.n, having been mollkned by rain and baked by the iun. " The depth at wjiich thefe materials had been pene- trated by that proportion of Qalailitical matter, capable of giving to the concretion its greateft adhefion and fo- lidity, he fnund to vary according to its fituation, and to the quantity of matter to be combined. In fidurcs, narrow and coiuraifted, he iound the coscretion polfef- iing a great degree of h-irdnefs at fix feet from the fur- fdcej but in o'iher fituatior.s more extended, and where a larger quantity of the materials had been accumula- ted, he found it had not gained its greateft degree of adhelion at double that depth. In one of the caves, where the mafs of concretion is of confiderable fize, he perceived it to be divided into different beds, each bed being covered with a cruft of the ftalaftitical fpar, from one inch to an inch and a half in thicknefs, which feems to indicate, that the materials have been carried in at various periods, and that thofe periods have been very remote from each other. " At Rolia Bay, upon the weft fide of Gibraltar, this concretion is found in what has evidently been a cavern, originally formed by huge unihapely mafiesof the rock which have mnibhd in toeether. The tiffure, or ca- vern, formed by the difiuption and fublidence of thofe malfes, has been entirely filled up with the concretion, and is now expofed to full view by the outward mafs leaving dropped down in confequence of the encroach- ments of the fea. It is to this fpot that ftrangers are generally led to examine the phenomenon ; and the compofition, having here attained to its greateft degree of Lardnefs and folidity, the li.ifty obferver feeing the bones inclofed in what has fo little the appearance of having been a vacuity, examines no further, but imme- diately adopts the idea of their being incafed in the fo- lid rock. The communication from this former chafm, to the furface from which it lias received the materials of the concretion is ftili to be traced in the face of the rock, but i!s opening is at prefent covered by the bafe of the line wall of the gar; ifon. Here bones are found that are apparently human ; and thole of them that ap- pear to be of the legs, arms, and vertebrce of the back, are fcattered among others of various kinds and fizes, even down to the f'malleft bones of fmall birds. Major Imrie found here the complete jiw-bone of a flieep ; it contained its full complement of teeth, the enamel of which was perfevft, and its whiteneis and luftre in no degree impaired. In the hollow parts of fnme of tlie large bones was contained a minute cr) (lallization c{ jviie and colourlefi calcareous fpar ; but, in muft, the interior part confided of a fpary cruft of a reddilli co- lour, Icarcely in any degree tranfparent. •'At the northern c;:ti eniity rf the iriounlarn, tiie con- cretion ib generally found in perpendicular fiJUires. The iTiiners tlicre, employed uprin tiie fortifications in exca- vating one of thnfe filiures, found, at a great depth from the fuiface, tw.) Ikulls, wJilch were fuppofcd to be Im- man ; but, to the Msior, tne of them, if not both, ap- peared to be too (mail for the human ipecies. The bone of each was perfedlly firm and f.ilid ; from which it is to be prefumed, th.it tl.ey were in a ftate of matuiity before they were inclofed in tlie concretion. Hid tiicy appeitained to very young children, perhaps the bone would have been more porous and of 3 kfs firm lex- 7 ] G I B ture. The probability is, that they belonged to a ffc- Gibraltar, cies of monkey, which ftill continues to inhabit, in con- '-^^— ' fiderable numbers, thofe parts of the rock w.hicli are to us inacceJlble. " This concretion varies, in its compofition, according to the fituation in whi:h it is found. At the eitreinity of Princes Lines, high in the rock which l^oks towirds Spain, it is. found to confift only of a reJdilh calcareous- earth, and the bones of fmall birds cemented thereby. The rock around this fpot is inhabited by a nu.niber of hawks, that, in the breeding fcalbn nefile here and rear their young ; the bones in lhi» concretion are probably the remains of the food of thofe b rds. At the bafe of the rock below K'ng's Lines, the concretion c;nr:ftsof pebbles of the prevailing calcareous rock. lo this cf.n- cretion, at a very confiderable depth under the furfac.-, was found the under parts of a glafs bottle, unconi- monly fhaped, and of great thickne.'s ; the colour of the glafs was of a darkgreen." M.ijor Imrie mak.:s an apology for givin<i fo minute a defcription ot thele follii bones ; but, in our opinio:;, the public is indebted to liim for billowing fo much at- tention on a fubjeft which all muft admit to be curi.i'.K, and which, from the ftrange inferencci drawn from fini- lar phenomena by m^'dern philofbphers, has become im- portant as well as curious. We cannot dilmifs this article without noticing the fubtciraneous galleriek conftruifled in the rock nut only for the proteiflion of the men during a ficge, but alfj for placing cannon, to annoy the enemy, in fitualirns inacceffible but by futh means. The idea of iorniing thefe galleries was conceived by the l.ite Lord Healh- fi;ld when governor, and by him in fomc mcafure, car- ried into executirn; though the plan was not com- pleted till lately by General O'Hara. Of thefe gai- leries we have in the Monthly il/rtij-jifH-' for April 1798 an animated account, which we Hull iruert in the wri- ter's own words. " The fubterraneous galleries are very extenfivc, pierce the rock in fevera! pl.ices and in various direc- tions, and at various degrees of elevation; all of them liave a communication with each other, ci:!:er by flights of ftepscut in the rock, or by wooden ftiirs mhere the paiFages are required to be very pjrpendicul.ir. " The centinels may now be relieved Juiing a fiege from one poll to another in perfeifl fat'cty; whereas, prc- vioufly to the conftruclip.g of thefe galleries, a vaft num- ber of men were killed by tl:C iipaniards while march- ing to their fcveral ftuions. I'lie width of thefe {; ti- leries is about twelve feet, their height about fouticcn. The roclc is broken through in villous places, both lor the purpofe of giving light and f ( r pl.iclng the guns to bear on the enemy. In dilT.-rcn: p.irt'. there are f|ia;i- ous recelfes, capable of accommr^dating a conlijeialjle number of men. To ihefe rcrclf-s they give names inch as St Patrick's Clumber, St Gjoigc'. H.iU, S:.;. The whole of thefe fingular ftiiicTures Iravc been form- ed out of the folid rock by blafting with gnnpcwdcr. Throup,li the politcncfs of an officer on duty, a plact called Smart's Rel'ervoir was opened for our infpcftion, which is a great curiofity, and not generally pciniitced to be fliewiT. It is a fpiing at a confiderable dcp;h in the body of the reck, and is above 700 feet above the level of the fea; wc defcended into the cavern tliat c-n- taius it by a rope ladder, and with ihc aid of lighted candles GIL [ II candles proceeded thrrugh ararrow paflage over cry rtal- lizcd protuberances ot ihe rock till we came to a hollow, which appears to have been opened byCtnic c<invuirion ot N.ituie. Here, from a bed of geii:t, arifes the falu- tai y fount, clear as the brilliant of the tall, and C( Id as tlie ilicle. We hailed the nymph of the grot, and, pro- li rating oiirrclves.quiircd hygean neijfir Iromher fpr.iry urn. AVlien rellnred to the light of diy, we obtained, through the medium of the fame gentleman, the key of St George's Hall, at which we arrived by a very intri- cate and gloomy path to the fpacious excavation, which is upwards of an hundred feet in length, its height near- ly the fanjc. It is ibimed in a femicircular pi:rt of the rock ; fpicious apertures are broken through, where cannons of a very large calibre command the illiimus, the LSpanilh lines, and a great part of the bay. The lop ot the rock is pierced through, fo as to introduce lullicient light to enable ) ou to view every part ot it. It appears alnind incredible that lo lurge an excavation couid lie toriJied by gunpowder, without blowing up the wiif'le of tinit part of the rock, and ftill more fi, th.U tluy Ihould he able to dire<fl the operations of fuch an initruincnt, fo as lo render it fubfervieni to the pur- p<>fe ( t elegance. We found in the hall a table, pla- ced, I fuppofe, for the conveniency of thofe who are traverfmg the rock. The cloth was fpread, the wine went round, and we made the vaulted roof refound with the accents of inii th and the fongs of conviviality." '1 liefe excavations are indeed very extraordinary woiks; but as the whole rock abounds with caverns, we willi that our .author had inquired more particularly tlian he fcems to luve done, whether iSt George's Hall be wholly the woi k of art. From one of the pafl'ages which we have extracled from Major Imrie's memoir, we are led to think that it is not, or, at leaft, that the concretion removed had not acquired the confidence of the more folid parts of the rock. If this v/as the cafe, much of the wonder will vanilh fince the [jick-axe and chilel were probably employed to give elegance to the vault, Knd even, in feme degree, to dirciSthe operation cf the i;unpowder. GIDKALTIiR, an ancient town in trie province of Veiie/.uela, in Terra Firma. It is fituated on the foulh-eaftern (ide of Maracaibo Lake. The country in its vicinity is well watered with rivers, and bears the bell qnalily of cacao, and very large cedais. The beft t'.panilh tobacco is made here, called T.ibago de Mara- caibo, from which the valurtble (nuiF is made, vulgarly called Mackaba InufF. The air, liowever, is ib un- lieaithy, that very few but labourers live in the town; the wealthier lort retorting to Merida or Maracaibo. — Morse. GILL, a new townfliip in Hampfhire co. Mafiachu- fetts, on the well bank of Connefticut river, a little below the mouth of Millei's river, on the oppofite fide, and named after his Honor, Mofes Gill, Lieutenant- Governor ot Malfachufetts. — //;. GILLORI, an ifland on the co,h(1 of Well-Florida, is divided from Djiijihin Wand by a narrow channel, through which a boat may pafs with lome difficulty ; End between Gillori and the main land, on the weft iide of Mobile Bay, there is a chain of fmall iilands, and oyfter (hells, through which is a paiUge of 4 feet called Paife au Heion. — ]l. 8 ] G L A GILMANTOWN, a townlhip in Strafford co. Gilman- New-HaiTiplhire, f )ulh-we(lerly of Like Winnipifeo- '°"'> gee, and 52 miles N. W. of Portfmoiith. It was in- '' corporatcd in 1727, and contained 775 inhabitants in ^i',',cr."^ 1775; and in 1790, 2613. — ib. GIMIIOL.S, are the brafs rings by which a fea compafs is fufpended in its box that ufually Hands in the binacle. GIRT, in timber- meafiiring, is the circumference of a tree, though fome ufe this word for the quarter of 4th part of the circumference only, on account of the gieat ufe that is made of it ; for the fquare of this 4tli part is elleemcd and ufed as equal to the area of the feftion of the tree ; which fquare therefore multiplied by the length of the tree, is accounted the iblid con- tent. This content, however, is always about: one- fourth part lefs than the true quantity; being nearly equal to what this will be after the tree is hewed fquare in the ufual way: fo that it feems intended to make an allowance for the fquaring of the tree. GiRr-/,//;,?, is a line on the common or carpenter's Hiding rule, employed in calling up the contents of trees by means of their girt. GIR^TY'j- Town, an Indian village in the N. W. Territory, near the head of the navigable water or landing on St Mary's river, where the Indians ceded at the treaty of Greenville, a trad of 2 miles fquare to the United States. — Morse. GLAUE Road, at Bonnets' tavern, 4 miles from Bedford, on the road from Philadelphia to Piltfburg Forks ; the fouthernmoll is called the Glade Road ; the northernmoft the OIJ, or Forbes's Road, and goes by Ligonier. Thefe roads unite 28 miles from Pittf- burg. In the Glades, a trafl of country at the entrance of the Alleghany Mountains, they cannot raife corn, as the earth is fubjefled to froll ifom Sept. to June. —ib. GL ADY Creek, a fmall dream which flows through the call bank of Little INIiami river in the N. W. Ter- ritory. — ib. GLAIZE, Au, a S. S. W. branch of the Miami of the Lake, which interlocks with St Mary's river. By the treaty at Greenville, the Indians have ceded to the United States a traft of land 6 miles fquare, at the head of its navigable waters, and 6 miles fquare at its confluence with the Miami, where Fort Defiance now llands. — ib. GLASGOW, a new county in Newbern diftrid, N. Carolina, taken from Dobbs' co. It is bounded N. by Edgcnnib, S. by Lenoir, E. by Pitt, and W. by V/ayne. — ib. GLASS Etching, or En^ravin^ upon, is in the ar- ticle Chemistry (Encycl.) laid to be a new art ; and as that acid which difiblves filiceous earth, and alfo glafs, was lirfl difcovered in the year 1771 by Scheele, one might naturally imagine that the art of etching with it upon glafs could not be older. By many others, as well as by us, it has indeed been noticed as a new invention; yet Protellor Beckmann, whofe labo- rious refeaiches have brought many things to light, has proved, that lb early as the year 1670 the art of etching upon glafs was difcoveied by Henry Schwan- hard, Ion of George Schwanhard, who was a cele- brated glafs-cutter, patronized by the Emperor Ferdi- nand G L A [ 119 ] G L O Glafs Ktch- nand III. abrut the middle of the lall century. At '"?• the tiine of his death, 1667, the lather praiflifed his art at Prao;ue and Ratiftcn. Whellier the fon followed the fiine bufinefs at the farre town', or removed to Nuremberg, is not very evident from the profellor's hiftory ; but in the year above-mentioned, fome aqua rcgia {nilroniunatic acid) having accidentally fallen on his fpecflacles, he was furprifed to find the glafs corroded by it, and become quite foft. He thus found himfelf in poileOion of a liquid by wliich he could etch writing and figures upon plates of glafs. Such is our inicrmation ; but if it he admitted (and it would difplay unreafonable fceplicifni to quellion it), Sell wanhardmulleiilier have improved the nitro- muriatic acid by fome means or ether unknown to us, or have confined his etchings to iome particular kinds of glafs; for ihe fluoric is the only acid, with which we are ac- quainted, that corrodes all glafs. (See Chf.mistry- Index in this Supplement). M. Beckniann indeed feems to think that he had difcovered the fluoric acid itfelf ; for in the year 1725 there appeared in a periodical work the following receipt for making a poweiful acid, by which figures of every kind can be etched upon glafs. " When die fp'irltus nhri per diJl'iUatioutrii has pal- fed into the recipient, ply it with a flrong fire, and when well dephlegmated, pour it, as it corrodes ordi- nary glafs, into a Weldenburg flalk. Then throw in- to it a pulverifed green Bohemian emerald, otherwife called befphorvs (which, when reduced to powder, and heated, emits in the dark a green light), and place it in warm fand for z\ hours. Take a piece of glafs well cleaned, and freed from all greafe by means of a ley ; put a border of wax round it, about an inch in height, and cover it all over with the above acid. The longer you let it ftand fo much the better ; and at the end of fome time the glafs will be corroded, and the figures which have been traced out with fulphur and varnilh will appear as if raifed above the pane of glafs." That the Bohemian emerald or hefphonis mention- ed in this receipt is green fparry fluor, cannot, fays the profefTor, be doubted ; and he feems to have as little doubt of the receipt itfelf having palled from Schwan- hard and his fcholars to the periodical work of 1725, from which it has been lately inferted in the CEkono- mifche Encyclopedic of Kruniiz. This fuppofition certainly acquires a confiderable degree of ptobability from the fimilarity of Schwanhard's method cf etching to that which is here recommended, and which is io diffeitnt from what is now hllov/eJ. At prefent, the glafs is covered with a vainilh either of ifingl.ifs dif- folved in water, or of turpentine oil mixed with a little wliite lead, through which the figures to be etched are traced as on copper; but Schwanhard, when he had draun his figures, covered them with varnifli, and tljen by his liquid corroded the glafs ;iround them. His fi- gures, therefore, when the varnilli was removed, re- mained fmooth and clear, appearing raifed Irom a dim or dark ground ; and M. Beckmann, who perfuaded fome iiiCT-nious artills to make trial of this antient method of etching, declares, that fuch figures have a much bet- ter effeift than thofe which are cut into the glafs. Before concluding this article, it may be worth while iuft to mention a propofal which has been lately made to employ glafs inflead of C'lpper for throwing off prints in the rolling prefs. That it is poffiblc to ufe glafs pUtes of great thicknefs for this purpofe, it would Olaaon- be raih to dtny ; but the liiperiority oi fuch plates to thofe of copper v.-e cannot conceive. If not broken in pieces in the rolling prefs, they would doubtlefs la ft l-.nger ; I- it the expence of them at firft would pro- bably be greater, and the engraving on them oukniit be fo fine. GLASTONBURY, a townfh'p in Bennington co. Vermont, having only 34 inhabitants. It hjs good intervale lands, and lies N. E. of Benningion, adjoin- ing. — Mone. Glastonbury, a hardlomc little town in Hartford CO. Connecticut, lltUited on tie eaft fide of Conneft'- cut liver, oppiifite to Weather.'- field, and of which it formed a part until 1690. In the townihip are 2 meeting hnufib ; and on Roaring Brook and otijer fmall Itreams are 17 mills of diffirtnt kinds and i forge. — ib. GLOSSOCOMMON, in mechanics, is a name gi- ven by Heron to a machine compofed of divers dented wheels with pinions, ferving 10 raife huge weight^. GLOUCESTER H-.u/c, belonginaYi the Hudfcn's Bay Comp.my, is fiuiated in New South Wales, on the N. fide of the waters which form a communication through a cha;ii ot Ini.dl lakes, between V.^inncpeg Lake and Albany river. Henley Hiufe lies N. E. of this, nearer the mouth cf Albany river, in James' Bay. N. lat. 54. W. long. 87. 30. — Mrjne. Gloucestlr, or Cape-Ann, a townlhip in ElTex co. Maffachufetts, whofe eail point forms the north fide of the bay of Mairachuf;;tts. It contains 5317 inhabi- tants, and is divided into 5 parilhes, and has befides a fjciety of Univeifalifts. This is a pi 11-town and port of entry. The harbour is very open and accelll- ble to large (hips ; and is one of the moll conliderable fifning towns in the Commonwealth. At ihe harbour, properly fo called, are fitted out annually from 60 to 70 bankers ; and from Sqnam and Sandy Bav, two fmall out ports, the bay filhery is carried on with gre»t fpirit, and to a large amount. Tlie exports for one year, ending Sept. 30, 1794, amounted in value to 229,613 dollars. Tiiaicher's Ifland, on which are two lights of equal heis»ht, lies clofe to the S. E. fid; of the towniliip, whicli is itfelf joined to tie continent by a beach of land which is very rarely overHnwed by the water. There is a very fi:ie white fand here fit for making glafj. The harbour is defended by a battery and cit.idel erefled in 1795. It is 16 miles N. E. by E. of S.tlem, and 34 N £. of B.illon. — ib Gloucester, the north-wefiernmoll townftiip, and the largell, in Providence co. Rhode- III ind, iiaving Connecticut on the well, and Malfichufetts on the north; and coritains 4025 inhabitants. — it>. Gloucester County, in Ncw-Jcrley, is bounded norih by Burlington co. fouth by S.dcm, Cuniberl.inJ, and Cape May counties, ealt by the Atlantic 0>can, and well by Delaware river. Its length on the Dela- ware is about 30 miles, and on the lea the line is .ibrut 22 mile--. Great and Little Egg Harbour rivers are both navig.ible for vclfels of 2CO ions aliout 20 milei from their mouths. The ilreiinis which f.dl into Dela- ware river are navigable for fmall velfels, a tew miles up from their mouths, and allord fome fhad, rock, herrings, and perch. Tlie adjacent iflands arc Reil Bank.^PcU, and Oid Man's Creek lOands. The firll of I GLU [1203 GOA of wliich is famous in ihe hiftory of the American faccharine, and fliglitly aftringent; 2. It is very fo- war, tor th? defpcrate defence the garrifon upon it luble in the fulphuric acid by excefs ; 3. It decrmpofes made, to prevent the Britifh fleet from paffing up to the ahiminous falts ; 4. It is foluble in the carbonate Philadelphia. The foil of this county is a mixture of of ammonite ; 5. Is completely precipitated from its faiid and loam, and the tradt bordering on the Dela- foliuions by ammoniac ; 6. Its affinity for the acids is ware is in a hi^h Ifate of cultivation. The chief pro- intermediate between magnefia and alumine. dnflion'3 are licef, poric, fifh, hay, corn, lumber, but- One hundred parts of beryl contain i6ofghicina; tcr, chccfe, ice. It is divided into 10 towiiihip';, viz. but for the befl method of analyzing the beryl, and of "Woodbury, Waterford, Newtown, Gloiicerter Town- courfe obtaining the earth, we muft refer our readers (hip, Gloucettcr Town, Deptfoid, Greenwich, Wool- to the article Mineralogy in this Supplement; and with, Egg Harbour, and Galloway. The firfl 8 lie (hall conclude this Ihort article with a valuable and jii- along the Delaware, and the other two on the ocean, dicious remark ot Vauqueliu's. Muiic-.-.s river divides this county from Burlington, " It almoft always happens (fays this able chemifl), and is navigable 20 miles for velfels of 60 tons. Mau- in the fciences of obfervation, and even in the fpecu- rice river riles here, runs foutherly about 40 miles lative fciences, that a body, a principle, or a property, through Cumberland co. into Delaware Bay, is navi- formerly unknown, though it may often have been gable for velfels of lOO tons 15 miles, and for fliallops ufed, or even held in the hands, and referred to olhef 10 miles farther. It contains 13,172 free inhabitants, fimple fpecies, may, when once difcovered, be after- and 191 flaves. There are found in this county quan- wards found in a great variety of fituations, and be ap- tities of bog iron ore, which is manufadlured into pig plied to many ufeful purpofes. Chemillry aflFords ma- and bar iron, and hollow ware. Here is alfo a glafs- ny recent examples of this truth. Klaproth had no h'uifc. Chief town, Woodbury, 9 miles S. of Phila- fooner difcoveted the different fubftances with which Jtlpl,i;^. — lb_ he iias enriched the fcience, but they were found in va- Gloucester, a fmall town in the above county, rious other bodies ; and if I may refer to my own pro- on the call fide of Delaware river, 3 miles below Phi- ceiTes, it will be feen, that after I had determined tlie IjJelphia. It was formerly the county town, but has charaflers of chrome, firft found in the native red lead, now fcarcely the appearance of a village. — ib. I eafily recognized it in the emerald and the ruby. Gloucester, a poft-town in Virginia, fituated in The fame has happened with regard to the earth of the crunty of its own name, on a point of land on the the beryl. I have likewife detefled it in the emerald; N. fide of York river, partly oppofite York-Town, 17 in which, neverthelefs, it was overlooked both by Kla- miles dillint. — ib. proth and myfelf in our tiift analyfis: fo difficult it is GLOucESTfR Ccunly, in Virginia, is fertile and well to be aware of the prefence of a new fubftance, parti- cultivated, bounded N. by Piankitank river, which cularly when it polftffes fome properties refsmbling leparates it from Middlefex, eall by Mathews co. and thofe already known !" Chcfipeak Biy, N. W. by King and Queen, S. and GLYNN County, in the Lower diftrift of Georgia, K. W. by Ycik river, which divides it from York co. bounded eafl by the ocean, north by Alatamaha river, It is about ^^ miles in Icnjth, and 30 in breadth, and which feparates it from Liberty co. and fouth by Cam- CTutains 13,498 inhabit.aiits, including 7063 Haves, den co. It contains 413 inhabitants, including 215 The low lands here produce excellent barley, and In- (laves. Chief town, Brunfivick. — Morse. dian c'^m, the llaple I'roJucc of the county. Tobacco GNADENHUETTEN, or Gnadenhutten, a fettle- is little attended to. — il, ment of the Moravians, or United Bre'hrcn, on Muf- CtU'V czsTiti Houfe, in the territory of the Hudfon's kingum river, oppofite to Salem, in the lands which B.iy Companv, is on the N. fide of Mnfquacobafton belonged to the M.thikan Indians. In 1746 it was a Like, 1 23 miles weft of Ofnaburgh houfe. N. lat. pleafant town, inhabited by Chriftian Indians, where 51. 24. W. long. 86. 59. — ib. were a chapel, milfionary's houfe, and many Indian GLUCINA (a), a peculiar earth difcovered by houfes. This together wltTi Schoenbrun and Salem V.iuquelin in the beryl and the emerald. Its general were referved by Congrefs, by an ordinance, Miy 20, properties aic as follows: i. It is \\hite: 2. Infipid ; 1785, for the Chrilli in Indians formerly fettled there; 3. Infolul)le in water ; 4. AdhelJve to the tongue; 5. Sept. 3, 1788, it was ref-lved that ihe plat of each infufible; 6 Soluble in the fixed alkalis; 7. Infoluble town Ihould make up 4,000 acres, and the grant was ill ammoniac; 8. Soluble in the carbonate of ammo- made to the United Bic.h-en for propagating the gof- niac ; 9. Soluble in almolt every one of the acids (ex- pel among the heathen. — Alio the name of a IMoravian Lcpt the carbonic and phofphcric apids), and forming fettlcment on the fouth-weft bank of Lehigh river, in falts of a lacchatine tafte ; 10. Lulible with borax into Pennfylvania, about 29 miles north- well of Bethle- a tranfparent glafs j IT. Ablbrbs one fourth of its hem. — ib. weipht of carbonic acid; 1 2. Decompofes the alumi- GOAT IJland, in the State of Rhode-Ifland, a tiout falts; £3. Is not precipitable by well f«tiiiated fmall it! jt, oppolite to the town t.f Newport, and on hydro fulphurets. which is Fort Walhington. The foi t has been lately The fpecitic charaifters of gUicina, which are united repaired, and a citadel ereiled in it. The fort has in none of the other known earths, are ; 1. Its falts are been ceded to the United States. — ib. GOAVE (a) This name was iftic propel ty being th given to the earth rf beryl by the editors of the Annaks dc Chemie. Its moft charafler- .u it forms (kits of a faccharine taile, ihey g.ve it a name derived from y\u%<i.iu, to render .!_-. 1 /'■ 11 _ -.1 l../^J. '-f) jh}:ct. According to this etymology, Ihould not the name be Glyina ? G O L C I Goarc li Gold. GOAVE LE PETIT, one of the weft juiifdiftions of the French part of St Domingo. It contains 5 paridies, is the unhealthiell part of the colony, the in- habitants being fubjeft to conftant fevers, occafioncd by the bacinel's of the waters. Its depenJencies, how. ever, are hcrilthy, and rcmnrlcable for the culture of coffee. Exports from Jan. i, 17S9, to Dec. 31, of the fame year; 27,090 lbs white kigar — 655, 187 lbs bro\»n — 807,865 lbs coffee — 50,053 lbs cotton — ind 210 lbs indigo. I'he town ot the fame name is fitu- ated on the narroweft part of the fouth-wellern penin- luk, on the north fide of the neck Morse. GOELANS, Point Au, a promontory on the north fide of Lake Ontario, about 33 miles fouth- welkrlv of Fort Frontinac. — lb. GOFFSTOWN, in HilHborough county. New- Hamplhire, on the weftern bank of Merrimack river, 3 mile^ from Amulkeag Falls, and 60 miles weft of Portlmouth. It was incoiporated in 1761, and con- tains 1,275 inhabitants. S me pieces of baked earthen ware have been lound in this townlhip, from which it is luppofed that the Indians had leaned the poctcrs art; but of what antiquity thefe remnants are, is un- certain. — ib. GOLD, the moft perfeft cf all the met-ih. See CHEMiSTRY-/«rt'fx in this Supplement. It has been a very common opinion among metallur- gifts, that tin has the property of dcftroying the dudi- lity of gold, on being melted with it even in very fm^U quantiiie' ; and Dr Lewis adds, that even the vapours which arife from tin in the fire, m ike gold fo brittle, tliat it f5ies in pieces under the h«immer. This opi- nion was c ntroverted by Standby Alchorne, Etq ; of his Majefty's mint, who made a let of experiments, which, in his opinion, authorife a very diifeieiit coiiclu- fion, viz. that though tin, like other inferior metals, will contaminate gold in propoitlon to the quantity mixed with it, yet there does not appear in tin any thing fpecifically inimical to that precious metal. As we iiave elfewhere fSee CHtMisxRY, n° 1091, ■ &c. Eri'ycl.) enumerated thefe experiments, and ad- mitted the conclufion drawn from them, it becomes cur duty, in this place, to Rate what has been urged againft that conclufion. M. Tillet, being in his own mind perfuaded that tin renders gold fo brittle that it cannot be reduced to thin leaves, and far lefs be made to pafs through the wire plate but by virtue of repeated annealing, and peculiar tre.atment, which gold of the ufual dmflility does not require, determined, trom refpeft to M. Al- choine, to repeat his experiments. *Mcnninof His firll experiment * confiiled in mixing 24 grains the Academy of fine gold with one of tin which contained no arfe- cf Sciences at pjp_ j^g Wrapped the grain of tin in the 24 grains of gold reduced to a very thin leaf, and placed the whole upon a piece of charcoal, fo hollowed out as to fupport the mixed nietil during fulion. He even fprinkled a Irnall quantity of calcined borax upon the met.il, in or- der thit tlie iufion might be more fudJen, tliat the metal might fl )w together, and the tin uinte with the gold, without allowing time lor it to become calcined. This alloy was fpeeildy fufed by the enamtllei's l.imp, and reduced into a fmall button without any lofs of weight. It was then flattened carefully beneath the hammer ; but, notwithllanding \\h utmoll precaution in SuppL. Vol. II. Paris for the year 1790. 21 ] COL this refpefl, it crackcJ, and at lad broke ii.to three piece?, its thicknefs then being a quarter of a line or theieabouts. He lepeated this expciimer.t with a double quantity as well of pure gold as of tin, and the relult was the f^me. He next alloyed 4 ounces of gold, of the flnerefs of 22 canus, with i grcs 24 grains cf tin deprived of ar- fenic, or, ia other words, with 4 pennyweights of tin ; and thefe two metals being reduced into fmall pieces, were mixed together, put into a crucible, and urged by the ftrong heat of a forge with two pair of bellows. When their tufion appeared to be complete, he poured the metal into a fmall ingot mould proportioned to the quantity. The ingot thus obtained had loft fcarcely any tiling of the weight cf the two metals that compoVed it; which was a proof that ti;e tin had united and incor- porated with the four ounces of gold. But on attempt- ing to bend the ingot, which was about fix inches long, and not more than two or three lines thick, he remarked, contrary to the nature of gold nf 22 carats, that it was ligid, and would have required a confider- able effort to give it any degree of curvature, or bring it to the flexlbdity it would have polfelfed if no tin had entered into its compoliilon. N it fatlsfied, however, with thi inference naturally Rowing from this circum- ftance, he proceeded to the proper teft by hammering, particularly with the edge of the hammer, in order that the bar might be lengthened, and by tliat means fubniitted to the moft declllve pi oof He did not ob- f.:rve, during the continuation (f this procefs, till the bar was reduced to about two-thirds of its fn ft thick- nets, that its edges were cracked, or exhibited much ot tlie appearance of brittlenefs ; but as he was appre- henfive that this accident might happ-.n by too long hammering, he divided the bar by cutting ( tf the p.irc which had been hammered out. This part was placed in the midft of lighted charcoal, in order that, by a moderate annealing, it might recover the (late of malleability it poifLiild before it was hammered. But when he went to take it out of the lire, where It had undergone no greater heat than a cheiry-red, he found it divided into two parts. After h iving fuflered iheie to cool, he forged them again. Tliey weie extended wiih conl'iderable eale, though with fome cracks at the edges ; but they did not yet fatlsf'y the whole of his enquiries. He theref ire annealed one of the two lall mentioned pieces a lecond time, and refcrved the other in its hard-hammered ftatc to be paffed between the la- minating rcUeis. T!ie annealed part, which might have the thicknefs of about a Ihilling, broke in the fire, though the heat was very gentle, into four or five por- tions. The longelt ol thefe porti ins, which belt refill- ed the aiftion ot the fire, bent and twilled itlelt", and Ihcwed, by this Rate of fin ng contra(!tion in diffe- rent dirciJlions, that it had tended to break and be. come divideil Into Imall portions, hmilar to thufe which had already fcparated from It. Satisiied by liiis experiment th.at the piece of the mixed ingot which he had kfpt in its li.immer-hardcn- ed lla'.e would not bear annealing, he determined to cx:end it ftill more between the rollers, fetiing them up very gradually, in order that the fraifiiire, if it thould take place, might be principally owing to the brittle- nefs of the material, and not to the force of compief- Q^ fioii Cold. G O L [ 122 ] G O L c,<M. (",on to wliich it was fubjeifled. By this management '^'"'""^ Jie fiicceetled in extending the metal to double its length nntwithfianding its hardnefs, ;ind rendering it as thin as ftror.g paper ; thoiigli the edges were cracked throu(;h tlieir whole length like the tetth of a faw. But this accident is not at all iurprifing, when it is confulered that grid, though alloyed limply with cop- per, whatever may be the caufe, does not poffifs its ufual diiiftility, particiil.irly when it is laminated very thin, ■without repeated annealing as tlie met.il becomes hard. Aware that the iiaiflure of the pieces of gold might be attributed to an incomplete fulion, or unequal mix- ture of the two met.ils, he melted tl.e whole ingot over again witli the utmolt preciution ; but in vain. The metal was as biittle as formeily, and would not bear annealing. He next fufed 6 ounces of pure gold of 24 carats with 2 gros, or 6 penny-weights of tin, taking every polhbie precaution to have the metals completely mix- ed. When the whole was in perfed fufion, he poured the mixture into an ingot mould, and obtained an in- got rather longer and cleaner than the two former. As foon as it was cold he forged one of its extremities with the edge of the hammer. It was lengthened without any perceptible crack ; and when it was re- duced to the thicknefs of one line, or thereabouts, he cut it oil for fcparatc treatment. By moderate anneal- ing it maintained its integrity ; and, with the excep- tion of a few cracks, it palled the laminating rollers without breaking. As he was fearful, neverlljelefs, that it might bie ik in fome part if he continued to la- minate it, he gave it a (light annealing. It had fcarce- ly acquired a clierry-rednefs between the charcoal, be- fore it broke into five or fix parts, fome of which were fimply bended or twilled, and others flat as they quit- ted the rollers. Among the annealed pieces ot this extremity of the ir.got, there was one fufficicntly long, thour'-h a little curled, which he laminated a fecoiid time, with the determination of rendering it very thin without the leal! annealing. It acqiiiied at leall double the length it had at aril with'iut breaking; and, if we except the two fides of this plate which were cracked, the body, or main piece, was entire. It was fpongy, and might be confidered as if formed out of an ingot of common gold containing no tin, but not polfeiring the whole of its natural ductility. " It follows, fays M. Tillet, from thefe experiments, that gold, whether fine or alloyed, when perfedly fufed with a fniall portion of the lineil tin, acquires liyidlty and hardnefs by the mixture ; that it lofes fomewhat of its dillingui'.hing coliur; and that it may, indeed, by careful man igenient, be extended to a certain de- gree by the hammer, or llill better by the rollers ; but that, as it cmnot be annealed without danger of break- inp;, it is by this deled deprived of the elfential ad- vantage of recovering its original foftnefs after it has been llrongly hammer-hardened. It is not but by careful manageni;nt in the ufe of the hammer, and by frequent annealing, that artills employed on works of gold and filvcr fucceed in obtaining them without cracks, and bringing them to a Hate of perfeflion, without being obliged to have recourfe to folder to re- pair the defedts which excelTive hardnefs under the iiammer would occafiun. How much, therefore, ought gold-workers, who continually have this metal in their hands, to be attentive to prevent the Introdufllon of tin in their workfhops, and never to employ fucli com- pounds of gold as are fubjei5l to break, or even to waip, while annealing? The cxpence cf refining, which they would pay for depurating luch compounds, w-ould be of lefs confcquence to them than the lofs of time required for the caretul management of fuch gold contaminated by tin, even if they did fucceed in ulin^ it, and were not often forced to abandon, after much labour, a work nearly Hnilhed. " If it be allowable (continues our autlior) to form coiijeftures on the caufe of the fradlure of plates of gold containing tin, when fuhjei5ted to the annealing heat, it may be prefumed, fince tin very fpeedily melts, while gold requires a ftrong heat for its fufion, that the parts of the tin intermixed in a fort of proportional equality with thofe of the gold, tend to feparate by a fpeedy fufion and at a very gentle degree of heat ; that tliey remain without confillence between the parts of the gold, while the latter prefetve the whole of their folidity, and do not lofe it even by the annealing heat: whence it feenis, that the parts of the precious metal, when ignited among the coals, Iiaving no longer the folid ccnnci5lion formed by the tin, but, on the con- trary, having an infinite number of fniall cavities occu- pied by particles of that metal in fulion, mull tend to difunion ; whereas the fame accident does not take place in the pieces which have refilled the annealing, and have been laminated after cooling, becaufe the par- ticles of tin have become folid by cooling, and have re- covered their original Hate of union with the gold. " This fraflure of the compound does not take place with an alloy of gold and copper, for an cppofite rea- fon to that which has here been explained ; namely, becaufe tliefe two metals require nearly the fame heat for their fufion. The effefl of annealing being there- fore equal upon both, the metals, notwithllanding this treatment, preferve their natural confidence, even tho' the heat be carried near the point of fufion." Gold-Leaf . See Golii-Le.At (Encycl.) where a full account is given from Dr Lewis of the procefs of gold-beating. In that article, we have faid that gold- leaf ought to be prepared from the fined gold ; but Mr Nichollon, who, in all probability, knows much more of the matter than the author from whom our account was copied, alfures us that this is a miilake, and that pure gold is too du<ftile to be worked between the gold- beater's fliin. The newell fkins will work the fincll gold, and make the tliinneft leaf, becaufe they are the fmoothell. Old flilns, being rough or foul, require coarfer gold. The finer the gold, the more dudile ; infomuch ihat pure gold, when driven out by the ham- mer, is too foft to force itfelf over the irregulaiities, but would pafs round them, and by that mean:, become divided into narrow flips. The finell gold for thispur- pofe has three grains of alloy in the ounce, and the coarfeit twelve grains. In general, the alloy is fix grains, or one eightieth part. That which is called pale gold contains three pennyweights of filver in the ounce. The alloy of leal gold is filver, or copper, or both, and the colour is produced of various tints ac- cordingly. Two ounces and two pennyweights of gold is delivered by the mailer to the workman, who, if extraordinarily Ikilful, returns two thoufand leaves, or eighty books of gold, together with one ounce and ils GoIJ. G O L C fix pennyweights of wade cutting?. Hence one book weighs 4.8 grains ; and as the leaves meafure 3.3 Indi- es in the fide, the thicknefs of the leaf is one two hundred and eighty-two thoufandth part of an inch. The yellow metal called Dutch gold is fine brafs. It is faid to be made from copperplates, by cementa- tion with calamine, without fublequent fufion. Its thicknefs, compared with that of leaf gold, proved as 19 to 4, and under equal furfaces it is confiderably more than twice as heavy as the gold. Nicholfon'j Journal, Vol. \Jl. GOLD River, fituated in Terra Flrma, on the iflhmus of Darien, fouthward of the river Santa M.iria ; affording much gold dull, from whence it has its name. — Morse. GOLDEN IJlar.d lies at the mouth nf the river or gult of Darien, in the province of Terra Firma, in South America, N. lat. 9". W. long. 77° 10'. — \h. GOLDONI (Charles), was born at Venice in the year 1707. He gave eaily indications of his humour- ous charadter, as well as his invincible propenfity to thofe Undies which have rendered liis name immortal. His father, perceiving that the darling amufement of his fon was dramatic performances, had a fmall theatre ere(5ted in his own hcufe, in which Goldoni, while yet an infant, amufed himfelf with three or four of his companions, by afling comedies. Before he was fent to fchool, his genius prcmpted him to become an au- thor. In the feventh and eighth years of his age, ere he had fcarcely learned to read correctly, all his time was devoted to the perufing comic writers, among whom was Cicognmi, a Florentine, little known in the dramatic commonwealth. After having well ftudied tliek-, he ventured to fketch out the plan of a comedy, which needed more than one eye-witnefs ol the greattll probity to verify its being the produdlion of a child. After having finilhed his grammatical Ifudies at Ve- nice, and his rhetorical (Indies at the Jefuit's college in Perugia, he wa'; fent to a boarding-fchool at Rimini, to ftudy philof^phy. The impulfe of nature, how- ever, fuperfeded with him the ftudy of Ariftotle's works, lb much in vogue in thofe times. He frequent- ed the theatres with uncommon curiofity ; and palhng gradually from the pit to the ftage, entered into a fa- miliar acquaintance with the a>ftors. When the fea- fon of comic performances was over, and the ailors were to remove to Chiozza, young Goldoni made his efcape in their company. This was the fird fault he committed, which, according to his own contelhon, drew a great many others after it. His father had in- tended him to be a phyfician like himl'elt : the young man, however, was wholly averfe to the ftudy. He propofed afterwards to make him an advocate, and fent him to be a praftitioner in Modena. An horiid cere- mony of eccletialtical juiifdiction, at which he was pre- fent, infpired him with a melancholy turn, and he de- termined to become a capuchin. His father, perceiving the whimfical, inconftant hu- mour of his fon, feigned to fecond this propofil, and promifed to go and prefent him to the guardian of the capuchins in Venice, in the hope that alter fome ftay in that extenfive and merry city, his melancholy fit would csafe. The fcheme fucceeded ; for the young man, induhnng in all llie fUhionable dillipatiou ol the place, was cured of his fooliih refolution. It was how- ■23 G O L ever necetTary for him to be fettled In fome employ. GnMonl. ment ; and he was prevailed upon by his mother, after ^■^"^'""^ the death of his father, to exercifc the prnfL-flirn cf a lawyer in Venice. By a fudden rcverfe of fortune he was compelled to quit at once bf^th the bar and Ve- nice. He then went to Milan, where he was employ- ed by the relident of Venice in the capacity (i fecre- tary ; where becoming acquainted with the rranager of the theatre, he wrote a farce entitled // GondfJure Ve- ne%iano, the Venetian Gondolier, which was the firft comic produflion of his that was performed and print- ed. Some time after Goldoni broke with the Vene- tian refident, and removed to Verona. There was in this place, at that time, the company of comedians of the theatre of St Samuel of Venice, and amcng them the famous actor Cofali, an old ac- quaintance of Goldoni, who introduced him to the ma- nager. He began thertfore to work for the theatre, and became infenfibly united to the company, for whiih he compofed feveral pieces. Having removed along witli them to Genoa, he was for the firlt time feized with an ardent palhon for a lady, who foon afterwards became his wife. He returned with the company to Venice, where he difplayed for the firft time, the powers of his geniu?,and executed his plan of reform- ing the Italian ftage. He wrote the Momolo, Courti- fan, the Squanderer, and other pieces, which obtained univerfal admiration. Feeling a ftrong inclination to refiJe f ime time in Tufcany, he repaired to Florence and Pifa, where he wrote The Footman of Tnuo Mnjlers, and The Son of Harlequin ifi and found i';;ain. He returned to Ve- nice, and let about executing more and more his fa- vourite fcheme of reform. He was now attached to the theatre of St Angelo, and employed himfelf in writing both for the company and tor his own pur- pofes. The conllant toils he underwent in thcfe en- gagements, impaired his health. He wrote, in the courfe of twelve months, fixtetn new comedies, be- fides forty-two pieces for the theatre ; among thele many are conhdered as the bell of his produflicns. The firft edition of his works was publilhed in 1753, in 10 vols. 8vo. Ashe wrote afterwards a great num- ber of new pieces for the theatre at St Luca, a fcpa- rate edition of thefe was publilhed under the title of Tie Ne-w Comic Theatre : among thefe was the Te- rence, called by the author W\s favouriie, and judged to be the mafter-piece of his works. He made another jouiney to Paima on the invitation of Duke Philip, and fiom thence he palFcd to Rome. He had com- pofed 59 other pieces fo late as the year 1761, five of which were deligned for the particular ufe ol Marque Albergati Capacelli, and confequently adapted to the theatre of a private cnmpnny. Heie ends the literary lite of Goldoni in Italy. Through the channel of the French Ambalfador in Venice, he had received a letter from Mr Zenuzzi, the firft aiftor in the Italian theatre at Paiis, containing a propofil for an engagcmeiit of two years in that city. He accordingly repaired to Paris, where he found a felcifl and nu.Ticrous company of excellent performers in the Italian tJieatre. They were, howevw, charge- able with the fame faults which he had corrected in I- taly ; and the French fupportcd, and even applauded in tlic Icahans, what tjicy would have rtprobulcJ on their Q 2 own G O L [ 124 ] GOO Goldonl wiflied to extend even to that he fpent his laft; days in poverty and dlftrefs. He died Goldoii!. own ftage. ^-^'"■''^^^ country his plan of reformation, wiihoin confuiering the extreme ditticulty of t!is undertiikln^. Scurrih- ties and jefls, which are ever accompanied by adliuns, gsllures and motions, are the fame in all countries, and almoft pert'edly undti Hood, even in a foreign tongue : while the beauties of fentiinent and dialogue, and o- ther things which lead to the undcrtlanJii;g of charac- ters and intrigues, require a familiar acquaintance with the tongue of the writer. The firft attempt of GolJoni towards his wilhed-for reform, was the piece called The Fat'.er for Love ; and its bad fuccefs was a fuffitient warn n^ to him to dclift from his undertaking. He continued, during the re- niiinder of his engagement, to produce pieceb agree- able to the general talte, and publilhcd twenty four co- medies ; among which T/ie Love of Zclinda and Litidor is leputed the Ijell. The term of two years being expired, Goldoni was preparing to return to Italy, when a lady, reader to the dauphinefs, mother to the late king, introduced hirn at court, in the capacity of Italian matter to the princelles, aunts to the king. He did not live in the court, but reforted there at each fummons, in a polt- chaife lent to him for the purpofe. Thefe journeys were the caufe of a diforder in the eyes, which affliifled him. the rell of his life ; for being accuftomed to read while in the chaife, he loft his fight on a fudden, and in fpite of the moll: potent remedies, he could never af- terwards recover it entiiely. For about fix months lodgings were provided him in the chateau of Verfailles. The death, however, of the dauphin, changed the face of affairs. Goldcni loit his lodgings, and only, at the end of three years, received a bounty of ico louis in a gold box', and the grant of a penlion ot four thoufand livres a year. This fettlement would not have been futficient for him, if he had not gained, by other means, farther fums. He wiote now and tlien comedies tor the theatres of Italy and Poitugal ; and, during thefe occupations, was dclirous to ihew to the French that he merited a high rank among their dramatic writers. For this purpofe, he negledted nothing which could be of ufc to render hiinfelf malier ot the French language. He heard, Ipoke, and converfed fo much in it, that, in his 62d year, lie ventured to write a comedy m French, and to have it reprefen'ed in the court theatre, on the cccafion of the marriage of the king, Tliis piece wai the Bourru Bknfiifant ; and it met with fo gieat fuccels, thjt tlie author received a foun- ty of 150 louis from the king, another gratification from tlie performers, and conll.ierable funis from the bookfellers wjio publidieJ it. He publilhcd, foon after, another comedy in French, called L' Avars Fa/hietix. After the death of Louis XV. Goldoni was appointed Italian teacher to the Princel's C'.otilde, the prefent princefs of Piedmont ; and after her marriage he at- tended the late unfortunate Piinccfs Elizabeth in the fame cipacity. The approach of old age obliged him to quit Ver- failles, and to live in Paris, the air of which, lels fharp, was better adapted to his conllitution. The laft work of Goldoni was The Volpoiii, written after his retire- ment from court ; from which time he bade a lading a- dieu to writing. Unfortunately for him he lived to fee m 1792, at a crifis when, according to the expreffion of a deputy in the Convention, the French nation was ready to repay him every debt of gratitude. Goldoni is on a par with the greateft comic poets of modern times, with regard to dramatic talents, and is thought fuperior to them all with regard to the fertili- ty of his genius. His works were printed at Leg- horn in 178s — 91, in 31 vols. 8vo. He has been ge- nerally called tlie Molieie of Italy ; and Voltaire, in one ot his letters to Marquis Albergati, llyles him The Piiiiiter of Nature. Goldoni is one of thofe authors whofe writings will be relillied in the nioft remote countries, and by the lateft pollerity. GOLDSBOROUGH, a prft-town in Hancock county, Dillrid of Maine, containing 267 inh.ibitants. It was incorporated in 1789, is the fouth-eafternmoft town in the county. On the waters of its harbour is the town of Walhington. It is 47 miles eafterly of Penoblcot, 188 fouth-eaft of Portland, and 330 norlh- eall of Bofton. N. hit. 44° nf .—Morse. GOLPHINGTON, the chief town of Wafliington county, Georgia, is fituatcd near the head of Ogeeche river, about 26 miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Occonee town, 37 fouth-weft of Augufta, and 50 north-weft of Louif- viUe. — ib. GOMASHTEH, in the language of Bengal, one cent. GONAIVES, a bay in the ifland of Hifpaniola, fouth-eaftward of Cape St Nicholas, in about 19° 33' N. \^l.— Morse. GONAVE, an ifland in the bay of Leogane, in the weftern jiart of the ifl.ind of St Domingo. It is 14^ leagues long, and uniformly about 3 broad, except a very fmall part at each extremity. Petite Gonave, an ille about 2 miles each way, is feparated from the fouth-ealt corner of the former, by a channel 3 miles w-ide. Gonave is 13! leagues W. by N. W. ot Port- au Prince; and its welt point is 33-^ leagues E. by N. ot Cape Dame Marie. — ib. GoNAivEs, a fea-poit in the fame ifiand, at the head ot a bay of its own name, on the north fide of the bay of Leogane. The town is fituated on the great road from Port de Paix to St Mark, 16 leagues foulh-eaft of the f Tiner and 15 N. by E. of the latter, Goldtbo- rougli N. iat. 19" 27' W. 1(1 from Par 30'. GONIOMETRY, a method of meafuring angles, fo called by M. de La^ny, who gave feveral papers on this method in the Memoirs of the Royal Acad, anno 1724, 1725, 1729. M. de Lagny's method of gonio- metry couiifts in mealuring the angles with a pair of compali'es, and that without any fcale whatever, except an undivided femicircle. Thus, having any angle drawn upon paper to be meafured, produce one ot the lides ot the angle backwards behind the angular point; then with a pair of fine compali'es dei'cribe a pretty large femicircle from the angular point as a centre, cutting the lides of the propofcd angle, which will intercept a part of the femicircle. Take then this intercepted part very exaflly between the points of the compalles, and turn them fuccellively over upon the arc of the femi- circle, to find how often it is contained in it, after which there is commonly fome remainder : then take this re- mainder in the compali'es, and, in like manner, find how bis penfionb cut off at the revolution, like others, and often it is contained in the laft of the integral parts of the GOO C 125 ] GOO Goochland the firft arc, with again fome remainder: find, in like manner, how often this lall remainder is contained in the former ; and fo on continuaJly, till the remainder become too fmall to be taken and ajiplied as a meafure. By this means he obtains a feries of quotients, or frac- tional parts, one of another, which being properly redu- ced into one fradion, give the ratio of the firif arc to the femicircle, or of the propofed angle to two right an- gles, or I So degrees, and coniequently that angle itfeif in degrees and minutes. We have givfn this account of goniometry from Dr Hutton, and frankly acknov/ledge that v.'e had never thought of it till we perufcdhis excellent Diftionary of Mathematics and Philofopby. To have omitted the method when pointed out to us would have been wrong; though we miilake much if mathematicians in general will not look upon it as a method of very little value. GOOCHLAND, a county in Virginia, furrounded by Louifa, Fluvanna, Henrico, Hanover, and Pow- hatan counties. It is about 40 miles long and 14 broad, and contains 9,053 inhabitants, including 4,656 flaves. — il. GOOD-HOPE, or Capu of Good Hopf, was ta- ken by the Biitifh, on 17th Auguft 1796 with very little difficulty. At this we need not be much furprifed, if to the difcontent which mud have prevailed among the planters and townfmen with the new order of things, be added the manners of the people. M. Vaillant, who was at the Cape during the laft war, when the garrifun expected to be every day attacked by a Bri- lilli fquadron, and when the people were not abfolute- ly difgufted with their own government, repreftnts them, however, as rendered fo completely frivolous by imitating the manners of their French allies, that though the place was flrongly fortified, it could hard- ly be expefled to hold out long againlla vigorous and well conduced fiege. "The females of the Cape (fays he) when I (liw them for the firft time, had really excited my allonifhment by their drefs and their elegance ; but I admired in them, above all, that modelly and referve peculiar to the Dutch manners, which nothing as yet had cor- rupted. " In the courfe of fix months, a great change had ta- ken place. It was no longer the French modes that they copied ; it was a caricature ot tiie French. Plumes, feathers, ribb'ins, and tawdry ornaments, heaped toge- ther without talle on every heid, gave to the prettied figures a grotefque air, which otten pmvoked a fmile when they appeared. This mania had extended to the neighbouring plantatitins, where the women could icarcely be known. A mode of drefs entirely new was every where introduced; but fo fantaftical, that it would have been difficult to determine from what conn- try it had been imported." At that time a French and a Svvil's regiment were in the garrifon ; and though the town was occupied only with warlike preparations, and though an attack from the Britilh tleet was every moment expcfted, the French otHcers had already introduced atalle for plea- fure. Employed in the morning at their excrcife, the French foldiers in the evening ailed plays. A part of the b.irracks was transformed into a the.itre ; and as women capable of performing femUe cliaraiftcrs could nut be found iu the town, they affigned thcfe pajts to fome of their comrades, whofe you:h, delicate features, GooJ- and frelhnel'sof complexion, feemed bed calcuhted to Hope, fivour the deception. Thefe heroines, of a new kind, ^-^^'^ heightened the curiofity <■( the fpe<51at"rs, and render- ed the entertainment llill more lively and intereftin.r. To add to the gerer.d ploal'ure, ladies of the tirft rank conlidered it as incumbent on them to lend to the miliury adl irs and aclrclfes, their laces, jewels, rich drelfes, and moft valuable crnamcnts. But fome of them had caufe 10 repent of their condc'cenfion ; for it happened mote th.in once that the Conntefs cf Al- maviva having left in pledge at the futtling houfe her borrowed decorations, the owner, to recover them, was obliged to difcharge not only the bill due ior brandy and tobacco, but all the other debts of tlie heroine. During the intoxication and giddinefs occafioned by thefe amufements. Love alfo did not fail to aft his part; and certain little intrigues v.ere, from time to time, brought to light, which gave employment to the tongue of fcandal, and introduced unhappinefs into fa- milies. Hymen, it is tiue, amidft thefe adventure., fometimes intervened to repair the follies of his bro- ther, and many miiriages, which reftored e"ery thing to order, were the rcfidt of his negoiations ; but the complaints, though (titled, did not lefs exill. The watchfulnefs of the mother was alert. The hufband, by fo much the more fecretly irritated as he faw him- feif obliged to conceal his jealoufy, curfed in his heart both aftors and theatie; while the matronly part rf the community, lefs on the referve, declaimed with bit- ternefs againll the licentioufnefs that prevailed, which they wholly imputed to this mode of theatrical enter- tainment. At iaii, to the great mortification of the young, but to the high fatisfaclion of the old women and hufoauds, the theatre was on a fudden fliut up. The caufe that effected this was altogether foreign to the complaints that were made, and of a nature that it was impoffible to torefee. Two of the French actors, who, it mull be remembered, were oihcers in the army, thought prcjier to imitate the paper money of the company, and to put their forged notes in circulation. The forgery was detected, and traced to its authors ; the two theatrical herc'cs were banifncd from theC.ipe ; and the Coit:pany,alhamed of the adventure, dared nei- ther feek others to fupply thi; vacant p!ace>, nor re- fume their ihige entertainments. Into.\icating as were thefe pleafures, governrr.ent meanwhile had not been inattentive to the d.ir.ger wh'ch threatened the colony. As they daily espeileJ to be attacked l>y the Britilli fiect, they had increafcJ the means ot dettnce, and ordered difi'crcnt works and new fortifications to be contlnicled. At tirll, the bufinefi was cairied on with aflivity and ardour; hecnufe the inhabitants, inllig.itcd by their private intered, which was then conlidetcd as involved with that of the public, had voluntarily olfered their fervices, and mingled with the workmen. Voung and old, folJiers and magiftrutes, (iillors and plinter;, all folicited the honour of co-operating for the gcner.d good and common faftty. To behold this hete- rogeneous multitude — fome lo.ideil with pick-ave.i, and Ibme with Ipade^, or other limilar implement!- — marching out in the morning from the town, ard pro- ceeding in high i'piiits to the new furiificaiion£, was a fight truly adnuiublc. But GOO [ 126 ] GOO (iond- But tills patriotic fervcnir was of no long conti- ''"i'c- niKincc. Under pretence < f Iparing their ftrcngtii, and ■^^^^^ t!'..-t ihev might not we.iry thennfelves to no purpofe, they fonn cnifed tlieir llave? to follow them with the tools and inllrurnents. In a lit'le time they contented then}ft;lves wi'h fending their fl.ives only ; and at l.ill thefe fubllitutes themfelves, in imitation of their maf- teis, or perhaps by their fccret orders, g ive ovrr going alto. I'heir enthuliafm, in (lion, from the tirft mo- ment of its brcaiiing out till the period when it was thus entirely cooled, had been tlie affair of fomething L-l's than a fortnight. This tade for frivolity 'vhich, almoft twenty years ago, wa; introduced among the Dutch in Cape-town by their g.iod friends the French, fpread rapidly thro' the planiers, who are thus defcribed by M. Vailknt, who certainly luid the bell opportunities of knowing them. The planters of the Cnpe may be divije-l into three clalfes ; thofe who relide in the vicinity of the Cape, within a dirtance of five ur fix leagues ; thofe who live farther cfi in the interior parts of the colony ; and lallly, thoff who, more diftant Hill, are f mnd at the Citremity of the frontiers among the Hottentots. The firft, who are opulent proprietors, and have handfome country houfe., may be likened to what was lormerly called in France pctits fcigneun terriers, and differ extremely from the other planters in eafe and luxury, and particularly in their manners, which are hauE;hty and d fdainful. Such is the refult of wealth. The fccond, fimple, kind, hofpitable, are cultivators, who live upon the i'ruits of their labour. Here we have nn example of the good effefts of mediocrity. The lall, pour enough, yet too indolent to derive fubfiftence from the foil, have no other ref lurce than the produce of fome cattle, which they feed as they can. Like the Beduin Arabs, they think much of the trouble of driving them from canton to canton, and from one padur.Hge to another. This wandering life prevents them from building any iettled habitations. When iheir flocks oblige them to i' journ for a while in the fame place, they conftruifl, in hafte, a rude kind of hut, whicli they cover with marts, alter the manner of the Houenti.tf, whofe cuftoms they have adopted, and from whrm they in no rei'peft differ, but in their com- plexion and features. And here the evil is, that tliere is no precife fituation in facial life to which thefe mi- ferable beings belong. Thefe fl'iggilh tribes are held in horror by their in- duftrious neighbours, who dread their approach, and remove as far from them as ihey can; becaufe, having no property of their own, they (leal without fcruple that of others, and, when in want of pallurage for their cattle, conduft them fecretly to the firft cultivated piece of ground that comes in their way. They flat- ter themfelves they ihall not be dilcovered, and they remain till every thing is devoured. It deteiffed in their thefts, fquabbles and contentions enfue, and af- terwards a fuit at law, in which recourfe is had to the magirtrate, and which commonly terminates in mak- ing three men enemies, the robber, the perfon robbed, and the judge. N'^thing can be fo mean and cringing as the conduft of the full defcription of planters, ivhan they have any thing to tranfad with the princip*! otficers of the com- pany, who may have fome influence over their lot ; and nothing fo abfurdly vain and lb fuperlatively inlolent as their behaviour toperl'ons irom whom Uiey have no- thine to hope and nothing to fear. Proud of their wealtli, fpoiled iiy refiding near a town, from whence they have imbibed only a luxury that has corrupted, and vices that have degraded them, it is particularly to- wards ftrangers that they exercife their furly and piti- ful arrogance. Though neighbours to the planien who inhabit the interior of the country, you mull not fuppofe they regard them as brethren ; on the contrary, in the true fpiiit of contempt, they have given them the name of Rauw-boer, a word anfwering to the low- ed defcription of clown. Accordingly, when thefe honelf cultivators come to the town upon ;iny kind of bufinefs, they never Hop by the way at the houfes of the gentry of whom we are fpeaking ; they know too ■well the infulting m;inner in wh;ch they would be re- ceived. One might fuppofe them to be tvi'o inimical nations, always at war, and of whom fome individuals only met at dlllant intervals, upon bufinefs that related to their mutual interells. What is the more difgufting in the infolence of thefd Africans is, that the majority of them are defcended from that corrupt race of men, taken from prifons and hofpitals, whom the Dutch company, defrrous of form- ing a fettlement at the Cape, fent thither to begin, at their rifk and peril, the population of the country. This (hameful emigration, of which the period is not fo remote but that many circumftances of it are re- membered, ought to render particularly modell thofe who are in the moll dillant manner related to it. On the contrary, it is this very idea that moft contributes to their arrogance ; as if they flattered themfelves that, under the guife of fupercilious manners, tliey could hide the abjejlnefs of their origin. If a flranger ar- rives at the Cape with the defign of remaining and fettling there, they conceive him to be driven from his country by the fame wretched circumftances which formerly baniihed their fathers, and they treat him with the moft fovereign contempt. This melancholy failing is the more to be lamented, as the contagion has fpread through almoft every refi- dence about the Cape, which is in reality a very charm- ing canton. Embellilhed by cultivation, by its nume- rous vineyards and pleadint country houfes, it every- where exhibits fo varied and delicious a profpe>ff, that, were it occupied by other inhabitants, it would excite no fenfations b it thofe of pleafure. As we advance into the country, the planters are a fort of farmers; and conftitute, by their manners, cuf- toms, and occupations, a clafs by themfelves, perfe(5fly diftinil from that we have been defcribing. Situated farther from the Cape, and, of confequence, not ha- ving the fame opportunities for difpoling of their com- modities, they are lefs rich than the firft. We fee a- mong them none of thofe agreeable country houfes, which, placed at different diftances from the town, em- bcllllh the country as we pais, and afford fuch charm- ing profpcifls. Their habitation, which is about the fr/c of a large coach-houfe, is covered with thatch, and divided into three rooms by means of two partitions, which reach only to a certain height. The middle a- partmenl, in which is the entrance to the houfe, ferves at once both as a parlour and eating room. It is there that Hope. GOO [ 127 ] GOO Good- that the family refide dininp; the day, and that they Hope, receive their tea and other vilitors. OF the two other rooms, orie forms a chamber for the m;ile children, and the other for the females, with the father and mother. At the back of the middle apartment is a farther room ferving for a kitchen. The reft of the building con- fift.s of barns and ftables. Such is the dirtribution which is generally followed in the interior plantations of tlie colony ; but nearer to the frontiers, where there does not prevail the fame eafe of clrcumftances, the habitations are much lefs commodious. They are merely a barn, confifting of a fingle mom, witlioiu any diviiion, in which the wliole family live together, without feparating, either day or night. They fleep upon flieep ikins, which fcrve them alfo for covering. The drefs of thefe planters is finiple and ruftic. That of the men confills of a check (liirl, a waiftcoat wich fleeves, a large pair of trowfers, and a hat half un- looped. The women have a petticoat, a jacket fitted to their fliape, and a little round bonnet of mullin. Un- lefs upon extraordinary occafions, neither fex wear {lockings. During a part ot the year, the women even walk with their feet qiiite naked. The occupa- tions of the men require that theirs fliould have forne covering; and this covering they make from a piece oi the hide of an ox, applied and lliaped to the foot foon after the animal is killed, and while tlie hide is yet frelh. Thefe fandals are the only article of their drefs which they make themlelves ; the reft is the bulinefs of the women, who cut out and prepare their wliole ward- robe. Though the equipment we have mentioned con- ftitute the every day drefs of the planter, he has, how- ever, a coat of handfome blue cloth, which he wears upon days ot gala and ceremony. He has then alfu ftockings and ihnes, and is drefled exaiflly like an European, But this finery never makes its appear- ance but when he goes to the Cape ; and then, in- deed, is not put on till he arrives at the entrance of the town. It is commonly in thefe journeys that they purcliafe fuch things as they may want to refit their wardrobe. There is, at the Cape, as well as in Paris and Londoi:, a fpecies of old-clothes-men, who deal in commodities c^i this fort ; and who, from their enormous profits, and the extortion they i:ra(flire, they have obtained the name ot C'^fe Smou/e, or Cape Jews. Thefe traffick- ers contrive, at all times, to iell their goods at a dear rate; but they vary their price in proportion as tlieir llock is great or fmall ; of courfe they bear no fixed price; and tlie planter who comes frfm thedcfcit, and who can underlland but little of tliis Hii<Suation, is fure to be duped. On the other hand, the regular fliopkceper, who knows the piobity of thefe faimers, and how piinftual they are in the payment of their debts, exerts every ef- fort to prevail on thtm to open an account with him. He tempts them by tiie pretended cheap price and ex- cellent quality of his ftiiifb, and olfjrf to remit the pay- ment till their next journey in the folkuving year. It is fdJom that thefe people, fimple and uiicxperienced as they are, perceive the craft th.it i> prcfcna-d to tliem under this guile of kindncfs and civiliiy. It they luf- fer themlelves to be prevailed upon, they are fliacklcd for life. Upon their return, there are new purch.ifes to be made upon the fame conditions ; and thus, year after year, always in debt, always buying without prompt payment, they become the prey ot an extor- tioner, who raifcs to himfelf a fortune out of their weakncfs. It is true, thefe buyers, after being thus duped at the Cape, commonly return home only to make dupes of others. The cunning that has been employed to deceive them, they employ in iheir turn to tempt the Hottciitois who arc in their feivice. The remnants of ilulf, or the frippery garments which they bring back, are f>ld to thefe untoriunate fcivants with fo great a profit, that commonly the wages of a year are inade- quate to the payment, and ihcy find themfelves, like their matters, in debt for the year iliat is to come. In the end, therefore, it is the poor Hottentot that pays for the extortion at the C ipe. Cuftom has rendered the planters infenfible to the want of fruit and pnhc, th(-ugli the foil is admirably adapted to llie culuvatioii of both. The facility with which they rear their cntlc makes up for this priva- tion, as ttieir fircks attord them plenty of provifion. Tile chief food is mutton ; and their tables are loaded will] fuch prolufion as to dilguft one at the ligh.t. Good- Hope. Ficm this mode of liv cattle ate in the colonies, as in other places, not only a ufctul objefl, but an ar- ticle of the firll neceflity. The planter undertakes himfelf the care of watching over his flocks. Every evening, when they return from the field, lie (lands at his door, with a Hick in his hand, and counts them over one by one, in order to be fure that none of them are milhiig. People who have no other employment than a little agriculture, and the fupeiintendance of a Hock, mu:l have long intervals of idlcnefs. It is thus with the planters, particularly ihofc who live in the interior parts of the country, and who being unable, on account of their diftance from the Cape, to difpofe of their corn, never raife more than is luUicient tor their own con- fumption. Fr; m the profound inadion in which they live, one would fuppofe their fupreme felicity to confill in doing nothing. They fometimes, however, vifit each other ; and upon thefe occafions the day is fpent in fnioking, and drinking tea, and in telling, or lillen- ing to t.dcs of romance, that are equal neither in merit nor morality to the (lory of Bhie-bcard. As every man always carries with hinr, wherever he goes b ih a pii'o, and a lobicco pouch made of the ikin of the fcacalf, he is fure in ihcfe vifits to have one fource of amufement. When any one of the company is defirt us of lighting his pipe, he takes out his jroucii, and, having filled, padcs it to the rell. Tliis is a civi- lity that is never omitted. However numerous may be the party, every body fmckcs : the coi:/(:qucncc of which is a cloud, that, riling at firft t:) the upper pari of the room, incre.ifes, by degrees, till it fills the whole houfc, and becomes at lall lb thick, llut it ii inipollJble tor the fniokers to fee one another. Wlicn a llranger travelling through the country !• received by the mailer of a houfc, he iuftantly btcomes a ineiTiber of the family. Accuilomed to a domcHic life, th.e planters delight in the lies of aflinity, amlcoa- fidcr in the light of a relative every perfon whrnn they live Upon entering a hiuife, the form of fihit.'*- tiun ii, to lliake hands firll with the rr.uller, and then with GOO [ 128 ] G R A Good- with every male perfnn !n the cofnpnny arrivjJ at Hope years of maturiiv. It there happens t(i be any one _ X whom we do not like, the h^ind is rci'iil'cd to lilir ; and Ooofcberry , . r /- 1 r .- a • .-,•■..,' \,^~y~^ this riiliil.il, or lo common alcUimony of Incndllnp, is lookeil upon as a fi'rnial declaration that llie vilitor confiders him as his enemy. It is not the fame wih the fjmiles in the company. They are all embraced one after another, and to make an exception would be a fignal affront. Old or young, all mnll be killed. It is a benefice with the duties attached to it. At whatever time of the day you enter the houfe of a planter, you are fure to find the kettle and tea-tliings upon the table. This prai5tice is univerfal. Tlie in- habitants never drink pure water. If a llranger pre- fents himleli, it is ica they oiRr him for rcfrelhment. This is their common liquor in the interval < f meals, .Tnd in one lisaf rn of the year, when it often happens that they have neither beer nor wine, is their only be- verat;e. If a ftrangcr arrives at dinner-time before the cloth is taken awa), he Ih tkes hands, embraces, and immediate- ly feats hinifelf at the table. If he wilhes to pafs the nlglit, he (lays without ceremony, fmokes, drinks tea, allis the news, gives them all he knows in his turn ; and the next djy, the kilFmg and fhaking hands being repeated, he goes on his way, to perform eUewhere the fame cereminiy. To olFer money on thefe occafions would be regarded as an ini'ult. Thefe particulars of a people, whnfe condition it is to be hoped that the generofity of the Britilh charac- ter, and the mlldnefs of the Britidi government, will gradujlly meliorate, cannot but be acceptable to many of cur readers. We (hall, therefore, make no apology for the length of this article. GOOSE Creek, a river which falls into Potowmac river, about a mile fouth-eaft of Thorpe, in Fairfax county, Virginia. — Morse. GOOSEBERRY Mountain, in New- York State, lies on the wed bank of Huufon's river, abcut 4 miles fouth of Fort Geor;:»e. — ib. Gooseberry IJlands and Rocks, on the coafl: of ElFex county, Maiiachufetts, have been the occahon of the lofs of many valuable veifels. To prevent fuch accidents in future, fcamen may attend to the follow- ing particular information, which is here inferted for their benefit. The noith part of Goofeberry great rock with the north of Cat Ifland, bears S. 54. AV. from the beacon on Baker's Ifland. The wcftern Goofeberry S. 41. W. the diftance nearly three fourths of a mile. The northern part of the weftern Goofe- berry is viewed from the beacon over the point of land running out from it. The eaflern Goofeljeiry bears S. 26. W. and it is fhoal as far as the wellern breaker. The taftern breaker lies S. 35. E. and the wellern breaker S. 2y. E. The eaftcrn breaker is about the fame diftance from the beacon, as tlie wellern Goofe- berry, but the eaftern Goofeberry falls within that dif- tance. Satan appears S. 32. W. and halfway rock S. 3. W. at the dillance of 2 j miles. The inner pait of Cat Illand is above 2 miles from the beacon, and with the beacon to the fouthward the Gooltberry rock bears only 12 minutes. The weftern dry breaker extends from 28 to 32 ; and the eaftern from 31 to 32. Half- way rock with the beacon from Cat liland is 65 to the fouthvvaid. — lb. GORHAM, a townfliip in Cumberland county, Gorlmra Maine, on the north-eall fide of Saco river, ij miles II. from Pepperelborouijh at the mouth of the river, and ""^"" * 130 miles N. by E. of Bofton. It was incorporated ^^-v-**^ in 1764, and contains 2 244 inhabitants. — ib. GOSHEN, a townfhip in Hampfhire county, Maf- fachul;tts, between Cummington and Conway, 14 miles north of Noithampton, and 112 W. by N. of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1781, and contains 681 inhabitants. — ib. Goshen, a townlhip in Addifon county, Vermont, adjoining to Saliftjury on the weft, and 21 miles N. E. by N. of Mount Independence. — ib. Goshen, a townlhip in Chefter county, Pennfylva- nia. — lb. Cos hex, a town in Litchfield county, Connedicut, famous for the produiSion of excellent cheeft. It is 7 miles N. by N. W. of Litchfield, and 50 northward of New Haven. — ib. Goshen, the mofl confiderable town in Orange county, New-York, about 58 miles north of New. York city, 20 W. by S. of New-Windfor, and 30 W. by S. of Fifti-Kill. This town is pleafantly fituated, containing about 60 or 70 houfes, an academy, court- houfe, gaol, and Prefbytcrian church. Tiie townfliip contains 2,448 inhabitants; of whom 316 are eledors. —lb. GOSHGOSHINK, a Moravian fettlement in Peno- fylvaiiia, fituated on Alleghany liver, about 15 miles above Venango, or Fort Franklin. — ib. GOSPORT, formerly called j^'fhJore, a. fiftiing town on Star Illand, one of the illes of Shoals, be- longing to Rockingham county, New-Hampfliire, con- taining 93 inhabitants. It lies about I2 miles E. S. E. of Pifcataqua harbour. — ib, GOTHIC Architecture, See Gothic Architec- TURF. in this Svpi>lement, and Roof, Encycloptedia. GOUVERNANTE, the Spanifli liame of a plant which the Indians of California ufe in decoijfion as a fudorific dnnk lor the cure of the venereal dile.ife. It is thus defcribed in the third volume (Englilh tranfla- tion) of Peyroufe's Voyage round the world. Calyx quadritid, eggfhaped, of the fame fize with the corolla ; placed beneath tlie fruit, deciduous. Co- rolla polypetalous ; petals four, ftnall, entire, egg flia- ped, fixed upon the receptacle. Stamina, eight, fixed to the receptacle, of the fame length as the corolla: threads channelled, concave on the one fide, and con- vex on the other ; wings veiled, antherse fimple. Piftil, germ oblong, covered, with five angles, and five cells ; feeds obling ; pericarpium covered with fine hairs. This plant is a fhiub of middle lize; the branches are angular and knotty, and covered with an adhelive varnilh ; the later.tl branches ate alternate, and placed very near to each other : the leaves are fmall, petiolat- ed, bilobed, oppofite, fmooch on the upper fide, the under fide indiilinflly veined ; the blolfoms are axillary, fmttimes terminating, pedunculated, folitary, but fometimes in pairs. From this defcription, the gouvernante appears to be a new fpecies oi daphne. GRACIAS A DIOS, a town belonging to the province of Honduras, or Comaiagua, and audience of Guatimala. It is fituated at tlie mouth of a river upon a rocky mountain, which has fome gold mines in its G R A [12 Craftou its neighbourhood. It was built the fame year as was Vallidolid, the caplt.il, (from which it lies about 27 leagues to the weft) for the fecurity of the miners. Alfo a cape on this coaft difcovered by Columbus, N. lat. 14° 36' W. long. 84° 12' Morse. GRAFTON County, in New-Hampfnire, is bound- ed north by Canada ; foulh by the counties of Strif- ford, Hillfborough, and Chefhire; weft by the State of Vermont, and eaft by the Diftrift of Maine. It comprehends nearly as much tenitory as all the other four counties, but is by no means fo thickly fettled. It it divided into 50 townlhips, and 17 locations, and contains 13,472 inhabitants, of whom 21 are flaves. The increafe of population fince the enumeration of 1790 has been great. — 'ib. Grafton, a townlhip in the county of its name in NewHampdiire, 13 mile? S. E. of Danmonth college and 19 S. W. of Plymouth. It was incorporated in 1778, and contains 403 inhabitants. Lapis Jpecularh, commonly called iilng-glafs, of the belt quality, is found in this town, in a mountain about 20 miles eaft- ward of Dartmoutli college. It is found adhering to the rocks of white or yellow quartz, and lying in la- niins, like iheets of paper. It is found in other places in the State in fraaller pieces. — il>. Grafton, the Hajfanannfco of the Indians, a town- fliip in Worcefter county, Malfachufetts, containing 900 inhabitants ; 40 miles S. W. of Bortnn, 8 eafterly of Worcefter, and 34 N. W. of Providence. — \b. GRAINGER, Fort, ftands on the N. fide of the mouth of HoUlon river in Tenneifee. — ih. Grainger, the name given to a new county, in the diftricT: of Hamilton, State of Tenneifee, formed of parts of the counties of Knox, Jefferfon and Hawkins, and called after tlie maiden name of the Lady of Gov. William Blount. — ib. GRANBY, a townfliip in Eifex county, Vermont. —\b. Granbv, a townlhip in Hampfliire courity, Maffa- chufetts, E. of South-Hadley, about 90 miles wefterly of Bofton ; was incorporated in 1768, and contains 596 inhabitants. — il. Granby, a townfliip in Hartford county, Cnnnefti- cut, on the line which feparates Cnnnediciit from Maffachufetts. It was formerly a part of Symfbury, «nd is 18 miles north of Hartford. — //'. Granby, a fmall town on the Congaree, in S. Caro- lina, about 2 mile< bi.low the junftion of Broad and Saluda rivers. Here a curiius bridge has been built, whofe arches are fupported by wooden pillars, ftrongly fecured in iron work, fixed in the folid rock. Its height is 40 feet above the level of the water. The centre arch is upwards of 100 feet in the clear, to give a palfage to large trees which are always brought down by the floods. The ingenious architeft has the toll fecured to hire by the Legiflature for 100 years. —ih. GRANDE RIVIERE, a fettlement in a hilly traft of the ifland of 6t Domingo, 64 leagues fouth-weft of Fort Dauphin, and 4^ leagues N. by E. of St Ra- phael, in the Spanilh part cf the ifland, N. lat. 19° 34', W. long, fiom Palis 74" 30'. — Alio the name of a fmall river, in the fame ifland, which rifes at Eimon- ade, and empties into the fea at Qr Moiin, 5 leagues eaft of Cape Francois. — ib. SuppL. Vol. II. 9 ] G R A GRAND Fathers, feveral large detached moontaint in the foulh-caft corner of Tennflfef, in \vl;ich are the head waters of French, Broad and Cataba rivers. — A. Grand IJles, are two large iflands in Lake Cham- plain ; each about 8 or 10 miles long, and each foims a townlhip belonging to Veimont. — ib. Grand IJlavd, at the mouth of Lake Ontario, is within the Britifli territories, having Roebuck and Foreft ifljnds on the fouth-weft, and the TiioufanJ Ifles on the north-eaft. It is 20 miles in length, and its greateft breadth is 4 mile'. — ib. Grand IJland, in Lake Superior, lies on the north fide of the lake. — ib. Grand IJland, in Niagara river, is about 6 miles long and 3 broad. The fouth end is 4 miles north of Fort Erie; and its northern extremity 3 miles fouth of Fort Shiflier, and nearly 14 fouth of Niagara fort. — ib. Grand Lake, in the province of New Brunfwick, near the river St John's, is faid to be 30 miles iu length, 8 or 10 in breadth, and in fome places 40 fa- thoms deep. — ib. Grand Manan IJland, lies 6 miles S. by S. E. of Campo-BtUo Ifland, in the Atlantic Ocean, oppofite to Paffamaquoddy Bay, on the eaftern border of the United States. — ib. Grand River runs a north-weft courfe into Lake E;ie, 20 miles below the Forks, 80 miles fouth-weit of Prefqne Ifle. — ib. GRANGE, Cnpe La, or Capt Monte Chrijl, on the north fide of the ilLind of St D. mingo. It is a high hill, in the form of a tent, and may be fcen by the naked eye at Cape Francois, from which it is 14 leagues E. by N. A ftrip of land joins it to the ter- ritory of Monte Clirift ; fo that at a diftance it feems to be an ifland. The cruifers from Jamaica often lie off here. This cape lies in lat. 19° 54' 30" N. and long. 74° 9' 30" W. from Paris; and with Point de Dunes forms the mouch of the bay of Monte Chrift. —ib. GRANVILLE, a fine townfliip in Annapolis coun- ty, NovaScotia. It lies on the north (ide of Anna- polis river, on the Bay cf Fundy, and is 30 miles ia length ; firft fettled from New-England. — ib. Granville, a townlhip in Hamplhire county. Mat fachufetts, about 14 miles weft cf Springfield. It was incorporated in 1754, and contains 1979 inhabitants. —ih. Granville, a townfliip in Wafliington county, New-York, containing 2240 inhabitants, of whom 422 are cle<flors. — ib. Granville County, in Hiflfbnrough diftrifl in North- Carolina, has the State of Virginia north, and contains 10,982 inhabitants, of whom 4163 are flaves. Ciiief town, Willianilbiirg. — ib. Granville, a flcurilhing town in Kentucky. — ib. GRAVE CREEK, on the Ohio, 12 miles down the river from Wheeling. Here is a mound of earth, plainly the work of art, called an Indian grave. It is of a conical form, in height about 80 feet. It afccnds in an angle cf about 80°. Tiie diameter at the top is about 60 feet ; the margin enclofing a regular concave, funk about 4 feet in the centre. Near the top (lands an oak, about 3 feet in diameter. It is faid the In- dians have no tradition what nation ever buried their dead in this manner. On examination, thefc mounds R have ORE c I -10 ] G R E Great Kidge. eraveftnd hnv: b;en found to contain a. cfialky fubftance, fiipp;if- eJ to be' liones c.f lb", luiman kind. — ifi. GRAVESEND, Port of, is fnuated on the fouth- weflern lide of the iH.ind of J:iniaic.i, in a large bay. It has two channels j the Leeward and the Main Chan- nel, and affords good anchcrage for large velfels. — ii. Gravesend, a fmall village in King's county, X.nng-llland, Nevv-Voric, 7 miles N by E. of the city. The lownfliip of iis nnme contains 426 inhabitants. —a. GRAVIMETER, the name given by citizen Giiy- t.)n (Morvcau) to an inftrnment of gl.ifs, conltrudled in all refjiecls on the principle cf Nichollon's Hydro- meter, defcribed in the article HvDiiosrATics, n" 18 ( Encycl.) It is therefore needlefs to give a defcrip- tion of th'S inftninicnt heie ; as every artiil in glafs, who has feen NichoUon'a Hydrometer, or underftands our defcriptirn of it, may conllru>5t the graviraeter of Morveau ; and every man who has made himfelf mafler of our article Specii-ic Gravity, mty apply the gra- vimeter to every purptfe to which it is applicable. It may juft be proper to obferve, that Morveiiu, having -<t Hril loaded the fmall i'cale or baion G (Plate 240, fig. 9. Eifyd.) v.-ith a bulb of clals containing a fuf- ticient quantity cf mercury, found it expedient after- wards to fubftitute in the place of this bulb a fmall mafs of folid glafs, brought to the proper form and weight by giindir.fj. For a minute account of this inftrument, if any of our readers can be fuppofed to requite a minute account of it, we mud refer to the third number of Nicholfon's 'Journal of PhiLjophy, C.hcT'itjlry, and the jlris. GRAY, a pofttown in the Dillrifl of Maine, in Cumberland county, 15 miles N. by W. of Portland. The townfnip was incorporated in 177S, and contains 577 inhabitants. — Morse. GREAT BARRINGTON, a townfhip in the fouth-weftern part of the State of Maifachufetts, in Berklhire county, lying foutli cf Stockbridge, 150 miles weft of Bollon, and 26 E. by S. of Hudfon city, Niw-York.— ii. Great Famine, a river in New-York which rifes in the mountains near the fource of Oneida river, and flows N. W. by W. to Lake Ontario. Its mouth is 10 miles fouth-wefterly from the mouth of Black river. — ib. Great Kakhawat, a large river which flows through the eallein bank of the Ohio in 39" 5' N. lit. nearly 500 yards wide at its mouth. The cur- rent is gentle fcr about 10 or 12 miles, when it be- comes confiderably rapid for upwards of 60 miles far- ther, where you meet v,'i-.!i the fiid fills, when it be- comes impoflible to navigate it from the great number of its cataracts. — ih. Great Swamp, between Northampton and Lncern counties, in Pennfylvania. This fwainp, on examina- tion and furvey, is fonnd to be good farm land; thickly covered with beach and fugar maple. — ib. Great Ridge, one of the ridges of the Alleghany Mountains, which feparates the waters of the Savan- nah and Alatamaha. At the fouth-eati promontory of the Great Ridge is that extraordinary place called Buffaloe Lick, dillant about 80 miles from AuguUa. It occupies feveral acres of ground. A large cane fwamp and meadows. forming an immenfe plain, lie fouth-eafl from it ; in this fwamp Mr Bartram thinks the branches cf the Great Ogeeche take their rife. Tlie Lijk is nearly level, and lies between the head ff the cani fwamp, v and the afcent of the Ridge. The earth, frrm the fuperficies to an unknown depth, is an almofl v/hite or cinerous coloured, tenacious, fattilh clay, which all kinds cf cattle li';k inlo great caves, purfuing the delicious vein. Mr Bartram could not difcover any thing faline in its tafte, but an itilipid fweetnefs. Horned tattle, horfcj, and deer, are immoderately fond of it ; infomuch that their eicrcnienr, which almoft totally covers the earth to fome diitance round this pl.ice, appears to be perfedl clay; which when dried by tlie fun and air, is almoft aS hard as brick. — //. Great Springs, is an amazing fountain of tranf- pareiit, cool water, (luiarcJ near the road, aiiout mid- way between Augulla and Savannah. It breaks fnd- denly out i-^i tlie cirth at the balls of a moderately elevated hill or bank, forming at once a b<il"(>n near 20 yards over, afcending through a horizontal bed of foft rocks, chiefly a teftaceous concretion of broken, entire, and pulverized fealhells, fand, &c. conftituting a coarfe kind cf lime-ftone. The ebullition is copious, adtive, and continual, over the ragged apertures in the rocks, which lie feven or eight ftet f>elow, fwelliog the furface confiderably, immeaiaiely above it ; the waters defcend fwifiiy from the fountain, forming at once a large biook, fix or eight yards over, and five or ns feet deep. There are multitudes cf filh in the toun- trin of various tribes; chiefly the feveial fpecies of bream, trout, catdlh, and garr, which are beheld con- tinually afcending and delcending through the rocky- apertures. Bartram, from whole travels the above is taken, obferves, that he crolfed no ftream or brook of water wiiJiin 12 or 15 miles of this fountain, but had in view vaft favannahs, fwamps, and cane meadows, which he conje<5fures are the refervoirs which feed this delightrul grotto. — \l. GREEN, though one of the feven original or pvif- matic colours, is among dyers a compound cf blue and yellow. Of the Euroj.eaii methods of dyeing green, and of the principles on which thefe methods are founded, a fulHcient account will be found in the £n- cyclohsdia, under the articles CoLOUR-mci/V/g- ?.nd Dye- ing, and, in this Supplement, under Au'-mal and VcgctalU Substances; but it may be woith wliile, in this place, to inlert the method praftifed at Altracan, in giving to cotton yarn tliat b:autiful green colour for which the oriental cotton is fo juftly aJmired. I'he principal dye is the blue, which is employed both for cotton and filk. To prepare it, the indigo or blue dye-ftulFis finely pounded, and diilclved in v/a- ter by a gentle heat in laige earthen jars, feven of wliich ftand in brick- work over the fire-place, at the diftance of about an ell and a half fr.jm each other. About two pounds aie put into each veifel. Five pounds of foda finely pounded, together with two pounds of pure lime and one pound of clarified honey, arc added to each ; when thefe ingredients have been well mixed, the fire is ftrengthened ; and vfhen the whole begins to boil, the dye is [lined carefully round in all the vefiels, that every thing may be completely dillblved and mixed. After the firft boiling the fire is Great Sjiring» 1! Green. G R E [ Gretii. is fliickened, and the dye is fuffered to fland over a •^"^^^^ gentle heat, while it is continually ftined round : this is continued even after the iuniace is cnokd, till a thick fciim arifcs in the neck (•! each jar, and foon af- ter difappears. The dye is then allnued to itand two days, until the whole is incorpLratcd, and the dye thickens. The dyers affert, that wiih this dye they can pro- duce three fiiades of blue, and that, as the dyeinj; par- ticles gradually diminilii, they can die alfo a green co- lour by the addition of yellow. AV^hen a manufaiflurer gives cotton yarn to a blue dyer, he firft boils it at home in a icy of foda (kala- kar), then dries it, waflies it, and dries it again. The blue dyer lays this yarn to fleep in pure water, prefles out the fuperfluous water with the hands, and tlien im- mediately begins to dip it in the Line jar, often wring- ing it till it is completely penetrated by the dye. TJiis firlt tint is generally given to yarn in liich jarsas have liad their colouring matter pajtly exhaufted. It is then dried, rinled, and ag.ain dried : after v/hich, it is put into the frefli blue dye, properly faturated ; and, after the colour has been i'ufficiently heightened, it is dried for the lall time. For a yellow dye, the dyers of Aftracan employ partly fav/-wort, brought from Rufiia, and partly the leaves of the Li/Iar beige, ox fumach. The procefs is as follows : The yarn is tirft boiled for an hour in a flrong ley of foda ; it is then dried, afterwards rinfed and laid wet to fteep for twelve hours in a iolution of alum with warm water. When it has been dried in the air, jt is laid to foak feveial times in troughs with the dye which lias been boiled thick in kettles trom the above- mentioned plants, till it has acquired tlie wilhed-for co- lour, care being taken to dry it each time it is foaked. It is then nufed in running water, and dried for the laft time. On this yellow colour a green is often dyed. After the yarn has been dyed yellow, it is given out to the blue dyer, who immediately dips it in the blue jars, the dye of which has been already partly exhaufted : and if the green colour is not then fulKciently high, the o- peratinn is repeated, the y.irn being dried each time. See Neue Nordijche Beylrage, by ProiclFor Pallas ; or Pkilnfrj^ki al Magaznie, \\° 2. GREEN, a t^ wnliiip in Franklin county, Pennfyl- vania. — Alio a tow nlhip in Wafljington c( unty in the fame State. — Morje. Green, a pelt town in Lincoln county, in the Dif- triift of Maine, fraiated on the eaft fide of Androfcog- gin river, 31 miles W. by S. of Pittllon, 39 north of Portland, and 164 N. by E. of Bolton, containing 639 inhabitants. — ib. Green, a navigable liver of Kentucky, which rifes in Mercer county, has a gentle current, and is naviga- ble ne<<rly 130 rnihs. Its courfe is generally weft; and at its confluence with the Ohio is upwards of 200 yards wide. Between the mouth of Green river and Sale river, a diftance of nearly 200 miles, the land upon tiie banks of the Ohio is generally fertile and rich ; but, leaving its banks, you tall into t) e plaiu country, which is confidered as little better than baricn land. On this river are a number of Salt fprings or licki. There are three fprings or ponds of bitumen 131 ] ORE near this river, which do not for.n a ilream, bt^t ernpty themfelves into a common refer voir, and when ufed in lamps, anfwers all the p'lrpofes of the beft o;l. Vaft quantities of nitre are found in the caves on its banks; and many of the fettl.-rs manufaclure tlieir own gunpowder. — ib. Green Bat, or Pintn Bay, a fouthweflem branch of Lake Michigan. — ib. Green, a fmall river which rifes in the t^wn of Marlborougli in Vermont, and falls into Connciflicu: river above Deerfield, in M iirichufetts. — ib. Green Briar, a large and fertile county of Virgi- nia, furrounded by Bath, Randolph, Harrifon, Kan- haway, Botetourt, and Montgomery counties. It is about 100 miles long and 45 broad; and together with Kanhaway county, which was formerly a part cf it, contains 6,015 inhabitants, including 319 flaves. There is a large cave on Rich Creek in this county, the earth at the bottom of which is ftrongly inipret:- nated with fulphur. Many fuch are to be found on (ireen Briar river. The chief town is Lewifburg. At Crrn Briar court-houfe is a polUofiice, 30 miles W. by S. of Sweet Spring?, and 103 weft of Staun- ton. — ib. Green Brtar River runs a S. W. courfe, and falls into the eallern fide of the Great Kanhaway, at the place where that river breaks through the Laurel Ridge, and oppoike to the mouth of New river, in N. hit. 38._:-^. Green Mountains, a range of mountains extend- ing N. N. E. to S. S. VV. and dividing the waters which How cafterly into Connedlicut river, from thofe which fall wellerly into Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Hudfon's river. The afcent from the eaft to the top of the Green Mountain in Vermont, i» much cafier than fiom the weft, till you get to Onion river, where the mountain terminates. Tlie height cf land is gentrdlly from 20 to 30 miles from the river, and aliout the fame diftance from the New- York line. The natural growth upon this mountain, is hemlock, pine, fpruce, and otlier evergreens ; hence it has al- ways a green appearance, and on this acconnt has obtained the defcriptive name of fer Moris, Green Mruntain. On fornc parts of tliis mountain fnow lie$ till May, and fometimes liil June. The ch.iin extends througl^ MalTachufetts and ConneiSicut, and termin itej in New-Haven. Kellington Peak, the liigheft ot thefe mountains, is about 3,454 fi^et above the level of the ocean. — ib. Green IVoods, a vaft foreft of (lately pines in Litch- field county, Conneflicut, which cover the face of a part of that county. Thcfe are cloathed in greca bearded mofs, which being pendant from the bough-, fcreens many of the trees from the eyes, and gives 10 the whole a gloomy, wild, and whimfical appearance. —ib. GREENBURGH, a townfhip in Weftchefter coun- ty, New-York, containing 1400 inliabitants, ofwlioiu 122 are llivts, and 164 are clsiftors. — ib. GREENCASTLE, a town in Fr.mkliu county, Penulylvania, fituated near the Corcgocheague crctk. lleic are about 80 houfes, 2 German churches, and a Prtfl)) tcrian church. It is 11 miles S. by W. of Chambcrfburg, and 156 W. by S. of Philadelphia. — ib. R 2 GtCENC, G R E C 132 ] G R E Oreene II Crecnfvill! Grefne, a county in Kentucky, extending fiom Ohio liver on the north, to Tenneffee State on the fjiith, and bordering well on the Millillippi river, and eaft upon Hardin and Jclferfon counties. — ib. Greene, a county in Wadiington dillriifl in the State of Tennelfee, having 7,741 inhabitants, of whom 4c;4 are {lives. Greenville college has been eHablilhed by law in this county. It is iituated be- tween two fmall northern branches of Nolachucky river, about 15 miles N. W. by W. of Joneiborougb, and 54 eaft of the jnoitth vi French Broad river. — ib. Greene, a townfhip In Tioga ct)unty. New- York, on the eaft fide of Clienengo river. — ib. Greene, a county in the upper diftriifl of Georgi.i, bounded weft by the upper part of Oconee river, eaft by Wilkes county, and Ibuth by that of Wafhington. It contains 5,405 inhabitants, including 1,377 flaves. Chief town, Greenfbarough. — ib. GREENEVILLE, a poft-tuwn, and the chief town of Pitt county, North-Carolina; fituated on the fouth bank of Tar river, diftant from Ocreecok Inlet iic miles. It contains about 50 houfes, a court-houfe and gaol; alfo a feminary of learning, called the Pitt Aca- demy. It is 23 miles from Walliington and 2^ miles from Tarborough. — ib. Greeneville, a frn:ill poft-town in Greene county, in the State of Tennelfee, Iituated on tlie weft fide of the north-eafternmoft branch of Nolachucky river, about fix miles N. by E. of Greenville college, 26 miles north weft of Jnneft)or(nigh, 75 eaft of Knox- rille, and 6;^ fouth-weft of Philadelphia. — ib. GREENFIELD, a handfome flourilfiing town in Harnpfnire county, Malfathufelts, about 4 miles north of Deci field, and 114 W. by N. of Bofton. The townllilp lies on the wcft bank of Conneflicut river, was incorporated in 1753, and contains 1,498 inhahi- tants. A company was incorporated in 1796 to build a bridge over Connedicut river, to conned this town V'ltli Montague. — ib. Greenfield, a townfhip in Saratoga county, New- York ; 380 of the inhabitants are ele>flors, — ib, GREENLAND, a town in Rockingham county, New-Hampfhire, in the vicinity of the ocean, 5 miles fouthcrly from Portfmouth. It was incorporated in 1713, and contains 634 inhabitants. — ib. GREENSBOROUGH, a poft-town, and chief town of Greene county, Georgia, 30 miles from Lexington, and 78 W. by S from Augufta. — ib. Greensborough, a thriving village in Caroline county, Maryland ; on the weft fide of Choptank Creek, about fcven miles north of Danton, and 22 miles S. E. by S. of Chefter. — ib. Greensborouch, a new towniliip in Orleans coun- ty in Vermont. It adjoins to Minden on the north- vtil, and Wheelock on the foutheaft, and contains only 19 inhabitants. — ib. GREENSBURG, a poft town, and the capital of 'Weflmoreland county, Pennfylvania. It is a neat pretty town, fituated en a branch of Sewickly Creek, wlilch empties into Youghiogany river. Here are 100 dwelling hcufes, a German Calvinift church, a brick court houfe, and a ftone gaol. It is 31 miles S. E. by E. of Pittft)urg, and 270 W. by N. of Philadelphia. —ib. GE.EENSVILLE, a county of Virginia, encom- palfed by Brunfwick, Southampton, and SulTex coun- Greenville ties, on the weft, north, and eaft, and by the S;.ite of II NorthCirolina on ihe fouth. It is about 24 miles ^I^^I^i!!^' long, and 20 broad, and contains 6,362 inhabitants, of whom 3,620 are (laves. — ib. GREENVILLE Court-Houfe, in Virginia, ftands on Kick's Ford, 25 miles from Southampton, and 61 from Norfolk. — ib. Greenville, a county in Walliington diftrii.'t, S. Carolina; Iituated in the N. W. corner of the Slate; bounded eaft by Sparta:.burg county, in Pinckney dif- tridl ; fouth, by Pendleton; weft, by the State of Georgia, and that traft of country which the State of Soi. lb-Carolina ceded to the United States; and north, by the State cf North Carolina. It contains 6,503 inh.abitants', cf whom 606 are flaves. Taxes ^192 : 6:8. The lands are mountainous and hilly, and well watered, and the climate healthy and agreeable. — lb. Greenville, a poft-town of South-Carolina, and chief town of Cherviws diftiid; fituated on the weft lide of Great Pedee river, in Darlington county. It contains about 30 houfes, a ccurt-houfe, gaol, and academy. It is 55 miles E. N. E. of Camden, 90 N. E. by E. of Columbia, 135 N. by E. of Charlef- ton ib. Greenville, a fort and fettlement in the N. W. Territory, on tlie fou'h diXi of a iiorth-weftern branch of the Great Miami, fix miles north-weft of Fort Jef- ferfon on the fame branch, and about 23 miles fou'h- eaft of Fort Recovery. It is a picketed fort, with baf- tions at each angle, and capacious enough to accom- modate 2,000 men. Here the American legion had their head-quarters in the late war with the Indians. It was cftablifiied by the late Mr.j. Gen. A. Wayne in 1793, and here he concluded a treaty of peace with the [ndian nations, on the 3d of Auguft, 1795. — '^• Greenville Bay, or La Bay, a town and port of entry on the eaft or windward fide of the ifland of Granada. It has about 60 dwelling-houfes, a church, and feveral licli ftores of India and European goods, and plantation utenfils. The Gtuation is low, and ra- ther unhealthy. — ib. GREENWICH, a townftiip in Hampfhire county, Malfachufetts, incorporated in 1754, contains 1045 inhabitant.s. It is 20 miles eafterly of Northampton, and 75 wefterly of Bolion. — ib. Greenwich, a townlhip, the fecond in rank in Gloucefter county, New-Jerfey, fituated on the eaft bank of Delaware river, oppofite to Fort Mifflin, 3 miles N. by E. of Woodbury, and 6 fouth-eaft of Phi- ladelphia. — ib. Greenwich, a townfhip in SufTex connty, New- Jerfey, on tlie eaft fule cf Delaware river, in a moun- tainous country, about 5 miles north-eafterly of Eaf- ton, in Pennfylvania, and 31 fouth-weft of Newton, the ftiire town. It contains 2,035 inhabitants, of whom 64 are flaves. — ib. Greenwich, a town in Cumberland county, New- Jerfey, on the north-weft bank of Cohanzy creek, about 3 miles from its mouth in Delaware bay. Here are about 80 houfes, and a Friend's meeting-houfe. It is 15 miles f )Uth-eafterly of Salem, and 66 S. by W. of Philadelphia.— Z/-.. G&eenwich, a ma;itime townfljip in Fairfield coun- t7> G R E Green- wood II Gregory. [ M3 ] G R E ty, Conr.eaicut, and the fouth-weflernmoft of the but he fatisfied them fo far as to prevent ihc profecuiion Gre-orv. State, lies about 50 miles weft of New-Haven, and 40 eaft cf New-York city. Its fea-coaft on Long Ifland Sound, and that of the townlhip of Stamford on the eaftward, has a number of ides and rocks bor- dering the inlets of the fea and mouths of the creeks. Byram river paifes through this town, the largeft of the fmall ftrearas which water it, and only noticeable as forming part of the line between Conneflicut and New- York. of a man known to be Co extcnfively ufeful by his know- ledge of medicine. About the beginning of this century he removed with his family to Aberdeen, and in the time of Qiuen Anne's war employed his thoughts upon an improve- ment in artillery, in order to make the (hot of great guns more deftruftive to the enemy, and executed a model of the engine he had conceived. Dr lleid in. forms us, that he converfed with a clnck-maker in A- This trad was purchafed of the native Indians in berdeen who had been employed in miking thii. model; 1640, and fetdod under the government of the New but having made many d fTeient pieces bv diredicn >.T-...l,„1 1, r XT-... 17-_..l. \ __J : J .-y 1 ■ .1 ■ • '^ . .' Netherlands (now New-York) and was incorporated by Piter Stuyvefar.t in 1665, who was then governor of the New Netlierlands. This town falling within the bounds of Connedlicut, was afterwards granted to eight perfons by that colony. — !&. GREENWOOD, a townlhip in Cumberland coun- ty, Pennfylvania. Alfo, a townfliip in Mifflin coun- ty in the fame State. — ii. GREGORIA, St, a town of New-Mexico, fituat- ed on the ead fide of Rio Bravo, a few leagues north of St Antonin. — 11,. GREGORY (David), was a fon of the Rev. John Gregory, mii.ilter oi Drumoak, in the county of Aber- deen, and elder brother to Mr James Gregory, the in- ventor of the moll common redeiling telefccpe. He was born about the year 1627 or 1628; and though he polfefTed all the genius ot the other branches of his family, he was educated by his father for trade, and ferved an apprenticelhip to a mercantile houfe in Hol- land. Having a ftronger paffion, however, for know- ledge than for money, he abandoned trade in 16^5 ; and returning to his own country, he fucceeded, upon the death of an elder brother, to the ellate of Kinar- die, fituated about forty miles north from Aberdeen, where he lived many years, and where tliirty-two child- ren were born to him by two wives. Of tliefe, three fons made a confpiciious figure in the republic ot let- ters, being all proitlfors of mathematics at the fame time in three of the Btitilh univerfities, viz. David atOx- ford, James at Edinburgh, and Chailes at St Andrews. Mr Gregory, the fubject of this memoir, while he lived at Kinardie, was a jell among the neighbouring gentlemen for his ignorarxe of what was doing about his own farm, but an oracle in matters of learning and philofophy, and particularly in medicine, which he had fludied for his amufement, and began to praifid'e among his poor neighbours. He acquired fuch a reputation in that fcience, that he was employed by the nobility and gentlemen of tliat county, but took no fees. His hours of ftudy were fingular. Being much occupied through the day with thofe who applied to him as a phyfician, he went early to bed, rofe about two or three in tlie morning, and, after applying to his ftudies for fome hours, went to bed again and llept an liour or two before breakfaft. He was the firfl man in that country who had a ba- rometer; and having paid great attention to tiic chan- ges in it, and the correfpcndiiig changes in the wea- ther, he was once in danger of being tried by the prcf- bytery for witchcraft or conjuration. A deputation of that body waited upon Inni to enquire into tlie without knowing their intention, or how they were 10 be put together, he could give no account of the whole. Alter making fome experiments with this mo- del, which fatisfied him, the old gentleman was fo fan- guine in the hcpe of being ufeful to the allies in the war againit France, that he fct about preparing a field equipage with a view to make a campaign in Flinders, and in the meantime fent his model to his fon the Sa- vili.in prottiror, that he might have his and Sir Ifiac Newton's opinion cf it. His fon iliewed it to New- ton, without letting him know that his own fatiier was the invenlcT. Sir Ifa.ic was mu-h difpleafed with it, faying, that if it had tended as much to the preftrvation of mankind as to their deflruiftion, the inventor would have defervcd a great reward ; but as it was contrived folely for deflrudion, and would foon be known by the enemy, he rather defcrved to be punilhed, and urged the profelTor very ftrongly to deflroy it, and if polfible to fupprefs the invention. It is probable the protelfor followed this advice. He died foon afi^r, and the model was never found. If this be a jiift account cf the matter, and Dr Reid's veracity is unqueftionable, we cannot help thinking that Newton's ufual fagacity had, on that oc- cafion, f'orfaken him. Were tlie implements of war much more detbuctive than they are, it by no means follows that more men would be killed in battle than at prefent. Mufkets and cannons are i'urely more de- flrudive weapons than javeiines and bows and arrows ; and yet, it is a well known fact, that fince tlie inven- tion of gunpowder, battles are not h.ilf I'o bloody as they were before that period. The oppofite armies now feldoiii come to clofe quarters, a few rounds of mulketry and artillery commonly decide the fate of the day ; and had Mr Gregory's improvement been carried into ciTed, dill fewer rounds would have decid- ed it than at pvefcnt, and the carnage would conle- qucntiy have been Ids. When the rebellion broke out in 17 15, the old f;entlc. man went a fecond time to Hollinl, and teiurncd vji^n it was over to Aberdeen, where he died a*>out 1720, aged 93, leaving behind him a hiftory of liis own time anil coiuniy, which was never publifiied. Gregory (Dr David). In addition to the ac- count given in the Eiicyclufi.nlia of this eminent mathe- matician, it may be proper to add, that he was a moll intimate and coniideiitial friend of Sir liiiac Nrw- lon, and w.is intruded with a m-inulcript copy of the Princil'ia, for the put pole <f miking obfeivations <n it. Ot ihcfe Newton availed himfelf in the fecnnJ edition, they having come too late for his fird puhl'Cj- ground of certain reports that had come to ihcir eaii J tion, which was exceedingly hurried by Dr Halle-, trout G R I [ 134 ] G R I fioni fears thnt Newron's b ickwardnefs woiil.J not let it a NcwcaRle grintlflc-ne of a fine gilt and ten inches in Grinding, appeir Rt all. Theie is a complete copy of theCe diameter, and alfo a block of mahogany to be ufed ^"^^^^^^ o^ierviiti^ns preferved in tlie libiary of the iiniverfiiy with emery on its face. Both the llcne and the wood- of Edinburgh, prefcnted to it by Dr James Gregory, en block were mounted on an axis, to be occafinnally the prefent pioftlf'r of the praiftice of medicine. Theie applied between the centres of a ftiong lathe. In this contain many fiiblime m.ithematical difcuflion?, many Htiiation both were turned truly cylindrical, and ot the valu.'.ble commentaries on the Pnncip'ta, and many in- fime diameter. The face ot the wood was grooved teriflirg anecdotes. There are in ii f 'Hic paragraphs obliquely in oppofite direcflions, to afford a lodgement in the liand writing of H'lyghcns relative to his The- for the emery. The face of the llone was lett I'mooth, oty of Light. It would appear that this work of and there was a trough of proper fize applied benea'.h con u'ential friendfiiip wa'i the I unidation of that fyf- the ftone to hold water. Th.e grindllone was then tem of phyficd and math-matlcal allionomy which has ufed with water, and the wooden cylinder was iaced ra'f; J Dr Gregory to great eminence in the republic of with emery and oil. Tlie inflrutnent ground w.is a letters. file, out of which it was propofcd to grind all the GREGSTOWN, a village in Somerfet county, teeth. The rotation was produced by the mechanil'm New-Jeifey, rn the call fide of Millrtone river, 6 miles of the lathe; the velocity being fuch as to turn the norih-e.iilerly of Princeton, and about 9 fouth-weft of grinding ajiparatus about five revolutions in a fccond. N-.-w-Brunfwick. — Alone. The ffone operated but flowly, and the water from the GRES, Cape av, a promontory on the eaftern fide trough was foon exhaufled, with inconvenience to the cf the Mifliflippi in the N. W. Territory, 8 leagues workman, who could fcarcely be defended fiomit but above the Illinois river, and the tr.idf of country fo by fltckcning the velocity. The emery cylinder cut called extends 5 le.ig\ies on that river. There is a rather falter. But notwiihftanding the friction was a gradual deicei.t back to deliglitful meadows, ^nd to made to operate fucceffively and by quick changes on beautiful and fertile uplinds, watered by feveral rivu- the whole furface of the file, it foon became too much lets, which fill into the Illinois river, between 30 and heated to be held with any convenience ; and when a 40 miles from its entrance into the MiffifTippi, and into cloth was ufcd to defend the hand, the work not only the latter at Cape au Gre^. The dillance from the became awlcward, but the heat increaled to fuch a de- Midiffippi to the Illinois acrofs the country, is leffened gree that the C'il began to be decompofed, and emitted or increafed, according to the windings of ihe former an empyreumaticfmell. The (lone was then fuffered to river ; the fmalleft dillance is at Cape au Ores, and dry, and the file tried upon its face. It almoft imme- theie it is between 4 and 5 miles. The lands in this diately became bltie, and foon afterwards red hot. intermediate fpace between the above two rivers are Both the cylinders were then covered with tallow, by rich, almoll beyond parallel, covered with large oaks, applying the end of a candle to each while revolving, walnut, Sec. and not u Hone to be fsen, except upon and emery was fprinkled upon the cylinder of wood, the fides of the river. The fume tool was then .ipplied to the grindltonc in If fcttlemtnts were begun here, the Frendi inhabit- rapid motion. At the firit inftant the Iriiftion was ants acknowledge that the Spanilh fettlements on the fcarcely perceptible ; but very fptedily altci wards the other lide of tlie Mdfiirippi would be abandoned ; as zone of tallow prelfed by the tool became fuled, and the former would txcite a conllant fucceflion cf fet- the ftone cut very fafl. The tool was fcarcely at all tiers, and intercept all the trade ot the upper Miflif- heated lor a long time ; and when it began to feel l;ppi. — ih. warm, its temperature was immediately lowered by re- G RINDING in Cutlery, a well known operation, moving it to a new zone of the cylinder. The fame by wliich edge-tools are ihirpened. As commonly efie<ff took place when the experiment was repeated prafliled, the grinding of tools is attended with great wiih the v.'ooden cylinder. inconveniency aiifing Irom the produ<5lion or develope- It is not diflicult to explain this by the modern doc- ment of heat by friftion. The fad of fparks flying trine of heat. When oil was ufed upon the wooden irom a dry grindlfone when a piece of iron or Heel is cylinder, the heat developed by the friflion was em- applied toils furface during the rotation', has been fecn ployed in railing the temperature of the tool and of the by every one. The heat produced during this procefs fluid oil: but when tallow was fubllituted inllead of is fuch that the Reel very foon becomes ignited, and the oil, the gicaiell part of the heat was employed in hard tools are very fiequently foftened nnd fpoiled, fir fufing this confi.flent body. From the increafed capa- want of care during the grinding. When a cylindri- city of the tallow, when melted, this heat was abforb- cal (lone is partly immerfed in a trough of water, the ed, and became latent, inftead of being employed to rotation mull be moderate and the work flow, other- raife the temperature : and whenever, by continuing wife the wa'er would foon be thrown off by the cen- the jirocefs, the tallow already melted began to grow trifugal force ; and when this fluid is applied by a cock hot, together with the tool, it was eafy to reduce the from above, the quantity is too fmall to preferve the temperature again by employing the heat on another lequifite low temperature. It is even found, that the zone of confillent tallow. He uled thefe two cylinders, point of a hard tool, ground under a confidetable raafs with much fatisfaiflion, in a conlidcrable quantity of <if water, will be foftened, if it be not held fo as to work. meet the (Ireani ; fparks being frequently alforded even This promifes to be a valuable difcovery ; and the under the water public is obliged to the ingenious author of the Philo- To find a remedy for this, Mr Nichol.on was led, fophical Journal for being at fo much pains on this, as hjl fonie accounts which he received of German cut- well as on other occalions, to render his fcience fubfer- Icry, to make the following experiiiient. He procured vient to theu-Oeful arts. GROSE G R O [ 1 Grofe. GROSE (Francis Efq; F.A.S.) was born, we be- lieve, in 1731. He was the fon of Mr Francis Grofe of Richmond, jjwel'.er, who filled up the coronation crown of George II. and died 1769. By his fatlier he was left an independent fortune, which he was not of a difpofition to add to, or even to preferve. He early entered into the Surrey militia, of which he be- came adjutant aod paymaftsr ; butfo much had dillipa- tiou taken polL-fllon of him, tliat in a fituation which above all others required attention, he was fo carelefs ?.s to have for foine time (as he ufed pleafantly to ttU) only two books c^i' accounts, viz. his light and lelt hand pockets. In the one he received, and from the other paid ; and this too with a want of circumfpec- ilon which may be readily fappofed froin fiich a innde of book-keeping. His lolfes on this occafion rou- fed liis latent talents. With a gtod clafflc.il educa- tion he united a fine talle for drawing ; and encouraged by his fiiend^, as well as pronjpttd by his lltnation, he undertook the work from which he derived botii profit and rep\itation ; wc ruc.in, his Views of Antiqui- ties in Eiiglaud and WUes, vvh:ch he firll besjan to publifh in numbers in ihe year 1773, and finished in the year 1776. The next year he added two more volumes to his Eiiglifh Vitw>, in which he included the ill mds of Guernfey and Jerfey, which were com- pleted in 1787. This work anfwered his mod fan- guine expeiflations ; and, from the time he began it to the end of his life, he continued without inter miirnm to publilli various works (a lift of which we fubjoin), generally to the advantage of his literary reputation, and almoft always to the benefit of his finances. His wit and good humour were the abundant fource of la- tista<ftion to hlmfelf, and entertainment to his friends. He vifited almoft every part of the kingdom, and was well received wherever he went. In the fummcr of 1789 he fet out on a tour in Scotland ; the refult of vi-hich he began to communicate to the public in 1790 in numbers. Before he had concluded this work, he proceeded to Ireland, intending to furnilh that king, dom with views and defer iptions of her antiquities, in the fame manner he had eiecuted thofe of Great Bri- tain ; but foon after his arrival in Dublin, being at the houfe of Mr Home there, he fuddenly was feized at table with an apopleiflic fit, on the 6tli of May, 1791, and died immediately. He was interred in Dublin. "His literary hiftory (fays a friend), refpeflable as it is, was exceeded by his good humour, conviviality, and friendlhip. Living much abroad, and in the beft company at liorr.e, he had the eafieft habits of adapt- ing himfelf to all tempers; and, being a man of gene- ral knowledge, perpetually drew out feme converfaticn that was either ufefal to himfelf, or agreeable to the party. He could obferve upon moft tilings with jire- cifion and judgment ; but his natural tendency was to liumour, in which he excelled both by ihe feledion of anecdotes, and his manner of telling them: it may be faid, too, that his figure rather alGfted him, which wa3 in Jafl the very title page to a joke. He had neither the pride nor malignity of authorlhip ; he lelt the in- dependency of his own talents, and was fatisficd witli them without degrading others. His friendlhips were of the fame call; con/iant and fincere, overlookuig Ibme faults, and fceking out greater virtues. li: hud ] G R O a good lieart ; and, abating thofe little indifcretlons na- tural to moft rr.en, could do no wrong." He married at Canterbury, and refided there fome years, much beloved and refpeded for his wit and vi- vacityj " which (another friend obOirves), though he polFelfed in an extreme degree, was but little tire- tared withjhe cauftic fpirit fo prevalent among fpirits ol that claia. His humour was of that nature which exJiilarates and enlivens, without leaving behind it a fting ; and thougli perhaps none poffcficd more than hirnl'tlf the taculty of '-fetting the table in a roar," it was never at the expenre of virtue or good manners. Of liim, indeed, m.iy be faid in the words of Shake- fpeare, a merrier man, AVithin the limit> of becoming mirth, I never fpent an hoirr's talk withal : His eye begets occafion for his v. it ; And every object that the one doth catch, The other turns to a mirth-moving jeft. "Ot the moft carelefs, open, and artlefs difpofition, he was often (panicnlaily in the early part of his life) the prey cl the defigning ; and has more than cncc (it is beli.ved) embarr.rir.d hinrfclf by too implicit confident e in the probity of oiliers. A txle of dillrefs never fail- ed to draw cmmil'c ration from hii heart ; and often has the tear been tiifcovired gUdiiig down that clictk which a moment before was fiufhed with jocularity." He was father of Daniel Grofe, Efq; captain cf the royal regiment of artillery (who, alter feveral cam- paigns in America, was appointed in 1790 deputy go- vernor of the new lettknient at Botany Bay), and fornc other children. His works are as follow : I. The Antiquities of England and Wales, 8 voh. 4to and 8vo. 2. The Antiquities of Scotl.md, 2 Veil. 4to and Svo. 3. The Antiquities cf Ireland, 2 vols. 4to and Svo. 4. A Tieatileon ancient Armour and Weapons, 4to, 1785. 5. A Claffical Diflionary of the Vulgar Tongue, 8vo, 1785. 6. Military An- tiquities ; being a Hiftory of the Englifti Army frortt the Conqueft to the prefent time, 2 vols 4:0, 1786, 1788. 7. The Hiftory of Dover Caille, by lire Rev. William Danell, 4to, 1786. 8. A Provincial Glof- fary, with a Colledion of local Proverbs and p -pirlar Siiperftitions, Svo, 1788. 9. Rirles for drawing C.i- ricatures, Svo, 1788. 10. ^'upplcInellt to the Treatife on Ancient Armour air J Weapons, 4to, 1789. 11. A Guide to Health, Beaiiiy, H inour, and Riches; being a colkdlion of humourcirs Advenifement;, point- ing out the means to obtain thofe bKlInrgs; with -a fuitable intr-oduAory Pief.-tce, Svo. 12. 'ihe Olio ; being a Cul'telion <>f E/fays in Svo, 1793. GROS MORNE ftands in tire nridJle of the n-^rth peninful I of the illaiid of Sc Donringo, between the mountain and the head waters of a river wlrich falh in- to the foa 4 leagues to the north, and a league and a half weft of P.>it de P.iix. It is equally dillant, 11 leagues norlh-eaft of Point Paradis, and north-weft of Les Gonaives. N. lat. )9''46', W. long, ficm Paris 75" 'j'- — ^^orse. GROTON, a townflrip in Caledonia county, in Vermont, it fituated willwarj of and adjoining to Ryegatc G U A 136 G U A Ouanza* Tclica. Pye^ate townflilp on Conneflicut river, and 9 miles has (lupendout falls, 15 miles fouth of ihe city of its Guamallcj northwelkrly of Stephen's Fort on lli.it river. It name. — ib. contains 45 inhabitants. — ib. GUAIRA, a Spanidi province in the eaft divifion Groton, a townlhip in MidJlefex county, MafTa- of Paraguay, in S. Arrerica. Its city is Cividad Real, chufcus, 35 miles N. W. of Bofton, and contains cjIL'J alfo Guiira, an^l Oliveros. — ib. I,i'40 inhabitants. — ih. GITAM.-^LIES, a province in the jiuifdlflion of the Groton, a towi'diip in New London county, C^m- archbilhop of Lima, in S. America, and empire of ncflicul, having Filhcr's Ill.nd Sound on the fouth- Peru, begins 80 leagues nortlveaft of Lim_a, and ex- ward, and Thames river en the well; vliich fepa- rxtes it from New-London, to which it formerly be- longed. It was incorporated in 1705, and conlilU ot two pailfhes, containing 3,946 inh,d)itants. In 1770 tends along the centre of the Cordillera. The Indian inhabitants apply themfelves 10 weaving, and making a great variety ot bair.es, ferges, and other (luff?, with which they carry on confiderable trade with the other there were 140 Indians here; 44 of whom could read, provinces. — ib. and 17. were church members. On a height, on the GUAMAN VILLAS, a jurifdiaion under the bank of the Thame?, oppofiie New- London city, flood archbilhop of Lima, 7 leagues from Guamanga. It Fort Grilwnld, memorable for being ftormed on the is highly fertile, abounding with corn, fruits, pailures, 6ih of September, 17S1, by Benedia Ainold, a na- cattle in great quantities, and all manner of efculeiU live of Connefticut, after he had become a traitor to vegetables. The Indians here are equally induftrious his country. Here 70 men, the flower vi the town, as thc>l'e above mentioned, making baizes, corded were put to the fword, after they had fnrrendered fluffs, &c. which they fend to Cufco and other provin- themitlves prifoners. '1 he compafl part of the town ces. — ib. . was burnt at the fame time, and fuftained lofFes to the GUAMANGA, or Guamanca, or St 'Juan de la amount cf /■23,2I7. Fort Grifwold defends the har- Vitloria, a city of Peru, about 60 leagues fouth-eall bour of New-London. — ib. of Lima, and having Pifco between it and the fea. It GROVE Flint forms the north fide of the mouth was founded by Pizarro, in 1539. The houfes are all of Silfafras river, in Cliefapeak Bay, 5 miles fouth- of (lone, covered with flates. There are in it 3 ele- fouth-well of Turkey Point. — ib. gant churches, feveral convents, and a rich hofpital ; GROVET's Creek, in the State of Tenneffee, lies being the feat of a biP.wp, under the archb.lhop of 7 miles from King's Spring, and 2 from the foot of Lima, the feat of a governor, and the capital of a Cumberland Mountain. — ib. fmall province. The air is wholcfome and temperate. GRYALVA, a river in the province of Chiapa, in The foil produces wheat, and the meadows breed nu- New Spain, which is faid to bieed certain amphibious merous herds of cattle There are in the province bcafls not to be found in any other place. They re- mines of gold, filver, iron, lead, copper, and fulphur. femble monkeys, and are fpotted like tygers ; they The famous quick-filver mines of Guancavelica are 9 hide themfelves generally under water, and if they fee or 10 leagues from this city. S. lat. 12° 20', W. any man or bealt fwim by, they twift their tails about long. 72" 36'. — ib. a leg or arm to draw them to the bottom ; and yet it GUANA PATINA, a volcano near Arequipa, in has never been obfervcd that they eat them. — ib. the valley of Quilea, in S. America, and empire of GRYSON, a new county of Virginia, taken from Peru; whofe eruption, affifted by an earthquake, laid Montgomery, which bounds it on the noith. It has Arequipa in ruins in 1600. — ib. the State of N. Carolina, fouth, Henry and Wythe GUANCHA BELICA, a jurifdicflion fubjea to counties on the eaft and weft. — ib. the archbilhop of Lima, in Peru, 30 leagues north of GUACANA, a village in New Spain, near the the city of Guamanga; has very rich quick-filver mountain Jcruyo, which was deflroyed by a volcano mines, but otherwife very barren. — ib. in that mountain, in 1760. — ib. GUANCHACO, a port or harbour in Peru, S. GUADALAJARRA, or Guadalaxara, a province America, about 2 leagues north of Truxillo, and the in the audience of Galicia, in Old Mexico or Naw channel of its maritime commerce, fituated in 8" 6' Spain, and its capital, an epifcopal city ot the fame name, both large and beautiful. The city was built anno 1531, by one of the family of the Guzmans ; and the biftiopric, which was before (eltled at Compof- tella, was tranflaled thither in 1570. It is lituated on a delightful and fertile plain, watered with feveral llreams and fountains, not far from Baranja river. The air of the country is temperate, and the foil fo fertile, that it yields 100 to one; and all the fruits of S. lat. in the South Sea. — ib. GUANTA, a jurifdiftion north-north-weft of Gua- manga 4 leagues, in the empire of Peru; under die archbifhop of Lima. Its rich lilver mines are nearly cxhaufted. — ih. GUANZAVELICA, or Guancavelica, a town of Peru in South-America, and in the audience of Lima. It is fich and abounds in mines of quick-filver; 120 miles ni.nh-eaft of Pifco, and 175 fouth-eafl of Lima. S. lat. 13", W. long. 88° 30'. The famous quick- Europe grow in luxuriance and abundance. N. lat 20° 50', V/. long. 104'' 49'. The province is watered filver mines called Guanzavelica, or £1 yfj^enlo cle Oro- by the Guadalaxara river. — /'/;. ptfo, not far from the above town, near the city of GUADALAXARA, or Great River, in Mexico Oropefo, were difcovered by the Spaniards in 1566, or New Spain, rifes in the mountains of the valley of and produce annually a million pounds of quick-filver, Toloccan, where ftands the city of Guadalajarra, or which is tranfported by land to Lima, afterwards to Guadalaxara, the capital of New Ga'icia. After run- Arica, and thence to Potofi, where they make ufe of riing a courfe of more than 600 miles, it empties into it to melt and refine the filver ; and it yields to the ihe Pacific Ocean, in the 22d degree of N. lat. It Spanifh treafiiry 40,000 ducats a year, befides other emoltu G U A r ^21 ] G IT A emolument'!. Thi qnick-filver Is found In a whitifh msfs rel'emblini]; brick half burned. This fubftance is volatilized by fire, and received in flejm by a combi- nation of glafs vellels, where it cnndenfcs by means of a little water at the bottom of each vcilel, and forms a pure heiivy liquid. — ib. GUAR A, a town in its own jurifdiiflinn on the road from Truxillo to Lima, containing about 200 houles. It Iws a parifh church, and a convent of Francifcans, furrounded by fine plant:itions, and de- lightful improvements. At the fouth end of Guara ftands a lart-e tower with a gate, and over it a kind of redoubt. This tower is ercfled before a (lone bridge, under which runs Guara river. It lies in S. lat. n° 31' 36". Not far from this town are rtill to be feen a great many ruinous remains of the edifices of the Yncas or Incas ; fuch as walls of palace?, large dykes, by the fides of fpacious highways, f >rtre(re<, and caf- tles, ercifted for checking the inroads of the enemy. —ih. GUARCHT, a jnrifdiftion 6 leagues eaft of Lima, in Peru, extends itlelf above 40 leagues along the Cor- dilleras, abounding in grain and fruits. It has fome filver mines, but as the metal is indifferent, few are wrousht. — ib. GUARMOY, a fmall maritime town of Peru, in South-America. It is the relidence of a corregidore ; has a good harbour, and lies 134 miles north-weft of Lima, S. lat. iS° 3' 53'. — ib. GUASl'ACA, or Piiniico, a province which borders on New Leon and Mexico, in winch province are sjrain, cochineal, and fome very rich filver mines. All the fliores are low, overflowed, unhealthy, and full of fait marlfies. — ib. GUATIMALA, (En:ycl.). There is a great chain of high mountains, whicli runs acrofs it trom eaft to weft, and it is fubjeft to earthquakes and ftorms. It is, however, very iertile, and produces great quanti- ties of chocolate, cochineal, cotton, indigo, honey, fome balfmi and woad. The merchandize of the pro- vince is generally conveyed to the port of St Thomas in the bay of Honduras, to be fent to Europe. The way acrofs this province to the South Sea is about 65 leagues, and is the next to that from Vera Cruz to Acapulco. This province is called by the Indians ^latticmalhc, whicli (ignilles a rolten tree. St Jago de Guatimala, the capital city, is fituated in a valley, through the midft of which runs a river between two burning mountains. In 1541 this city was ruined by a dreadful tempeft, and a number of the inhabitants were buried in the ruins. It was re- built at a good diltance from the volcano, and became a large and rich town, with a bifh"p's fee, and an uni- verfity ; but it was fwallowed up by an earthquake in 1773. It contained about 60, coo inhabitants of all colours, and was immenfely rich, but there are no traces of it left. The lofs was valued at 15 millions fterling ; and it was the third city in rar.k in Spanifh Am-rica. In this dreadful earthquake 8,000 families indantly periflied. New Guatlniala is built at fome dirtance, is well inhabited, and carries on a great trade. N. ht. ij° 40', W. long. 90" 3c'. — ib. GUAX^CA, a province in the audience of Mexi- co, in New S;ain, N. America, and its capital city of the fame name. It reaches Irom the bay of Mexico ScrpL. Vol. II. on the north to the South Sea, having the province of Gatxm Tlafcala on the north-weft, and thofe of Chiapa and ^■ Tabafco on the fouth-eaft. It extends neaily OS^.^^^^^ leagues along tlie South Sea, 50 along the bay of Mexico, and near i2o, fay fome, along the confines of Tlafcala, but not above 50 on thofe of Chiapa. I'hc air here is good, and the foil fruitful, efpeci ally In mulberry trees; fo that it produces more filk than any province in America. Except the valley of Guaxaca (whicli is famous for giving the title of Marques del Valle to Ferdinand Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico) the greateft part is mountainous, yet abounding with wheat, cattle, fugar, cotton, honey, cocoa, plantanes and other fruits. It has rich mines of gold, filver, and lead; and all its rivers have gold in their finds. Caflla, cochineal, cryftal, and copperas abound a!fo here. Vanilla, a drug, ufed as a perfume to give chocolate a flavor, grows plentifully in this province. There were in this province 120 monafteries, belides hofpitals, fchonls, and other places of public charity, 150 conliderable towns, befides upwards of 300 vil- lages. But now the province is laid to be thinly In- habited. — ih. Guaxaca, the capital of the la ft mentioned pro- vince, is a bifhop's fee, and the rcfidence of a gover- nor. It lies 230 miles fouth of the city of M-xIco, 120 weft of Spirito Santo, and 132 fouth of the guif of Mexico, and of Vera Cruz, in the delightful valley of Guaxaca, which is 40 miles in length and 20 in breadth ; and on the road leading through Chiapa to Guatimala. Tliis city contains a very ftitely cathe- dral, and feveral thoufand families, both Spaniards and Indians. It carries on a coiifiderable trade with the N. and S. feas. The river is not fortified, fo that It lies open to invafion. The Creolian clergy here are bitter enemies to the Spanilh clergy. iVccording to fome, the proper name of Guaxaca is Antijufra ; but this laft, others make a feparate town and bifhop's fee alfo, lituated about 80 miles to the S. W. It is faid to h^ve a flately cathedral, adorned with many large and high pillars of marble, each of which is one en- tire ftone. It is fituated in N. lat. 18° 2', W. long. 101" 10'. Guaxaca is fituated, according to fome. In N. lat. 17° 45'. W. long. 100° — ib. GUAYALAS, a province and jurifdicflion in the archbifhopric of Lima, in Peru, S. America; extends along the centre of the Cordilleras begins 50 leagues N. N. E. of Lima ; produces grain, lVuit>, and pafture for cattle. — ib. GUAYAQUIL, called by fome Guiaquil, by others Guayaquil and Giiayala', a city, bay, harbour and river. In Peru, South-America. Guayaquil city is the fecond of Spanilh origin, being as ancient as 1534; is fituated on the weft fide of the river Guayiquil, north of the iflind <if Puna, at the head of the bay, and ab'^ut 155 miles S. S. W. of Quito, in 2^^ 1 1' fouili lat. 79'' 17' weft long. Cividad Viega, or Old Town, was its firll (Uuation, but it was rjinoved about a q-jaricr of a league in 169^ l)y Orellina; and tlic cinimunication over the great ravins or h.ollows of water, prefcrved bctween_ the old and new towns by a wooden bridge of halt a quarter <f a league. The city Is about two miles in extent ; is defended by three forts, two on the river near the city, and the third behind it, guarding the en- trance of a ravin. The churches, convctii.i, aiid houf- S es C U I [ 138 ] G U I euayara es are of wood. It contains about 20,oco inhabitants — J Europeans, Creoles and other calls ; befides a num^ yj^!^^^ ber of ftrangers drawn hither by commercial interefts. The women here are famed for their perfonal charms, polite manners, and elegant drefs. The fait creek here abounds with lobllers and oyfters ; bu; the fifh in the neighbourhood are not elleemed, being full of bones, and unpalatable. But this place is moft noted for a fliell-fiih called turbine, no bigger than a nut, which produces a purple reckoned to exceed all others in the world, and to vie with that of the Tyi ians. It is called the purple of Punta, a place in the juiifdidion of Guaya- quil. Willi this valuable and fcarce purple, they dye the threads of cotton, ribbands, laces, &c. and the ■weight and colour are faid to exceed according to the hours of the day ; fo that one of the firft preliminaries to a contratft is to fettle the time when it Ihall be weighed. The dye is only the blood of the fifh, prelTcd out by a particular procefs ; and the cotton fo dyed is called by way of eminence caracollillo. The river Guayatjuil is the channel ot its commerce ; and the diftance of the navigable part of it, to the cuftom-houfe of Babahoio is reckoned about 24 leagues. The com- merce of this place is conliderable ; the produflions of the country alone form the moft confiderable part of it ; thefe are cocoa, timber, fait, horned cattle, mules, and colts ; Guinea pepper, drugs, and lana de ceibo, a kind of wool, the produft of a very high and tufted tree of that name, being finer than cotton. It is ufed for matrafles and beds. — ib. GUAYARA, La, a maritime town, and one of the thief of Caraccas, in South-America. — ib. GUERITE, in Fortification, a ccntry-box ; being sfmall tower of wood, or ftone, ufually placed on the point of the baftion, or on the angles of the Ihoulder, to hold a centinel, who is to take care of the ditch, and watch againft a furprife. GUIANDOT, a river of Virginia, which rifes in the Cumberland Mountain, and running a N. by W. courfe about 80 miles, falls into the Ohio river, about 34 miles below the Great Kanhaway. It is faid to be Go yards vvide at its mouth, and as many miles navigable for canoes. — Morse. GUILDHALL, a tovi^nfliip in Eflex county in Ver- mont, is fituated on Conneflicut river, and contains 15S inhabitants. It is oppofite the mouth of Ifrael river in New-Hamplhlre. — ib. GUILFORD, a townfliip in Franklin county, Pennfylvania. — ib. GuiLfORD, a townfhip in Windham county, Ver- mont, on the weft bank of Connedicut river, and op- pofite to the mouth (f Alhutlot river in New-Hamp- thire. It has Hinfdale on the fouth-eaft, and the State of Maflachufetts on the fouth, and contains 2432 in- habitants. — ib. Guilford, a poft-town of Connedicut, in New- Haven county, fituated on the fouth fide of Long-Ifland Sound, about 18 miles E. by S. of New-Haven city. The townlhip is large, and is divided into 5 parilhes, and was fettled in 1639. Ix. \viis cz[\i<l Mcnuncatuck by the Indians. — ib. Guilford County, in Saliftjury diftria, North-Caro- lina, is bounded eaft by Orange, weft by Rowan, fouth by Rockingham county, and north by the ftate of Guillotine. Virginia. It is noted for the extenfive and rich tracts Guildford called New Garden, BufFaloe and Deep river lands. It contains 7191 inhabitants, indufive of 576 flaves. Chief town, M.irtinville. — ib. Guilford Court-Houfs. It is on the poft-road from Halifax to Salifbury, 48 miles fouth-weft of Hillfbo- rough, and 61 caftward of Salifbury. — ib, GUILLOTINE, a new term introduced into the languages of Europe by the mournful effeiils of fana- ticilhi in the holy caufe ot liberty. Our leaders are not ignorant that this is the name given by the National Aftembly ot France to the engine of decapitation, which thofe ufurpers of the legiflative authority decreed to be the fole punifhment of thofe condemned to death for their Climes. This decree was iifued on March 20th 1792. We do not imagine that the world will derive much ufeful inftruiflion from a minute defcription of this ter- rible inftrument of public jullice ; and therefore con- tent otirfelves with giving two figures of it, fuiSciently expreftive of its conftruftion. It is only the revival of an inftrument ufed in former times. The earlieft ac- counts that we have of it is, that it was ufed in the ba- rony- of Halyfax in Yorklhire. It was alfo fet up in Scotland ; but we have no certain information that it has ever been ufed ; and it is ftill lliewn as a fort of curiofity by the name of the Mayden. See Maiden, Encycl. Eratofthenes could not think of a better way of hand» ing down his name to future a^es than by burning the temple of Diana at Ephefus ; Dr Guillotin, phyfician at Lyons, and member of the felf-named National Af- fembly of France, thought himfelf honoured by the de- cree which aflociated his name with this inftrument of popular vengeance. It was indeed propofed by him as an inftrument of mercy, in a ftudied harangue, filled with that fentimental flang of philanthropy, which cofts fo little, promifes fo much, and has now corrupt- ed all the languages of Europe. His invention is in- deed one of the moft exprefiTive fpecimens of Gallic phi- lanthropy, whofe tender mercies are cruel ; and was ac- cordingly received with loud applaufes, both from the houfe, and from the galleries. To proceed, however, with impofing dignity, it was referred to the conlidera- tion of a committee, with injunftions to atk the opinion of able furgeons of its efficiency. Mr Louis, a celebra- ted furgeon of Paris, declared it well fitted for the taik, in a long pedantic diflertation; in which he takes occafion to deliver, with academic coldnefs, a theory of the ope- ration of cutting inftruments ; and fays that he had examined the edge of the guillotine and other fucli inftruments, with a microfcope, and had dlfcovered that the nneft edges were toothed like a faw. M. Guil- lotin, he faid, had therefore with great judgment made the axe of his engine of death with a Hoping edge, by which means il gliffoit d'une fagon injinitment plus douci. This dilfertation was fo much to the tafte of the hu- mane legiflature, that they rewarded Mr Louis with 2000 livres, and publilhed it in the Paris Journals. As to the inventor, he reaped all the benefit from it which he fu kindly intended for the nation, by the trial of it on Iiis own perfon, when he fell under the difpleafure of Robefpierre. We acknowledge, tliat in as far as this inftrument lefTens the duration of the horrid conflidl with the king of G U L C I of terrors, and probably diminifiies the corporeal fuiFer- ance, it may be called merciful (ala') I the d.iy !) ; but we quekion much, whether the dreadful agitation of foul is not rather increafed by the long train of preparatory operations. The hands of the cimvift are tied behind his back : he is then ftretched along on his face on a Ifrong plank, and his precife pofition adjufted to the in- flrunient. When faftened to the plank, it is pulhed forward into its place, under the fatal edge, his neck ad- jufted to the block, and a balket placed juft before his eyes (for the face of Louis XVI. was not covered) to receive his head. This mull employ a good deal of time, and every moment is terrible. The conllrucflicn has received many alterations and refinements ; and has at laft been made fo compendious and portable, as to become part of the travelling equi- page of a commilTioner from the National AH'embly, lent on a provincial or fpecial vifitation. Thus did the fovereign people become teirible in majefty. So fen- fible was the Aifemblyof the advantages of thisavvful im- prefllon, or fo intoxicated with the enjoyment of irre- fiftible power, that they have thought their coins orna- mented by this attribute of their lupreraacy : and as Jupiter is diftinguilhed by his thunderbolt, fo the ma- jelly of the people is diftinguilhed by the no lefs fatal axe. We have feen a piece of ten fous, ftruck at Mentz in 1793, and iirued as current money, at the very time that they were planting the tree of liberty in that illu- minated city by the hands of Cuikine and his trO' ps. The device is the fafces and axe of ancient Rome, crowned with the red cap, and furrounded by a laurel wreath. The infcription is, Repullique Frangoife, 1793, tin. 2d. Fully imprelfed with the fame fentiments, Lequinio, the fentimental novellift of Trance, whom Mercier compares with the tender, the heart-touching Sterne — Lequinio, now commifTioner lent by the Na- tional Alfembly to regenerate Normandy and Brittany, Writes to his mailers, that "he is very fuccefsful in con- verfions fr<im fuperllition to found reafon." He oppofes to the bible and the teliifls cf the faints the conftitu- tion and the guillotine. " And you would wonder (fays he) at my fuccefs — The wife (but they are few) give up their prejudices at once ; but the multitude, the ftu- pid worfliippers of Noire Dame, look at our lady the guillotine ; are filent, become ferious, and their doubts vanifh ; — they are converted. This is your labarum — in hocfigno vlnces." GULA, GvEULE, or Cola, in Architeiflurc, a wavy member whofe contour refembles the letter S, commonly called an Ogee. GULF OF Florida, or Nem Bahama Channel, is bounded on the well by the peninfula of Eaft-Floiida, and on the eaft by the Bahama Illands. It is gene- rally about 40 miles wide, and extends from the 25th to the 28th degree of N. latitude. — Alorsj. Gulf Stream. This remarkable phenomenon is a current in the ocean which runs along the coalt, at un- equal diftances from Cape Florida to the Illc of Sables and the banks of Newfoundland, where it turns oflTand runs down through the Weftern illands ; thence to the coaft of Africa, and along that coaft in a fouthern di- rection, till it arrives at, and fiipplies the pl.ice ot thofe waters carried by the confiant trade-winds from the coaft of Africa toward the well, thus producing a con- fiant circulating current. This ftreara is about 75 39 ] GUN miles from th: fh ores of the Southern ftate.',and the Cunjvoti dillance increafes as you proceed ntrihward. The '^'■^^ width of it is about 40 or 50 miles, widening towards the north. Its common rapidity is three miles an hour. A north-eaft wind narrows the ftream, renders it more rapid, and drives it nearer the coalK North-well and v/eft winds have a contrary efFeil. The Gulf-Stream is iujipofcd to be occafioned by the trade-winds that are conllantly driving the water to the wcftward, which being comprcil'ed in the Gulf rf Mexico, tinds a palfage between Florida and tiie Bahama Iflands, and runs to the north-eaft along the American coaft. This hypothefis is confirmed by another fa£l : It is faid that tlie water in the Gulf of Mexico is many yards higher than on the weftern fide of the continent in the Pacific Ocean. It is highly probalile that the fand carried down by great rivers into bays, and the current out of thefe bays meeting with the Gulf Stream, by their ed- dies, have formed Nantucket Shoals, Cape CoJ, George's Bank, the Ifland of Sable, &c. Skilful navigators, who have acquired a knowledge of the extent to which this ftream reaches on the New- England coaft, have learnt, in their voyages from Eu- rope to New-England, Nevv-York, or Pennfylvania, to pafs the banks of Newfoundland in abo'it 44" or 45' N. hit. to fail thence in a courfe between the northern edge ot the Gulf Stream, and the fhoah and banks of Sable Illand, George's Bank, and Nantucket, by which they make better and quicker voyages to America. — ii. GUNPOWDER, as we have obferved in the Ea,y. clopxJia under the woid Gun, has been known in the eaft, and particularly in China, from a period of very remote antiquity. No man, however, fcems to hav* fufpe(fled that the knowledge ot it was conveyed from the eaft into Europe ; but all have atjreed to allow the merits of the invention both to friar Bacon and to Bartholomew Schwartz. This generally received opi- nion has been lately controverted by citizen Lar.gles, who, in a memtir read in the French natioi.al inftitute, contends, that the knowledge of gunpowder was con- veyed to us from the Arabs, on the return oi the Cru- faders to Europe. He allures us that the Arabs made ufe of it in 690 at the fiege of Mecca ; and lie adds, that they derived it from the Indians, among whom it muft liave been known in the remoieft ages, fince their facred books (the Vedam) forbid the ufe of it in war. It is indeed extremely probable, tliat the compof:- tion of gunpowder was known in India at a very early period ; lor in whatever country nature forms nitre in the greateft plenty, there its deflagrating qu.il ty is moll likely to be fiift obferved; and a few experiments founded on that oblervation, will Icail to the compofi. tion which produces fuch fudden and violent effeifls. " Nitre (lays Sir George Staunton) is the natural and daily piodiice ot China and India ; and there, ac- cordingly, the knowledge < f gunpowder fcems to be co- eval with tiiat of the moft diftant hiftoric events. A- mong the Chinefe, it has been applied at all times to ufcfiil purpcfes, fuch as blaUing rocks, and removing great obftniiflions, and to thofe of amufcment in ma- king a vaft variety of fire works. It was alfo uled m> a defence, by undermining the probable pallagc of tlie enemy, and blowing him up. But its furce had not S 2 bcc* GUN C HO ] GUN tioni of the Gunpow- been directed through ftrong metallic tubes as it was ''^'■- by Europeans foon atter they had dllcovered it. And though, in imitation of Europe, it has been introduced inti) the armies of the Eall, other modes of warfare are fome'.imes llill preferred to it." Of gunpowder manutaflured by thofe who have nianufuftured it fo long, it is defirable to know the comp ful'in and the qualities. It was therefore na- tural for the H^n. George Napier, when fuperintend- ing the roj al laboratory at Woolwich, arid mailing ex- periments uponfo ncctdary an implement oi modern war, to procure fome Cliinefe powder from Canton. Thii he did ; and analyzing two ounces of it, he found, after repeating tlie operation fix times, that the mean refuk gave the following proportions*. Nitre I 02. lo dwts. charcoal 6 dwts. fulphtir 3 dwts. 14 Jioyal Ir'ijh g^g^ Here is a deficiency in weight of ten grains, Ataictny. ^.],jp]^ ^j_ Napier fuppofes the confequence of iome de- fefl in his pr^ccfs ; but as M. Bautnc, a French che- mifl, made a vaiiety of experiments to obtain a total fe- par.ition of the fulphur from the chaicoal of gunpow- der, and was never able to efF:(fl it, one fourteenth part remaining united, three grains mull be dedudltd from the cliarcOrti, and added to the fulphur to give the accu- rate proportion of the ineredients ; which by turning to the arti>le Gunpowdlr, Eiicycl. the reader will per- ceive differs fomewhat from the proportion of the fame ingredients in the gunpowder of Europe. This Chi- nefe powder was ufualiy large grained and not ftrong, but very durable. It had been made many years when our author got it ; yet there was nn nfible fymptom of decay, the grain being hard, well coloured, and though angular, it was even-hzed, and in periedt prefervation. When we confider the operations in which gunpow- der is employed, it is obvious that it muft be an ohjeft of impoitance to afctrtain its explofive lorce ; and yet there is fcarcely a fubjed concerning which the moft approved writers have fo much differed. Mr Robins, who has done more towards perfefling the art o) gun- nery thcAn any other individual, dates the explofive force of j:unpowder to be 1000 times greater than the mean preifure of the atmofphere ; while the celebrated Daniel Bernouilli determines it not tobelefsihan 10,000 times this preifure. Such a difference of opinion led Count Rumfoid to purfue a courfe of experiments, of which fome were publilhed in the Traniadions of the Royal Society for the year 17S1, and the remainder in the Tranlaclions of the fame Society for i 797 ; with the view principally of determining the initial expinfive force of gunpowder. By one of thefe experin.cnts, it ajipeared thai, calculating even on Mr Robins's own piinciples, the force ot gunpowder, infttad of bein^ 1000 times, mult at lealt be 1308 times greater than the mean preflure of the atmo,phere. From iliis ex- periment, the Count thought himfelf wananted in con- cluding, that the principles allumed by Mr Robins were erroneous, and that his mode of afcertaining the force ot gunpowder could never fatist.nftorily dciermine it. Defpaiiing of fuccefs in that way, he refolved to make an attempt for alcertaining this force by aflual mca- furement ; and after many unfuccef ful experiments, he ■was at length led to conclude, that lliis force was at leall 50,000 times greater than the mean prdluie of the atmofphere. Mr Robins apprehends that the fotce of fired gun- powder confifls in the aflion of a permanently elaRIc Gunpow- tluid, limilar, in many re:ptifls, to common atmofpheri- ^<-^- cal air ; and this opinion ha-> been very generally re- ceived : but Count Rumford thin-s, that though the permanently ela.lic fluids, generated in the combullion of gunpowder, aflill in producing the effects which re- fult from its evplolion, its enormous force, allowing it to be 50,000 times gieater than the rriean preffure of the atmol'phere, cannot be explained, without fuppofing that it aiifes principally from the elafticity of the a- queous vapour generated from the powder in its com- buftion. "The biilliant difcoveries cf modern chemifts (fays he) have taught us, that both the conflituent parts of which water is compofed, and even water lUelf, exift in the maieiials which arc combined to make gunpowder; and there is much reafon to believe that water is ac- tually formed, as well as difengaged, in its combullion. M. Lavoifier, I know, imagined that (he force of fired gunpowder depends in a great meafuie upon the ex- panlive force of uncombined caloric, fuppofed to be let loole in gieat abundince during ihe conibullion or de- fiagiation ol the powder : but it is not only dangerous to admit the adion of an agent whofe cxiltcnct: is not yet clearly dcmonftrated ; but it appears to me that this fuppofuion is quite unneceifiry, the elaftic force of the heated aqueous vapour, whole exift- nee can hardly be doubted, being quite fufficient to account lor all the pha:nomena. It is well known that the elalli- city ot aq leus vapour is incompaiably more augment- ed by any given augmentation of temperature tlun that of any peimanently elallic fluid whatever ; and thole who are acquainted with the amazing force of Ifeam, when healed < nly to a few dej:rees above the boiling point, can ealily perceive that its elall city mull be al- motl iiifinite when greatly condenfed and healed to the temperature of reJ hot iron ; and this heat it mud cer- tainly acquire in the exp lofion of gunpowder. But if the force of fiied gunpowder arifes principally fri m the eladic force of heated aqueous vapour, a cannon is no- thing more than a Jham engine upon a peculiar con- ftrudion ; and upon determining the ratio of the elaf- ticity of this vapour to irs denlity, and to its tempera- ture, a lav/ will be found to obtain very different from that affumed by Mr Robins in his Trcatifc on Gun- nery." In order to meafure the elafiic force of fired gun- powder, Count Ru.mford adopted a new plan ; and, in- llead of caullng the generated elalHc fluid to aft on a moveable body through a determined fpace, wliicli he had found to be ineffeiSual to his puipofe, he contrived an apparatus in which tliis fluid IhoiiKl be made to aft, " by a determined furlace againfl a weiglu, which, by being increaled at pleafure, Ihould at lalt be fudi as would jull. be able to confine it, and which in that cafe wr.uld jud counterbalance and confequeatiy weitfure the eladic force." Having lucceeded in fetting fire to the powder, without any conmiunication to the extern.d air, "by cauling the heat employed for that purpofe to pa's through the folid fubihmce of the bairel, it only re- mained to apply luch a weight to an opening made in the biirel, as the while lorce if the geneiared tlaliic fluid Ihould not be able to lift or difplace." Many piecautions weie necetlary. Afolid block of very h irj ftone. Cunj>ovv- der. GUN [ 141 ] GUN ftone, four feet four inches fquare, was pbced upon a could be burfl by the force of gunpowder, if this force Cunpoww bed of loliJ nialonry, which dslcended In ieet below bcnot in faamuchgreaterlhsn it haiever beenfuppofed <"'"• to be, he pnceeds to (hew that tlie combuftion of the furface of the earlh. Upon ihis block of Itone, which lerved as a bale to the whole machinery, was placed ihe fnuU barrel, in which the explotions were made, wiih its opening dirtclly upwards. This open- ing was clii(ed by a fo'.id henufphere ot hardened fteel, on which the weight to be overcome by the exph'linn was l.iid. Having charged tlie barrel wifh lo grains of powder, its whole contents being about 2S grain?. gun- powder, inftertd of being inftantaneous, as Mr Robins's theory fuppoCes, ib much lei's rapid than h.ts hitherto been apprehended ; .in obfervation which, if eAablilli- ed, ii certainly fufficient to anfwer the ohjec'tlon. He rem.irks, that it is a wiU-kn.^wn faifl, that on the diicharge of fire-arms of all kindf, there is always a conliderable quantity of unconfum^d giains cf gunpow. and a 24 pounder wci-hing 8081 lbs avoirdupois, der blown out of them; and what is very remarkable, as being pl.ced en its cafcabel fo as by its weight to ccn- it leads directly to a difcovery of the caufe ol this tff^a, fine the generated elaftic fluid, a heated iron ball was ihcfe uncor.fiimed grains are not merely blown out of the .L j-r.u .. I . / , ,, , ,■ , muzzles of lire-arms, l)ut come out alfo by their vents or touch-holes, where the fire enters to inlhme tlie charge, as many perfons who have had the ii.ijfortune to (land with their faces near the touch-hole of a mufket, when it has been dli'ch trged, have found to their coU. It appears extremely improb.ilb to cur aulhor, if not abfoluttly iinpoflible, that a grain ol gunpowder actually in the chamber of the piece, and completely furrouiided by flame, (liould, by the aiflion of thit ve- ry flame, be blown out ot it without being at the Utne time fet on fire. And, if iliis be true, he confidets i: as a moll dccilive proof, not only that the comliuliioa of gunpowder is lefs rapid than it has generally b.-en thought to be, but that a grain of gunpowder aflually on tire, and burnir.g with the utmol't violence over the whole of its furface, may be projefled with fuch a ve- applied to the end of the vent tube, ( a fmall Iblid pro jeflion irom the centre cf the bottom of the barrel). In a few moments the powder took lire, though the explofion made a very feeble report ; and when the weight was raifed, (he contined elsliic v.npcur lufhed out of the barrel. The flight elieft produced by this explolion induced I'cme of the attendants on this occa- fion to undervalue the importance oi this experiment, and to foim a very inatlecjuate idea of the real free of the elaftic fluid that had been thus alniolt in- fenlibly difcharged. In a lecond e.\ptiiiiient, the bar- rel was filled with powder, and the faux weight laid on as before. 1"he bairel was made tf the bell ham- mered iron, and uncommonly (tiong. The charge (.f powder amounted to little more than -jV of a cubic inch, which is not fo niui.h as would be required to load a (mall pocket pilfol, and no\ one-tenth part of the locity into a cold atmjfphere, as to extinguilh the tire, quantity Irequently ufed for the charge of a common and iwScr the remains of the grain to fall to the ground muiket. Yfct thi'. iiiconfiderable quantity of powder, unchanged, and as inflammable as before. neighbourh when let on fire, exploded with a force that burlt the barrel, and with a loud report that alarmed the wliole d. The auth r proceeds lo make an eflimate from the known ftrength of iron, and the area ot the frafture of the barrel in the preceding experiment, of the real force employed by the elallic vapour to but ft it ; and lie computes that it mull have been equal to the pref- fure ol a weight of 412529 lbs.; v/hich, by another computation, he found to be 53004 times greater than the mean pitlfure of the atmofphere. By another pro- ceA, he inveftigates the ftrength of the iron of which the barrel was made ; and he thence finds that the force required to bu-:lf it was equal to the prelfure of a weight ot 4106244 lbs. This weight, reduced into atmofpluies, gives 54750 atmofpheres for the raea- fure of the fuice ei.eitcd by the elaftic fluid in the pre- fent inllance. H^liis foice mull be tonliderably lefs than the initial force rf the elaftic fluid generated in tiie combuftion rf gunpowder, before it has begun to expand ; " for it is ni< re than prol)al>lc (fays Count Run.fcrd) that the barrel was in fa<51 buill before the genciated elaftic (Ijid had exerted all it^ lorce, or that this fluid would have beeuiibleto h^ve burfl a barrel llill ftronger than tiiat ufed in the e.\pe:iiiieiit." After having fliewn the eiireruc f rce of fired gun- powder, the Count adveils to an oi>jedlion which may be made agamft his drduifhoiis. How docs it liappen that fire-arms and aitille: y I'f all kinds, which certawily are not calculated to vvijliliand fo ent>imou» a f >ice, are rot always burft when they are tifed ? InfteaJ ol an- fwering tl.is quellion, by afking how it happe::ed that Uic ejitrcmcly Itror^ batiel uied in his tipiiimcnt This extraordinary fasT was afcertained beyond all poUibilily of doulit by the Cour.l's experiments. Ha- ving procured from a pcwdermill in the neighbotjrhood ol the city of Munich, a quantity of gurpowder, all of the fame mafs, but formed into grains of very ditlerent fizes, feme as fmall ^s the grains of the fineft Battel powder, he placed a number of vertical "fcreens of very thin paper, one behind another, at the diftance of 12 inches from each other ; and loading a common muf- ket repeatedly with this powder, fometimes without and fometimes with a waJ, he fired it againil the fcre- moft fcreen, and oblerved the quantity and effeifls of the unconfumed grains of powder which impinged againlt i;. The tcreens were lb con.rived by means of double frames united by hinges, that the paper could be ch.anged with very little trouble, and it was seTually changed after every eiperimcnl. The diilance iron) the muzzle of the run to the 6rft fcreen was not always the l.tme ; in fomeof thecx| c- riments it was only 8 feet, in others it was 10, and in fome 12 feet. The chai ge of powder was varied in a great nuniber of dilTereut ways ; but the llJoA intereftirg expcrin.ent* were made with one fingle large grain o( jM>w»:er, pro- pelled by fmalier and larger charges of very finegraiced powder. Tbele large grains never failed to iiach tlie fcreen ; and though they fimelimes :ip|c,.rcJ to have been bro- ken into fcveral pieces by the (orcc of the explofl )r, yet they irequently reached ihe fcrtcn entire ; r.nJ fometimes paifcd ihroiigh all ibe fcreens (five in ni'in- bci ) without beit.g broken. AViitu tJuy wcie propelled by large charge*, and <oiii'c- GUN C 142 ] GUN Cunpnw- ecnfequcnr!)' with great velority, they vvere feldom on ^^lyjll^ file uiien ihey arrived ;it the lirli fcreen ; which was e- vident not only tVnm their rot fctting fire to the paper (which tliey fomefmes did), butalfo from their being found nicking in a foft board, againft which they ftrncl;, after having pali'ed througli all the five fcreen-) ; or leaving vif'dile marks of tlieir having been impinged againft it, and being broken to pieces and difperled by the blow. Tiiefe pieces were often found lying on the ground; and from their firms and dimenfions, as well as from otlier appearances, it was often quite evident that the 1 ttle globe of jwwder had been on fire, and that its diameter had been diminilhed by the combuf- tion before the fire was put out, on the globe being projeclcd into the cold atmofphcre. That thefe globes or large grains of powder were al- ways fet on fire by the combuflion of the charge, can hardly be doubted. This certainly happened in many of the experiments ; for they arrived at the fcreens on fire, and fet five to the paper ; and in the experi- ments in which they were projeiffed with fmall ve- locities, they were often feen to pafs through the air on fire ; and when this was the cafe, no veflige vas to be found. They fometimes paffed on fire through feveral of the foramofl fcreens, without fetting them on fire, and fet fire to one or more of the hind- moll, and then went on and impinged againft the board, vhich was placed at the diftance of 12 inches behind the lafl fcreen. The Count then proceeds to mention another expe- riment, in which the progreflive combuftion of gunpow- der was fliewn in a manner Hill more flriking, and not lefs conclulive. A fmall piece of red hot iron being dropped down into the chamber of a common horfe-piftol, and the piftol being elevated to an angle of about 45 degrees, upon dropping down into its barrel one of the fmall globes of powder (of the fize of a pea), it took fire, and. was prnje<5fed into the atmofphere by the elaflic fluid generated in its own combuflion, leaving a very beautiful train of light behind it, and difappearing all at once like a falling flar. This amufing experiment was repeated very often, and with globes of different iizes. When very fmall ones were ufed fingly, they were commonly confumed entirely before they came out of the barrel of the piflol ; but when feveral of them were ufed together, fome, if not all of them, were commonly projedled into the atmofphere on fire. As the flownefs of the combuftion of gunpowder is undoubtedly the caufe which has prevented its enor- mous and almoft incredible force from being difcover- ed, our author deduces, as an evident confequence, that the readieft way to increafe its effefls, is to contrive matters fo as to accelerate its inflammation, and com- buftion. This may be done in various ways ; but, in his opinion, the moft tlmple and mofl effeftual man- ner of doing it would be to fet fire to the charge of powder, by thooiing (through a fmall opening) the flame of a fmaller charge into the midft of it. He contrived an ir.ftrument on this principle for firing cannon three or four years ago ; and it was found, on repeated trials, to be ufeful, convenient in pradlice, and not liable to accidents. It likewife fuperfedes the uecefTity of ufing priming, of vent-tubes, port-fires, and matches, and on that account he imagined it might be of ufe v.i tlic Britifli navy, but it does not appear to Gur.pov- have been received into praitic*. ^'^^' Another infallible method of increafing very con- fiderably the elTcit of gunpowder in fire-arms of all forts and dlmenfions, would be to caufe the bullet to fit the bore exa(5Hy, or without windage, in that part of the bore at Icaft where the bullet refts on the charge; for, wlien the bullet does not completely clofe the o- pening of the chamber, not only much of the elaltlc fluid, generated in the firft moment of the combuftion of the charge, efcapes by the fide of the bullet; but what is of ftilt greater importance, u confiderable part of the unconfumed powder is blown out of the chiim- ber along v.iih it in a ftate of a{5lual combuftion, and, getting before the bullet, continues to burn on as it pafles througli the whole length of the bore ; by which the motion of the bullet is much impeded. The lofs of force which ariles from this caufe, is in fome caies almoft incredible ; and it is by no means dif- ficult to contrive matters fo as to render it very appa- rent, and alto to prevent it. If a common borfe-piftol be fired with a loofe ball, and fo fmall a charge of powder that the ball fhall not be able to penetrate a deal board fo deep as to ftick in it when fired againft it from the diftance of fix feet ; the fame ball, dlfcharged from the fame piftol with the fame charge of powder, may be made to pafs quite through one deal board, and bury itfelf in a fecond placed behind it, merely by preventing the lofs offeree which arifes from what is called windage, as he found more than once by adual experiment. The Count has in his pofTelHon a mufket, from which, with a common charge of powder, he fires two bullets at once with the fame velocity that a fingle bul- let is dlfcharged from a mufket on the common con- ftrU(5fion with the fame quantity of powder. And, what renders the experiment ftill more ftriking, the diameter of the bore of his mufket is exadlly the fame as that of a common mufket, except only in that part of it where it joins the chamber, in which part it is juft i'o much contrafled, that the bullet, which is next to the powder, may ftick faft in it. He adds, tliat though the bullets are of the common fize, and are con- fequently confiderably lefs in diameter than the bore, means are ufed which effedfnally prevent the lofs of force by windage ; and to this lalf circumftance, he concludes, it is doubtlefs owing, in a great roeafure, that the charge appears to exert fo great a force in propelling the bullets. That tlie conic.il form of the lower part of the bore where it unites with the chamber has a confiderable fhare in producing this extraordinary eSe&, is, how- ever, very certain, as he has found by experiment made with a view merely to afcertain that faft. At the clofe of the Count's laft memoir, we have a computation, defigned to fliew that the force of the e- laftic fluid generated in the combuftion of gunpowder, enormous as it is, may be fatisfaflorily explained on the fuppofition that it depends folif/y on the elafficity of watery vapour, or fteam. From experiments made in France in the year 1790, it appears that the elafticlty of fleam is doubled by every addition of temperature equal to 30* of Fahrenlieit's thermometer. As the heat generated in the combuftion of gunpowder can- not be lefs than that of red-hot iron, it may be fiip- pofed GUT C H3 ] GUT iw- pofed equal to icoo° of Fahrenheit's fcale :— but the the tranfverfe^nd oblique mufcles into the abdomen, Cat-tie. elaftic force of fteam is juft equal to the mean prefTure pafs over the ureters in acute angles ; at which tuminir, ^-^-'"^ of th* almoiphere, when its temperature is equal to by their great length and elaftic force, the peritoneum that of boiling water, or to 212° of Fahrenheit's ther- is ruptured ; the \nfj dcfcrentia are fevered from the momcter; confequeniiy 2 12° + 30"= 240° will rcpre- tefticles, and fpringing back, form a kind of bow from ient the temperature, when its elallicity will be equal the urethra, where they are united, over the ureters, to to the preifure of two atmofpheres ; and, purfuing the the tranfvcrfe and oblique muicles, and there again unite, calculation, at 602*^ or 2° above the heat of boiling where they firll entered the abdomen ; the part of the liniced oil, its clallicity will be equal to the prelFure of gut that is tied ii the jejunum, at its turning from 8192 atmofpheres, or above eight times irreater than the left lide to the right, and again from the right to the utiTioll force of tlie fluid generated in the combuf- the left, firming right angles under the kidney, and at- tion of gunpowder, according to Mr Robins's compu- tached to the duplicature of the peritoneum, to which tation : but the heat in this cafe is much greater than it was united, wliere the rupture happened. There tlic that of 602° of Fahrenheit ; and therefore the elallicity bow of the gut hangs over the bow of the vafa defe- of the fteam generated from the water contained in the rentia, which, by a fudden motion, or turn of the bealt, powder muft be much greater than the preffure of S192 farm a hitch or tie of the firing round the bow of the atmofpheres. At 722°, the elallicity will be equal to gut (filled with air), fimilar to what a carter makes on tlie preillire of 131,072 atmofpheres ; and this tempe- his cart line. This caufes a ftoppage in the bowels, rature is lefs than the heat of iron, which is vifibly red- and brings on a mortification, which, in two days, or hot in daylight, by i<^'^'^ : — but the flame of gunpow- four at moft, proves fatal : And to this accident is the der has been found to melt brafs, which requires a heat beaft, when callralcd as above, liable from the day that equal to that of 3807° of Fahrenheit; 2730° above he was callrated till the time of his being flaughtcred. the heat oi red hot iron, or 3805° higher than the tern- The fymptoms of the gut-tie nre the fame as tliofe perature which gives to fteam an elallicity equ^l to the of an incural)le colic, volvulus, or mortification of the preillire of 131,072 atmofpheres. That there is in bowels. The beaft affcfled with this complaint will gunpowder viater fufficient for fupplying the necelfary kick at its belly, lie down, and gruan ; it has alfo a to- quantity of fteam, the author has very fatisfaiflrrily tal ftoppage in its bowels (except blood and mucu£, evinced: but wc mufl f>ot purfue his curious inveftiga- which it will void in large quanllties), and a violent tions any farther. Thofe who want a fuller account fever, &c. To diftingullh with certainty the gut-tie of tliem, will find it either in the original memoirs from the colic, &c. the hand and arm of the operator themfelves, or in a very accurate abridgement of tliefe muft be oiled, and uitioduced inio the anus, through the memoirs in the firfl volume of Nichohon's journal of reiflum, beyond the os pubis turning the hand down to Natural P k'.lofophy , &c. the tranfverfe and oblique mu.'cles, where tlie velfels of We cannot conclude this article without mentioning the tefticles enter the abdomen. There the ftring will a new kind of gunpowder, invented fbmc years ago in be found united to the mufcles, and is cafily tr.iced to France, in which the marine acid is fubllituted, in e- tlie ftiicture by the hand, without pain to the bcatl. qual quantity, fcr nitre. Dr Hutton tried feme of From the general view ot tlie agriculture cf the coun- thls new powder which was made at Woolwich, and ty of Hereford, drawn up by Mt Clark of BuiMi, Bre- found it of about double the ftrength of the ordinary conlhire, we learn that Mr Harris farmer at Wickton, fort ; but it is not likely to come into common and ge- near Leominfter, had been uncommonly fucccfsful in neral ufe, for the preparation of the acid is difEcult and the cure of the gut-tie. That gentleman informs us, espenlive, (See CHEMisTRY-/nf/ifx in this SuppL), and that he had cut cattle for iKx-, difeafi: fiom the age of the powder which is made of it catches fire and ex- three months to that of nine years ; and as it is a mat- plodes from the fmalleit degree of heat, and without ter of great importance, we fhall ftate his m:thoi of the aid of a fpark. It is to this circumftance, liow- operating in his own words. ever, that its iuperior flrength feems to be in a great "The only method of cure (fays be ) tliat call be. meafure owing. fafely ventured upon is, to make a perpendicular incifion, GuNPOWDfcR, a river of the weftern fhore of four Inches under tlic lliiid vtrlcbia of the loins, ot> Maryland, whcfe chief branches unite a little above the left fide, over th; paunch or (lomach, and irtrodnce Joppa, and emi ly into Chefapeak Bay, about 12 miles the arm to find tlie pirt ail\fled ; if pcfllble, keep the above Patapfco river. It is navigable only a few miles, b.aft ftanding by t!ie help of proper ui!i.l..nti. The by reafon of f.illb. — Morse. knife I ma'si ufe of to fever the Itring i> in the form Gunpowder Neck, ncarthehcad of Cliefapeak Bay, of a large filh hook, with an eilgc on the concave is a curious peninfula formed by Gunpowder river, fide j it is fixed to a ring, which fits the middle finger, and Bulh river. — ih. which finger crooks round the baci^ of the knife, the GUNTF-R's Chain. See Geometrv, Encyclcps- end of the thun.b being placed on its edge. The m- di,i, Pait II. chap. i. flrument, by being thus held in ihc haid, is fecurcd GUT-TIE, a dangerous difeafe to which oxen and fioni wounding the furruunding in^ellines ; with it I male cdves are rendered liable by an improper mode of divide the ftring or ftrings, and brirg out one or both caftration. In fome pl.iccs, and pariiculaily in Here- as circumft.inces requite. Here it is to be obferved, foidliiire, the breeders of cattle, wlicn they callrate that great c.ire muft be taken by the operator net to their calves open the fcrotum, take hdld of the tefticles wound or divide the ureters, which would be certain with their teeth, and tear tliem out with violence; by death. I then few up llie divided lips cJ the pcrlto- which means all the velfels thereto belonging arc lup- ncum very clofc, with a furgern's nccd'e threaded wltli luted. The vnfa deferctitia, eiiteiing by the boles cf llror.g thread, ci^jLt or icu douLlc, fuflicieaily wmcd ; H A C [ 144 ] HAG Gut-ile. I alfo few up the fkin, leaving a vacancy at the top «"'~^'^^ and bottom uf the wound futficiently wide to introduce a tent of furgeon's tow, i'pread with common digeliive and traumatic balfani ; covering the ircifion with a pla- ller made of the whites ofejrgs and wheat flour. The wound, thus treated and drefled every day, will be well in a fortnight. The medicine I give to remove the ftoppage in the three ftomachs occationed by the tie, and to carry off the fever, is lour ounces of Glau- ber's fait, two ounces of cream of tartar, and one ounce of fenna, infufed in two pounds of boiling water, adding half a pcund cf olive-oil, and working it off with plen- ty of gruel, miied vx'ith u large quaniity of intufion of mallows and elder-bark. I adminillcr the gruel and infullon for at leaft two or three days ; by which time the bead will be well, will eat his provender, and chew the cud, and will for ever be relieved, and remain fafe from this fatal dil'order. "The following fimple and eafy method of caftra- tion will effeftually prevent the gut tie. Open the fcrotum, loofen out the tefticles, and tie the feveral vef- fels with a waxed thread or filk ; or fear them with a hot iron, to prevent their bleeding, as in the common way of cutting colts. This method can never difplace the velll'ls of the teflicles, bladder, kidneys, or intef- tines ; all of which remain covered or attached to the peritoneum, or lining ot the abdomen of the bead, which renders it impnlTible that there lliotild ever he a rtriflure or tie on the gut." GUZ, an Indian mealure, varying in different places, but which miy be reckoned about an Englift yard. The guz of Akbar was 41 fingers. H. Hacha TTACHA, Rio DE LA, or La Hach/i, a province, II XJL its chief town, and a river, in Terra Firma or Hackinfack Callile del Oro, in South-Ameiica. The province is fur- ^'^'^''^^^ rounded on two fides by the ocean, vi/. on the N. and N. W. and on the third eaftward by the gulf of Vene- zuela. The town is fitnated at the mouth of the riv- er, and on its weft fide, on a little hill about a mile from the fea. The foil about it is very rich, and abounds with produ(f>ions common to the climate, alfo European plants and fruits; well fiipplied with fait fprings, veins of gold, and feme gems of great value. The harbour is none of the beft, being expofed to the north v/inds. It is about 8 leagues from New. Salamanca, and 18 from Cjpe Vela, N. by E. and 246 miles eafl of Car- ihagena. Here the Spani'h Galleons touch at their arrival in South-America, from whence expreffes are fent to all the fettlement.-, to give them notice ot it. In 1595 it was furprifed and facked by Sir Francis Drake. JJ. hit. 11= 30', W. long. 72". — Morse. HACKETSTOWN, a fmall poll-town in SufTcx county, New-Jerfey, on the north-well f:de of Mulcone- cunk rivtr. It is about three miles above the mineral fpring near Ri .xbury, on the oppofr.e fide of the river, 22 miles VV. by N. of Moniftown, 16 S. W. by W. of Sulfex court-houfe, and 1 20 N. N. E. of Philadelphia. —ib. HACKINSACK, a river of New-Jerfey which rifcs in New-York, and runs a foutheily courle four or five niihs well of Hudfon's river. It unites with Paflrfic river at the head of Newark bay, and is navigable about 15 miles. — ib. Hackinsack, the chief town in Bergen county, Ncw-Jtrfey, isfituated near the weft bank of the above river, 20 mile> Noith-weft of New-York city. The in- liahi ants are mollly Dutch. 'I'he houfes are chiefly built of Hone, in the old Dutch talle. Here are four public buildings, a Dutch and Epifcopal church, a court-aoufe, and a flourilhing academy. The people, who are mollly farmers, carry their produce to New- York.— Z;^. HADDAM, a town of Connefticut, the fecond in rank in Middlefcx county, fituated on the weft fide of Connecticut river, 18 or 20 miles from its mouth, and 10 miles I'outh-eaft of the city of IvLddletown. This townfhip, including Eaft-Haddam, on the oppjofite lide of the river, was purchRled of the Indians, May 20th, 1662. A fpot in EallHaddam was famous for Indian Paivnius, and was luhje»5f for many years to earthquakes and various noifes, which the lirlt fettlers, agreeable to the fuperllitious ideas of that age, attributed to t.iefe Pazuaws. An old Indian being afked what was the realon of fuch noiles in this place .' ani'wered, The Indian's God was very angry becaufe the Eiigliflimen's God came here." Thele noifes are now frequently heatd. — ib. HADDONFIELD, a imall town in Gloucefter county. New Jerfey, 9 miles S. E. by E. of Philudcl- phia, and 17 from Burlington. — ib. HADLEY, a pleafant town in Hampliiire county, MafTachufetts, lying on the eaft fideof Conneifticut river, nearly oppofite to ^Northampton, 20 miles north of Springfield, and 97 weft of Bolton. The town con- fiih of two long fptcicus ftreets, which run parallel with each other, and with the river. The townfhip con- tains S82 inhabitant'. — ib. HAGARSTOVVN, now called Elizabeth-'To'wn. It has a confiderable trade with the wellern country, and has between two and 300 houfes. It is fitu- ated in Wafliington c< unty, Maryland ; it is a poft. town 26 miles north-weft of Fred'^ricktown, 73 N. W. by W. of Baltimore, and 22 S. by W. of Cham- bcrfbi;rg in Pera:fylvania. — ib. HALBUT H;i<lc3ain II Hagarf. Hallmt II Halifax. HAL [ 145 ] HAM HALBUT Point, the north ead point of Cip: incnrporalej m 1734, and conuins 6G4 iiiliab'tants. MaUit Anne, in Mp.ir,)chnfett?. — Morse. — ih. , H.'iJ.F MOON, an extenlive to'.vnOiip in Albany Halifax, a villaae or fct'l^ment on thf <ra(l fid- of """^'1^ county, New-York. It contnins 3,600 inhabitants ; of Siifquehannali riverain D.iuphin c(,unty, Peniifjlrrfni^, tbele, 128 are flaves, and 563 are qualified eledors. I 3 m l;s notlh of H irri(burq. ;}. Wateiford, ?L TMUt, compaft, iluiving village of about Halifax, one of the middle dillrii.'ts of North-Ciro- 70 or 80 houfe^, two miles E. N. E. of the Cohoez, lini, bound :d north by the S'atc of Vir.;inia, e^ft by and 12 miles north of Albany, on the north bank of EJenton di:lriift, weft by HdKbjrcugh, and fouth by the moll northeily branch of Mohawk river and on Newbern. It is divided into 7 coumic«, viz. Nonh- the weft bank of the Hudfon, is fuuated in this town- amptor, Hilifax, Martin, E Igconib, Warren, Franfc- fliip — ib. lin, and Nrflh, which contain 64.630 inhabitants, mcl jd- HALIFAX, a county in the e.iftern p^rt rf the ing 25,402 (lives. Befidcs finaller ftream?, the Britilh province of Nova Scotij. It contains H:difdx, Roanoke pa.Tes ih-ough tliis diilriifl in a fcuth-call the capital ; ihe townlhips f I Lnndnnderry, 'J'ruro, conrfe, and the Paniplico has it» fource in it. Ch'cf Oi'flow, Cnlchtifcr, L;>.wrence, Southarrpton, Car.fo, town, Halifax. — ib. and Tinmouth. Tlie inlubitants are chiefly In(h, Halifax, a coU!ity of ihc above diflrlO, bounded Scutch, and New-Engl.mders. It has numerous bays, north by N'Tthampt'^n, fmrh by Edgcomb, ea!l by and rivers ; the chiet ot the la'tcr are Shabbennacadie, Bertie, and well by V/anen. It contains 7459 in» which ii a boutable river, the Peticcodiac, Msmraincook, habitants, and 6506 flave';. Chiet town, Hal f.ii ib. Sec. — ill. Halifax, the chief tov/n of tin; abive county, aiij of Halifax, the capital oftlie provinceofNova Scotia, the diiliifl of its nam; in NorthC irohna, is a poll* in the county of its nam?, was feuled by a number of town, pleafantly (ituatrd on the weflern bink of ihe Britdh fubjecls in 1749. It is fuuated cm a Ipacifus Roanoke, about fix nii'es bel)w tlie falls, regularly laid and commodious bay or h irbour, called Chclni^^o, of a out, and belides dwcU'ng houfcs, has a court-houli: and bold and caly ei trance, -Aliere a thoulxiid of the largeft paol. It is 36 mile^ north of T.irborough, 28 mile* iliips might ride with great convenience and fa!ety. from Grenviile court houf:, 147 north-eall cf Fayettt- The town is built on the weft tide of the h.irbour, en vi le, 75 S. by W. <{ Pctei Iburg, Virj;inia, and 383 the declivity of a commandincj hill, whi fe fummit is S. W. by S. of Philadelphia, N. lat. 36'' 13'. — li. 236 feet perpendicular from the level of the fea. The Halifax, a coun-y in Virginia, birJering on the State of North-Carolit^a. It is about 42 miljs lonj» and 39 broad, and contains 14,722 inhabitants, includ- ing 5565 flives. — rh. HALLOWELL, a fl urlfliin,;; piU-town in the Diilriift ol Maine, and the (iiite town of Lincoln coun- ty, lituated in N. hit. 44'^ 16', at the head of the tide town is liid (Ut into oblong I'quares ; the (Iree's pa- rallel and at right angles. The town and iubnibs are about two miles in length ; r.nd the general width a quarter of a mile. It contained in 1793 ab nit 4000 inhabitants and 700 houfcs. At the nonliern extremi- ty ol the town, is the king's naval yard, completely built and fupplied with llores of every kind for the waters on the well lide of Kennebeck river. An acade- royal navy. The harbour of Halifax is reckoned in- my is cftaSlilhed here v/ith aconfiderablefund inlands, fcrior to no place in Britilh America for the feat of I'he court-hmife h.ie is 12 miles S. by W. of VaiTal- governmei.t, being open and accellible at all feafons of borough, 30 N. by W. of WifcilTet, 40 north-eaft of the year, when almoft all other harbours in thefe Nevv-Gl"uceller, and 195 N. by E. of Boftnn. Ha/- provinces are locked up with ice ; alio from its en- hwell HoA lies on the i.imc fide of the river, three trance, fitnation, and its proximity to the bay of Fundy, and principal interior feltlenients of the province. This ci'y, lying on the fouth coaft of Nova Scotia, has communicatii>n with Piflon, 68 miles to the north- eaft on the eulf ol St. Lawrence, bv a [rood cart-road. miles below the tovvn, and five north of Pittfton. Th; whole towntliip contains 1 194 inhabitants. — ib. HAMBATO, a principal alllonto or jurifdiJlion in the province of Qnito, in Peru. It is fituated in 1° 41' S. lat. and 12 mucs well of the city of Quito; and finilhed in 1792. It is twelve miles northerly of C-ipe has 6 fmall villages in its dependence. It contains Sambro, which forms in part the entrance of the bay ; about 18,000 inhabitants, who are mollly employed in 27 fouih-eaftcrly of Windfor, 40 N. by E. of Truro, 80 weaving lI'ifFs and in knitting. — .'i. N. E. by E. of Annapolis on the bay of Fundy, and 157 HAMBDEN, or llamcUn, a townfh^p in New-Yoik fouth-eaft of St. Ann, in New-Brunfwick, meafurirg State, bounded north by land ceded to Maflachufctts, in a ftraight line. N. lat. 44" 40' W. long 63" 15'. fouth by the north line of Pennfylvania, and eaft by ;^. Sidney. Sufquchinnah river palfcs in a well courts Halifax, a fort in the town of Window, in Lincoln tlirough both towns. The centre of the town lies county, Maine, ereded by order of Governor Shirley in 1 3 miles W. by S. cf the mouth of Chcnengo river.— »7-. 1754. It ftands on the point of land firmed by the HAMBURG, a fmall poft town of Nexv-Jerfcy, i3 contluence of the Sebaftacook with the Kennebeck, miles from Godien in New- York, and 20 Irom New- 30 mi'.cs below Sandy river. — ib. town or Sulfex court houfe — ib. Halitax, a townlhip in Windham county, Vermont, Hamburg, a handfomc town in Burke's county, 23 miles E. by S. of Bennin<;toii, has Marlborough on Pennfylvania, fcated on the eaft fide of Schuvlkill. the north, and the Malfachuietts line fouih. It con- Here arc about 50 or 60 houfcs, a German Luther.m tains 1309 inhabitants, ib. -inJ Calvinill church united. It is 18 miles N. by W. Halifax, a townlhip in Plymouth county, Malfa- of Reading, and 70 northnnrth-weft of Philadelphia. chufetts, lituated 35 miles fouih-callofBofton. It was Ncrih lat. 40° 34', well long. 76^— ;*. Su FPL. Vol. II. T H.AMDEN, n A M C I4(^ ] HAM Karadca , II Hsmilton IIAMDEN, a townflilp in New-IIavcn cnuntj-, Connedicut, about tight r.iiies north cf New-Haven city. — il). HAMILTON, a cape on the north end of New- foundland ifliind — i!/. Hamilton. There are three towndiips of this naine in Pennfylvania ; one in each of the counties of York, Frankhn, and Northampton. — ii. Hamilton, a feitlenient in Vermont on the Canada line. — if'. Hamilton, in Herkemer county, New-York, z townfhip 12 miles fciuare, 20 foulh of old Fort Schuy- ler, a level tovvnihip of good land, fart fettling — Orifke or Olhiflce creek, a water of M. hawk, and Che- iiung, a water of Sufqiiehannah, rife in this townlhip. In 1796 there were 1202 inhabitants, of whom 196 were eltclors. — il/. Hamilton, a town or fet'.Iement lately laid out in Albany ccunty, New-York, in ihe extenfive townfh-p c f AV'ater VUct, formerly called the Glti/s Faificry ; and has its prefent narrje in honour ot that great patron of Ameiican nmnufHiflutes, the late fecretary of the treafu- ry of the United States cf America. It lies ic miles weft of Albany, two miles from the Scheneflady road ; and is one tf the moft decifive eli'orts ol private enter- prize in the manufjfliiring line, as yet exhibited in the United States. The glafs manufiflury is now fo well eflablilhed, and fo happily fituated for the fupply of the ncrthern and weftern parts of the State of New- York, as well as Vcrmopt ;.nd Canada, tiiat it is to be ex- fefted the proprietors will be amply rewarded for their great and expenfive exertions. The glafs is in good reput.ition. Here are two glafs houfes, and various other buildings, curious hydrauUc vvoiks, to five manu- al labour, by the help of machinery. A copious ftream runs through the heart of the fettlement ^hicli lies high ; and being furrounded by pine plains, the air is highly falubiious. The great Scho- harie road traverfes the fettleinenr. A fpacious fchool- houfe, and a church of an o>Sagon foini are foon to be ireifled. In the neighbourhood of ihefe glafs works, a block vi-as cut out of an ancient tiee, not many years ago, containing evident maiks of an a:!e or fome edge tool, made 185 years ago, determined according to the ufual and certain mode of afcerlaining the age of trees. The block is preferved in Albany as a curiofity. Henry Hudfon afccnded the river which bears his name, as high as Albany, in the atitunin of 1609, 187 years ago, and thefe marks were probably made by ibme of his men. — ii. Hamilton Ford lies ne.ir the mouth of Bullock's Creek in North-Carolina. This was the route purfued by Tailctcn, after his defeat at Covvpens, in Jrinuary, l-j&i — ii. Hamilton, a didrii^ in the State of TennefTce, f tuated on the va'crs of the Hclfton and Clinch ; licundtd fiiiuh by Tcnneffee river, ard feparated from Jr'ero dirtridi: on tlie wtrt by an uninhabited country. It con'a'ns the c( unties rf Knox, JciTtrfon, Blouct, Se- vier and Grainger. — iL Hamilton, a county of the N. W. Territory, ereQ- td Jan. 2, 1790, "beginning on the bank of the Ohio river, at the confluence of the Little Miami ; and down the fciid Ohio river to the mouth of the big Miami, grafs. and up filJ Miami to the Standing Stone Forks, or Hamilton branch of f.ud river ; and thence with a line to be H drawn due E. to the I.ittle Miami, and down faidlittle J^^Jl^P!^ Miami river, to the place of beginning." — il>. Hamilton Fort, (lands on the eaft fide of tlie Great Miami, in the N. W. Territory ; 25 miles foutli of Fort St. Clair, and 25 north of Cincinnati. It is a flockaded fort, capable of containing 200 men. The fituation is as advantageous for defence aspleafingto the eye. It is built upon a narrow neck cf land, com- manding the Miami on the north-weft, and a praire and flieet of water on the north-eaft, about a mile wide, and 2i miles long. The foil near it is rich and fertile ; and forage may be got by repeated mowings of natural Hamilton, a port in the Bermuda Iflands. — IL HAMMEL'S TOWN, a town in Dauphine county, Pennfylvania, five miles from Sufquehannah river, and S5 from Piiiladelphia. It contains a Gei man church, and about 35 dwelling houfes. — il/. HAMPSHIRE, an extenfive, populous, and weal- thy county in MalFachufett?, made a fliire in 1662. It is in many parts mountainous and hilly, and ex- tends acrofs the State from north to fouth ; bounded north by the States of New-Hampfhire and Vermont, fouth by the State of Connedlicut, eaft by Worcefter county, and weft by Berkftiire. It contains 60 town- ftiips, 9181 houfes, 9617 families, and 59,681 inhabi- tants. Its principal towns lie on both tides of Con- neiflicut river, which interfefls it from north to fouth. Thefe are Springfield, Weft Springfield, Northampton, Hadley, Hatfield, Deerfield, and Northfield. It is ge- nerally of a fertile foil, and produces the neceffaries of life, and fome of its luxuries in great plenty. — il>. Hampshire, a county in Virginia, bounded N. and N. W. by the Patowmack river, which divides it from the State of Maryland. It is about 60 miles long and 50 broad, and contains 7346 inhabitants, including 454 flaves. It is well watered by Patowmack and its fouth branch. Iron ore and coals have been difcovered on the banks of this river. Chief town, Romney, — i5. PIAMPSTEAD, a town in Rockingham county, New-Hamplhire, about 34 miles wefterly of Portfmouth. It was incorporated in 1749, and contained in 1775, 768 inhabitants ; in 1790, 724. — ii. Hampstead, a tewn on Long liland, New-York, nine miles eafterly of Jjmaica, and 23 miles eaftward of New- York city. In this town is an extenfive ani remarkable plain called Hamtjlead Plain — ih. Hampstead, a village in Georgia, about four miles from Savannah, and about a mile from another village called Highgate. The inhabitants are gardeners, and fupply the town with greens, pot herbs, root:., &c. — ib. HAMPTON, a townfhip in Windham county, Con- ne"icut, three miles north-eaft of Windham, of which it was formerly aparilh, but lately incorporated. — ib. Hampton, East, a townftiip in Ilampfhire county, M-dfachufetts, containing 457 inhabitants, and fituated 105 miles weft of Bofton. It was incorporated in 17S5. —ih. Hampton, East, on the eaft end of Long-Ifland, (New- York) a half ihire town of Suffolk county. It has 3260 inhabitants; and in it is Clinton Academy, whirli in 1795 had 92 ftudents. — ih. Hampton, a townih'p on tJie fea coaft of Nev/- lianif fhire^ Hancock. HAN C I Hampton Hanipflilre, on theeiftcrn fiJe of Rockingham county, and called IFintcumd by the Indians. It was fettled under MHirachufetis, and incorporated in 1C38. In 1775 it contained £62 inliabitants, and in 1790, S53. It is 12 or 14 miles S. by VV. cf Portfmoutk, and 8 fnu'heafi: of Exeter. In 1 791, a cana! was cut ihrougli tlie marflies in this town, which opens an inland naviga- tion from H.'.nipton through Salifbiiry into Mirriinack river for r.boiu eij^ht miles ; loaded boats may pafs through it with eafe and fafeiy. — ii. Hampton Falls, a imall town taken front the above town, lyirg on the road which leads from Exeter to NewburyPort, fix miles fouth eallerly of the former, ?.nd eight northeily of the latter. In 1775 it contained ^145, and in 1790, 541 inl^abitants. It was incorpo- rated in 17 i 2. — ii. HAMfTON, a townOiip in the northern partcf WaQi- ingtor. coun:y, New-Yoik, having Skeeiilh irough on the wefl. It lias ^6j inhabitants, of whom 107 are tleflors. — a. Hampton, the capital of ETzabeth county, in Vir- ginia, alio a poit of entry, and port town, fituated at the head of a bay whicli runs up north from the inouth of James river, cal'ed H.im/'ioii R'.ad, five milcs nor'.h- welt of Point Comlort. It contains about 30 houfes, an epifcopal church, a courtJicufe and gaol. The va- lue of its exports of grain, lumber, (laves, &c, amount- ed to 41,997 dollars in one year, ending September 30, 1794. Tills town was anciently called Ks oughton by the Indians. It is j 8 miles north of Norfolk, 22 fouih- eaft of Yorktown, 93 eifl-fouth eaft of Richmond, and 205 W. by S. (f Phil.idclphi;;.— /■/'. HANCES, Ranches, Haunches, or Hurfcs, in architeiflure, are certain fmall intermediate paits of iirches between the key or crown and the fpring at the bottom, being peihaps about one-third of the arch, and fituated nearer the bottom than the top or crown ; and are otherwife called xhi fpandrels . See Arch in this Supplement. HANCOCK'S Harbour, called by the Indians Clioquot, is fituated about 20 leagues eall-fouth-e.ill of Nooika, in N. lat. 48" 30', welt long, from Green- wich 125° 26'. The entr.mce of this harbour is about five miles in length, and has good anchorage ; about it are fcattered a number cf iflanJs, and feveral fand- banks or fpits. It has alfo a number cf fine coves. The land round thehaibjur is generally uneven, rocky and mountainous ; covered however with pine, fir, fpruce, cedar, hemlock, cyprefs and other trees of a remarkable fize. The climate here is much milder than in the fame latitude on the cadern fidi cf the continent ; the froft in winter being feldim fo fevere as to prevent vegetation. An eafteily wind is confidered here is a prognoftic of a llorm, and well winds bring fair weather. Deer, racoons, wolves, bears, fquirrels, martins, land oiters, beaver, and wild cats aie the ani- mals which inhabit the foiefts. 'Ilie amphibious ani- mals are the common fcal, and the feaotter. The llcin of the latter is very valuable. The inhabitants are faid to be cannibals. This and other plices of the fime name have their appellation in honour of the late Governor Hancock, of MalTichufctls. — Merit. Hancock, a river ot Walhington iiland, on the conh-v.cll coaft of North-Americi^, called Miijted by 47 ] II A N the Indians, difcGvereJby Captain Cfowcll ir.1791. It Huic».k. empties into the fc i from the ion:) end cf the largeft v,-^' ^-' iiland. At its mouth it is nearly two and a half nauti- cal miles wide ; and a confidci.>b!e fize ten iDil.:i up. It has nt its ir.i.uth five fathoms warcr, i^radnary in- creafing in breadth ; and for 7 ^ nrlcs up, to Coofe Illmd, has not kfs than rcn fithcms. Captiin lugra- ham examined it about 12 miles ; bu: by the infoima- tion of the natives, he j idged that it comminicateg v.ith Skitikifs Bay, or nen it, on the eaft \\it of ths iilands. It is by tar the moll el g-ble for a rew fettlc- ment of any place the C.iptain had fetn on the coad. The land is low aiiJ apparently very fer- tile : and the liver abounds with f.dmon. Were a good houfe erccled oa Ir.ine of the pleaf int fp us it would liava every appearance of being long fettled. Beautiful buflies and grafs occupy the llciris of the woods. Ths mouth (f the river is in north lat. 54" 7', weft long. i3i''54'.— ,-i. Hancock, a townfliip in Addifon countv, Veraont. — ■b. Hancock, a large mari'ime county of th; DirtrivJ of Miine, bninded nor'.h by Lower Canada, fouthby the ocean, call by Wall.ir.gton county, and weft by Lincoln county. It is 190 miles long from uoith to louth, and nearly 60 broad. It cntains 24 townlhip* and plantaticns ; of which Penobfcot and Calline ai« the chief. The number of inhabitants is greatly iix» creafcd fincc 1790. At that time there were 9549 fouls. It is remarkably well watered by Penobfcot river, and its branches. Union rver, and other fmallcr ftrcams. The northern part of the county fends its waters in ore flream from numerous blanches in a N. E. courfe to St. J.ihn's ti/er. On the fca-coaft are many harhcurs and inlets, hid by a multitude offer- tile iflands ; the largeft f'{ thefc in a S. W. direflion from GolJfboTough, are M'lunt Defart, Swan Ifles, Vinal Haven, Haut Ifle, Deer and Illelborough i all fituated in Penobfcot B.iy. Great part of the county is )tt nnfcttled. The towns along the fta coaft, .nnd on the banks cf Penobfcot and Union rivers, are the mod feni'.e and populous. C.ifline is the ftiire town. — ib. Hancock, a townlhip in Lincoln county, Maine, cm- hofomed by the Kennebeck and Sebafticook rivers, bounded N. W. Iiy Canaan, and 7 miles north of the confluence of the two livers. It contains 278 inliabi- tants. — ib. Hancock, a townfhip in Hillfborough county, New-Hampfhire, fituated between two wellern branch- es of Contoocook river, 14 miles caft of Kecne, and between 60 and 70 W. by S. of Porlfmouth. It was incorporated in 1 779. and contains 634 iolubit.'intt. Han COCK, a long, narrow and mountainou? towndilp on the New. York line, in Berkftiire county, Malfachu- fetts, having the towns of Lanelboroiigh and Partridge- field on the northward, and Pittsficld on the S. It was incorporated in 1776, has 121 1 inhabitants, and lies 20 miles N. by W. of Lenox, and 150 W. of Bof- ton. — ib. Hancock, a fmall poft town of Maryland, fituated in Walhington county, on the N. bank of Patowmack liver, between Conolowy and Little Condowy creeks, about 25 miles S. 1". of Bedford in Pcnnfylra- T a ciif HAN [ 148 ] H A Pv Hancoclt nia, 34 N. E. of Old Town in Maryland, and 1 19 N. W. of wood, 150 by 50 feet, and three (lories high, was Hanover II of Bahimore. — ib. ereifled in 1786, containing 36 rooms for ftudents. Its II ^Vbnover^ Hancock, a new county in the upper diftriifl of fitu.ition is elevated, healthful and pleafant, command- ^^ii^^<[^ Geor^ia.- FIANNAH Bay Houfe, a fiidory of the Hudfon's Bay Company, at the f'nuth end of Jimes' Bay in North America, and on the ea;lern (ide of Hanican.iw river, 45 miles E. by S. cf Moofe Fort, and 18 btbw a houfe on the fame river. — ib. Hannah's Town, in Weftmoreland county, Penn- fylvania, 4 miles N. N. E. of Greenfburg, and on the road from Bedford to Piitlburg ; 54 miles N. W. by W. of the former, and 26 eall of the latter. — ib. ing an extenlive profped to the weft. There are three other public buildings, belonging to the college, and a handfjme congregational meeting houfe has lately been ereifled, in which the commencement exercifes are ex- hibited. It is 32 miles north of Charlefton, 1 15 N. W. by W. of Portfmouth, 138 N. W. of Bofton, and 378 N. E. by N. of Philadelphia.— ;i. Hanover, atownfliip in Morris county, New-Jerfey. In a ridge of hills in this tovvnllilp are a number of well?, 40 miles from the fea in a ftraight line, which HANNIBAL, a military townlhip in the State of regularly ebb and flow about 6 feet twice in every 24 New- York, on Lake Ontario, 10 miles S. by W. of Fort Ofwego. — ib. HANOVER, a bay in the fea of Honduras, fituated on the eaft fide of the peninfula of Yucatan, from which it receives the waters of the Rio Honde. The traft of land between the river Hindeand the Balize was ceded by the Spanilh king to the king of Great Britain, at the peace of 1783, for the purpofe of cutting and carrying away logwood. — ib. Hanover, a townfliip in Lu/erne county, Pennfyl- vania. Alio a townlhip in Walhington county. Eaft and Weft Hanover, are two townlhips in Dauphine county in the fame State. — ib. Hanover, or M'JlUJier's Toivn, a port town in York county, Pennfylvania, fituated betv,'e;n Cndorus creek, and a branch of Little Conewago, which flows into the Sufquehanuah. It contains nearly 300 dv\ el- ling houfes, and a German and Lutheran church. It is '7 miles north of the Maryland line, 18 miles fouth- vtil of York, and 106 VJ . by S. of Philadelphia. — ib. Hanover, a townlhip in Plymouth county, Maffa- e1uU";tts, 2j miles S. E. from Bofton, was incorporated in 1727, and contains 1,003 inhabitants. — ib. Hanover, a poft-town of Nov.'-Hampllure, fituated pn the eaft fide of Connecticut river in Grafton coun- ty. Durlmoulh College, in this town, is fituated on a beautiful plain, about half a rnile, from the river, in 43" 43' N. lat. and in 72° 14' VV. long, from Green- wich. It derives iis name from William Earl of Dart- mouth, one of its principal benetaftors, and was found- ed in the year 1769 by the late Dr Eleazer Wheelock. The fluids of the college confift chiefly of lands, •mounting to about 80,000 acres, which are increafing in value in proportion to the growth of the country ; 1,200 acres lie contiguous to the college ; and are ca- pable ofthebeft improvement; 12,000 lie in Vermont. A trad of 8 miles fquare was granted by the aifembly of Nevv-Hampfliire in 1789. The revenue of the col- lege arifing from the lands, in 1793, amounted annual- ly to ;^I40. By contradls then made, they would amount, in four years after, to ^450 ; and in 1 2 years, 10650. The income from tuition is about ;^6oo per annum. The number of under.graduates is, on an av- erage, from 15010 18 ). A grammar fchool of about 50 or 60 fcholars is annexed to the college. The ftu- denta are under the infmediate government and inftruc- tion of a prefident, who is alfo profeffor of hiftory, a profelFor of mathematics, and natural philofopliy, a profeiFor of languages, and two tutors. The college is furnifiied with a handfonie library and a philofopliical apparatus tolerably complete. A new college edifice hours. It is about 16 miles N. W. of Elizabeth-Town, and j jins upon Morriftown. — ib. Hanoter, a county of Virginia, lying between Pa- muaky and Chitkahominy rivers. Its length is about 48 miles, and its breadth 22 ; and contains 14,754 in- habitants, including 8,223 Aaves. It abounds with limellone. — ib. Hanover, a fmall town of Virginia, of the above county, fituated on the weft fide of the Pamunky, in which is an academy. It is 6 miles from Ke^vcaftle, 22 N. E. by E. of Richmond, and no N. N. W. of Walhington city. — ib. HANSPIKE, or Handspec, a lever or piece of ftrong wood, for raifing by the hand great weights, Sec. It is five or fix ieet long, cut thin and crooked at the lower end, that it may get the eafier between things that are to be feparated, or under any thing that is to be raifcd. It i:> better than a crow of iron, becaufe its length allows a better poife. HANTS, a county of NovaScotia, beginning about 30 miles from Halifax, contains the townlhips ot VVind- for, Falmouth, and Newport ; feveral valuable trafts remain unfettled. Tlie road from Halifax runs part of the way between Wlndfor and Newport, and has fettlements on it at fmall diftances. The county is about 20 miles fquare, and is well watered. The rivers St. Croii, Kenetcoot, and Cocmiguen empty into the Avon, and are all navigable except the laft. The Cacaguet and Cobeguit are navigable 40 miles for veffels cf 60 tons. — Morse. HARDIN, a new county in the State of Kentucky, bounded N. E. by Waftiington and Lincoln, N. W. and W. by Nellbn and Greene, and S. E. by Logan counties. — ib. FIARDWICK, a townftiip in Caledonia county, in Vermont. — .b. Hardwick, a townlhip in Worcefter county, Mafla- chufetts, 25 miles N. W. of V/orcefter, and 70 S. W. of Bofton. It is feparated from New-Bralntree and Ware by Ware river. There are within this town 245 houfes, 1,725 inhabitants, 5 corn and 4 faw mills, and two clothiers' works. — ib. Hardwick, a townlhip in Siiflex county, New-Jer- fey, nearly 10 miles S. W. of Newton. — ib. Hardwick, a fmall town of Georgia, at the mouth of Ogeeche river, and about 18 miles S. by W. of Sa- vannah. It has lately been made a port cf entry. — ib. HARDY, a county of Virginia, bounded north by Hampftiire. It is about 60 miles long, and 40 in breadth, and contains 7,336 inhabitants, including 369 Haves. Chief town, Moorfield. — ib. HARDYSTON, Hardyfton II Harplc. H A R [I HARDYSTON, a townfhip in SulTex county, New- Jerfey, containing 2,393 inhabitants, including 26 flave=. — ib. HARFORD County, in Maryland, is bounded norih by York county in Pennfylvanin ; cart by Sulquebiui- rah river and Ciiefapeak Bay. The chief waters within the county are Diilh river and Deer creek ; on which are 16 mills of different kinds. On the former and its branches are the towns of Harford, Abington, Coopf- town, and Belle-Air. The other towns are Havre de Gras at the mouth of Sufquehannah, and Joppa be- low the foi ks of Gunpowder. It contains 14,976 inhabitants, including 3,417 flaves. Chief town, Belle-Air. — ib. Harford, or Bujh-twwn, in Harford county, Mary- land, lies at the head of the tide waters of Bulli river, between Binam's and James's runs ; the forrr.er fepa- rating it from Abington. It has few houfes, and is falling to decay fince the courts of juftice have b;-en removed to Belle-Air. It is 9 miles 8. E. of Belle- Air, and 25 N. E. by E. of Baltimore ib, HARLEM, a townlhip in Lincoln county, Maine, incorporated in 1796. It was formerly called Jones's Plantation . — ib. Harlem, or Eajl River, a riv^-r which connetTs Long-IOand Sound with North, or Hudfi.n river, and forms York-Illand. — ib. Harlem, a divifion of New- York county in the nor- thern part of York-Ifl ind, which contains 803 inhabi- tants, including 189 llaves. The village of its name ftands 9 miles northerly of New-York city, and 4 S. W. of Weft-Cheftcr. It is oppolite to the welt end of Hell Giii.—ib. HARMAN's Sttilion, in Krnrucky, is a futton the eaft fide of the well branch of Big Sindy river. On the oppofue lide of this branch is the Great Salt fpring. Harman's Station is about 20 miles fouth ol Van- couver's fort. — ib. HARMAR, a well conUruiled fort in the N. W. Territory, fituated at the mouih of the Mulkinguni. It has 5 baftions, and 3 cannon mounted, and is gar- lifoned by 4 companies. It is conveniently (itu.ited to reinforce any of the polls up or doun the river Oiiio. The place is remarkably healthy. — ib. HARMONY, a village in Luzerne county, Penn- fylvania, clofe on the line of New- York, on the north iide of Starucca creek, a water of the call branch of Sufquehannah river. B:tween this and Stockport on Delaware river, dillant t8 miles E. S. E. there is a portasie. It is about 140 miles N. by W. of Philadel- phia, and 130 N. \V. of New-York. N. lat. 41" 58'. —ib. HARPATH, a fmall boat.tble river in Tenneffee, which, after a N. N. W. courfe of about 40 ni'les, falls into Cumberland river, 19 miles N. W. cf Nalh- ville. — ib. HARPERSFIELD, a townfirp in Ocfego county, in New-York, bunnded S. W. by Unidilla townlhip, and 32 miles S. E. of Cooperftown ; 155 of it; inhabi- tant- are eleflors. Through this town runs the great poft.road from Hudfon to WiUiamfburgb, 62 miles well of Hudfon city. — ib. HAKPLE, a townlhip in Delaware county, Penn- fylvani.i. — ib. 49 ] H A R HARPSWELL, a townfliip in Cumberland coun- HarpfweU ty, Dilltia of Maine, incorporated in 175H, and con- H . tains 1071 inhabitants. It is bounded callerly by ^JiJ^ji^ Georgetown ; from which it is leparated by a navigable river. The people here are opening a communication by a canal between the waters of Kennebeck river and thofe of Cafco Bay, through the arm of the fca called Stevens's river. The point called Merryconeag, pro- jeding i'.felf into the bay together with the ifland Se- bafcodeagan, and fcveral other fmall iflands, are in- corp'>rated and form this townfhip. Tlie w.iters round this ifland extend to within two miles of the waters of the Kennebeck, and thus form what is called fmall Point. — ib. HARRINGTON, a townlliip in Bergen county, Ncw'-J^ifey. — ib. HARRIOT (Thomas) was a very eminent ma- thematician of the 1 6th and 17th centuries, of whom fome account has been given in the EncycloptJia. In that article it has been Ihewn, that Des Cartes had feen fome improvements of Harriot's in algebra, and publifh°d them to the world as his own ; but this piece of plagiarifm has been more completely proved in the Afironomical Ephemeris for the year 178H, by Dr Z ich, allronomer to tlie Duke of Saxe-Gotha ; who likewife lliews that H.iriiot was an allrcnomer as well as an algebralll. " I here prefcnt to the world (fays the Doflor) a fliort account of fome valuable and curious manufcripts, which I found in the year 17S4 at the feat of the earl of Egremont, at Petworth in Siillcx. " A predecelfor of the family of lord Egremont, viz. that noble earl of Northumberland, named Henry Percy, was not only a generous favourer of all good learning, but alfo a patron and Mxccnas of the learned men of his age. Thomas Harriot, the author of the faid manufcripts, Robert Hues (well known by his Treatife upon the Globes), and Walter Warner, all three eminent mathematician-, who were known to the earl, received from him yearly pcnfions ; fo that when the carl was committed prifoner to the Tower of Lon- don in the year 1606, our author, with Hues and \V.ir- ner, \v-ere his conllai.t companions : and were ufually called the earl of Northumberland's three Magi. " Thomas Harriot is a known and celebrated mathe- matician among the learned of all nations, by his excel- lent work, Aitis Analyifcs Prjxii, aJ eyui:li'.n<rt rt/ff- braicas nova cxpcilit.i iy gtnerali mtlhodo, refah-tttduy TraSaliis pojlhumus : Lond. 1631 : dedicated to Hen- ry earl of Northumberland ; publilhcd after his death by W.ilter Warner. It is remirkable, that the fame and the honour of thi< truly great m.in were conll mtljr attacked by the French iratheniaticians, who could not endure that Harriot fliould in any way diminllh the fame cf their Vieta and Des C.irtes cCpecially the lat- ter, who was openly accuted of pUgiarifm from our au- thor. " Des C.irtes publiHisd his Geometry fix years after Harriot's work appeared, viz. in ih.- year 1637. Sir Charles Cavendilh, th.n ambalfador ai the French court at Paris, obferved 10 the famous geometrician Rover- val, that thefc improvements in an.ilyfib had been al- ready m.ide ihcfe fix years in England, and (licwcd him afterwards Harriot's Artli Analytiijc Prasu ; which. H A R [ 150 ] H A R Harriot, as RovfTval was looking rver, at every page he cried "'"''^^'^^ out, Oui ! out ! il I'a vu .' Tes ! yes ! he has fan il ! D;s Canes had alfobeen in England before Harriot's death, and had heard ol his new improvements and inventions in ana'.ydi. " N<iw all this re'a'es to H.irrint the celebrated analy[l ; but it has n'>t hitherto been known tluit IIu- liot was an eminent aftronomer, both theoretical and j'ia«51ical, which fiill nppears by ihtfe rranufcripts ; aincn^ whii:h, tlie molt lem.irkable are 199 obferva- tions of the fun's fpots, with their drawing?, caktla- tinns, and determinations of the fun's rotation al^rut his axis. There is the greateft probability thit Harriot was the firll difcoverer of ihefe fpots, even befor- either Galileo or Scheiner. The cailiell intelligence we hive of the firft difcovered folar fpots is of one Joh. Fuiiri- cius Phryfius, who in the year 161 1 publilhed at Wit- temberg a fmall treatife, intiiled, De Jl'Iaculis in Sole ob- fervalis cjf apparinte eonim cum Sole coKvsrJwne narral'w. Galileo, who is commonly accounted the firft difcoverer of the folar fpots, publifhed his book, IJloria e Dinion- ftra^ioni i/ilurne aHe Machle Solare e loio aal.Ienl':, at Rome in the year 1613. His firll obfervation in this work is dated June 2d 1612. Anpelo de Filiit, the editor of Galileo's work, who wrote the dedicanoii and preface t") it, mentions, page 3. tliat Gali'.eo liad not only difcovered thefe fpots in the month of April in the year 161 i, at Rome, in the Quirinal Garden, l)Ut had (hewn them fcveral months bet ne {molli-meji inanzi) to his friends in Florence ; and that the oblervations iif the difguifed Apelles (the Jcfult Scheiner, a pre- tender to this firft difcovery) were not later than the month of Odober in the fame year; by which the epoch of this difcovery was fixed to the beginning cf the year 161 1. But a palfage in the firft letter cf Ga- lileo's works, pa. 1 1. gives a more precife term to this difcovery. Galileo there fays in plain term?, that he had obferved the fpots in the fun 18 months before. The date of this letter is May 24. lf)i2 ; which brings the true epoch cf this difcovery to the month of Novem- ber 1610. However, Galileo's firll produced obferva- tions are only from June 2. 161 2, and thofe of father Scheiner of the month of Oflober in the fame year. But now it appears from Harriot's manufcripts, that his firft obfervations of thefe fpcts are of Dec. 8. 1610. It is not likely that Harriot could have this notice from Galileo, for I do not find this mathematician's name ever quoted in Harriot's papers : But I find him quoting book i. chap. 2. of Jofeph a Cofta's Natural and Moral Hijlory of the IVefl Indies ; in which he re- lates, that in Peru there are fpots to be feen in the fun which are not feen in Europe : and hence it is pro- bable, that Harriot took the hint of looking for fuch fpots. Befides, it is not unlikely, that living with fo munificent a patron, Harriot got from Holland the new invented telefcopes much fooner than they could reach Galileo, who at the lime lived at Venice. Harriot's very careful and exact obfervations of thefe fpots, fiievv alfo that he was in pofftrlHon of the beft and moft im- proved telefcopes of that time ; for it appears he had foroe with magnifying powers of 10, 20, and 30 times. At leaft there are no earlier obfervations of the folar fpots extarit than his; they run from December 8. i6to, till January 18. 1613. I compared the corre- fponding ones with thefe obferved by Galileo, between which I found an exa(?l agreement. Had Harriot had '^2"^?'*, any notion about Galileo's difcoveries, lie certainly would have alfo known fomething about the phafes of Venus and Mercury, and efpecially abiut the fmgul.ir thapc of Saturn, firll difcovered by G ilileo ; but I find nnt a word in all his papeis concerning the particular figure of that planet. " I fvui id like wife, (cuniinues Dr Zach) among the papers if Harriot a large fct of obfeivaticns on the f«. tellites of Jupiter, with dra'Aiiigs of them, their pofi- tionv, and calculitions cf their revoluti' ns arid periods. His firft obfervation of thofe diicovjred f itellites, I find to lie of January 16. i6fO ; and they go till February 26. 1C12. Galileo pretends to have difcovered them January 7. 1610; fo th<-.t it is not improbible that Harriot was likewife the fiift difcoverer of thefe attend- ants of Jupiter. " Among his other obfervations of the moon, of e- ciipfes, of the planet Mars, of folftlces, of refraiflion, of tiie declination of the needle, E-ic. there are remarkable ones of the comet cf 1607, and the latter comet (for there were two) of 161 8. They were all obferved vith a crofs-ftafF, by nieafuring their dlftances from fixed flars ; whence thefe obfeivations are the more va- luable, as comets had before been but grofsly obferved. Kepler hinifelf obferved the comet of 1607 only with the naked eye, pointing out its place by a coarfe efti- m ition, v;ithout the aid of an inftrument ; and the ele- ments of their orbits could, in defeifl of better obferva- tions, be only calculated by them. The obfervations of the comet of the year 1607 are of the more importance, even now for modern attionomy, as this is the frme comet that fulfilled Dr Halley's prediflion of its return in the year 1759. That prediction was only grounded upon the elements afforded him by th:fe coarfe obferva- tions ; for which reafon he only afligned the term of its return to the fpace of a year. The very intricate cal- culations of the perturbations of this comet, afterwards made by M. Clairaut, reduced the limits to a month's fpace. But a greater light may now be thrown upon this matter by the more accurate obfervations on this comet by Mr Harriot. In the month of Oflober 17S5, when I converfed upon the fubje£l of Harriot's papers, and efpecially on this comet, with the celebra- ted mathematician M. de la Grange, direflor of lh« Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, he then fuggeft- ed to me an idea, which, if brought into execution, will clear up an important point in aftronomy. It is well known to aftronomers how difficult a matter it is to de- termine the mafs, or quantity of matter, in the planet Saturn ; and how little fatisfadlory the notions of it are that have hitherto been formed. The whole theory of the perturbations of comets depending upon this uncer- tain datum, feveral attempts and trials have been made towards a more exaifl determination of it by the moft eminent geometricians of this age, and particularly by la Grange himlelf ; but never having becnfatisfied with the few and uncertain data heretofore obtained for the refolution of this problem, he thought that Harriot's obfervations on the comet of 1607, and the modern ones of the fame comet in 1759, would fuggeft a way ofrefolving the problem a pofleriorl ; that of determining by them the elements of its elliplis. The retardation of the comet compared to its period, may clearly be laid to the account of the attraition and perturbation It has H A R [ 1 fiatrifijBrj has fufFered in the region of Jupiter and Saturn ; and II as the part of it belonging to Jupiter is very well known, s^^^^i^i^ the remainder murt be the fliare which is due to Saturn ; whence the mafs of ihe latter may be inferred. In confequence of this confideration, I have already begun to reduce mod of Harriot's obfervations of this comet, in order to calculate by them the true elements of its orbit on an elliptical hypothefis, to complete M. de la Grange's idea upon this matter. " I forbear to mention here any more of Harriot's analytical papers, which I found in a very great num- ber. They contain feveral elegant folutions of qua- dratic, cubic, and biquadratic equations ; with fome other folutions and /oca geometric^, that lliew his emi- nent qualifications, and will ferve to vindicate them a- gainft the attacks of fereral French writers, wlio refufe him the judice due to his Ikill and accomplilhments, merely to fave Dt-s Cartes's honour, who yet, by fome impartial men of his own nation, was accufed of public plagiarifm." HARRISBURG, a p'-fttown, and the capital o| Dauphine county, Penr;f)lv3nia, is fituated on the N. E. bank of Sufquehannah river. It is la'd out regular- ly, and contains about 3C0 houfes ; of whici) feveral are neat and convenient ; fome of brick and others of ftone. In 1789, it contained 130 houfes, a (lone gaol, and a German church. At that perinj it lud been fettled about 3 veats. It is 107 miles W. N. W. of Philadelphia, 53 W. S. W. of Readin-j, and 17 E. N. E. of Carlille. N. lat. 40° iG'.—Mone. HARRISON, a townfliip in Well-Chefter county, New. York, containing 1004 inhabitants ; of whom 115 are eledors, and 54 llaves. — ib. Harrison, a county in the weftern part of Vir- ginia, bounded N. by Ohio county, N. E. by Monon- galia, S. by Gre;i^briar, and S. W. by Kenhawa. Its length is about 120 miles, its breadth 80; and the number cf inhao'tants 2,c8o, including 67 (lave:. Chief town Clarkfburg. — ib. Harrison, a new county in the N. E. part of tl:e State of Kentuckv, N. of Bourbon. — ib. HARRODSBURG, or Horro/JIcnvr. ; apod-town in Mercer county, Kentucky, at the head rf Salt river, whch contains about 2chcnfes, and is 10 miles S. W. of Danville, 30 S. by W. of Frankfort, and 825 S. W. of Philadelphia —ib. HARTFORD, a townihip in Windfor county, Ver- mcnt, en Coiiueclicut river, oppnfite the town of Le- banon, in New-Hampfljire. It contains 988 ir.liabi- tants. — ib. Hartford, a townfliip on the eafV bank of Geneifee river, in New-York State, 40 miles W. of Geneva, and 67 S. E. by E. of Fort Ni:ignra. Hartford, a fertile and populous, though hilly county, in Ccnnecfticut, bcu-Jed N. by the State of Mniracl.ufetfs ; S. by part of Middlefcx and New- Haven coun;ies ; E. by Tolland, and ^V^ by Litchfield county. It is about 34 miles from N. to S. and its greatell breadth frrm E. to W. is 30 miles. It is divided into 15 townlhip«, and contains 38,029 inha- bitants, inclixling 265 ilaves. Chief town, Hartford city. — ib. Hartford City, the capit,d of Conncflicut, lies on the well bank of Connc<flicut river, in the county 9Dd townlliip of its own n inie, 50 miles north-v.eUerly 51 ] HAS from the mouth of the river, at Saybrook Bar, In H«tf.,rd Long Idand Stund ; and thus far the tide flows. The I townlliip is 6 miles fquare, bounded N. by Windfor "»'''«'<l''i'*- N. E. by Eaft.Windfor, W. by Farmington. E. by ^^' ^ Eaft-Harlford, S. E. by Glaftenbury, and S. by We- thersfield. The town is divided by a froall dream called Lutle River, with high romantic bank?, over which is a bridge ccnne^ing the two divifions of the town. T he city is regularly laid out, the ftreets inter- fering each other at right angles. Its buildings are an elegant ftate-houfe, lately built, 2 churches for Congregationalilts, i for Epifcopalians, and between 400 and 500 dwellinsi-houfes ; a number of which are handfumely built with brick. The inhabitants amount to upwards of 4,000. A bank was incorporated in 1792, with ioo,coo dollars capital, number of diares 250. The corporation have the power to extend their eapital to joo,coo dollar?. A woollen manufaaory was edabhiiied here and encouraged by the State, but has not fucceeded. Tlie town is aJvaiitageoufl* fituat- ed for trade, has a fine bad: country, enters largely into the manufai>uiing bufinefs, and is a tich, flou- rilhing, commercial town. This town was fird fettled in the year i6j6, by Mr Haynes and Mr Hooker, who, with ihclr adherents, removed from Miff.jchufctts. The Dutch had then a trading ho.ifeat the confluence of Mill and Connefticut rivers. They foon rclinquilhed the fettlement, and their lands were confifcated by a commilTion from the Commonwealth cf England in 1653. A point "f Und, which forrred part of their pcflelGons, is dill called Dutch Point. It is 40 miles N. E. by N. of New- Haven, ^^ N. W. of New-Lcndon, 124 S. W. rf B .lion, 128 N. E. of Ncw-Yoik, 223 N. E. of Phila- delphia, 502 from Richmond, 376 from Wadiington city, 1044 from Augulia, and 1018 from Frankfort in Kentucky. N. Int. 41^' 44', W. lorg. 73" 4'. ,b. HARTLAND, a townlliip of Coiine(rticut, the north-eadeinmoll in Litchfield county. — ib. Hartland, a towcfliip in W.ndfor ctiirty, Ver- mont, fuuated on the wdl bank of Connclicut river, II miles belnv;he 15 mile lalls. — ;'3. HARVARD, a townfhip in the eadern part of Wor- cetler county, MafTachufctts, 23 mles N. E. cf V.'or- ceder, and 35 north ea'lerly of Built n. It was incor- porated in 1732, by iliis name, in honour t^i the founder of Hirvard Univcrfiiy in Cambridj/e. Jt has 1400 inhibir.in's. — ib. HARWICH, a townfliip on Cape Cod, in Barn- dab'e county, Mjlfarhufelts, lyiti^; between Yarmouth and Chatham, about 8S miles S. E. of Dodon, con- taining 2392 inhabitants. It cx'ends quite acrofs the cap?, which is here about 6 miles over. Their ma- rine bulinefj lies chiefly in the filhcry. The remiiiiii cf the Indians of tliis townfh'p arc only 6 or 7 fouls. They live at PiLuiumiuut — ib. Harwich, a tcwnlhip in Rutland county, Vermont, containing i^j inhab'tants. — ib. HARWIN'GTON, a pod town of ConneSicur, in IJtchSelJ coiin-y, 8 m'tes E. of Litchfield, and 24 VV. by N. of Ha-tford.— /*. HASSELC)l-TIST (Frederick) wa5 born in ihc province of Ead GoihUud in 1722, and dudied medi- cine and botany in the univerfity of Upfal. Lionxus had in his hfluies rcf refcnccJ the cxcraordinaiy merits and HAS C IJ2 ] HAT Haflclqiiift. nnd great celebrity which a ynnr.;^- (ludcnt might ob- ''-^'^''^■^ t^j^ ijy travelling thro'.igh Paleftine, and by inquiring into and defcribing the natural liiflory of that country, which was till then unknown, and h?.d become of the grcaiefl importance to interpret the bible, and to iin- derllar.d eaftern ph'lology. H.ifielquifl was fired with ambition to accomplilh an objcfl lb important in itfelf, and fo warmly recommended by his beloved maQer. There being no fund arifing frcm th.e liberality of the crown, private collei^ions were made, whiih poured in very copicofly, efpecially from the n.itive country of the young traveller. All the faculties of the univerfity ot Upfil alio granted him a ftipend. Thus prctcifled, he cnmmei^ccd his jnnrrey in I'le fumnier cf 1749. By the interference ot Lagerftroem, he had a free palfage to Smyrna in one of the Kwedilh E.ift Indiamen. He arrived there at tlie conclrfion of the year, an J was received in the mod friendly manner by Mr A. Rydel, the Swedilh confnl. In the besin- lling of 1750 lie let cut for Egypt, and remained n'ne monlhs at Cairo the capital. Hence he fent to Lin- naeus and to the learned focieties cf his country, fcir.e fpecimcns of his refe^nch.e?. They were publilhed in the public papers, and met with the gre.i-e.l approba- tion ; and upon the piopofition of Uean Baeclf and Dr Wargentin, fecretary of the Royal Academy of Scien- ces, a cclledion of upwards cf io,coo ciolla's in copper money w.is made for the continup.nce (f the travels of young HalFelqiiift. Counfellors Lagcrllroem and Nor- dencrantz were the mod acflive in ridfing fubfcriptions at Stockholm and Gothenbiirgh. In th.e (pring cf 175T, he repaired to his dtftination, and palfed thn iigh Jaifa to Jtrufalem, Jericho, &c. He returned after- wards through Rhodus and Scio to Smyrna. Thus he fulfilled all the expeiftations of his countiy, but he was not to reap the reward of his toils. The burning heat of the fandy deferts of Arabia had afT^fled his lungs ; lie reached Smyrna in a ftate of illnefs, in which he languidied for fome time, and died February 9. 1752, in the joih year of his age. The fruits of his travels were, hovrever, preferved through the liberality of a great piincefs. He had been obliged to contrad debts. The Turks, theref< re, fei/.ed upon all his coUeiftions, and threatened to expofe them to public fale. The Swedilh conful prevented it. He fent, with the intelligence of the unhappy exit of his countryman, an account of the diftrcifes under which he died ; — and at the reprefentation of Dean Baeck, Queen Louifa Ulrica granted the fum of 14,000 dol- lars in copper fpecie to redeem all his colleflions. They arrived afterwards in good prefervation at Stockholm ; confiding of a great quantity of antiques, Arabian ma- nufcripts, Ihells, birds, ferpent?, infers Sec. and were kept in the cabinets at Ulrichfdale and Drottningholm. The fpecimens of the natural curiofities of thefe mufe- ums being double or treble in number, Linrxus cb- tained f.me of them, and publifhed the voyage of his ill-fated friend, and honoured his memory with a plant. which he called from his name Hafilquijiia . Hassel- QUiRTA, JRrfycl. HAT-iviAKiNG is a mechanical procefs, which is de- tailed in tl:e E.-icydopfdra from the bed irformition that could then be obtained. We have lately learned, however, th;it our detail is fometimes defective, and fometimes erroneous ; and it is our duty tofupply thofe defects, and to crrreiff thcf; errors. But, drangers as we are to the b'jfinsfs of hit-making, we (ho'jld not peihaps have fufpe^Jted, that we had been milled by the perfons whom we confultcd, h id we not been informed by a very intelligent writer in Nicholfon's Philf fnphical Journal, that the account of the manufacturing of hats, which is civen in the Encyclofixdia is far from the truth. This information induced us to look through the Journal itfelf for a more accurate account of the procefs ; well convinced, that the liberal-minded author of that work would not have poin'ed out our midakes without making us welcome to avail ourfslves of his aid to correcl them. Oor readers viill therefore be in- t.debted only to Mr Nichnlfi n and his correfpondent for wliatevcr indruflicn they may deiive frf.m this article; and as we wilh not to deck ourfelves in borrowed plume?, we fhall communicate that inftruflion in the wi-rds cf i"s authrr. Having vifited the manufactory of MefTrs Collinfons, 1' urers in Gravel lane, Southwark, Mr Nicholfon gives ihe following account of their procedure : " The materials for makin':; hats are rabbits fur cut off from the flcin, jifcr the hairs have been plucked out, together with v.ool and beaver. The two former are mixed in various proportions, and of different qualities, according to the value of the article intended to be made; and the lat'er our author believes to be univerfally ufed fur facing the finer articles, and never for the body or main duff. Experience has fliewn, that thefe materials cannot be evenly, ard v.ell felted together, ur.lefs all the fibres be fird fepatated, or put into the fame date with regard to each other. This is the objeifl of the firft procefs, called how'ing. The material, without any pre- vious preparation (a), is laid upon a platform of wood, or of wire, fomewhat more than four feet fquare, called a hur:'.le, which is fixed againll the wall of the workfliop, and is enlightened by a fmall window, and feparated by two fide partitions from other hardies, which occupy the red of ihefpace along the wall. The hurdle, if of wood, is made of deal planks, not quite three inches wide, difpofed parallel to the wall, and at the diftance of one fortieth or one fiftieth of an inch from each other, for the purpofe of fuffering the dud, and other impurities of the duff, to pafs through ; a purpofe (till more effedually anl'wered by the hurdle of wire. " The workman !>; provided with a bow, a bow-pin, a bafket, and feveral ch ths. The bow is a pole of yellov7 deal wood, between feven and eight feet long, to which are fixed two bridge?, fomewhat like that which re- ceives the hair in tlie bow of the violin (b). Over thefe (a) Some writers mention a partial wetting of the fur while on the fkin, by lightly fmearing it with a folutica of nitrate of mercury to give it a curl. MellVs CoUinfons do not ufe it, nor any other preparation. (b) Mr Nicholfon's correfpondent, who is himfelf a hatter, fays that a bow is bed made of adi ; that it is com- pol^ed of \[\z Jiang or handle ; that the bridge at the fnialler end, or that which is reared the window in the a<fl of bowing, is called the cod ; and that the oth.er bridge, which is nearer to the workman's hand, is called th« hrttih. ^I A "^ C 153 ] HAT Hat.m»k- thcfe Is flretched :, catgut about onctwelfih p.rt of an diametrically oppofi.e to ,h« of the inner felt, i^'hich it H.t-n.a. ^j;:^:^ .nch ,n h,cknel. Ihc bow-pm >s a ft.ck ^mh a knob, muft therefore greatly tend to ftrengthen. The prin -S and .s uled for rluck.ng the bow-ftrmg. Ihe bafkct .s cipal part of the hat is thus put together, and now e- ^^^ a fquare piece of ozier work, confillnig of open flra.t quires to be worked uith the hands a confiderable time bars wth no eroding or .nterweavmg Its length acroft upon the hurdle, the cloth bcin;; alio occaf.onally fprinki the bars may be about tv/o feet, and .ts breadth e.gh- led with clear water. During the whole of this ope- teen .nehe.. The i.des ,nto wh,ch the bars are hxed ration, which is called i./onin^^c), the article beco,^,ei are fl.ghtly bended mto a circular curve, fo that the firmer and firmer, and contraas in its dimenfions. It balket may be fet upright on one of thefe edges rear may eaCly be underdood, that the chief ufe of the pa- the fTCTht hanii enil (jt tlie buret e. wlier(> ir kIiki W ■-.or :, .„ .1. , .-j _ r ,■ 1 . . ' n'^V^bt , "d end of the hurdle, where .t ulually per, is to prevent the fides from felting together ftands. The cloths arelmen. Befides tnefe .mplements, " The bafoning is followed by a ftiU more efTcc.ua. the workman is alfo provided with brown paper. continuation of the felting called ivoriin^ (d) This is " The io'wws commences by fliovellmg the material done in another (liop, at an apparatus called a i.;//'r. flual The ftnng. in its return, ftnkes part ot the tur, and together in the form of a frullum of a pyramid, and caufes It to rile, and fly partly acrols the hurdle in a meeting in the kettle at the middle. The outer or light open form. By repeated ftrokes, the whole is thus upper edge of each plank is about two feet broad, and fubjeaed to the bow ; and this beating is repeated till rifes a little more than two feet and a half above the all the original clots or malFes of the filaments are per- ground ; and the flope towards the kettle ij confider- feftly opened and obliterated. The quantity tiius treat- ably rapid, fo that the whole battery is little more than ed at once is cdled a bait, and never exceeds half the fix feet in diameter. The quantity of fulphuric acid quantity required to make one hat. added to the liquor is not fufricient to give a four tafte, " When the batt is fufficiently bowed, it is ready for but only renders it rough to the tongue. In this li- hankning ; which term denotes t! e firft commencement quor heated rather higher than unpraftifed hands could of felting. The prepared material being evenly difpo- bear, the article is dipped from time to time, and ihea fed on the hurdle, is firft prelfed down by the convex worked on the planks with a roller, and alfo by folding fideof the balket, then covered with a cloth, and prelfed or rolling it up, and opening it again ; in all which, a fucceffively in its various parts by the hands of the certain degree of care is at firft necellary, to prevcn* workman. The prelfuie is gentle, and the hands are the fides from felting together ; of which, in the mora very (lightly moved back and forwards at the fame time advanced ftages of the operation, there is no danger, through a fpace of perhaps a quarter of an inch, to fa- The Imperfeillons of the work now prefent themfelret vour the hardening or entangling of the fibres (See to the eye of the workman, who picks out knots and Felting in this Siippl.) In a very (horl time, indeed, other hard fubftances with a bodkin, and add> more felt the fluff acquires lulficient firmnef, to bear careful upon all fucii parts as require llrengthening. Thii handling. The cloth is then taken off, and a flieet of added felt is patted down with a wet brulh, and foon paper, with its corners doubled In, fo as to give itatii- Incorporates with the reft. The beaver is laid on to- angular outline, Is laid upon the batt, which laft is fold- wards the conclufion of this kind of working. Mr ed over the paper as it lies, and its edges, meeting one Nicholfon could not dilllniSly learn why the bee? over the other, form a conical cap. The joining is foon grounds were ufed with beaver-hats. Some workmen made good by prelTure with the hands on the cloth, faid, that by rendering the liquor more tenacious, the Another batt, ready hardened. Is in the next place laid hat was enabled to hold a greater quantity of it for a on the hurdle, and the cap here mentioned placed upon longer time; but others faid, that the mere acid and it, with the joining downwards. This lall batt being water would not adhere to the beaver facing, but would »lfo folded up, will confequently haveitsplace ofjunftlon roll off immediately wlien the article was laid on the SuppL. Vol. II. U plank* (c) Mr Nicholfon's correfpondent fays, that after bowing, and previous to the bafoning, % hardening fiin, that is, a large piece of fkin, about tour leet long and three feet broad, of leather alumed or half tanned. Is prelfed upon the batt, to bring It by an eafier gradation to a compaift appearance ; after which It is bafoned, being Hill kept upon the hurdle. This operation, the bafoning, derives its name from the procefs or mode of iMtiing, being the fame as that pradlifed upon a wool hat alter bowing; the laft being done upon a piece ot call metal, four feet acrofs, of a circular lliape, called a bafon : the joining of each batt is made good here by IliutHing the hand, that Is, by rubbing the edges of each batt folded over the other to e.\cite the progrcllivc motion ol eacli of the filaments in i'clting, and to join the two together. Many journeymen, to hurry this work, ufe a quantity of vitriol (fulphuric acid), and then, to make the nap rife and How, they kill the vitriol, and . p.-n the body again by throwing in a handful or two of oatmeal ; by tJiis means they get a great many made, though, at the lame time, they leave them quite grainy from the want of labour. This, in handling the dry grey hat when made may be in part difcovered ; but in part only. (d) The Intelligtnt wiiter, who has been fo often quoted, fays, that before this operation is begun, the hat is dipped into the boiling kettle, and allowed to lie upon the plank until cold again ; thin is called /o.iiin^, that is, being perfeflly f.iturated with the hot liquor : if they are put in too hallily in this ftatc, tor they are then only bowed and bafoctd, they would burll from th.e edges, each batt not being fufficiently telted into the other. Hat-mik- ing. HAT [I plank. It is probable, as he obferves, that the nianu- faiflurers who now tollow ihe eftablilhed pra(5lice, may not have tried what are the inconveniencies this addition is calculated to remove." Our author's correfpondent, however, aQlgns feveral reafons ior the addition of thofe dregs, which, he fays, ought to be thick, and the foureft that can be got. 1. Vitriol (fulphuric acid) would harden the hat too much, which is kept mellow by the dregs, z. The dregs are faid by the workmen to hold or fill the body, whiift a little vitriol cleanfes it of the dirt, &c. that may be on the rabbit or other wools. 3. Another ad- vantage attending the life of dreg:, whether of beer, porter, or wine, is, that as the boiling of the dyeing does net draw out much of the mucilage from each hat when it comes to be ftiffened, the dregs form a body •within the hat, fufficiently ftrong or retentive to keep the glue from coming through amongd the nap. 4. Vitriol (fiilphiuic acid) alone purges or weakens the goods tio much; confequently half of the quantity does bitter with the addition of dregs, as it allows the body to be made clofer by more work. Of thefe four reafons for the ufe of dregs, the laft alone appears to us perfpicuous or at all fatisfaflory. But be this as it msy, acid of fome kind gives a rough- nefi to the furfriceof the hair, which facilitates tlie me- chanical aftion of felting ; and Mr CoUinfon informed Mr Nicholfon, tliat in a procefs, called carotli/ij;, they make ufe of nitrous acid. In this operation, the ma- terial is put into a mixture of the nitrous and fulphuric acids in water, and kept in the digeflingheat of a (love all night ; by which means the hair acquires a ruddy or yellow colour, and lofes part of its ftrengih. "U mud be rcmeniberedjthat our hat dill pn/Tcffes the form of a cone, and that the whole of the feveral ac- tions it has undergone have only converted it into a foft ilexible telt, capable of being extended, though with fome diiliculty, in every diieilion. The next tiling to be done is to give it the fjrm required by the weaier. For this purpofe the workman turns up the edge or rim to the depth of about an inch and a half, and then returns the point back again through the centre or axis of the cap, fo far as not to take out this fold, but to pioduce another inner fold of the fame depth. The point being returned back again in the fame manner, produces a third fold ; and thus the workman proceeds, until the v.-hch has acquired the appearance of a Hit circular piece, confilling of a number of concentric un- dulations or folJs, with the point in ths centre. This is laid upon the plank, v.here the workman, keeping the piece wet with the liquor, pulls out the point with his fin:rerf, and preifes it down with his hand, at the fime time turning it round on its centre in contact with the plank, till lie has, by this means, i ubbed out a flat po) tion, equal to the intended crown of the hat. In the next place he takes a block, to the crown of which he applxs the flat central portion of the felt, and by forcing a ftring down the fides of the block, he caufes the next part to affuroe the figure of the crown, which he continues to wet and work, until it has properly dif- pofed itfelf lound the block. The rim now appears like a fljunced or puckered appendage round the edge of the crown ; but the block being Vet upright on the plank, the requifite figure is foon given by working, rubbing and e^^tsnding this part. Water only is ufed 54 ] HAT in this operation of fafliioning or blocking ; at the con- clufion of which it is prelfed out by the blunt edge of a copper implement for that purpofe. " Previous to the dyeing, the nap of the hat Is raifed or loofened out with a wire brufh, or carding inllru- ment. The fibres are too rotten after tlie dyeing to bear this operation. The dyeing materials are logwood, and a mixture of the fulphates of iron and of copper, known in the market by the names of green copperas and blue vitriol. As the time of Mr CoUinfon was limit- ed, and my attention, fays Mr Nicholfon, was more par- ticularly directed to the mechanical procefl'es, I did not go into the dye-houfe ; but I have no doubt that the hats are boiled with the logwood, and afterv.'ards im- meifed in the laline folution. I particularly alked whe- ther galls were ufed, and was anfwered in the negative. " The dyed hats are, in the next place, taken to the fliffening Ihop. One workman, alTilted by a boy, does this pan of the bufinefs. He has two veifels, or boil- ers, the one containing the grounds of ftrong beer, which cofts feven lliillings per barrel, and the other vef- fcl containing melted giue a little thinner than it is ufed by carpenters. Our author particularly alked, whether this laft folution contained any other ingre- dient befides glue, and wasaffured that it did not. 'I'he beer grounds aie applied in the infide of the crown to prevent the glue from coming through to the face, and alfo, as he luppofes, to give the requifite firmneis at a lefs expence than could be ])roduced by glue alone. If the glue were to paf> through the hat in different places, it mfght, he imagines, be more diUicult to produce an even glofs upon the face in the fubfetiuent finifhing. The glue fliffening is applied after the beer-groundi are diied, and then only upon the hnver face of (l:e flap, and the infide of the crown. For this pin pole, the hat is put into another hat, called a fliffening hat, the crown t'f which is notched, or flit optn in various dirtflions. Thefe are then placed in a liole in a deal board, which fupports the flap, and the glue ii applied with a brufh. " The dry hat, after this operation, is very rigid, and its figure irregular. The lalf dreffing is given by the application of moidure anJ lieat,and the ufe of the brulb, and a hot Iron, fome« b.at in the fhaj)e of that ufed by tailors, but fhorter and broader on the fice. The hat being f iltened by expofure to fleara, is drawn upon a block, to which it is fecurcly appl td by the fom^cr method of forcing a firing down from the crown to the coninienccmcnt of the lim. The judgment of the Workman is employed in nicIUening, brulhing, and iron- ing t.he hat, in order to give and preferve the proper figure. When the rim of the hat Is not intended to be of an equal width throughout, it is cut by means of a wooden, or perhaps nietHllIc pattern ; but as no fuch hats are now in fafliion, Mr Nicholfon faw only t)ie tool for cutting them round. The contrivance is very ingenious and fimple. A number of notches are made in one edge of a flat piece < f wood for the purpofe of inferting the point of a knife, and from one fide or edge of this piece of w<>od th^re proceeds a flrait handle, which lies parallel to thenotcl~,ed fide, forming an angle fomewhat like that of a carpenter's fquate. When the legs of this angle are applied to the --.uifide of the crown, and the board lies flat on the rim of the hat, ths notched edge will lie nearly in the dirc<Sion of the ing. HAT [ ,^. ] H A T Tlat-mak- ihe radit:s, or line poiniinQ; to the centre of tlie hat or anv mliw n,.,t/.,-ui ■ r i , i ,. ^^^Aknifeh^ngthereLeiirtcdinoneofthenotch^ ,t .s eafy to draw ,t round by leanmg the tool aga.nll any of the bctore mentioned matclah. and with h °p- the crown, and .t ^v>U c, . the border very regular and er filk. This (hag (houUl be flrctch-d on a S true. Th,scut,,madebe.re.hehat,squ,tefinilhed, fuch a. dyers ufe to rack ck„h ; t en (having pr"! and -s not carr.ed entne.y through; fo that one of il.c cully fet the pile upright wi,h u comb, to pre^vcn^i.s laft opcn.t,on3 confuls ,n tcar.ng c(F the redundant being injured or P.uck together), go over the ground part .h,ch by that means eav-es an edg.ng of beaver with thin fize. la.d on with a n.ft^rufh. For^lacfc round the external face ot the flap. When the hat is or dark colours, common f,ze w.U do ; with wh^t^ or compleuly fin,.hed, the crown is tied up m gauze pa- any light colour, ufe illnglafs, or a f.ze made from white kid leather. Tliefe, or'gum, or any other mucilagi. nous matter, which, wiiiiout altering the colour, will prevent oil frc m getting throni;h the ground fo as t\ injure the pile, will anfwer the purpofe. Take care not to apply more of any mateiiil, as a preparstior, than may be fully fatiiratcd with oil orvarnifti, fothat per, which is neatly ironed down. It is then ready for the fubfeqnent operations of lining," Sec. Oiir author concludes his valuable memoir on the fabrication of hats, with liime obfervations on the pro- bable gain or lofs ol employing machinery in the ma- nuf.iiflure. Thefe obfervations, as they are ftated in the original paper, we recommend to the feiious attcn- water will not difch'arge it fmrn the gronnd The tion of every judicious hat-maker, who carries on his fue, or other glutinous matter, bcin? dry t'-e pi- bufmefs on a large fcale; for he will find them not the muftbe teafckd, or c^nrded with a fine 'ca-d till reveries of a rath Ipeculatift, b:.t the cool rdlecliuns of a the filk is completely taken cut of the twill or throw- real philofopher, whnisatthe fimct.menoftrangerto ing, when it wiil lofe its coarfe fiiaggv look, and af- the arts ot li!e. They fuggell the following fubjecfs of fume tlie appearance of a ve-y fine tir.' It mull hot enquiry ; Whether carding, which is rapidly and me- be once more fet upright with -i cor.^U, ard you may chanically don?, be inferior to bowii.g, whicli does not proceed to lav on yoOr water-proof material ; (his too promife much f.icility lor mechanical operation ? Whe- may be varied according to clrcumn^nco^. For black, ther a fucceffion of baus or carding? might be thrown or any daik colour, lin(ecd oil well boiled with the u- round a fluted cone, which rapidly revolving, in con- fual dViers, and thickened with a frar.ll quantity of any taa with three or more cjlindcrs, might perform the good drying colour, will do ; for white, or very fine co- hardening, and even the working, with much more lours, poppy or nut oil, or copal or other varnifhe;, may precifion and fpecd than they are now done by hand i be ufed. In this particular the maniifa..1urer mull Whether blocking or fiiaping be not an operation ex- judge what will betl anfwer his purpofe, taking car; tremely well calculated for the operation of one or mora never to ufe anything that will dry hard, or be ('ubjcdl machines ? Whether loofe weaving and fubfcquent felt- to crack. Mr Dunnage has found good drying Hir- ing might not produce a lighter, cheaper, and llronger feed oil prel'erable to any other thing which he has article ? And how far the mechanical felting, whicli is ufed, and, with the precaution of laying nn very lltll: not confined merely to the hairs of animals, might be the firft time, it will not injure the finell colours. Wh-.>n applied to this art? ^ the tirfl coat of oil is dry, go over it a fecond and Before we diimifs this fubjeft, it may be worth while a third time, if necclfary,' till you are convinced the to ftate Mr Dunnage's method of making loatey-proof pores of the ground are fully clcfed up, and the (luff hai.u in imitation of beaver, for which, in November rendered impervious to water. It (hould now (land 1794, he obtained a patent. It is as follows: Let a feveral days, till the fmell is fuflicienily gone ofFj and fhag be woven, of fuch count In the reed, and cut over before it is taken from the frame, (hould be gone over fuch fizcd wire, as will give the hats to be manutadu- with fome ox gall or lime-water, to takeofFthe greafi- red from it tiiat degree of richnefs or appearance of ncfs, which wtiild otIierwI(e prevent the fliffening tVorn fur, which may be thought neceffary. The materials adhering to the oil. The material being now ready to of which this Ihag may be cnmpo("cd are various, and be formed into hits, (hould be cut into proper (hapes ihould be accommodated to different kinds of bats, ac- for that purpofe. The crown (hould be made up over cording to the degree of beauty and durability to be a block, with needle and filk, the oiled fide outwards, given them, and the price at which they are defigned The feams Ihould then b; rubbed with a piece cf hard to be fold; that is to fay, filk, mohair, or any other wood, bone, or ivory, to make them lie (lit, and the hair that is capable of being Ipun into an end fine e- edges of the (luiT pared off very near the (lilches, that rough for the purpofe, cotfn, inkle, wool, or a mix- m joint may appear on the right fide. The feams lure of any, or all ihe above materials, as may fuit the Ihould tlien b; carefully gone over with the prepared clifferent purpofes of the manufacturer. Thole anl'wcr oil, till evciy crevice or hole made by the needle is bed, (fays our author), which are made with two completely filhd up, and the crown rendered perfeflljr poles, either of Bergam, Piedmont, or Orgmziuc fiik, water-proof. The crown may then he turned and ftilT- rifing alternaiclv, in a reed of abi'Ut nine hii idred count ened, by (licking linc-ii, leather, paper, or any other to eighteen indies wide, with three fliocits over each material that may be found to antvvcr the purpofe, to wire. This method of weaving di(lribii:ei tlio (ilk the inner or painted fide, till it acquiies a!>out the firre (as it may be put fiiigle into the liarnels), and pre- degree of ItifTncfs, nr rcfillance l.> (he touch, as a good vents any ribby appearance which it might have if the beaver. The mucilaginous matter which he ul'ed to filk were palfed double, and the whole of the pole cut attach the llifFcning to the crown, and the upper and over each wire. Tliis may be made either on a two under parts of the brim to each other, was ccmpofed or four thread ground of liard (ilk. (hot with tine cot- of one pound of gum ai able or ("cncgj, on: pound of ton, which he thinks pref.-rable for ihoot, to filk, inkle, (larch, and a half a pound of glue, bailed up with as U 2 much HAT C 156 ] H A V II Hatfield. Hat-mak- much water as reduced die whole to the confidence of '"S a thick p;ifte. A greater or lefs proportion of any of ihefe ingredients may be ufed, and other glutinous and adhefive fubftances may anfwer the fame purpofes ; or drying-oils may be made ufe of, inflead of this or other mucilage ; or any of tlie relinous gums diil'olved in oil or i'pirits ; only it fhould be obferved, in this cafe, the hats will require more time in the preparation, as the oily matter, unlefs expofed to the air, will not rea- dily dry; but he found by experience that the above mentioned compofition does not dry hard or brittle, but retains that pleafant flexibility which is agreeable to the touch, whil: it communicates to the other mate- rials a fufficicr.t degree of elafticity. Before the brim is perledly dry, care fliould be taken to form a neck or riling round the hole where it is to be attached to the crown, by notching it round wiih a pair of fcif- fars, and ihen forcing it over a block fometiiing larger than you have made the hole, fo that the uncut Huff may turn up, under the lower edge of the crown, about a quarter of an irich. Belore you join the crown and brim together, go over the outfide of the neck of the brim, and the infide cf the cioun, as high as the neck will come (which Ihould be about half an inch), with the prepared oil ; and when ihey are neaily dry, fo as to adhere to the finger on touching them, put the crown over the neck of the brim, and let them be fewed flrongly together, taking care to few down as little of the pile as poffijle, and ufing the fame precaution of oiling, where the needle has been through, as was ob- ferved in making up the crown. The hat is now rea- dy for drefling ; which opeiation may be performed over a block, with a hot iron, brulh. Sec. in the fdme manner as thofe commonly called felts. When putting in the lining, be very careful to let the needle only take hold of the under furface of ihe brim ; for fliould it perforate the upper one, the water will find its way through, and the hat be of no value. Though we have already declared how little we are acquainted with the operation of hat-makine, we cannot help luggefting the enquiry, whsther thefe water-proof hats might not be improved butli in Ilrength and beauty, by a flight felting before the application of the fize by the brufn. Such of them as are compofed of wool or hair, or con- tain a mixture of thefe materials, are unqueftionably fufceptible of foiling. HATBOROUGH, a fmall town in Montgomery county, Pennfylvani.t, fitriated on the N. E. ilde of Pennepeck Creek, which runs into Delaware river nbout 5 miles above Frankfort, It contains about 20 houfes. — Morse. HATCHY, a navigable river in the State of Ten- fletTee, runs weilerly into the Miffiflippi, ab'>ut 19 miles N. of Wolf river, and is about 80 yards v.'ide 7 miles from its mouth. — ib. HATFIELD, a very pleafant town in Hampfhire county, Malfichufects, (ituated on the weft bank of a bend of Conneflicut river where it is 80 rods wide, 5 miles north of Northampton, and 100 weft of Bolfon. It lies chiefly on one ftreet, and contains 103 houfes, and 703 inhabitants. Here are two ferries on Con- neifiicut river ; the one to Hadley, fhe other to Am- lierft. North of the ferry to .'Vmherft, the river meets with abed of rocks, which ledens its breadth 20 or 30 fods—^o fill, but a large eddy at high water. — /'i. HATTERAS is the moft remarkable and danger- Hattcraj ous cape on the coafl of N. America. This point ex- H tends far into the ocean, from the coaft of N. Carolina, ^J^'^-il^ in 35° 15' N. lat. The water is very (hoal at a great diftance from the cape, which is remarkable for fudden fqualls of wind, and for the mod fevere ftorms of thunder, lightning and rain, which happen almoft every day, during one half the year. At the time of Sir Walter Raleigh's approaching this coafl, the fiioals in the vicinity of Hatteras were found fo dangerous, fo e.\tenfive, and fo Ihallow, many of them covered with not more than 5 or 6 feet water, that no vefl'els, in that latitude, ventured within 7 leagiies of the land. At prefent the out-flioals, which lie about 14 miles S. W. of the cape, are but of 5 or 6 acres extent, and where they are really dangerous to veifels of mo- derate draught, not above half that extent. On the fhoalell part of thefe is about 10 feet at low water; and here, at times, the ocean breaks in a tremendous manner, fpouting, as it v.'ere, to the clouds, from the violent agitation of the Gulf Stream, which touches the eaftern edge of the banks, fioin which the declivity is fudden, that is to fay, from 10 fathoms to no foundings. On the fpot above meniioned, which is firm fand, it has been the lot of many a good velfel to ftrike, in a gale of wind, and go to pieces. In mode- rate weather, however, thefe flioals may be pa(fed over, if necelTary, at full tide, without much danger, by vell'els not drawing more than 8, 9, or 10 feet wa- ter. From this bank, formerly of vaft extent, and called the Full Moor. Shoal, a ridge runs the whole dif- tance to the cape about a N. W. courfe, is about half a mile wide, and at low water has generally, 10, 11 and 1 2 felt water. There are gaps at equal intervals, affording channels of about 15 or 16 feet water. The mod noted of thefe is about a mile and a half from the land, and is at lead two miles and a half wide, and might at full fea be lately paffed by the largefl fliips ; but is rarely ufed except by coading veffeh. It may be eafily known by a range of breakers always feen on the weft fide, and a breaker head or two on the eaftern fide; which, liowevei, aie not fo conftant, only appearing when the faa is confiderably agitated. A little north of the cape is good anchoring in 4 or 5 fathoms; and with the wind to the wedward, a boat may land in fafcty, and even bring off cafks of frefh water, plenty of which is to be found every wheie on the beach, by digging a foot or two, and putting 3 barrel into the fand. — ib. HATTON'S FORD, on Tngelo river, a vlll.ige 16 miles from Pendleton court-houfe, in S. Carolina, and 17 from Franklin court-houfe, in Georgia. — ih. HAVERFORD, a townfliip in Delaware county, Pennfylvania. — tb. HAVERHILL, a pod-town of New-Hampfliire. and the capital of Grafton county, fituated on the ead fide cf Connedicut river, in Lower Coos. It has be- tween 40 and 50 compaft houfes, a well conftruded court-houfe, and a congregational church. This town- fliip was incorporated in 1763, and contains 552 in- habitants. In it is a bed ot iron ore, which lias yield- ed fome profit to the proprietor, alfo a quarry of free- done, fit for hearths and chimney pieces. It has alfo a fulling-miU, an oil mill, and many other excellent mill feats. It is oppofite to Newbury iu Vermont, 35 miles HAW C '57 ] HAW Haverhill B . Hawkins. miles above Dartmouth college, 119 miles N. W. of Portfmouth. — ii. , Haverhill, a handfome poft-town of MaiTachu- fetts, in Elfex county, fuuated on the N. fide of Mer- rimack river, acrofi which is an elegant bridge, cou- nedling this town with Bradford, 650 feet long and 34 ■wide. It has 3 arches, of 180 ieet each, fapported by 3 handfonie ftone piers, 40 feet fquare ; alfo a draw of 30 feet, over the channel of the river. Havethill has a confiderable inland trade, lying about 32 miles N. by W. of Bofton, and 12 miles from Newbury- port, at the mouth of the river, and about 28 S. W. of Portfmouth in New-Hampdiire. It lies chiefly up- on two ftreets ; the principal of which runs parallel ■with the river. Veffcls of 100 tons burden can go up to it. Travellers are ftruck with ths pleafantnefs of the fituation ; and a number of neat and well finifhed houfes give it an air of elegance. Hsre are two churches, one for Congregationalifts and one for Bap- tills ; 3 dillilleries, one of which has lately undergone ;t laudable tranfmutation into a brewery. Some veileh are annually built here, and feveral are employed in the Well India trade. A manufailory of fail cloth ■w^is begun here in I7<S9, and is faid to be in a pro- rnifmg way. The tr;'.de of the place, however, is con- liderably lefs than before the revolution. Tlie whole townlhip contains 330 houfes, and 2,408 inhabitants. —ik HAVERSTRAW BAY, calhd by fome ffdi'^r- Jham, in Hudfon's river, 38 miles above New-York city, (preads S. of Stony Point, and before the town of its own name, is 10 miles long and about 3 wide. —lb. Haverstraw, a townfliip in Orange county, New- York, fituated on the W. fide of the above bay, 35 miles N. of New. York city. It contains 4,^26 inha- bitants, of whom 98 are qualified eledors, and 238 flaves. — ib. HAVRE DE GRACE, or GRAS, a poft.tov.'n and pot of entry in H-iiford county, Maryland, on the W. fide of S'jfqucharinah river, at its m.iuth in Chcfapeak Bay. I; contains about 40 h:.iu:cs, 250 in- lubitan's and is the port of entry for all the lliores of Chefaptak Bay above Tuikey Ponit. It is 6 miles W. by S. of Chailtfton in Cecil county, 37 N. E. nf Baltimore, and 65 AV. S. VV. of PiiilaJclph.a. N. lat. 39° 39'. — ib. HAW, a water of Cape Fear which unites with Deep river. It may be rendered navigable lor 50 miles. — ih. H AWKE, a townfhip in Rockingham county, New- Hanjpfliire, was inccrj.orated in 1760, and contained in 1775, 5°4' •'"'^ 'f' '79°' 420 inhabitants. — ib. HAWKINS (Sir Jolin), wis the yoiingell fon of a man wh ', tiiough dele ended troin Sir John Hawkins the memorable adrnir il and tvcnfurer ot the navy in the reign ot Queen Elizabtth, followed at firll the occupa- tion of a Loufe-Ciirpan'.er, which lie afterwards exchan- ged for the proleflion of a furveyor and builJtr. lie w.is born in the city of L'nidon en the 30th day ol March I 7 1 9 ; and after having been lent tii It to one fcliool, and afterwards to a fecoiid, wi;eie he acquired a tolerable knowledge ol Latin, he went through a regular courfe of architcifture and peiipeclive, in order to tit him for liis lather's profefiion ot a furveyor. He was, how- fenion of his (irft cliclce, and to embrace tliit of the Uj-vlin law ; and was accordingly articled to Mr John Scott an "'^"'^^ attorney and foiicitor in great pradice. In this liiu i- tion his time was too fully employed in the aitual dif- patch of bufinefs to permit him, wiihjut fume extra- ordinary means, to acquire the necelfary knowledge of his profelFion by reading and fludy ; bcliJes that, his mailer is faid to have been more anxious to render him a good copying clerk, by fcrupulous attention to his hand-writing, than to qualify him by inftru^.'lion to cou- duiff bufinefs. To remedy this inconvenience, therefore, be abridged himfclf of his rell, and riling at four in the morning, found opportunity of reading all the neccdarjr and moll eminent law writers, and the works of our moft celebrated authors on the fubjcds of verfe and profe. By thefe means, before the expiration of his clerkfliip, he had rendered himfclf a very able lawyer, and had acquired a love lor literature in tjeneral, but particularly lor poetry and the polite arts; and the belter to iacilitace his improvement, he occafionally furnifiied to the Univerfil Spedator, the Wcliminfter J juriial, the Gentleman's Magazine, and other periodical publi- cations of the time, elfays and dilquifiti )ns on f.vcral fubjeiSs. The tirlk of thefe is believed to have been an Ell'ay on Stvearin^ ; but the exact time of its appear- ance, and the paper in which it was inferted, are both unknown. It was, however, re-publilhcd lomc years before his death (■.viilnuit his knowledge till he faw it in print) in or.e of ilie nevvfpapcrs. His next produdlion was an EH'ty on Honejly, inferted in the G:n:leman's Magazine for Match 1739; and which occalioned a controverfy, continued through the Migazincs for fe- veral fucceeding months, between him and a Mr Ca- limy, a defccndant of the celebrated Dr Edmund Ca- laiuy, then a fellow-clerk witli him. About die year 1741, a club hiving been indituted by feveral amateurs cf mufie, under the r.ame of ths Madrigal Soeiety, to meet every Wednefday evening, and his clerkfliip being now out, he became a nie.aiber of it, and continued io many years. Purlutng his inclina- tion for muilc Hill firther, iie became aho a member ot the Academy of Ancient Mulir, which nfed to meet every Thurld ay eveiiing at the Cro-*-u and Anch'ir in the Strand, but lincc removed to F.'eemafcns Hall ; and of this he continued a member till a few years be- fore its rem ival. Impelled by his own tafle for p-etty, and excited to it by his fiiend Fo.ler Webl>'s example, who had con- II ibuled lothe Gentltman's M igaz'nc m;iny veryclei^anl p )elical compolitionshchad, before this tinie.himfeh be- c me an occafional contiibuiorin the fame kind, as well III that as to f ime other publications. The earlicll of hii produ.lions of this fpecics, now known, is fuppofcJ t'i le a copy of veries "To Mr George S:anley, occa- lioned by looking over fomc Conipofitions ofhi$lat:ly puMlhed," whicii bears date 19th February 1740, and was iiferted in the Daily Adverlilcr for Fcbru.uy 2 1. I 741 ; but, about the year 1742, he prnp fed to Mr Stanl.-y, the projea of publilhing, in onjunclicn with him, 111 cantatas tor 3 voice and inllrnnicnls, the words to be faTnidied bv himlllf, and ilie mulic by Mi Stan- ley. Tiic propofil was accepted, the publication was to be a: their joint cxpence, and for their mutual be- nefit j aid accordingly, in 1742, fix cantatas were thus publilLed, the live firft written by Mr Hawkins, the evei-, pcrfuaded, bv a near relation, to abandon the pro- iixlh and lall by Fuller Webb; and thcfc having iuc- ccedcd HAW [ 158 ] HAW Ila-wldn?. ee; led b3yond the mod fanguine expeiJlationi of their *""'''"^'^^~' authors, a feconi fot of IH moxf:, written wholly by himfelf, was in like manner publillied a few months af- ter, and fucceeded equally well. As thefe compofitions, by being frequently perform- ed at Vauxhall, Ranelagh, and oiher puMic places, and at many private concerts, had become Civouiite enter- tainme'irs,many perfons, finding the author alfo a modeft well-informed young man of uneNceptlonable morals, were become defirous of his acqu:iintance. Among thefe was Mr Hareof Limehoufe, a brewer, who being himfelf a nufic.il man, and having met him at Mr Stanley's at mufical partie', gave him an invitation to his houfe : and, to forward him in his profeflion, introduced him to a friend cf his, Peter Storer of Highgate, Efq; which proved the means of making his fortune. In the winter of the year 174.91 -D'' ''■*" '^'^ John- fm, v.-as induced to in(li;Mre a club to meet every Tucf- day evening at the King's Head, in Ivy-lane, near St Paul's. It confifted only of nine peilbiis; and Mr Hawkins was one i f ihc firft members. About this time, as it is fuppofcd, finding his father's hoii'c, where he had hitherto refilled, too finali for the difpatch of his bufinefs, now very much incieafing, he, in conjunflion with Dr Muncley, a phyfician, with whom he had contrsded an intimacy, tock a houfe in Clements- lane, Lombard-flreet. The ground floor was occupied by him as an office, and the firft floor by the Doflor as his apartment. Here he continued till the beginning of 1753, when, on occafion of his marriage with Sidney, the youngell of Mr Storer's daughters, who brought liim a confiderablc fortune, he took a houfe in Aullin Friars, near Broad-ftreet, Rill continuing to follow his profeflion of an attorney. Having received, on the death of Peter Storer, Efq; his wife's brother, in 1759, '^ '^'^^V 'ai'ge addition to her fortune, he quitted bufinefs to Mr Clark, afterwards .41- derman Clark, who had a fhort time before completed his clerkfliip under hina. difpofed of his houfe in Aufiin Friars, and purchafed a houfe at Twickenhim. Soon afterwards he bought the leafe of on; in Hatton-ftreet London, for a town refidence. From a very early period of his life he had entertain- ed a ftronglove for tlie amufement of angling ; and his afFeilicn lur it, together with the vicinity of the river Thames, was undoubtedly his motive to a refidence at this village. He had been long acquainted with Wal- ton's Complete Angler ; and had, by obfervation and experience, become himfelf a very able proficient in the art. Hearing, about this time, that Mr Mofes Browne propof.-d to I'ublilh a new edition of that work, and being himfelt in pofl":Oion of feme material particular.'. rsfpefli[ig Walton, he, by letter, made Mr Browne :i'i offer of writing, for his intended edition, Walton's Life. To this propofal no anfwer was returned, at leaft for fome time ; from which circumflance Mr Hf w- Jcins concluded, as any one reafonably would, that his offer was not accepted ; and, therefore, having alfo Hawkii learnt that Mr Browne meant not to publifh the text as ^-^""^ the author left it, but to modernize it, in order to file off the ruil, as he called it, he wrote again to tell Mr Browne that he underftood his intention was to fophi- fliicate the text, and that therefore he, Mr Hawkins, wouldhimfelfpubliih a corre;5l edition. Such an edi- tion, in 1760, he accordingly publi(hed in odfavo with notes, adding to it a Life of W.dton by himfelf, a Life of Cotton, the author of the fecond part by the well- known Mr Oldys ; and a fee of cuts defigned by Wale, and engraved by Ryland. His propenfity to mufic, manifefted by his becoming a member and frequenter of the feveral mufical focieties before mentioned, and allii by a regular concert at his houle in Auflin Friars, had led him, at the time that he w.as endeavouring to get together a good library cf books, to be pirticulirly folicitous for colL'fling the works of fome of the beft mufical compofers ; and, a- mong other acquifition's, it was hh Angular good for- tune to become poffetfed by purcliife c f feveral of the moft fcarce and valuable theoretical treatifes on the fcience any where eslant, which had formerly been colleifted by Dr Pep-jfch. With this flock of erudition, therefore, he, about this tlm;, at the inftance of f-ms friends, let about procuiing materials for a work then very much wanted, a Hiftory of the Science and PraL^ice of Mufic, which he afterwards publilhed. At the recommendation of the well known Paul Whitehead, to the Duke of Newcaftle, then Lord Lieutenant for Middlefex, his name was, in 1761, in- ferted in the Conimilflon of the Pe:ice for that coun- ty ; and having by the proper flud;cs, and a fedulous attendance at the fefllons, qualified himi'elf for the office, he became an acflive and ufeful magiftrate in the county(A). Obferving, as he had freq\ient occafion to do in the courfe of his duty, the bad ftate of high- ways, and tlie great deleft in the laws for amending and kjeping them in repair, he fet himfelf to revili? the form.'r ftatutes, and drew an aft of parliament confoli- datii',g all the former ones, and adding fuch other re- gulf.tions as were neceffary. His fentiments on this fubjeft he publillied in oftavo, in 1763, under the title of " Obfervations on the State of Highways, and on. the Laws for amending and keeping them in repair;" fnbjoining to them the draught ot' the aft before men- tioned ; which bill being afterwards introduced intD parliament, pafled into a law, and is that under which all the highways in Englantl are at this time kept re- paired. Of this bill it is but juftice to add, that, in the experience of more than thirty years, it has never re- quired a fingle amendment. Jfihnfon and Sir J.:)lhua, then Mr Reynolds, had, in the winter of this year 1763, projeftecl the eltablilhment of a club to meet every Monday e-ening at the Turk's Head in Gerard ftreet ; and, atjihnfon's folicitation, Mr Hawkins became one of the firft members. An (a) When he firft began to aft, he formed a refohition of taking no fee?, not even the legal and aut!)orifed ones, and purfued this method for fome time, till he found that it was a temptation to litigation, an. I that every trifling ale-hnul'e quarrel produced an applicatior for a v/arrant. To check this, therefore, lie idiered his mode, and received his due fees, but kept them fopav. tely in a purfe ; and at the end of every fumm-^r, before he left the cou'itry for the winter, delivered the whole araount to the clergyman of the parifh, to be by him diftributed amui'.g fuch of the poor .is he judged fit. HAW C HiwkinB. An event of confiderable importance engaged him, in ^""'"^'"^^ the )e.\T 1764, to ftand forth as the champion of the county of Middlefex, againft a claim then for the firft time fet up, a:id fo enormous in its amount as juftly to excite refinance. The city of London finding it necef- faiy to re-builJ the gaol of Newgate, the expsnce of which, according to their own elliinates, wouM amount to L. 40,000, had this year applied to parliament, by a bill brought into the Houfe of Commons, in which, on a fuggeftionthat the county prifoners removed toNewgate for a few days previous to their trials at the Old Bailey, were as two to one of the London prifoneis,confl;antly confined there, they endeavoured to throw the burthen of two-thirds of the expence on the county, \vhi;e they themfelves propofed to contribute one-thiid only. This attempt the magiilrates for Middlefex thought it their duty to oppofe ; and accordingly a vigorous oppolition to it was commenced and fupported under the ccndu(5l of Mr Hawkins, who drew a petition agninft the bill, and a i.afe ol the county, which was printed and dillri- buled arriongil the members of both houfes cf ])arlia- nient. It was the fubjedl of a d<iy's converfation in the Hdufe of Lords ; and it produced fuch an clTedt in tlie Houfe ol Commiiiis, that the city, by its own i;iem- beis, moved for leave to wiihuraw the bill. The fuc- cefs cf this oppofitioi), and the abilities and fpint wiih which it w.-ib conduced, iiatur.-.llv attraifled towards Mr Hawkins the a'.tei.tion of his iellow-magiftr.ttes ; and the chairman of the quarter klllons dying not long af- ter, he was, on the lyih day ct ijepttuiber 1 765, ele>?.eJ his fuccelFor. In the year 1771, he quitted Twickenham, and fold his houle there to Mr Valll.in! ; and, iu the rummer of the neit year, tor the purpofe ol obtaining, by f,:arches in the Bodleian and other Lbiaries, farther mate- rials for hisliiilory of mufic, he made a j lurneyto Ox- fold, carrying with him an engraver from London, to make drawings fr.'ni ihe portraits ia the inufic fihcol. On occalionofailual tumults or expefledditturbancis, he had inoie than once been called into lervice of great pei/bnal danger. When the liots at iirentiord had arifcn, during the lime ot the Mlddlefex elcitlon in the year 176H, lie ?.nd fome of hi;, brttliren attended to fup- prefs th.-m ; an J, in cnfequence of a'.i Ciptcled lictous iiftenibly of the j )urneyincn Spita'.-tirldb weavers in Moo'fields in 1769. the magiilrates of Middlefex, and he at their lisad, with a party of guards, attended to oppofe them ; but the ni"b, on feeing them prepared, thought it prudent to d;rpeife. In tiiefe and other in- flance^, and p irtlcul irly in his cond'jdt as ch.iirinan, ha- ving given fufiicient pro, f of hlsaflivrty, lefoluilon, abi- l;ties, integiity and loyalty, he, on the 33d of October 1772, received from his inajcfty the honour cf knight- hood. In 1 773 Dr J liinf )n and Mr Stevens p'lblilhed, in ten volume^ . cl-avu, their firll joint cditiiin cl Shakefjicare, to which Sir Jo'm Hawkins contributed fuch ncte^ as are diilinguiihed by his name, as he afteri'.arJs did a f.v/ more on the republication of it in I 778. An addrcfs to the kigfrcm the county of Middlefex, onoccafion of the American war, having, in 1774, been judged expedient, and at his inftance voted, he drew up fuch an addrefs, and,togcilier with two of hi) brethren, had, in tlie month of Ctober in that year, tlie honour cf piefentlng it. Aj"ier liitcen years laboui, be, i:; 1776, publiUiid, in 59 ] HA W five volumes quarto, his General Hitloryof the Science and Pradice of Mufic ; which in confequence of per- million obtained in 1773, he dedicated to the Ling, and prtfcnted It to him at buckinpham-houfe on ihe i4;h of November, 1776, when he was lionoured with an au- dience of confiderable length both from the kii.!' ar.d queen. Not long after this publication, that is to fay in No- vember I 777, he was induced, by an attempt to rob his houfe, whicii, though unfuccelsiu!, was made three dif- ferent nights with the interval (.f one or ti*o only be- tween each attempt, to quit his houfe in Hatton-ftreet ; and, after a temporary rcfidence for a Ihoit time in St James's Place, he took a leafe cf one, formerly iiihabi- ted by the famous admiral Vernon, in the (Ireet leading up to C^ieen Square, Weftnjinfter, and removed thither. By this removal he became a conllant attendant on Divine worlliip at the parifh-church of St -Margaret, Weftminfler ; and having learnt, ia December 1778, that ihe furveyor to the board of ordnance was, in de- fiance ol a piovifo in the leafe und;r v/hich they cl.iiir- ed, cni ry ing up a building at the eait end of the church, which was likely t j obfcuie the beautiful painted glafs window over the altar there, Sir Juhn Hiwkltis, with the concurrence of fomc of the principal inhabitants, wsoteto the fji vcyor, and compelled him to take down two feet of the wall, which he had already carried up above the fill of the window, and to fl,)pc olT the roof oi his building in Inch a manner as that it is nJt only no Injur), but, or. the contrary, a dclcncc to the win- daw. In the month (f December 1783, Dr Johnfm ha- ving dilcovcied in himl-;lf fymptom-. of a dropfy, fmt for S r J .hii il.'.vvkins, and t^;lllr.g hirn tlie precari- ous (tat,: of his health, decl<red hisdclire (f making a wiU, and reqaedcd him to b,- one cl hi» executors. S.r John accepted the office; iaflnifled the Dotlor how to n;a!;e his will : and on his d^ath undertook to be his biographer, and the guardian of his f.irac, by pub- lilhlt.g a complete edition of his works. Not. three months after the conirr.encsnjent of this undertaking, he met with the fevc rell lofs of alninll any that a literary man can fullain, lliott of that of I is friend- or leLitlons, in the delliuJlion, by die, ot his li- brary ; confining of a numerous and wiilchofen col- lci5iit-n ol books, ancio:;t and modern, in many langua- ges, and on moll fubjeiSs, which it had been the bufi- nefs of above 30 years at intervals to get together. Of this ]of>, gicat as it was in pecuniary val;ic, and compriling in books, piints, and drawing', many ai- tides that could neier be replaced, he was oner hear J- in the fmullcR degree to complain ; but having f und a temporary reception in a latge houi'c in Oicliard-llrcct, Wcilminller, he continued thtre a Ihort time, and ihca toc'k a haufc in the Broad S.incluary, Weltminiler. This event, for a Ihort time, put a flop to the pro- prefs of his literary purfuits. As foon, however, as he could funicier.tly cileift his thoughts he recommenced his office of biographei- of Johnfon ; and completed his intention by ptiblitlilng, in 17S7, the life and works, in eleven volumet oiUvo, which he dedicated to tlie king. \Vith this prodoiflion he terminated his literary la- b-)i:rs ; and hav'ng for many years b:en m -re paiticu- larly ftdulocs ia h.s i;i;ri-.ijn to the daiics of religion, aad. H^wluus. HAW [ II lliwkins anj accuRomed to fpend all his leifure from other ne- II cedary concerns in theological and devotional lludies, /j^:^^]-^^ he now more clolely addiifted himlelf to them, and ict himfelf to prepare for that event, which he faw could be at no great diftance ; and the better to accomplifli this end, in the month of May 1788, he, by a v? ill and other proper inftruments, made fuch an arrangement of Iiis affairs as he meant (liouldtake place after his deceafe. In this manner he fpent his time till about the begin- ning of M.iy 17S9, when, finding his appetite fail him in a greater degree than ufual, he had recourfe, as he had fometimes had before on the fame occafion, to the wa- ters of the lilington Spa. Thefe he drank for a few mornings ; but on the 14th of that month, while he WHS there, he was, it is fuppofed, feized with a paraly- tic affeilion, as, on his returning to the carriage which waited for him, his fervants perceived a vifible alteration in his face. On his arrival at home, he went to bed, but got up a few Iiours after, intending to receive an old friend, from whom he expccfted a viiit in the evening. At dinner, however, his diforder returning, he was led up to bed, from which he never rofe, on the 21ft of tlie fame month, about two in the morning, dying of an apoplexy. He was interred on the 28th in the cloifters of Weftminfter Abbey, in the north walk near the eaftern door into the church, under a flone, con- taining, by his exprefs injiiniSions, no more than the ini- tials of his name, the date of his death, and his age; leaving behind him a high reputation for abilities and integrity, united with the well-earnt character of an ailive and refolute magiftrate, an afPeflionate huf- band and father, a firm and zealous friend, a loyal fub- jeft, and a fincere Chriftian. Such is the character of him in the Biographical Diflionary, which we have neither right nor inclina- tion to controvert. With none of his works are we acquainted but his edition of IVahon's Complete Angler, and his L'tfe of Johnfon. The former is a very plea- fmg book ; and in the latter are colleifted many inte- refting anecdotes of literature and literary men; but they are not well arranged, and the ftyle of the com- pofition is coarfe and flovenly. Sir John, we doubt not, was a man of worth, and his reflexions on the fen- limental flang of Sterne and others, (hew that he had fiiccefsfully ftudied human nature ; but he certainly was not a man of general tade. HAWKINS, a county in Wafhington diftrifl, in Tenneffee, having 6,970 inhabitants, inclufive of 807 Haves, Chief town, Rogerfville. — Morse. Hawkins CourtHoiiJe, in TennelTee, is 25 miles from Free-done Gap, 72 from Abington, and 178 from Danville in Kentucky. — ib. HAWK'S BAY, on the coaft of Weft- Florida, weftward of the mouth of Mobile Bay, is between Pelican and Dauphin iflands. There is a broad chan- nel of II and 12 feet water, afterwards faie anchor- age in 4 fathoms, good holding ground, and fheltered from moll winds ; on which account it is very conveni- ent for fmall veffels. — ib. Hawk's Harbour is an arm of Igornachoix Bay, Newfoundland Ifland. — ib. H AWLEY, a townfhip In Hampfliire county, Maf- fachufetts, 120 miles wcflerly ot Bollon. Previous to its incorporation in 1792, it was called Plantation No. ] H E A 7, and had 539 inhabitants. It is corapofed of parts of feveral adjoining towns, and is about 20 miles N. W. of Northampton. — ib. HAYCOCKS, a fmall ifle in Delaware river, about 7 miles below Eafton, in Northampton county, Penn- lylvania, — ib. HAYNE'S fort, colonel, is fuuated in Nel- fon county, Kentucky, on the north fide of Green river, 25 miles weft of Craig's Fort, and 53 from the Ohio ib. HEaT. See in this Supplement, Chemistry, Part I. chap. v. where we have endeavoured to eftabli(h the modern do(5lrine refpefting Caloric or latent heat. In n" 3C9, &c. of that article, we have given an ac- count of Count Romford's ingenious experiments, in- ftituted with a view to determine whether or not ca- loric be a fubflance, and have ftatcd our reafons for diifenting from his opinion. It has been fuggefted to us, however, by a friend, to whofe judgment we are inclined to pay great deference, that it would be pro- per, in this place, to give the Count's arguments at full length, and in his own words : and the propriety of this is the more apparent, that in the fupplementary article Electricity, we have hinted our own fufpi- cions of the non-exi(lence of an eleBrical fluid. The Count then reafons from his experiments in the follow, ing words : " By meditating on the refults of all thefe experi- ments, we are niturally brought to that great queftion which has fo olten been tiie fubjeft of fpeculation a- mong philofophers, namely. What is heat ? — Is there any fuch thing as an igneous Jluid ? — Is there any thing that can with propriety be called caloric ? " We have feen that a very confiderable quantity of heat may be excited in the fri(!1:ion of two metallic fur- faces, and given ofiF in a conft ant ftream or flux in all direcliens, without interruption or inteimiftion, and without any figns of diminution or exhauftion. " From whence came the heat which was continual- ly given off in this manner in the foregoing experiments? Was it furnifhed by the fmall particles of metal detach- ed from the larger folid mafles on their being rubbed together ? This, as we have already feen, could notpof- fibly have been the cafe. " Was it furniflied by the air ? This could not have been the cafe ; for in three of thefe experiments, the machinery being kept immerfed in water, the accefs of the air of the atmofphcre was completely prevented. " Was it furnifhed by the water which furrounded the machinery ? That this could not have been the cafe is evident ; JirJ}, becaufe this water was continually re- ceiving heat from the machinery, and could not at the fame time he giving to and receiving heat from the fame body ; nx\<i,fecondly, becaufe there was no chemical de- compofition of any part of this water. Had any fuch decompofition taken place (which indeed could not reafonably have been expefted), one of its compound elaftic fluids (moft probably inflammable air) muft at the fame time have been fet at liberty, and, in making its efcape into the atmofphere, would have been detect- ed ; but though 1 frequently examined the water to fee if any air bubbles rofe up through it, and had even made preparations for catching them in order to exa- mine them if any (hould appear, I could perceive none; Hor J H E B [16 nor was there any fign of decompofition of any kind whatever, or other chemical procefs going on in the water. " Is it poffible the heat could have been fupplied by means of the iron bar to the end of which the blunt (leel borer was fixed ? or by the fmall neck of gun-me- tal by which the hollow cylinder was united to the cannon? Thefe fuppofitions appear more improbable even than either of thofe before mentioned ; for heat vras continually p;"ing off or out of the machinery, by both thefe laft paltages, during the whole time the experiment lafted. " And, in reafniing on this fubjeft, we mufl not forget to confider that mod remarkable circumftancc, that the fource of the heat generated by friflion in thefe expi-'rimentsappearedevidently to beinexhauftible. " It is hardly necelfary to add, that any thing which any infulated body or fyftem of bodies can continue to furnilh ivhhout limUatwri, cannot pollibly be a material fubjlame ; and it appears to me to be extremely diffi- cult, if not quite impoflible, to form any diftinift idea of any thing capable of being excited and communica- ted in the manner the heat was excited and communi- cated in thefe experiments, except it be motion. " But although the mechanifm of heat fliould infaft be one of ihife myfteries of nature which are beyond the reach of human intelligence, this ought by no means to difcourage us, or even Iclfen our ardour, in our attempts to inveftigate the laws of its operations. How far can we advance in any of the paths which fcience has opened Co us, before we find ourfelves en- veloped in thofe thick mills which on every fide bound the horizon of the human intellect ? But how ample and interefting is the field that is given us to explore ? " Nobody, furely, in his fober fenfes has ever pre- tended to underftand the mechanifm of gravitation; and yet what fublime difcoveries was our immortal Newton enabled to make, merely by the inveftigation of the laws of its adion ! The effefts produced in the world by the agency of heat are probably jujl as cxtenjtve and quite as important, as thofe which are owing to the tendency of the particles of matter towards each other ; and there is no doubt but its operations are in all cafes determined by laws equally immutable." HEATH, a townlhip in Hamplhire county, Maf- fachuletts, containing 379 inhabitants. It was incor- porated in 1785, and is 125 miles N. W. of Bofion, and about 18 miles N. N. W. of Northampton. — Morse. HEBRON, a town in Cumberland county, Maine, fituated on the N. E. fide of Little Androfcoggin, was incorporated in 1792. It is 35 miles N. by W. of Portland. — ll. Hebron, a townfhip in Wafliington county, New- York, containing 1703 inhabitants, of wliom 414 are eleiflors. — \b. Hlbron, a townfhip in Tolland county, Connefli- cut, fettled in 1704 from Northampton. Mod of the lands were given by Joftiua, fachem of the Mohcgan tribe, in his laft will and teilamcnt. It lies between Lebanon and Glaitenbury, about 18 miles S. E. of Hartford, and 16 fouth of Tolland. — \b. Hi HRON, a Moravian fettlement in Pennfylvania, 16 miles from Litiz, which is 70 miles northerly of Phila- dclpliia. This fettlement began in 1757- — t'j' vJiJPPL. Vol. II. ] H t L ^ HECTOR, a military lownfliip in the State o! N;w- Vork, on the call fide of Seneca Lake toward* llic fouth end, having Ovid on the nonh and Newtown townfliip on the foulh, and 29 miles S. by \V. of il.: ferry on Cayuga Lake. — ih. HEIDELBERG, a Moravian fettlement in Pcnn- fylvania, begun in 1743 ; fituated 24 miles fif.ni Liiiz, which is in Warwick townfliip, Lancaftcr county. — /*. Heidflberg, a handfome town in Dauphinc coun- ty, Pennfylvania, containing about ico houfes and two German churches for Lutherans and Calvinifts ; one of the churches is a handfome flone building. It it 33 miles E. by N. of Harrifburg, and 74 N. W. by W. of Philadelphia. I'licre are two other townfhip* of this name in the State, the one in York county, the other in that of Northampton. — ib. HEIGHT OF LAND, a r^nge of mountains which extend from S. W. to the N. E. and feparalcs the Dilliiift ot Maine from I^owcr Canada, giving rife to many rivers wliich fall into St Lawrence tivcr, and others which fall into the Atlantic Ocean. The prin- cipal growth between the Heiglit li Land and Sc Francis river is beech, maple, birch, liemlock and fir, very few white pines, and no oak of any fott. Some of the rivers have fine intervales. — ib. HELENA, or St Hei.kna. In addition to tht account of this ifi^nd in the Enry-lojviilia, the following particulars from Sir Gerrge Staunton dekrve a place in this SuppUmeni, liecaufe ibme ot them are impoitJnt in themfelves, while others corred one or two miflakes into which we had fallen, by adopting, implicitly, the narrative of Forller. The circumference of St Helena meafures fomewhat lefs than twenty-eight miles. Along the whole coalt to leeward, or to the northward, fhips may anchor in perfed fecurity in all I'eafons of the year, but the bank fhelves fo abruptly afterwards, that the anchorage, be- ing in deep water, is infecure. The tide feldom riles above three feet and a hall'; but the furge of the fea is fometimes tremendous ; and feveral accidents happened in approaching or quitiing the fhuie, until a wliaif was erevfted, lately, whicli renders the arnv.il tlitre, and dc- paituie from it, pcifcflly fate. In the imnicdi.ite neigh- bourhood of the illand, itorms are little known, thun- der is rarely heard., and ligluning is feldi'iu perceived. The llcep eminences wliicli inleivene between tlic v.illeys, tint are the chief feats c\ popul.<tion, render the communication from one part of this little fpot t.) another flow and dillicult. Planters on the windward fide of the ifland confider a joutncy to the leew.ird, or feat of government, as a feiious undertaking. Severn! of them take that opportunity of piying their rcfpefls to the governor, whiLh is called there (bmetimts " go- ing to court." Thire are St Hekna planters \\ho have not travilled fofar. At prcfei.t, b) cider ot the governor, there are fignals fo placed all over the illand, as to give inllaut notice of the approach il velicls to any part of it. in the Eiicyclopadit, it is laid that pe.ichcs are the only European traits vhich tlirivc in Si Helena ; but this appears to be a millakc. Several Ions of fruit trees imported into the illand had been deflroyed by ■*. particular inlecT ; but cncour.igemcnt has been given for the cultivation of thofe which that mllthievous ani- mal is known to fpare, fuch as the apple, for eiample, X with Hffl»r H-lcna. H E L [ 162 ] HEN Hilfna. wiih all the vaiietiss cf which it is fii^ceplible The HELENA ISLAND, St, on the coaft of S. Caro "^^^''^'^ plantain and banana, or the two fpecies of the mufa, Una, wiili thj cotuiiient onjhe north, forms St Helena thrive alio remarkably well. The ground is fertile, Sound or Entrance, and gives name to a purilh in and in favourable feafons producef, in fome inftancec, dcubh crops withi.i t!:e year. Plantations, however, of cotton, indigo, or canes, were not found to anfwer: though fome good cotfee has been produced in it. A botanic garden has been ellablilhed neur the governor's Ecaufort dillrii.1. — Morse. Helena Parish, St, in Beaufort diflridV, S. Caro- lina, confills of a duller of illand?, on the S. VV. fide ot Sc Helena Ifland, one of the largeif of which is Port Royal. Adjacent to Port Royal are St Helena, country houfe. An intelligent gardener has been Tent Ladies, Pa;is, and Hunting Illands. The Hunting to take care of it by the company; and a vaft variety Illands are j or 6 in number, bordering on the ocean, of tree-, plants, and flowers i.f different, and fometimes fo called from the number of deer and other game oppofite climates are already ccllefted in it. The fur- found upon them. All thefe iflands, and fome others rounding (qa abounds in efculent filh ; and feventy dif- of lefs note belong to this p.;ri!h. The produce of tha fcrent fpecies, including turtle, have been caught upon illands is rice, indigo, cotton, corn, and fweet potatoes ; the coalls. Whales ate feen in great numbers playing the cultivation of which, as well as in other parts of round the ifland, where it is iuppofed the fouthern the State, is entirely carried on by Haves. Taxes paid whale filhery might be carried on to gre.U national ad- by St Helena parilh ^'1,144 : 13:2. Chief town, Beaa- vant:-:2C. fort, on Port Royal illand. — ib. The country is chiefly culliva'.jd by blacks. Per- Helena, St, a town on the coaft of Florida, built fons of that colour were brought in a Hate of flavery to by the Spaniards, and burnt by Sir Francis Drake in St by its firft European fe'.tltrs ; and it feldom happens 1585. — ib. that white men will fubnnt to common work where HELICOID Parabola, or the Parabolic Spiral there are black flaves to whom it may be transferred, is a curve ariling from the fuppofition that the common Thefe vv'ere for a long time under the unlimited do- or Apollonian parabola is bent or twilled, till the axis minion of their owners, until a reprefentation of the a- come into the periphery of a circle, the ordinates dill bufes made of that pr.wer induced the India Company retaining their places and perpendicular pofitions witii to place them under the immediate proteflion of the refpeft to the circle, all thefe lines Hill remaining in ni.igiflracy, ard to enaifl various regulations in their fa- the fame plane. vour ; whi.h have contributed to render them, in a HELISPHERICAL Line, is the Rhumb line in great degree, comfortable and fecure. Thefe regula- Navigation ; being fo called, becaule on the globe it lions may have hurr, ;>t firft, the feelings of the own- winds round the pole helically or fpirally, coming Hill ers of flaves, but not their real intcrell ; for it appears, nearer and nearer to it. that before their introduclion there was a lofs, upon an HELL GATE, this celebrated ftrait is near the averasie, of about ten in a hundred flaves every year, to vi'ell end of Long Ifland Sound, oppofue to Harlem be fupplied at a very heavy e.xpence ; whereas, under in York Illand, and about 8 miles north-eaft of New- the prcfent fyftem, they naturally increafe. All t'uture York city, and is remarkable for its whirlpools, which importation of flaves into the ifland is prohibited. make a tremendous roaring at certain times of the tide. Belidcs the blacks in a (late of llavery, there are Thefe whiilpools are occalioned by the narrownefs and fome who are free. The labour of thefe tending to crookednefs of the paffage, and a bed of rocks which di.nainifli the value tf that cf flaves, the free blacks be- extend quite acrofs it; and not by the meeting of the came once obnoxious to iome tlave owners; who had tides from eaft to well, as has been conjeflured, be- fufficient irflaence, in a grand jury, to prefent them as caiife they meet at Frog's Point, feveral miles above, without vifible means of gaining a livelihood, and liable A fkilful pilot may condudl a lliip of any burden, with to become burdenfome to tl'.e community; but upon fafety, through this llrait, at high water with the tide, txamination, it appeared that all free blacks of age to or at low water with a fair wind. There is a traditi- work were a>flually employed ; that not one of them had on among the Indian;, that in fome diftant period, been tried for a crime for feveral years, nor had any of in former times, their anceftors could (lep from rock them been upon the parirti. They are now by the hu- to rock, and crofs this arm of the fea on foot at Hell mane interpofition of the company placed under the Gate. — Morse. immediate proteflion of the government, and put near- HEMLOCK, a lake in New- York State, 12 miles ly upon a fcoting with the other free inhabitants, who, lon<;, and i broad, in the Gennelfee country. — ib. vhenaccufed of crimes, have the privilege of a jury, as HEMPFIELD, tlie name of two townfhips in well as in civil cauft's. Pennfylvania, the one in Lancaller county, the other The principal fcttlement of St Helena has the pe- in that of Weflmoreland. — ib. culi.ir advantage of uniting ihe ihelter of a leeward ll- HENDERSON'S GRANT, a trafl 12 miles fquare, tuation with the coolnefs ef windward gales. The on the peninfola formed by the jundlion of Green- fou'h-eall wind blows conllantly down the valley, ren- river with the Ohio, in the State of Kentucky — il>. dcrirg a refidence in it pleafant as well as healthy. HENIOCHAS, or Heniochus, a northern con- The country is fo fertile, and the climate fo congenial Itellaticn, the fame as Auriga, which fee Encycl. to the human feelings, that perhaps it would be dif- HENLEY HOUSE, a (lation of the Hudfon's ficult to find cut a Cpot where perfons, not having ac- Bay Company, on the north bank of Albany river, quired a relifli for the enjoyments of the world, or al- in New S. Wales, 150 miles S. W. of Albany Fort, ready advanced in hfe, and furfeited with them, could and 1 10 N. W. by W. of Brunfwick Houfe. N. lat. have a better chance of protrailing their days ia e;ife, 51° 14' 27". W. long. 85° 5' 54''. — Morse. health and comfort. ilENNlKER, a toiirnfliip in Hilllborough county, I^ew.. HEN Hcnlopcn New-Hampfliire, about 12 miles wed of Concord. In , ," 1775" 't contained 367, and in 1700, 1127 inhabi- J^l^ tants.— ,-i. HENLOPEN, Cape, forms the S. W. fiJe of the entrance of Delaware Bay, and Cape May the N. E. fide, 28 miles apart. Cape Henlopen lies in N. lat. 38° 50', and in W. long. 75° 2C'. There is a light- houfe here, a few miles below the town of Lewis, of anoclagonform.handfomely buikof ftone 1 15 feet high, and its foundation is nearly as much above the level of the CsA. The lantern is between 7 and 8 feet fquare, light- ed with 8 lamps, and may be feen in the night 10 leagues cff at iea. Its annual cxpenfe is about ^6 jo. There is a ftrong iron net-work, in order to prevent birds from breaking the glafs at night. Yet fo attrac- tive is the light to the winged tribe, that fiiortly after its eredion, 110 birds of different kinds were found dead one morning, and a duck, in particular flew againft ie with fuch force, as to penetrate through both the wire and glafs, and was found dead in the lantern. Since the above accident, few fimilar ones have occurred, and the birds have become more wary. V'eflels off the Delaware, upon difplaylng a jack at the foretopmaft-head, will be immediately furnilhed with a pilot. None, however, are to be depended upon, unlefs they are fumiflied wiih branches, and wiih a certificate from the board of wardens of Phila- delphia. — ill. HENRICO, a county of Virginia, about 30 miles long, and 7 broad, contains 12,000 inhaljitants, in- cluding 5819 Haves. It is furrounded by Hanover, Charles City, and Goocliland counties, and James river. A number of co^l mines are in the county, and pits have been opened by many of the proprietors, and worked to confiderable profit. The coals in fevc- Tal of the pits are found nearly 200 feet above the level of the river, and 3 or 4 feet below the furlace of the ground. It is fuppofed that joo,ooo bufliels might be raifed irom one of thefe in a year. Chief town, Richmond. — ;/;. HENRIQUELLE, a remarkaljle falt-pond in the Spanilh part of the ifland of St. Domingo, about 22 leagues in circuit. It is inhabited by lizards and alli- gators, and land tortoifes, all of a large fize. The water is deep, clear, bitter and fait, and has a dif- agreeable fmell. Near the middle of this pond is an island aljout 2 leagues long, and a league wide, in which is a fpring of frefh water, well flocked with cabriloes, and thence called Cabrilo {[land. This pond is about 1 1 leagues E. of Port-au-Prince. — ib, HENRY, a cape, the north-eallern extremity of Princefs Ann county, in Virginia, i 2 miles S. by W. of Cape Charles in Northampton county. Thefe capes form the entrance of Chefapeak B ly. Cape Henry lies in N. lat. 37°, W. long. 7'')'' \6' .—iL Hknry, a fort in Penntylvinia, 8 miles N. by W. of Myer's Town, at tlie head of Tulpehocken creek, 32 N. of Lancafter, and nearly 37 S. E. of Snnbury. Hknrv, a mountainous and hilly county of Virginia, bounded N. by Franklin, S. and S. E. by Patrick, S. W. by Grifon, and N. W. and W. by Montgomery. It is about 40 miles long, 15 broad, and contains 6928 inhabitants, including 155 1 flaves. — ib. C i^>3 ] M K R HERKEMER, a new county cf New- York, divi- ded into 20 tovvnfhips, vi/. German Fiats, Warrc 1, Fran!;fort, and Lilchfi;ld, formed out of German fiali in Feb. 1796. Herkemer, Fairfield and Norway, formed out of /a/r/ff/V, Feb. 1796. — Schuvler. The following were compr,ehended originally in IVIAte/lorL-i., viz. Paris, Sangerfield, Hamilton, Sherbum, Brook- field, C.izenovia, Weftmoreland, Mexico, Rome, Steuben and Floyd. By the St.ite ccnfus of 1796 tlrs county contains 25,573 inhabitants, of whom 4161 *r= clcftors. It is bounded N. by part of Lower Canada and the river St Lawrence, N. \V. by the E. end of Lake Ontario, and the river St Lawrence; S. by Otfego county; E. by Clinton and part of Wafliin?- ton county. — ib. Herkemer To'.vk, in the above county, is fituiteJ on the nortli fide of Mohawk river. The townfhip in- cludes the village called Little German Flats, and the celebrated plain called German Flats. The village contains a court-honfc, gaol, a Dutch church, and about 40 dwelling houfes, which lad are very indiffer- ent buildings. It is So miles N. W. by W. of AlSiny, 16 S. E. ot old Foit Schuyler, and 20 in a like dirtc. tion from Whiteftown. In ihc midft of the flats is a fhrub oak plain of 80 or 100 acres, barren and deny, of no ufe but for building lots. The towiilhip is nam- ed in honour of general Herkemcr, who was mcrtaily wounded in the late war. It c intained in 179C, by the State cenfus, 2073 inh.ibitants ; cf whom 3'8 were eleftors. — ib. HERO, NORTH, an ifland in Lake Champlain, is a townlhip annexed to Chi:tendcn county in N'erm^ n'.. Hcrktmer Hertfc.rd. It IS 13 miics in lengt.'i. and contains 125 inhabitants, and 2 in breadth. — ib. Hero, Soui h, an idand in the fime lake, belong- ing to Chittenden comity, Vermont, is a townlhip and port of entry, and contains 537 inhabitants. It is 14 miles long, and 3! bio.id. Numerous fmall dies fui- round the Heros. This ifland produces good crryit of whe.u and other grain. In it is a quarry oi bluifk grey marble, wh'ch has the .Tppcarai<>:e of being j. petrifaflion of fcallops, a fpecics of dull common in the vicinity of the lake, togetlicr wirli tlic common earth of thcfhore, wliicji is of ainitlev fubdnnce. — iL HERON, PASS Air, ;« the bay of Mobile, in \>'. Florida, is 18 miles E. of PafV.igoiila river, and Ins 4 feet water ; and from thence to the point which is on the E. fide of the bay of Mobile, in N. Lit. 30" 17' is nearly 6 miles. — ib. HERRING BAY, lies on the W. fide cf Chcfa- peak Bay, Maryland, :6 miles S. of Annapolis and derives its name from the fidt ci its nimc whi.h fr> quent it — ib. HERSCHEL, ihc name by wliicli the French, ani mod other European n iiions, call the new p'.inct dil- covered by Dr Hcrfcbei in the year 17S1. Its mark or character is ^. The Italians call it Ouranos, or 1.'- rania ; but the tinglilh, ihc Georgian plane:, or Geot- gium Sidiis. HERTFORD, a county of EJcnfn didri.l, N. Carolina ; hounded N. by the State of Virginia, S. by Bertie county, E. by Chownn, and W. by Noiihamp- ton, and contains 5S2S inhabitants, ol uhotn 244J are flaves. Chief town. Wynion. — iMon: X a UETERO- H I L [ 164 ] H I N Hrtfrcdro- mus P Trugll. IIETERODROMUS Vectis, or Lever, in Me- chanics, a lever in which the fulcrum or point of fuf- penfion is between the weiglit and the power ; being the lame as what is otherwile called a kver of the firli kind. HIATSTOWN, a village in Mlddlefex county, New-feri'ey; 13 miles northeafterly of Trenton, and 17 S.'by W. of New-Brunfwick. — Mors^. HICKMAN'S, a fetilenent in I'ayette county, Kentucky, on the N. fide of Kentucky liver, 10 miks N. of Dinville, and 22 S. of Lexington. — ib. HID ISLAND is fituated in the N. W. Territory ; in Pkin river, the northern head water of the Illinois. —ib. HIGHGATE, a village in Georgia, about 4 miles from Savannah. — ib. a court-houfe and gaol ; HiGHGATE, the north-wefternmoft townlliip except healthy and fertile country. Alburgh, in Veimont, in Franklin county, contains houfes, 103 inhabitants. — ib. HIGHLANDS, a mountainous traft of country on the banks of Hudfon'-s river, in the State of New- York, between 40 and 60 miles N. of New-York city. The partage on the river through thcfe Highlands, for the diftance of about 18 miks, is grand and ro- HiLLsr.oROUGH, a village on the eaftern fide of HiUfbo. Chefapeak Bay, in Caroline" county, Maryland ; feat- '■°"g'^ ed on the E. fide of Tuckahoe Creek, one of the chief j^; ''i,,„^ branches of Choptank river, 7 miles S. E. by E. of \^r-y^ Denton, 9 N. W. of Greenfborough, and 27 S. S. W. of Cheller. — ib. Hillsborough, one of tlie middle di(lri<5ts of North-Carolina, bounded N. by the State of Virginia, S. by FayetteviUe diftrift, E. by Halifax, and W. by Salifburv. It comprehends the counties of Granville, Perfon, Cafwell, Orange, Wake, Chatham, and Ran- dolph ; and contains 59,983 inhabitants, of whom 13,506 are Oaves. Chief town, Hillfborough. — ib. Hillsborough, a poll-town of North-Carolina, and capital of the diftriift of its name, is fituated in Orange county, on the N. fide of Eno river, in a high. It contains about So and had in 1788 an academy o( 60 or 80 ftudents, patronized by the prin- cipal gentlemen of the State. The Eno unites with Little and Flat rivers, and forms the Neus, about 17 miks below ihc town. It is 180 miles W. N. W. of Newbern, 26 S. by W. of Perfon court-houfe, 101 W. by S. of Halifax, no E. N. E. of Salifbury, and mantic in a high degree. The opening feems to have been formed on purpnfe for the palT.ige of this noble river. In ihefe highlands are fituated the important and famous fortrelks of Well Point, Fort Montgo- mery, and Stnney Point. The mod noted peaks are, as you afcend the river, Thunder Hill, St Anthony's N"fe, Sugar Loaf, Butter Hill, and Break Neck Hill. After paffing the two lad, the country opens delight- fully, and prefents to the eye the pleafant villages of a townlhip in Bucks county in the fame St.ite. — ib. New-Windfor and Newburgh. Thefe mountains HILTON HEAD is the moft fouthern fea land in abound with iron ore. — ib. ' S. Carolina. W. and S. W. of Hilton Head lie HIGUEY, or Ji'lu Cracia, a city in the S. E. part Pinckney's Bulls, Dawfufkies and fome fmalkr iflands, of tlie Spanifii divifion of St Domingo, the ealfern- between which and Hilton Head, are Calibogie river 452 S. W. by S. of Philadelphia.— /'iJ. HILLSDALE, a townlhip in Columbia county, New-York, 18 miles from Hudfon city, containing 4556 inhabitants, including 31 flaves. By the State cenfus of 1 796, 622 of the inhabitants are ekftors. — ib. HILLTOWN, a fmall town near the centre of Chefter county, Pennfylvania ; 28 miks W. of Phila- delphia, and 21 N. W. of Chefter. Alfo the name of moft of all the i'eltkments in the ifland, celebrated formerly for its fcnility, and the quantity of fugar it pioduced. It was formerly the feat of Cayacoa, the iJioll powerful cacique of the ill.irid. It has now only about 500 ii.habitantr, and is diftant about 40 leagues to the eallward of St Domingo, between which and Hii^uey are thiee roads, the circuit'- us and northernmoft of which leads by Bayaguana. N. lat. 18° 30'.—;^. HILLSBOROUGH, an ifland on the Labrador coaft, on a bay at the head of which is Nain. — ib. Hillsborough, a county of New-Hamp(hire, bounded N. by Grafton county, S. by the State of Mallachufettf, V/. by Chelirue, and E. by Rocking- ham county. It is divided into 37 townfhips and 4 gores of land, ■which contain 32,871 inhabitants, all free people, who chiefly foUow agriculture. The academy at Amherft, has /Soo funds, and another at New-Ipfwich of ^"icoo. Chief towns, Amherll and Hopkinton. — ib. Hillsborough, a townfliip in the above county, fituated on the northern head branches of Contocook river, about 18 or zo miles W. of Concord, was in- coroorated in 1772, and contains 798 inhabitants. — ib. HiLLSBOROUH, a townlhip in Someffet county, New-Jerfey, containing 2,201 inhabitants, including 386 flaves. It is about 15 miles W. of Brunfwick, and iS northerly of Trenton. — ib. and found, which form the outlet of May and New rivers. — ib. Hilton's Point, in Pafcataqua river, in New- Hampfliire, is the fpot where the united ftream of Newichawannock and Cochecho rivers, which comes from Dover, meets the weftern branch and forms the Pifcataqua : From thence to the fea is 7 miks, the courfe gener.ally S. to S. E. and the river is fo rapid that it never freezes. — ib. HINCHE, a territory and town in the Spanifii part of St Dmiingo. The canton of Hinche is bound- ed W. by the French parilhes of Gonaives, Petit Rivi- ere and Mirebalais — and contains with fome appen- dages about 12,000 fouls. The town contains about 500 houfes, and, together with its dependencies, 4,500 fouls, 500 of whom arc capable of bearing arms. It is fituated on the E. fide of the mouth of the river Guayamuco, 64 miles N. W. of St Domingo, N. lat. 19° 3'. — ib. HINESBURGH, a townfliip in Chittenden county, in Vermont, lies E. of and joins Charlotte on Lake Champlain. It contains 454 inhabitants. — tb. HINGHAM, a poft-town in Suffolk county, Maf- fachufetts, fituated on a fmall bay which fets up fouth from Bofton Bay. It contains a number of houfes compaftly built, two Congregational churches, and a well endowed fchool, ciUkd, in honoui of its principal doaor i H I N C 165 ] H I N Hinzuan. Hinfd.vle donor and founder, Derby School. It ts 19 miles S. E. of Bofton, and 23 in a like direftior from Ply- mouth. The townthip is about 4 miles fqinre, ecniifts of two pariilies, was incorporated in 1635, and con- tains 2,085 inhabitants. Here are 6 grift-mills 3 fiw- mills, and a fulling-mill; four of which are tide mills. Two hills in this town, one of wliich is called Baker's Hill, prcfent exrenfive and delightful profpeifls of Bof- ton Bay, its ifl.mds, and the adjacent country. — ib. HINSDALE, the S. eallernmoll townlhip in Ver- mont, and in Windham county. It contains 482 in- habitants. — ib. HINSDALE, a townfhip in Chefliire county, New- Hamplliire, on the eall bank of Coniieflicut river, where the fouth line of the State flrikes tlie river in 42'-' 43' 59" N. lat. and is oppofite to Hinfdale in Vermont. It was incorporated in 1753, and contains 522 inhabitants. It is about 38 miles above North- ampton. — ib. HINZUAN, the proper name of one of the Como- ra iilands, which by different writers of difterent na- tions has been called ylnzuiwte, Anjuan, Jitanny, and yohanr.a, and which is defciibed in the Encyclopedia under the name of St Joann.^. In that article, it is obferved, tliat an anonymous writer has cenfured the defcriptions of this ifiand given by the Abbe Reynal and Major Rooke, as being not only exaggerated, but erroneous ; neither the country being fo pic'turefque as the former reprefents it, nor the inliabitants meriting the refpeflable charafter given ot them by the latter. There was not perhaps m\ich propriety in adnntting into fuch a work as the Encyclopaedia the anonymous ccnfure of defcriptions, authenticated by the names of refpeflable authors ; but the belf reparation which we can make to thofe authors, is, to inform our read- ers, that their defcripiions of Hinz.uan are confirm- ed by Sir William Jones, whofe teliimonv, we believe, no man will cor.trovert. That accompliihed fcholar, who vifited the ifland on his voyage to India, thus de- fcribes its appearance from the bay in which the Ihip rode at anchor. " Before us was a vaft amphitheatre, of which you may form a general notion by pifluring in your minds a multitude of hills iniinitely varied in fize and tigure, and then fuppofmg them to be thrown together, with a kind of attlefs fymmetry, in all imaginable politions. The back ground was a feries of mountains, one of which is pointed, near half a mile perpendicularly high from tlie level of the fea, and little more tlian ti)iee miles from the fhore, all of them richly clothed with wood, chiefly fruit trees, of an exquifite verdure. I had feen many a mountain of (lupendous height in Wales and Swilferland, but never faw one before, round the bofom of which the clouds were alnioft continually rolling, while its green fummit rofc Hourindng above them, and received from them an additional brightnefi. Next to this didant range ot hills was another tier, part of which appeared chaimingly verdant, and part rather barren ; but the contraft of colours clianged even this nakednefs into a beauty : nearer Hill were innumerable mountains, or rathe- clifts, wliich brought down their Tcrdure and fertility quite to tlie beach ; fo that every fhade of green, the fvvecteft of colours, was difplaycd at one view by land and by water. But nothing con- duced mors to the v.uiety of this enchanting profpcft, than the many rows of palm-trees, efpecially the tall Hinrczn. and graceful Arecat, on tlie (hores, in the valleys, and ^-'~-^^*-' on the ridges of hills, where one might almoft fuppofe them to have been planted regularly by defign. A more beautiful appearance can fcarce be conceived, than fuch a number of elegant palms in fuch a fitua- tion, with luxuriant tops, like verdant plumes, placed atjull intervals, and fliowing between them part of the remoter landfcape, while they left the reft to be fup- plied by the beholder's imagination. The town of Matfamtidhliy on cur left, remarkable at a diQance for the tower of the principal mofque, which was built by Hah'mah, a queen of the illand from whom the pre- fent king is defcendcd : a little on our right was a fmall town called Baiiljni. Neither the territory of Xice, with its olives, date trees and cyprelfes, nor the ifles of Hieres, with their delightful orange proves, appeared fo ch.irniing to me, as the view from the road of Hin- zui-i." Sir William Jones, fpeaking of the inhabitants takes notice of the Lords, Dukes and Princes, of whom we have made mention after major Rooke. " The frigate, (fays he) was [irel'enlly furrounded with canoes, and the deck foon crowded with natives of all ranks, from the high born chief, who walhed linen, to the half- naked flave who only paddled. Moft of them had let- ters of recommendation from Englilhmen, which none of them were able to read, tiiough they fpoke Englilli intelligibly; and fome appeared vain of titles, which our countrymen gave them in play, according to their fuppofed Itations : we had Lords, Dales, and Princes on board, foliciting our cuilom, and Importuning us for prefents. In fad, they were too fenliblc to be proud of empty founds, but jjlUy imagined, that thofe ridi- culous titles would ferve as marks ot diltindlion, and, by attracting notice, procure lor them fomething fub- ftantial." He fpeaks with great refpedl of the king, whofe name was Ahmed, as well as of feveral chiels whom he faw, and feems to have met with no man of rank on the illand whofe charadcr was contemptible, but Sslim the king's eldell fon. For the behaviour cf that prince, the old fovereign made the bell apology that he could, while he privately alfured the interpre- ter, that he was much dilpleafcd with it, and would not fail to exprefi l.is dlfpleafurc. He concluded his converfation with a lon^ harangue on the advantage which the Englilli might derive from fending a Ihip c- very year from Bombay to trade w ith Jiis fubje,5ls,and od the wonderful cheapnefs of their commodities, efpeci il- ly of their cowiies. Ridiculous as this idea might fcem, it (h owed (fays Sir William) an enlargement of mind, a delire of promoting tlie intctelt of h:s pe:iple, and a fenfe of the benefits arifing from trade, which could hardly have been expected from a petty .African chief, and which, if he had been fovereign of Yemen, migiit have been eipandcd into raticnnl projects pro- portioned to the extent of his dominions. The mailer of the frigate learned fiom one of the chief? :i lew curious circumllances concerning the go. vernmcnt of Hinzuan ; which he found to be a mo- narchy limited by an aiiftocracy. The king, he was toKI, had no power of making war by iiis own authori- ty ; but, if tlie all'embly of nobles who were from tln.e to time convened by him, refolved on a war with an/ of the neighbouring idacds, thty defrayed tlie cLaijk* of M I N [ i66 ] H I R Tfliniujii. of it by voluntary contribulions ; in return for which, to be concealed. When he was on the cnad of Afri- ''"''"^'"^^ they claimed as tlieir own all the booty and captives ca in the dominions of a very f.ivage prince, a fmall ihit might be taken. The hope of gain or the want European veffel was wrecked ; and the piince not only of ilivts, is iifually the real motive for fuch enterprifes, feized all that could be faved from tlie wreck, but and oltenfible pretexts are eafily found : at that very claimed the captain and the crew as his flaves, and time, be underllood they meditated a war, becaufe they treated them v.-ith ferocious infolence. Alwi alfured v.-antcd hands for the following harveft. Their fleet me, that, v/hen he heard of the accident, he halleaed confifted of fixteen or feventeen fmall veffeh, which to the prince, fell proftrate before him, and by tears they manned with about two thoufand five hundred and importunity prevailed on him to give the Euro- idanders, armed with mufkets and cutlalfes, or with peans their liberty ; that he fupported tliem at his own bows and arrows. Near two years before they had expence, enabled them to build another veffel, in which polfefied themfelves of two towns in Mayuta, which they failed to Ilitiztian, and departed thence for Europe they flill kept and garrifoned. The ordinary expcnces or India : he fhewed me the captain's promirtbry notes of the government were defrayed by a ta;: from two for fums, wliich to an African trader muft be a con- hundred villages ; but the three principal towns were fiderable object, but which were no price for liberty, exempt from all taxes, except that they paid annually fafety, and, pephaps, life, v.'hich his good, though dit- to the chief Mu/ii a fortieth part of the value of all interefted offices had procured. 1 lamented that, in their moveable property, and from that payment nei- my fituation, it was wholly out of my power to affifl ther the king nor the nobles claimed an exemption. Alwi in obtaining juf^ice ; but he urged me to deliver The kingly authority, by the principles of their confli- an Arabic letter from him, enclofing the notes, to the tution, was confidered as elective, though the line of governor-general, who, as he faid, knew him well ; and fuccefllon had not in fadl been altered fince the firfl I complied with his requeft. Since it is pofTible, that eleflion of a fultan. a fubfiantial defence may be made by the perfon thus Sir William Jones concludes his remarks on this accufed of iujudlce, I will not name either liim or the ifland with fome reflections ; cf which, though they may veffel, wliich he had commanded ; but, if he be living, be confideied as digrefiive, we are perfuaded our readers and if this paper fliouid fall into his hands, he may be v</ill approve of our extending the circulation. induced to reflect how highly it imports our national " We have lately heard of civil commotions in Hin- honour, that a people, whom we call favage, but zuan, which, we may venture to pronounce, were not who adminifler to cur convenience, may have no excited by any cruelty or violence of Ahmed, but were juft caufe to reproach us with a violation of our con- probably occafioned by the infolence of an oligarchy traifts." naturally hoRile to king and people. That the moun- HIPS, in architeflure, arc thofe pieces of timber tains in the Comara iflands contain diamonds, and the placed at the corners of a roof. Thefe are much longer precious metaU, which are ftudioufly concealed by the than the rafters, becaufe of their obhque pofition. Hip policy of the feveral governments, may be true, though means alfo the angle formed by two parts of the roof, I have no reafon to believe it, and have only heard it when it rifes outwards. iffertcd without evidence ; but I hope, that neither an e.\pei5tation of fucli treafures, nor of any other advan- tage, will ever induce an European power to violate the firft principles of juftice by alfuming the fovereign- ty of Hinzuati, which cannot anfwer a better purpofe than that of fupplying our fleets with feafonible re- frtfhment ; and, although the natives have an intereil Hinzusa . n Hirundo. Hir-Roof, called alfo Italian roof, is one in which two pans of the roof meet in an angle, rifing out- wards : the fame angle being called a valley, when it fmks inwards. HIRCUS, in aflronomy, a fixed ftar of the firft mag- nitude, the fame with capella. HiRCus is alio ufed by fome writers for a comet, en- in receiving us vith apparent cordiality, yet, if we wiffi compalfed as it were with a mane, feemingly rough and their attachment to be unfeigned and their dealings hairy. julf, we mufl; fet them an example of flrift honeRy in HIRUDO. Pite Encycl. A new fpecies of this in- the performance of our engagements. In truth, our fecft was difcovered in the South Sea by Le Martiniere, nation is not cordially loved by the inhabitants of H'm- naturalift in Peroufe's voyage of difcovery. He found •z,iian, who, as it commonly happens, form a general o- it buried about half an inch in a fhark's liver, but could pinion from a few inflances of violence or breich of not conceive how it had got thither. It was fomething faith. Not many years ago an European, who had more than an inch long, of a whitilh colour, and corn- been hofpitably received and liberally fupported at pofed of feveral rings fimlhir to thofe of the txnia. The Matjamudo, behaved rudely to a young married wo- fuperior part of its head v.'as furnifhed with f jur fmall man, who, being of low degree, was walking veiled ciliated mamiils, by which it took its fond ; under each through a ftreet in the evening : her hufband ran to mamilla on both fides was a fmall oblong pouch, in the proteiTt her, and refented the rudenefs, probably with form of a cup; and in the form of its injirumcnta ci- menaces, pofllbly with affual force ; and the European bar'ia, it very nearly refembles the animal which has is faid to have given him a mortal wound with a knife been fuppofed to be the caufe of meafles in fwine. Both or bayonet, wluLh he brought, after the fcuf!le, from thefe fpecies are referable to the genus hirudo, the cha- his lodging. This foul murder, which the law of na- rafters of which, as given by Linnzus, ftand (fays Mar- ture would have juflified the magiftrate in punifliing tiniere) in need of reformation. with death, was reported to the king, who told the HIRUNDO Escvlenta (fee Hirwkdo, EncycL governor (I ufe the very words of Alwi a coufin of the 11° 3.), is thus defcribed in the TranfaS'ions of the Ba- king'sj, that " it would be wifer to hufli it up." Al- iavian Society in the IJland of Ja'va, vol. ill.; and the wi mentioned a civil cafe of liis own, which ought not defcription confirms the f.igacious conjedlure of Mr Latham HIS C 167 ] HIS Hlrundo Latham refpeflV.g the f.ze of the bird, which the rca- nioh. a very ccr^njerablc fliare of happIncA. In fpite Hifpanio!.. Hifp Lla. '^'\r^^^ ""'' '» '^"^.^^ '^1^ "^""d o _ of what our relllefs innovators call political evils, f.^.na ^^ ^J^^^ . ','. ^^^ »^' .'^"'^° efcuhnta >s of a blacblu grey colour, of prolpcr.ty were everywhere viable ; their towns were .ncl.n.ng a httle to green ; but on the bacK to the tail, opulent, their markets pknt.ful, their commerce e-tcn- as well as on the belly, this bUckilh colour gradually five, and their cultivation incrcafinK changes into a rnouCe colour. Ths whole length or the Such was. in 1788, the Itatc of ihe French colcnr bird irom the oill to the tail is about four inches and a in the illand of St Domingo ; but in that eventful ye-ir haU, and its height from the bill to the extremity of the flame, which had burlt forth in Europe foreadit' the middle toe three inchc. and a ([uarter. The diilancc felf to the Well-Indies, An aifociation had been form' from the tip ot the one wing to that ot the other, when ed in France upon principles fomewhtt fim;i ir to thofo extended, is ten inches and a quarter. The largelt of our fociety for tlie abolition cf the dive trade • but feathers of the wings are about four inches in length, that alfociation, which called itfelf ^/„,;/^,, Aw/ had The head is flat; but, on account of the thicknefs of much more dangerous defigns than ours. Avowin^ the feathers, appears round, and to be of a large fize in its detellation of every kind of flavery, as well -iscfthe proportion to the reft of the body. The bill is broad, African trade, and condemning thofc'abettorst f llber- and ends ia a fiiarp extremity, bent downwards in the ty who dared to declare thtmfelves polFcirnrs cf m-n form of an awl. The width of it is increafed by a iis members kept up an intimate and clandeftfnc con- naked piece of fKin fomeuhat like parchment, which, neiflion with thofe rich mulattoes who refided in France whe;i the bill is Ihut, lies folded together ; but which, for their education, and laboured toconvi.-;ce them that v/hen the bill opens, is confukrably extended, andcnables neither their colour nor ihelr fpurhuj lirih (hould males the bird to catch with greater eafc, while on wing, the any civil or pohtical dillinaion betwern them and th; infects that ferve it for food. The eyes are black, and whiles v ho were born \\\ lucdhck. To co optrutcj of a confiderable 'ivt.i. The tongue, which is not fork- as it were, with thefe faclious and falf: dcflrines" the cd, is fliaped like an arrow. The ears are flat, round, National AlFembly ilTued its famous declaration, in raked fpots, with fmall oblong openings, and are entire which it was maintained that all mankind are born, ard ly concealed under the leathers of the liead. The neck continue fiee, and equal in their richts. Tilt conf;. is very fliort, as well as the legs and the bones of the queiice of this was fuch as might have been expcL^led. wings. The thighs are wholly covered with fe.ithers ; '1 he mulaltoes of HifpaniLla inrtrucled in llie French and the very tender lower parts of the legs, and ihe feet phil-fophy ( i the rights cf man, broke out into rcbel- themfelves, are covered with a llvin like black parch- lion; but n^t adting in co.ocerf, they were quickly over- ment. Each foot has four toes, three of which are be- powered. fore and one turned backwards. They are all detached The Ipirit, however, which had been excited amnn" from each other to the roots ; and the middle one, to- theiii, 11:11 continued to ferment ; and the National Af- gether with the claw, is fully as long as the lower p irt fembly if France, taking the Hate of the iiland into fo- of the leg. Each toe is fumlflied wuh a black, lliarp, lemn conlideration, decreed, by a gre.it rnajoiity, ihjt crooked claw of a confiderable Icngih, by winch the its intention had never been to intermeddle with the in. animal can with great facility attach itfelf to crags and ternal affairs of the colony ; that their internil Ic'iflj. rocks. The tail is iully as long as the body together tion was entirely cheir own ; and that the Icgiflaiurs with the neck and the head. When expanded it has of the mother country would make no innovatuin, Ji- ihe form of a wedge, and confifts of ten l^.rge featheis. reftly or iiidiredly, in the fyllein tif commerce in The four firit on each lide are long ; and, when the tail which the colonies wore already concerned. However is clofed, extend almoll an inch beyond the rclt. The grateful this dtcliraiii n might be to the white* of St other feathers decreal'e towards the middle cf the tail, Domingo, and in the then Itate oft! in^s however wife and are equal to about the length of the body." in itfelf, it eccalif ned difcoitent and retnonfliances on There is a variety of this fpecies of hirundo, witli a th; part of the failious friends of the nct^rces. Tlicy fpeckled bread, and white fpcts on the tail feathers; regarded it as an unw.irrai.table f.inflion of the African and this, though lefs numerous than the other, and in- traffic, and a confclllnn, that tlie planters of Hlfp.tnioU deed not found at all in Java, appears to have been the were not col .mils, but an independent people, only hirundo efculenta known to Linnx-us. For an ac- The colonills them(elve«, indeed, nr rather their re- count of the eatable nefls of thefe birds, and the manner prcfentatives, fccm t«> hive thought that by thi* decree of collefting them, fee Cap and Button in this Su^- they were rendered independent ; tor in iheir central plcmcnt. ad'enibly ihey palfed an afl debarring the king'i delc- HISPANIOLA, or St Do.mingo, the largeft of gate, the governor gcneial, from I'cg.i.ivmg' any of the Antilles or Carlbbee illards, has been defcribed, as their future .ic'^s. This viilcnt meaCure wa'. I'ar Irr ra. it exifled prior to the French revolution, in \\\<i Ency- giving univcrfal lati^t.uTii'n. The wf (Icrn parilhcs rc- clofjttiia. Previous to the year 1789 the govcmmcnt called their delegates, while thnfe cfCipc Francois re- ef the French part of the iiland was adminiUered by .in nounced their obedience to the «holc .iifemHy, and pe- cdiccr called (he lutcndant, and a Govcrnor-CIeneral, titioncd the governor todnfolve it. both nominated by the crown, and invelled wlili autho- During ihele dilL-nfiors, the commander if s fttip of rity for three years. Their powers were in fome cafes the line, which lay in the h.trbour rf Port-»u-l'riiice, diftinifV, and in others united ; but though thefe powers gave a lumptuous ertercainmeiu to the Iricndi of the were extenfive and almoll abfolute, the attention which governor ; on wliich accunt the feamen, who declared the old g ivernmcnt of France paid to the chara>.1er and thcmlclves in the inttrMl of the alfembly, thought fit rank of ihofe ptifuns whom it had placed over its fo- to mutiny; and the alfcmbly, in retuiri, voted their xeigu f.-ulenaeiit;, fcciircd to ibi; inbablt.ints of Hifi'.i- iLaiiks to the muiinecis. Scire ct'ih:.rpAiiizar,5, feii- H I S C i5s ] H I S Hifpanielu. ]ng al the fame time a powder magazin!, the governor tleclareJ them adherents to traitors, and called on all officers, civil and military, to bring them to puniflinient. This was the fignal for civil infiirredtion ; armed troops took the field on both fides ; and war feemed inevitable, when the aifembly refolved to repair in a body to France and juftify their pad conduft. In the mean time the ylmh dfs No'in contrived to ex- cite the people of colour to rebellion. They initiated in the dodtrinc of equality and the lights of man one James Oge, then refiding in Paris in fome degree of affluence. They perfuaded him to go to St Domingo, put iiimfelf at the head of his people, and deliver them from the opprcffion of the whites ; and in order to evade the notice of government, they undertook to procure for him arms and ammunition in America. He em- barked accordingly, July 1790, for New England with money and letters of credit; but notwithflanding the caution of the Am'ts des Nolrs, his defigns were difco- vered by the French government, and his portrait was fent out before him to St Domingo. He landed on the ifland in Oftober, and fix weeks afterwards publiflied a manifefto, declaiing his intention of taking up arms, if the privileges of whites were not granted to all petfvns luithout di/linaion. He was joined by about 200 men of colour ; and this little army of ruffians not only maf- facred the whites wherever they fell in with them in fmall numbers, but, by a (bll more unjultifiable mode of eonduft, took vengeance on thofe of their own colour who refufed to join their rebellious ftandard. They were, however, foon overpowered by the regular troops ; and their leader, after difclofing, it is faid, fome important fecrets, fullered the punilhment due to his treafon. While thefe things were gouig on in the ifland, the members of the Colonial Aifembly arrived at Paris, where they were received by the reprefentatives of the French people with marked fymptoms of averfion. The refolutions compofing their famous decree were pro- nounced improper ; their vote of thanks to the muti- neers was declared criminal ; they were themfelves pcr- fonally arrefted ; orders were given for a new aifembly to be called ; and tlie king was requefted to augment the naval and military force then at St Domingo. The National Aifembly of France having decreed that every perfon twenty-five years old and upwards, pofTelTing property, or having refidcd two years in the colony and paid taxes, fhould be permitted to vote in the formation of the colonial aifembly, the people of colour very naturally concluded that this privilege was confer- red upon ihem. Such, however, we believe, was not the meaning of the National Aflembly ; but Gregoire, v.'ith the other fj lends of the negroes, at laft prevailed, and mulattoes born of free parents were pronounced to be not only worthy of choofing their reprefentatives, but alfo eligible themfelves to feats in the colonial alfemblies. This decree facrificed at once all the whites in the ifland to the people of colour ; and the indignation which filled the minds of both the royal and the republican parties feemed to have united them in cue common caufe. They refolved to rejefl the civic oath ; to confifcate the IVench property in the harbour, on which they aflually laid an embargo ; to pull down the national colours, and to hoill the Britifli ftandard in their ftead. The mulat- toes in the mean time colleded in armed bodies, and waited witli anxious expeflation to fee what meafiircs Hi/panioh. the colonial affernbly would adopt. ^^-^r^^m* During thefe dillenfions, the negro flaves, into whofe minds had been fcduloufly inftilled an opinion that their rights were equal to thofe of their maftcrs, refolved to recover their freedom. On the morning of the 23d of Augufl 1 79 1 , the town of the Cape was alarmed by a confufed report that the flaves in the adjoining parifhes h.id revolted ; and the tidings were foon confirmed by the ai rival ot thofe who had narrowly efcaped the malfacre. ■J'he rebellion had broken out in the parifli of Acul, nine miles from the city, where the whites had been butchered without diftinciion ; and now the rebels pro- ceeded from parilh to parifh, murdering the men, and ravifhing the unl'ortunate women who fell into their hands. In a fliort time the fword was accompanied with fire, and the cane-fields blazed in every direfrion. The citizens now flew to aims, and the command of the national troops was given to the governor, whiKl the women and children were put aboard the fhips in the harbour for fafety. In the firft aftion the rebels were repulfed ; but their numbers rapidly increafing, the governor judged it expedient to aft folely on the defenfive. In the fpaceof two mcnths it was compu- ted that upwards of 2000 white perfons periflied ; and of the infurgents, who confilled as well of mulattoes as of negroes, not fewer than 10,000 died by famine and the fword, and hundreds by the hands of the executioner. When intelligence ofthefedreadful proceedings reach- ed Paris, the Aifembly began to be convinced that its equalizing principles had been carried too far ; and the famous decree, which put the people of colour on the fame footing with the whites, was repealed. Three commiflloners were likewife fent to the colony to reftore peace between the whites and the mulattoes ; but two of them being men of bad character, and none of them poifefllng abilities for the arduous tafl; of extinguifiiing the flames of a civil war, they returned to France with- out accompliflring in any degree the obje<5l of their million. In the mean time the /l7?iis da Noin in the mother country had once more gained the afcendant in the Na- tional Aifembly ; and three new commiffioners, San- thonax, Polverel, and Ailhaud, with 6000 chofen men from the national guards, were embarked for St Do- mingo. It was flrongly fufpeifled that the objefl of thefe commiffioners was to procure unqualified freedom for all the blacks in the ifland ; but they folemnly fwore that their fole purpofe was to eftablifh the rights of the mulattoes, as decreed by the law which had been lately repealed. The whites therefore expeded that a colo- nial aflembly would be convoked ; but inftead of this the commiffioners nominated twelve perfons, of whom fix had been members of the lall aifembly, and fix were mulattoes, Une CommiJJiun In'.crmcd'iare, with authority to raife contributions on the inhabitants, the application of which, however, they referved to themfelves. The governor finding that the commiflloners ufurped all au- thority, complained that he v^'as but a cypher in public affairs ; his complaint was anfwered by an arrefl; upon his perfon, and he was fent a flate prifoner to France. The tyranny of the commiffioners did not fl;op here. They overawed the members of the commiffion inter- mediare, by arrefting four of their number; and difa- greeing among themfelves, Sanihonax and Polverel dif- milfed Hifpaniola II Hiwaffee. H I W [ 1 mifled Ailhaud from their councils. War was by this time declared bitween the mother country and Great Britain, and prudence compelled the government of France to take fome care of t)ie injured colony. Gal- baud, therefore, a man of fair charader, was appointed governor, and ordered to put the ifland in a ftate of de- fence againfl foreign invafion ; but pofleffing Weft India property, which it feems was a legal difqualification for the office of governor, the commiffioners difregarded his authority, and took up arms againft him. Finding themfelves likely to be worded, they offered to purchale the aid of the rebel negroes, by the offer of a pardon for their paft conduft, freedom in future, and the plun- der of the capital. Two of the negro chiefs, more ho- nourable than the French commillioners, fpurned at the bafe propofal ; but a third, after the governor had fled to the (hips, entered the town with 3000 revolted ne- groes, and began an indifcriminate malfacre. The mi- ferable inhabitants fled to the Ihore, but their retreat was ftopped by a party of mulattoes ; and for two days the (laughter was incelfant. Tlie town was half con- fumed by fire; and the commiffioners, terrified at the work of their own hands, fled lor proteftion to a (hip of the line, and thence ilFued a manifefto, which, while it tried to extenuate, evinced a confcioufnefs of their guilt. Thus was loft perhaps to Europe, and loft by the frantic conduiSl of French pliilanthropills, the fineft ifland in the Weft Indies ; an ifland which produced alone as much fugar as all the Britilh Well India pof- feffions united 1 not to mention the coffee and indigo, which were in immenfe quantities cultivated in Hifpa- niola. Had it not been for the reftlefs machinations of the ylmis dcs Noirs, it does not appear that fo general a revolt would have taken place among the flaves ; for though the fpirit of republicanifm had Ibund its way into the ifland, the republicansjoined with the royalifts to keep the negroes in proper fubjedtion. The unfuc- cefsfu) attempt which, at the requeft of the more re- fpeftable part of the inhabitants, the Britilh government made to fubdue the execrable commillioners and tlielr adherents, is fre(h in the memory ol all our readers, and need not here be detailed at length. Suffice it to dry, that after prodigies of valour, our troops were compelled, rather by difeafe than by the fwords of the enemy, to abandon the iliand, which is now under the controul of a negro or mulatto-chief. What will ulti- mately become of it, future events mull decide ; but let its protracted and bloody difputes be a warning to all, and among others to our alFociitinn for the abolition ot the flave trade, that it is impoliible to promote a good end by wicked means, and that fltvcs mull be civili/.cd before they be made iree. HITCHEL.'\GA, or Hochelaga, an Indian vilbge in Lower Canada, lituated in the ifland of Montreal, and at the foot of the mountain (o called. It is forti- fied after the Indian manner, and the inhabitants fpcak the Huron language. — Alors^. Hri'TON,'a (mall villige in Anne Arundel coun- ty, Maryland, 13 miles W. by S. of Baltimore. — ib. HIWASSKE is tlie only rivor of any confcqucnce wliich empties into the 'I'cnncllcc from tlie foulh. It is a bold river, pafling through the Cherokee towns and empties into the Tennclfee about 40 miles below the moutli of the Clincji, and 46 above the Whirl or ijuppL. Vol. II. 69 ] H O L Suck, by land, but 60 by water. It is navigable till HdoVo., it penetrates the mountains on its S. lide. Ore was H foiind in thefe mountains, wlien in po/Icffion of tlic l^^'i^ Britilh, from which gold was extr-i^Tcd. The Indians know the fpot ; but are very aniious to keep it a fecret. A branch of the Hiwaffee, called Amoia, almoft inter- locks a branch of the Mobile. The portage between them is (hort, and the road firm and level.— Vi. HOBOKEN, a trafl of Imd in Bergen county, New.Jerfey, (ituated on the W. bank of the Hudf jn, in the mountainous country between the town of Ber- gen and Fort Lee, about 7 miles above New-York city. — ib. HOC KHOC KING, a river in the N. W. Territory, about 28 mdcs below the Mulltingum, which it rtfem- bles, but is inferior to it in fize. It rifes near a branch ot the Sciota, and taking a S. W. courfe enters the Ohio at Bellpre, in N. lat. 38' 57'. It is navigable ior large flit bottomed boats, between 70 and ^o miles; h.is fine meadows with high banks, which are feldom overflowed, and rich ujilands on its borders. On the banks of this fine river are ineihauftible quar- ries o( free-ltone, large beds of iron ore, rich mines of lead, and coal pits. There are alio produiftive fait fprings, beds of white and blue clay of an excellent quality. Red bole, and many other ufcful fodils have been found on the banks of this river. — ib. HOLDEN, a townfliip in Worccfter county, Maf- fachufetts, was formerly the north-we(^crn part cf Worcefter, from which it is diftant 7 miles, and 51 miles W. of Bollon. It ccmtains 1080 inhabitants. It was incorporated in 1740. In the earthquake iti J 75 5, there were feveral acres of land, in an obfcure place in the N. E. corner cf the townlhip, quite fur- rounded by a vifible fraiilure in the eartli, of a circu- lar form, and of various width and depth. The fmall river there had its bed railed (0 as to occafion a confi- derable fall of water, where tf.ere was liitleor none be- fore. The ftump of a tree, that ftood directly over the chafm, on the E. was divided into two equ.d parts, one (landing on the outlide of the chafm, the other upon the inlidc ; but not oppofitc to each other : the half within the chafm, being carried 5 (cet forward, towards the river. — b. HOLDERNESS, a townflrp in Grafton county, New-Hair plliiie, iiiuated on the eiftern fide of I'emi- gewall'ct river, was incorporated in 1761, and cont.iins 329 inhabitants. A corner of Squam Lake is in this townlhip ; and Rattlcfnake Mount <in lies partly in this and Sandwich the adjoining tmvnlliip on the N. E. It is 64 miles N. N. W. of I'ortfmoulh. — ib. HOLE IN-THE W.VLL, a viilji;e in Talbot county, Maryland, on the E. fide of Cliefipcak bay; 7 miles eallerly of Oifoid, and a like diilaiicc i>. of Eallon — ib. HOLLAND, a townlhip in H.imp(hire county, Malf.rchufetts, which, until iucorpniaicil in 1 785, was the E. parilh of South-Bnmficld, and is bounded S. by Tolland county, in Conntclicut, E. by Worcefter county, and northward by Bnmli-.ld. It contains 42. S inhabitants, and is 75 miUs S. W. by W. of Bofton. —ib. Holland Company LanJt, are lituated in PcnnfjU vania, on the navigable waters of Alleghany river and French Creek.— ii. Y HOLL.tSD'j H O L [ II Holftoii. Holland's l/lmdi are near to, an J fouth of Hooper's IflanJ and Straits in Chelapc;ik Bay. — ib. Hoi.LANu's Pchit, cm the \vcil (iJe of Chefapealc Bay, together with Parket's Illati-J, iurrn tlie mouth of Herring Bay. — ib. HOLLI.S, the NiJiitJTii of the Indians, a townfhip in Hilllliorough county, New-Hainplhire, lituatcd on tlie Mnirachiilelts line, incurpurated in 1746, and con- tains 1441 inhabitants. It is about 70 miles S. \V. of Portfmoiith, ami 45 N. W. of Bollon. — ib. HOLLIDAYS IJland lies 15 miles up Chowan river in North Carolina : Thus iar the river is three niiles wide. — lb, HOLLISfON, the mod fouthern townlliip in Mid- dlefc-x ciuinty, MalFachuletts, has Hopkinton on the north, Wrentharn on the eaft, and is 24 miles S. by W. of Bollon. The lirft fettiements were made here in 1710, and in 1724 the town was incorporated by its prefent name in honour of Thomas Hcliis of London, one of the patrons of Cambridge Univerfity; and it now contains 875 inhabitants. — ib. HOLLOW, in architeflure, a concave moulding, about a quarter of a circle, by forae called a cafement, by others an abacus. HoLLoir-Tower, in fortification, is a rounding made of the remainder of two brifures, to join the cuitain to the crillon, where the fmail Ihot are played, that they may not be fo much expofed to the view of the enemy. HOLSTON, the Urged branch of Tennelfee river, rifes in Virginia, and joins that river 22 miles below Knoxville. It is a large, bold river, upwards of 300 yards wide at that town, is about 200 miles in length, and receives in its courfe feveral confiderable rivers, viz. from its head downwards, Watauga, French Broad, (which includes Limeftone Creek, Nolachucky, Swanano, Big Laurel, and Big and Little Pigeon) and Little rivers. The dreams on the northern fide are creeks ofnogieat fize or length of courfe. Holfton is naviga- ble for boati of 25 tons upwards of 100 miles, as liigh as the mouth of the North Fork ; at which place Mr David Rofs has ere.5ted iron-works upon a large fcale. At the mouth of this river, on the north fide, (lands Fort Grainger. The river is 150 yards wide, ]6 miles above the North Fork at Rof:.'s iron-works, and near- ly 5 above Long-lfland, and in N. lat. 36° 27', W. long. 83° %'.—Morie. HoLSTOS, a fettlenient on the river above mention- ed, in the State of Tennelfee, containing 28,649 inha- bitants, though in the year 1775 it had hardly 2,200; yet its importance during the revolution may be con- ceired, when it is known that a great part of thofe volunteer troops who -attacked and defeated the Britiih andtorieson King's Mountain, who were commanded by Colonel Fergufon, came from this country. The land is generally fertile, but the face of the country is much broken. Placed between two large mountains, it feldom fuffers for want of rain. It abounds with iron ore. A capital furnacs and forge have lately been erecled in HoKton near the Virginia line, a bloomery below the mouth of Watavrga, and another 25 miles above the mouth of the French Broad. There are fundry lead mines in the fettle- ment, one in particular on the French Broad, that produces 75 per cent, pure lead. Long-IQand on Hoi (Ion river is 340 miles S. W. by W. of Richmond in Virginia. — ib. o ] HON HOLV/ELL (John Zephaniah, Efq;), was a gen- Holiroll tleman of letters, whofc hillory is well intitled to a place II in fuch a colle(flion as ours; but, unfortunately, ^e ^'""^'"'* know not either the time or the place of his birth, or the v,^-v->^ fchool at which he was educated. At an early [leriod of life he was fent to Bengal as a writer in the Lall-India Company's fervice, and in the year 1 756, was fecond in council at Fort William, when an ctfencc was given to the nabob of Bengal by the governor's proteding a fu- gitive native. In revenge for this, the nabob marched againll the fort with a poweiful army. Drake, the chief who had given the offence, defertcd his ftation, and tlie command devolved on Mr Holwell, who, with the few men he had, defended the place lo the lall ex- tremity. This oppofition incenftd the nabob againft Mr Holwell ; and although on the furrcnder he had given his word that no harm fliould come to him, Mr Holwell and his unfortunate fellows in arms were thrull into a clofe prifon, called the Black Hole*, not .<•. p eighteen feet fquare, to the number of 146 perfons, and ^J^^^ into which no fupply of air could come but by two Encyd. fmall windows in one end. Here for one whole night they were confined ; the numbers crowded together cau- fed a mod prolufe perfpiration, whicli wasfucceeded by a raging thirll. They crdled for water, but the little fupply which the humanity of the black foldiers could grant them, was nearly all loft in the ftrugglc to obtain it. Every few minutes fome one or otlier expired, through third, or preffure, or were trampled to death. Mr Holwell, after flruggling for many hours, threw himfelf down on a plattorm, and in a Ihort fpace of lime happily became infenfible. In this difmal dun- geon they were kept till fix o'clock in the morning, when twenty-three only were found alive. Mr Holwell himfelf was in a high fever, but was loaded with fetters and otherwife ill treated, yet tlie excellency of his con- ftitution overcame all his hardlliips, and he was foon after relcafed and embarked for England. In 1758 he publilhed a well written and affeiling narrative of the futferings of himfelf and his companions. Since this time Mr Holwell has relided in England, and has writ- ten feveral tracfls on Indian affairs, particularly a work in three parts, intitled " Events relative to Bengal and Hindoitan." — " The manner of inoculating for the fmall-pox in the Eaft Indies.'' — " A new experiment for the prevention of crimes," publiified in 1786. He has alfo publilhed a trad which contains fome very fin- gular fentiments on religious fubjefls, intitled " Differ- tations on the origin, nature-, and purfuits of intelligent beings, and on Divine Providence, religion, and reli- gious v/orlliip." Mr Holwell was elcfled many years ago, F. R. S. and lived to a good old age, refpecled. by his acquaintance, and although much affli(fled by bodily complaints, poffeffed a wonderful fund of fpirits. HOMER, a military townfhip in Onondaga cour- ty. New York, on the head waters of the N. W. branch of Chenengo river; 56 of its inhabitants are eledors. — ib. HOMODROMUS Vectis, or Lever, in mecha- nics, is a lever in which the weight and power are both on the fame lide of the fulcrum as in the lever of the 2d and 3d kind ; being fo called, becaufe here the weight and power move both in the fame diredlion, whereas in the heterodromus they move in oppofite direflions. HONA CHITTO, a river which rifes in Georgia, ia Hondo II Hooke. H O O [ 171 ] MOO in N. lat. 32', between Pearl and Loofa Chltto rivers, mutual gravitatioi* of the planets j a fiii wliith h: Hooke. runs foutherly 125 miles, and at the town of Manca had moft fyftematically announced. Pie had ftiewn, ^-^^""^ ^ in Weft-Florida, a few miles from its mouth, runs W. that a force, jjcrfedtly analogous to gravity on this to Mifiiffippi river. N. lat. 30° 25'. — ii. earth, operated on the furfaee of the moon and ofjii- HONDO, RIO, a river of Yucatan, which empties piter. Confidering the numerous round pils on iho into tKe bay of Honduras. This river, by the peace lurface of the moon, furroundcd with a fort of wall of 1783, was the northern boundary of the trail fouth- and having a little eminence in the middle, as tlie pro. ward of Ballelfe river, granted by the Spaniards to duftion of volcanoes, he infer: cd, that the ejcLlcd matter the Britifli, to cut and carry away logwood. — ii. fell back again to the moon, as fiich matter falls back HONDURAS, a province of New Spain, having again to the earth. He faw Jupiter furroundcd with an the bay of its name and the North Sea on the north ; atmofpliere, which accompanied him ; and thertft ro Yucatan on the north-weft; and the Mofquito Shore prcffed on him, as our air preffes on the earth : He in- on the nonheaft ; Nicaragua and Guatimala on the ferred, that it was the fame kind of power that maintain- fouth, and Vera Paz on the weft. It is about 100 ed the fun and other planets in a round form. He infer- leagues long and So broad. It abounds with honey, red a force to the fun from the circulation round hlni, and cotton, fine wool, dye woods in particular, and has he called it ^ gravilalioii ; and faid that it was not the fome gold and filver mines. The rivers overflow like earth which defcribed the cUipfe, but the centre of gra- the Nile, and enrich the land. The air is good, ex- vity of the earth and moon. He therefore made a co- cept near the lagoons and low grounds. The foil in nical pendulum, whofe tendency to a vertical pofition many parts bears Indian corn thrice a year ; and the reprefented the gravitation to the fjn, and v/hich w;;s vineyards bear tv/ice a year ; for immediately after the projefled at right angles to the vertical pUne; and fnew- vintajre they cut them again; and the fecond grapes ed experimentally, how the different proportions of the are ripe before Chriftmas. Valladolid is the chief projeiflile and centripetal tendencies produced various town, where the governor and bilhop refide. Tiuxillo degrees of eccentricity in the orbit. He then added is alfo a fine town, and very ftrong by nature; and another pendulum, licfcribing a cone round tlie firft, Omoah is ftrongly lortified. The Spaniards claim this while this defcribed a cone round the vertical line, in country ; but the Englifh have been long in poflellion order to fee what point bet«'een them defcribed the of the logwood trad in the Bay of Honduras, cutting ellipfe. The refults of the experiment were intricate large quantities of it every year. And the Mofquito and unfatisfadlory ; but the thought was ingeniou'. Indians to the eaft of this province have entered into He candidly acknowledged, that he had not dilcovered treaties with the Englilh, received them into their the true law of gravitation which would produce the country, and done iheni feveral fei vices. Befides, tiie defcription of an ellipfe round ihs focus, owing to l:is Spaniards have no forts in this bay, or in the country want of due mathematical knowledge; and therefore of the Mofquito'i, only two fmall towns. — ib. left this inveftigation to liis fiiperiors. Sir Ifaac New. HONEYYOE, a lake in the GenelFee country in ton was the happy man who made the difcovery, atier New- York State, weiUvard of Canandargua Lake, 5 having entertained the fame notions of the forces which miles long and 3 broad. — ib. ronneded the bodies of ilie I'ular fyftcm, before he had HONOMINIES, a river in the N. W. Territory any acquaintance with Dr Hooke, or knew of liis fpe- which rims S. S. eafterly into Puan Bay. Between culations. the head of this river and Lake Superior is a lliort 1660, The engine for cutting clock and watch wheels. portage — /',';. — The chief phenomena of capillary altradion. — The HOOKE (Dr Robeit) is faid, in the account of freezing of water a fixed temperature. him which is piiblllhed in the Encyclcpadia, to have laid 1663, The method of fupplying air to a diving bell, claim to the inventions of others, and to have boafted — The number of vibrations made by a mufical chord, of many of his own, which he never communicated. 1664, His Micrographia was, by the council of the We will not prefume to fay that this charge is entirely Royal Society, ordered to be prf.ited ; but in that work groundlefs ; but we know tliat it has been greatly ex- are many juft notions rel'peding rcfpiralion, the com- aggerated, and tliat many dlfcovcrics undoubtedly made pofition of tlie atmofpliere, and the niiure of light, by him have been claimed by otliers. Of this the which were afterw.irds attributed as difcoverics to Ma- reader will find one confpicuous proof under the article yow and others, wlio, tliough we are far from liippo- Watch (Eticyd.); and perhaps the ioilowing hiftory ling that they lUle tlieir dilcoveries from Dr Hooke, ot the inventions to which he laid claim may furnilli were certainly anticipated by him. another. It would be harlh to charge him with f.illity 1666, A quadrant by redeifllou. in any of them ; tliat is to fiy, to imigine that he ei- 1667, The marine barometer. — Tlie gage for found- ther ftole them from others, or did not ihtnl, at leaft, ing uufathom.ible depth'. that he was an inventor. And, with refpeifl to many 166S, The meafurement of a degree of the meriJi- ofthem, the priority of his claim is beyond difpute. an, with a view to determine the rigure of tlie earth, 1656, Barometer, a weather glafs. by means of a zenith fedor. 1657, A fcapemciit, for maintaining the vibration of 16(^9, The f.id of the cor.firvaiio virium vh'.trum, a pendulum. — And not long after, the regulating or and tint in all the produ«5lions and extinclions of mo- balance-fpring for watches. tion, the accumulated forces were as ihe fipiares of the 165S, The double barrelled ,air pump. — The 00- final or initial velocities. Tliis doctrine he annniincei nical pendulum. — His firft employment of the coni- in all its generality and importance, deducing from it cal pendulum was no kfs ingenious and fcicntific than all the confequences \vliich John Bernoulli values hini- it was original. He employed it to reprefcnt the felf fo highly upon, and which aic the chiet fads a^l- Y 2 diiceJ H O O [17 Hoolce. tliiced by Leibnilz in fupport of his doif^riiie of llie "^■^'"~' (bices of bodies in motion. But Hooke w.is perfeflly jivvare of their entire correfpondence with the Cirtedan, or common doctrine, and was one of the tirft in apply- ing the cek-bratcd 39th propolition of Newton's Prin- cipia to his former pofitions on this fubjcift, as a m:ithe- matical demonllration of them. 1673, That the catenarca v.-as the beft form of an arch . 1674, Steam engine on Newcomen's principle. 1679, That the air was the fole fource of heat in burning : Thai combiiflion is the folution of the inflam- mable vapour in air; and that in this folution tlie air j^ives out its heat and li;^ht. That nitre explodes and caules bodies to burn without air, becaule it confiiU of this air, accompanied by its heat and liglit in a con- denftd or folid Rate; and air fuppotts flame, becaule it contains the fame ingredients that gunpowder doth, that is, a nitrous fpirit : That this air dUl'olvcs fonie- thing in the blood while it is expofed to it in the lungs in a very expanded furface, and when faturated with it, can no longer fupport life nor flame ; but in the a^ft of folution, it produces animal heat : 'I'hat the arterial and venal blood differ on account of this fomething be- ing wanting in one of them. In fhort, the fundamen- tal dciflrincs of modern chemiflry are fyftcniatically de- livered by Dr Hooke in liis Micrographia, publilhed in 1664, and his Lampas, publiflied in 1677. 1680, He firlk obferved the fecondary vibrations of ebllic bodies, and theirconneftion withharmonio founds. A glafs containing water, and excited by a fiddleftick, threw the water into undulations, wiiich were fquare, hexagonal, oft.igonal, &c. ihewing that it made vibra- tions fubordinate to the total vibration ; and that the fundamental found was accompanied by its 0(ftave, its twelfth, S:c. 1681, He exhibited mufical tones by means of tooth- ed wheels, wliirled round and rubbed with a quill, which dropped from tooth to tooth, and produced tones proportioned to the frequency of the cracks or Ihaps. 1684, He read a paper before the Royal Society, in which he afhrnis, that fome years before that period he had propofed a method of difcourfing at a dift.ince, not by found, but by fight. He then proceeds to de- i'cribe a very accurate and complete telegraph, equal, perhaps, in all refpefls to thofe now in ufe. But fome years previous to 1684, M. Amontans had not invent- ed his telegraph ; fo that, though the Marquis of Wor- cefter unquelUonably gave the tirft hint of this inllru- mcnt, Dr Hooke appears to have firll brought it to perfection. See Telegraph, Encych ; and a book, publiflted 1726, entitled Philofoph'ual Experiments and Obfervations of the late eminent Dr Robert Hooke. We are indebted to him for many other difcoveries of leifer note ; fuch as the wheel barometer, the uni- verfal joint, the manometer, fcrew divided quadrant, telefcopic fights for allronomical inftruments, reprefen- tation of a mufcular fibre by a chain of bladders, ex- periments ftiewing the Inflexion of light, and its at- ] HOP tr.a(flion for folid bodies, the curvilineal path of light Hookfet through the atmofphcre. II HOOKSET FALLS, or Hoolfet ip Falls \n\\i.x.^'^^^^ rim;ick river, juft below the mouth of Suncook, 7 miles above Amulkeag Falls, and 8 miles below Con- cord, in Ncw-Hamplhlre. — Morse. HOOKSTOWN, a villngc on the wcfl fide of Che- fapexk Bay in Maryland, in Baltimore county, 6 miles N. W. of tlie town of Baltimore. — ih. HOOKTOWN, a village on the eaft fide of Chcfa- peak Bay, in Talbot county, Maryland, lies north of Eafton, and S. \V. of Williamfburg, nearly 3 miles from each — ib. HOOPER'S ISLAND and STRAITS lie on the eaft lide oi Cliefapeak Bay, and on the S. \\' . coall of Dorchcfter county, Maryland. The illand is 7 miles long, and 2] broad. — ib. HOOSACK, a river of New- York which falls into the Hudfon from the eaft, about 8 miles above the city of Lanlinburgh. It lifes in Berkfliire county, Malfa- chufetts, runs north. weRerly through Pownul in Ver- mont, thence into New-York State. Its length is about 40 miles. The curious mill-ftream called Hudfon's Brook, which falls into a north branch oi Hoofack, is defcribed in tlie article Adams., in this Sufplenient. ib. HOPE, a village in Suflex county, New-Jerfey, on the poll-road from Newtown to EaRon in Pennfylvania, 16 miles S. VV. of the former, and 20 N. E. of the latter. It is inhabited by about 100 of the Moravian United Brethren. — ib. Hope, a bay on the N. W. coaR of N. America, fo named by Capt. Cook. The entrance of Nootka, or St George's Sound, is fituated in the eaR corner of Hope Bay,in N. lat. 49° 33', E. long. 233" 12'. — ib. Hope, a Moravian fettlement in Wachovia, in N. Carolina, in Surry county, where is a meeting-houfe of the United Brethren. — ib. Hope, a fmall illand in Narraganfet Bay, State of Rhode-Ifland.— ;3. HOPEWELL, a townfliip in Cumberland county, in the province of New-Brtmfwick, fituated on Chepo- die river, which runs eaRerly into a northern arm of the Bay of Fundy, and is navigable 4 or 5 miles. — ib. HorEWELL, the name of 3 townlhips in Pennfyl- vania, viz. in York, Huntingdon, and Waihington counties. — ib. Hopewell, a townfhip in Hunterdon county, New- Jeriey, fituated on Delaware river, 14 miles W. of Princeton, 11 above Tieni;on and 30 fouth-wefterly of New-Brunfwick. It contains 2320 inhabitants, in- cluding 233 ilaves. Another townfhip of this name lies in Cumberland county, in New.Jerfey. — ib. HOPKINS, or Hupki?ifville, a townfliip in Caledonia county, in Vermont, was granted to Dr Hopkins ; 1 1 miles northweft of the upper bar of the Fifteen Mile Falh in Conneflicut river. — ib. HOPKINSON (Francis, Efq.) Judge of the Court of Admiralty in Pennfylvania, poifeil'ed an unconi- mon ftiare of genius of a peculiar kind. He ex- celled in mufic and poetry, (a) and had fome know- ledge (a) He invented an improved tongue for the harpfichord ; a defcription of which accompanied v?ith an en- graving, may be feen in the Columbian Magazine for May 1787. He alfo publifhed a fmall coUeflion of longs, compofed and fet to mufick by himfelf, which have been uuiverfally admired. HOP [ 173 ] II O R Hopkinfon ledge in painting. But thefe arts did not monopolife ^"*''"''^'~' all the powers of his mind. He was well fkilled in Jiiany praflical and ufeful fciences, particularly mathe- matics and natural philolbphy, and he had a general acquaintance with the principles of anatomy, chemillry, and natural hiffory. — But h:i /orti was humour and fa- tire, in both of which he was not furpaifed by Lucian, Swift, or Ilabelais. Thefe extraordinary powers were confecrated to the advancement of llie interefts of pa- trioiifm, virtue, and fcience. It would lill many pages to mention his numerous publications during the late revolution, all of which v.-ere direded to ihofe impor- tant objecls. He began in the year 1775, ^'''^ ^ fmall traft which he entitled " A pretty llcry" in which he cxpofed the tyranny of Great Britain in Anierica, by a mod beautiful allegory, and he con- cluded his contributions to his country, in this way, ■with the hiftory of " a new roof." A performance, which for wit, humour, and good fenfe, mull lall as long as the citizens of America continue to admire, and to be happy under, the prefent national govern- ment of the United States. Newfpiper fcandal, frequently for months together, difappearcd or lanj^uiUied, after the publication of feveral of his irreliltible latires upon that difgraccful fpecies of writing. He gave a currency to a thought or phrafe in thefe eflulions from liis pen, which never failed to bear down the ipirit of the time>, and fre- quently to turn the divided lides of pany-rage, into one general eiiatmel of ridicule or contempt. Sometimes he employed his formidable powers of humour and fatire in e.vpofing the formalities ot tech- nical fcience. — He thi.ught much, and thought jultly, upon the lubjecl of education. He often riJiculcd in converfation, the pr.tdice of teaching children the Eng- Ii(h language by means of grammar. He conlidered mod of the years which are fpent in learning ihe Latin and Greek languages as loft, and he held feveral of the arts and fciences whicli are (till taught in our colleges, in great contempt. His fpecimen of modern leariung, in a tedious examination, the only objeft of which was to defcribe the properties of a " falt-bos," publilhed in the American Mufeum for February 17S7, will al- ways be relilhed as a niorfel of cxquilite humour, while the prefent abfurd modes of education continue to be pradifed in the United States. Mr Hopkinfon p( (ililcd uncommon talents for pleaf- ing in company. His wit was not of that coarfe kind which was calculated to " let the table in a roar." It was mild and elegant, and infufed cheerfulnefs, and a fpecies of delicate joy, r.ither tlian mirth, into the hearts of all who heard it. His empire over the at- tention and pallions (?f liis company was not purchufed at the expenle ( f innocence. A perlon who lias palled many delightful hours in his fociety, declares with plealurc, that he never once heard him ule a profane exprefllon, nor utter a word that would have made a lady blulli, or lave clouded her countenance for a mo- ment with a look of dil'apprtbation. It is this fpecies of wit alone that indicates a ricli and powerful imagi- nation, while that which is tintTured with profanity, or indelicacy, argues poverty of genius, inafmuch as they have both been conlidercd very properly, as the cheap- eft produJls of (he mind. Mr Hopkiufon's chara(Jlcr for abilities and patrioiifm Home. procured him the confidence of his countrymen in the Hopkinton- moft trying exigencies of their affairs. He reprefented the ftate of New-Jerfey, in Corgrefs, in the year 1776, , and fubfcribed the ever-memorable declaration of in- dependence. He held an app(jiii;ment in the loan- office for feveral years, and afterwards fucce:dej George Rofs, Kfq. as judge of the admiralty for the ftate of Pennlylvania. In this ftation he continued till the year 1 790, when he was appointed judge of the diftria court in Pennlylvania, by the Prelidcnt of the United States. In each of thefe judicial offices, he conduced himfelf with integrity. His education quali- fied him lor their duties, for he had been regularly- bred to the law, under Benjamin Chew, Elq. when attorney general of Pennlylvania. He was an aiflive and ufeful member of three great parties which at different times divided his native (late — he was a -whig, a republican, and ^ fcderahjl, and he lived to fee the principles and wiftics of each of ihofe parties finally and univerfally fuccefsful. Althougli his labours had been rewarded with many plentiful liarvelts of well-earned fame, yet his death, to his country and his friends, was premature. He had been fulijiiS to frequent attacks of the gout in his head, but for fome time before his death, he had enjoyed a coiifiderahle refpite from them. On Sunday evening, M ly tlie 8t)), 1791 he was ibmewhat indifpofed, and pail", ed a reftlefs night after he went to bed. He iOi"e on Monday morning at his ufual hour, and breakfafted with his family. — At feven o'clock he was iiiized with an apopledic lit, which in two hours put a period to his exiftence, in the 53d year of his age. Hib perfon was a little below the common fize. Hii. features were fmall, but extremely animated. His fpeech was quick, and all his motions feemed to par- take of the unceaftng adlivity and verfatility of die powers of his mind. It only remains to add to this account of Mr Hop. kinlbn, that the various caufes which contributed to the eftablilhment of the independence and federal go- vernment of the United States, will not be fully traced, unhfs much is afcribed to the irrelillible inftuence of the ridicule which he poured fortli, from time to time, upon the enemies of thole great political events. HvJPKlNTON, a townlhip in Hillft)orough coun- ty, New-Hanipliiire, on Contooeook river, y miles S. W. from its confluence with the Merrimack, and di- vided from Concord on the eill, by the Rockingham county line. It was firft granted by Maffachuietts, was incorporated in 1765, and contains 1,715 irdiabi- tants, who are chiefly farmers. It is 42 njiles E. by S. of Charleftown on C or.ne^icut river, and about 58 W. by N. of Portfmouth. — Morse. HopKiNTON, a townlhip in Middlefex county, Maf- fachuietts. It was incorporated in 1715, and ctnt.iins 1 3 17 inhabitants. The rivers Concord, Providence and Charles receive each of iheni a branch from lliis town: Thefe llreams fuinilh feats for 7 or 8 grill- mills, a number of faw-niilK, iron-works, &c. — \b. Hopkinton, a townlhip in W'alhington county, Rhode-lfland, filu ittd on the weft line of the State, on feveral branches ot Pawcatuck liver. It contains 2462 inhabitants, including 7 flavcs.^ri. HORNE (George, D. D.), late Lord BiHiop of Norwich, was a mao of fucb anuablc difpofitions, pri- tuiiive II O R C 174 ] H O R Home, initive piety, and exemplary morals, that we wifli it '""'^''''"'"' were in our power to do jiillice to his charadter. His life, it is true, has been already written, at confiderable length, by two authors, poflelFed of erudition and of unqueftionable integrity; but mere erudition is by no means fnflicient to fit a man for dil'ch.irging the duties of a biographer. It was not the learning of Jchiifon, but his fagacity, and intimate acquaintance with human nature, that placed him fo far above his contemporaries in this department of literature. Of Bi^op Home's biographers, one poflVfTed, in- deed, the great advantage of having lived in habits of intimacy with him from his boyifli years. In the au- thenticity of his narrative, therefore, the fullcft confi- dence may be placed : and that narrative we (hall taith- iuUy follow ; rcferving, however, to ourfelves the liber- ty of fometimes making reiledtions on the various in- cidents recorded, widely different from thofe of the author. George Home was, in 1730, born atOthamin Kent, a village near Maidftone, giving the name to a parifli, of which his father was the redor. He was the fe- cond of four fons ; of whom the eldell died in very early lif.;, and the yoangelt, who is (lill alive, fucceeded liis father both in the rciftory of Oiham and in that of Breda in the county of Sullex. He had likewife three fillers, of whofe foi tunes we know nothing. Mr Home, the father of the family, was of a tem- per fo remarkably averfe from giving pain or trouble upon any occafion, that he ul'ed to awake his fon George, when an infant, by playing upon a flute, that the change from fleeping to awaking might be gradual and pleafant. Having been for fome years a tutor at Oxfoid, he took upon himfelf the early part of the tlalFical education of his favourite fon ; an office ot which he was well qualified to diftharge the duties. Under fuch an inftruclor, the fubjeift ot this memoir led a very pleafant life, and made a rapid progiefs in the Greek and Latin languiges. By the perfualion of a friend, however, he was, at the age of thirteen, placed in the fchool of Miiidllone, then under the care of a Mr Bye, eminent for his knowledge of ancient litera- ture. And remaining with tins gentleman two years, lie added much to his ftock cf learning ; and, among other things, a little elementary knowledge ol the He- brew tongue, which Mr Bye taught on the plan of Buxtorf. Though Dr Home afterwards rejeifled that ])lan, he readily admitted, that the knowledge of it was of great advantage to him. At the age of fifteen, he was removed from Maid- flone fchool to Univerfity college Oxford, where his fa- ther had happily obtained for him a fcholarlhip. At college his ftudies were, in general, the fame with thofe of other virtuous and ingenious youths ; while the vi- vacity of his converfation, and the propriety ol his con- dud, endeared him to all whofe regard was creditable. About the time of his taking his batchelor's degree, he was chcfen a fellow of Magdalen College ; and foon af- terwards, if not before, commenced author. The hirtory of his authorfliip is curious, and we fhall give it at fome length. While he was deeply engaged in the Rudy of oratory, poetry, and every brancii of polite literature, he was initiated by his faithful friend Mr Jones in the myfteries of Hutcliinfonianifm ; but Mr Jones was not his preceptor. Indeed that gentle- man informs us, that when he firft communicated to Home. Mr Home the novelties with which his own mind was '•''^•~* filled, he found his friend very little inclined to confider them ; and had tie mortification to fee, that he was himfelf lofing ground in Mr Home's ellcem, even tor making the atterript to convert him. At this we are not to be much furprileJ. Mr Hornc, though, by his biographer's acccunt, no deep Newtonian, faw, or thought he faw, the neceffity cf a -vacuum to the pof- fibility of motion; and as we believe that every man, who knows liie meaning of the words motion and vacu- um, and whofe mind is not biall'ed in favour of a fyllem, lees tlie fame thing, it was not to be fuppofed, that a youth of found judgment would haflily relinquini fo natural a notion. By Mr Home, however, it was at length relinquifhed. Mr Jones introduced him to Mr George Watfon, a fellow of Univerfity college, whom he reprefcnts as a man of very fuperior accom- plillimenls ; and by Mr ^V'atfon Mr Home was made a Hutchinlbnian oi fuch zeal, that at the age of nine- teen he implicitly adopted tl.e wild opinion of the au- thor of that fyllem, that Newton and Clarke had form- ed the dclign of bringing the Heathen Jupiter, or Stoical aii'nna miint/i, into the place of the God of the univerfe. With fuch a conviflion imprelVed upon his mind, it is not wonderful that he (hould endeavour to difcredit the fyftem of Newton. This he attempted, by publilhing a parallel between that fyllorn and the Heathen doc- trines in the Somnitim Scipionis ol Cicero. That pub- lication which was anonymous, we have never feen ; but Mr Jones himfelt admits it to have been exception- able ; and the amiable author feems to have been of the fame opinion, for he never republillied it, nor, we be- lieve, replied to the anfwers wliich it provoked. He did not, however, defert the caule, but publiflied, foon afterwards, a mild and ferious pamphlet, which he called ^4 Fair, Candid, and Impartial State of the Cafe between Sir Ifaac Ne'u.''on and Mr Hutchinfon. Even of this pamphlet we have not been able to procure a fight ; but Mr Jones affiires us, that the author al- lows to Sir Ilaac the great merit of having fettled laws and rules in natural philofophy, and of having meafured _/'i'-i-a as a mathematician with fovereign {kill ; vvhilrt he claims for Tvlr Hutchinfon the difcovery of the true phyfiological caiifes, by which, under the power of the Creator, the nitural world is moved and dircfted. If this be a fair view of the fate of the cafe, it allows to Newton more than ever Newton cliimed, or has been claimed for him by his fondert admirers ; for th« laws and rules, which he fo faithfully followed in the ftudy of philofophy, were not fettled by him, but by the illuflrious Bacon. With refpeift to the true c.-'.ufes here mentioned, we have repeatedly had occafion, du- ring the courfe of this Work, to declare our opinion, that all men are equally ignorant of them, if they be confiderrd as any thing diftincfl from the general ]aivt by which the operations of nature are carried on. To the difcovery of other phyfiological caufes, Newton, in his greatefl work, made indeed no pretenfion ; but it may be worth while, and can hardly be confidered as a digreffion, to confider what are the pretenfions cf Hutchinfon, to which MelTrs Home and Jones gave fo decided a preference. Mr Hutchinfon himfelf writes fo obfcurely, that wc dare H O R c Morne. dare not venture to tranflate his language into common ^~^'""**^ F.nglilli, Icll'we ftiould undefignedly mifreprefent his meaning; but accnrdirg to Mr Jones, who has lludiid his works with care, his diftinguilhing dodrine in phi- lofophy iE, that " The I'orcss, of which the Newtonians treat, are not the forces of nature ; but that the world is carried on by the a<5tion of the elements on one ano- ther, and all under God" What is here meant by the elements, we are taught by another eminent dif- ciple of that fchool. " The great agents in nature, ■which carry on all its operations, are certainly (fays Mr Parkhurft) the Jiuid of the heavens; or, in other words, the fire at llie orb of the fun, the light ilRiing from it, and the ipirit cr grofs air constantly fupport- ing, and concurring to the aclions of the other two." (See Cherubim in this Suppletiieytt ) . Mr Home adopt- ed this fyllem in preference to the Newtonian ; be- caufe, fays his biographer, " It appealed to him no- thing better than raving, to give aflive powers to mat- ter, fuppofing it capable of ading where it is not ; and to affirm, at the fame time, that all matter is inert, that is, inaiftive ; and that the Deity cannot ai5l but where he is frefint, becaufe his poiver cannot be but where his fulfiance is." That much impious arrogance has been betrayed, not by Newtonians only, but by philofophers of every fchool, when treating of the moihu operandi of the Deity, we feel not ourfelves inclined to controvert ; but ve never knew a well-informed Newtonian, who fpoke of the aclive powers of matter but in a metaphorioil fenfe ; and fuch language is ufed, and mull: be ufed, by the followers ot liuichinlon. Mr Jones fpeaks ol the c^i-jii of the elements ; and Mi Parkhurlt calls the fluid of the heavens, which, according to him, confilU of fire, light, and air, agents ; but it would furely be uncandid to accufe thefe two pious men of animating the ele- ments, though we km w that a<.7;en and activity, in the literal fenfe of the words, can be predicated only of living beings. With refpeft to giving a6ive powers to matter, therefore, the followers of Hutchinion rave juft as much as ihnfe of Newton ; and we fee not the ra- ving ot either in any o;her light than as the necelFary confequence of the poverty of language. But the Newtonian makes matter z& upon matter at a diftance ! No; the genuine Ne ^ tonian does not make matter ad (in the ]ircper fenfe of th.e word) at all ; but he believes, that Gid has fo conllituted mat- ter, that the motions of dilFerent mafles of it are alTeift- ed by each other at a diftancc : and the Hutchinfonian hold<; the very fame thing. As this celellial fluid of Mr Parkhurll's confills partly of air, we know, by the tell of experiment, that it is elaftic. The particles of ■which it is compofed are theretbrc diltant from each other ; and yet they refill compreffion. How does the Hutchinfonian account for this fafl ? Perhaps he will fay, that as matter is in iifelf equally indifferent to motion and red, God has fo coiilHtuted the particles of this fluid, that though they polfefs no innate power or activity of their own, they arc affecled by each other at a diftance, in confequence of his fiat at the creation. This we believe to be the only folution of the difficulty which can be given by man ; but it is the very anfwer given by the Newtonians to thofe who objed to them the abfurdity of fuppollng matter to be affeiJled by mat- ter at a diftance. That the motions of the heavenly 75 3 H O R bodies are affedled by the prefence of each other is a f.id, fay they, which appears incontrovertible. " We have afcertained with preclfion the laws by which thefe motions are regulated : and wiiliout troubling ourfelves with the true phyfiological caufes, have demonilrated the agreement of the phenomena with the laws. The interpofition of this cekdial iluid removes not a finele difficulty with which our doflrine is fuppofed to "be clogged. To have recourfe to it can therefore fcrve no purpofe.even were the phenomena confiftent with the na- ture of an elaftic fluid confidered as a phyfical caufe ; but this is not the cafe. It is demonftrable (fee Astro- nomy and Dynamics in this Si/ppl.), that the motions of the heavenly bodies are not conliftcnt with the mecha- nifm of an elaliic fluid, confidered as the caufe of thefe motions; and therefor?, whether there be fuch a fluid or not diffufed through the folar fyftem, we cannot al- low that it is the great agent in nature by which all its operations are carried en." Such might be the reafoning of a well-informed New- tonian in this controverfy ; and it appears fo conclufive againft the objedions of Hutchinfon to the Newtonian forces, as well as againft the agents which he has fub- ftituted in their Head, that fome of our readers may be difpofed to call in queftion the foundnefs of that man's underft.inding who could become a Hutchinfonian fo zealous as Mr Home. But to thefe gentlemen we beg leave to reply, that the foundeft and moft upright mind is not proof againft the influence of a fyftem, efpecially if that fyftem has novelty to recommend it, and at the fame time confifts ot parts, of which, when taken fepa- rately, many are valuable. Such was the fyftem of Hutchinfon w hen adopted by Mr Home. It was then but very little known ; it could be ftudied only through the medium of Hebrew literature, not generally culti- vated ; and that literature, to the cultivation of wliich Mr Hutchinfon had given a new and a better turn, ii in itfelfof theutmolt importance. Let it be obferved, too, that the Hutchinfonians have, for the moft part, been men of devout minds, zealous in the caufe of Cliriftianity, and untainted by a variety of eitra- vagant herefies which have fo often divided the church of Chrift : — and when all thele circumftances are taken into confideratiop, it will not be deemed a proof ff any defect in Mr Home's underilanding, that in early life he adopted the ctW^ of a fyftem, of which fome ot the parts contain fo much that is good ; efpe- cially when it is remt-nibered, tliat at fir/l •■ieiv the a- gency of the ccleftial fluid appears fo plaufible, that for a time it feems to have iinpoled upon the mind cf New- ton himfelf. But the truth is, that Mr Hornc was at no period of hi^ lite a thorough i>.iced Hutchinfonian. It is con- felfed by Mr Jones, that " Mr Hutchinfon and his ad- mirers laid too great a llrefs on the evidence of He- brew etymology ; and that fome cf them carried the matter fo far as to adopt a mode of fpeak'iig, which had a nearer refcmblance to cant and jargon than to found fenfe and fober learning. Of this (continues he) Mr Home was very foon aware; and he was in fo little danger of following the example, that he iifed to difplay the foibles of fuch perfor.s with that mirth and good liumour," which he pcflciftd in a more cxquifite degree than moft men. Tliis feems to be complete evidence that he waj never a fii:nd to the etyraclogi- Cil Ilcrne H O R [ 176 ] H O R Hornc. cal part of the fyQem; and the prefent writer can at- '^~'''^^ telt, that, in the year 1786, he leeined by his conver- falion to have Ui\ much of his conviftion of the agency oi the celeftial fluid. He continued, indeed, to Itudy the Hebrew Scriptures on the plan of Mr Hutcliinfon, unincumbered with the Maforetic points, or with rab- binical interpretations ; and the fruits of his (ludies are in the hands of the religious public, in works which, by that public, will be efteemed as long as their lan- guage is underllood. Hitherto Mr Home was a layman, but he intercft- ed himfelf in every thing conncdled with religion, as much as the mod zealous dignitary of the church ; and confidcring the mituralizaiion of the Jews as a ineafure at leaft indecent in a Chriftian country, he pubhihed, in an evening paper, a feries of letters on that fubject, both when the Jew-bill was depending, and after it had palled the houie. The letters were anonymous ; but they attrafled much notice, and many groundlefs con- jeftures were made refpeifting their author. To the real author, the nieafure which they oppolcd was fo very obnoxious, tliat he refufed to dine at the table of a friend, only becaufe the fon-in-law of Mr Pelham was to be there. And he was not much more friendly to the marriage-aa than to the Jew-bill. If he confider- ed the one as difgraceful to religion, he probably thou'jht that the other, with its numerous claufes, might be made a fnare for virtue. The time now approached when he was to take holy orders, which to him was a very ferious affair ; and when he gave an account of his ordination to an inti- mate friend, he concluded the letter with the following refledions, which, even in an abltraci like this, it would be unpardonable to omit : " May he, who ordered Peter three times to feeJ lis lambs, give me grace, knowledge, and ikill, to watch and attend to the flock which he purchafed upon the crofs, and to give reft to thofc who are under the bur- den of fin and forrow. It hath plsafed God to call me to the miniftry in very troublefome times indeed, when a lion and a bear have broken into the fold, and are making havoc among the flieep. With a firm, though humble confidence, do 1 purpofe to go forth ; not in my own ftrength, but in the ftrength of the Lord God; and may he profper the work of my hands!" This was in the year 1753, when the pious author was hardly 23 years of age; and he had not been many months in order^, when one of the moft celebrated preachers in the metropolis pronounced, that " George Home wa?, without exception, the bell preacher in England." In the year 1756, he was again involved in contro- verfy. A pamphlet had been publilhed at Oxford, fuppofed by Mr Kennicott, who afterwards gained fuch fame as a collator of Hebrew manufcripts, entitled A Word to the Hutch'mjonians, in which Mr Home was perfonally ftruck at. To this work our author replied in a fmall trai5t, called An Apology for certain Getitlernen in the Univcijity of Oxford, Afpcrfed in a late Ammy- mous Pa?iiphhi ; and whatever may be thought of the queftion at illue, all men muft admire the temper with which the apologill conduded himfelf under very great provocation. But it was not about Hutchinfonianlfm alone thatthefe two illuRiious men were doomed to differ. Mr Home took a decidid part agiinft Mr Kennicott's propofal Home, for collating the text of the Hebrew bible, with fuch ^-*'^^^*" manufciipts as could be found, for the purpofe of r.f- formirig the lest, and prcpaiing it for a new tranflation into the Englilli language ; and in the year 1760, he publilhed A Fiiiv vf Mr Kennicott's Methsd of Cor- reeling the Hehretu Text, luith three Queries formed thereon, and humlly fubmitled to the Chrijlinn ivorld. That his alarm was on this occafion too great, experi- ence has fhewn ; but that it was not groundlefs, is evi- dent i'rom the Vieiv, in which the reader will find a- bove 20 inftances from Mr Kennicott's differtations (fee Kennicott, Encycl.), to thew what an inunda- tion of licentious criticifm was breaking in upon the facred text. Indeed there is reafon to believe, that this trafl, together with another on the fame fide of the quellion by Dr Rutherforth ol Cambridge, contributed to reprcfs the collaioi's raflinefs, and to make the Bible of Dr Kennicott the valuable work which we find it. Be this as it may, fuch was the moderation of the Drs Kennicott and Home, that though their ac- quaintance commenced in hollility, they at length con- traded for each other a friendfliip, which lafted to the end of their lives, and ftill fubfilts between their fami- lies. In what year Mr Home was admitted to the degree of D. D. and when he was chofen prefident of his col- lege, Mr Jones has not informed us ; but, if our me- mory does not deceive us, he had obtained both thefe preferments when, in the year 1772, he gave to the public a fmall work, 8vo, intitled Confulerations on the Life tmd Death of St John the Bapt'ijl. This trad was the fubftance ot a courl'e of fermons, which he had many years before, in conformity to an eft.iblilhed cuf- tom at Magdalen College, preached before the univer- fity of Oxford. Mr Jones, Ipeakingof it, fays, that "he is perluaded, there was no other man of his time, whofe fancy as a writer was bright enough, whofe ikill as an interpreter was deep enough, and whofe heart as a mo- ralill was pure enough, to have made him the author of that little work." By moll readers this ftrain of pa- negyric will be thought extravagant, and of courfe it will defeat its own purpofe ; but the work is certainly a work of merit. In the year 1776, when the author was vice-chan- cellor, was pubhihed, in two volumes 4to, Dr Home's Commentary on the Pfalms. It is a work of which very different opinions have been formed, though it was the refult of the labour of twenty years. That it will always be a favourite companionof thedevout Chrillian, we are as much inclined to believe as Mr Jones ; but we cannot, without belying our own judgment, fay that it appears to us calculated to produce much general good in an age like the prefent. Granting it to be true, which we believe will not be granted without fome exceptions, that Clarke, and Hoadley, and Hare, and Middleton, and Warburton, and Sherloci;, and South, and Wil- liam L.4.W, and Edmund Lav.-, had turned the public attention, of which they had got the entire command, too much to the letter ot the bible to the neglecft of the fpirit of it ; fhould not Dr Home, after the example of St Paul, have let in th; light gradually upon fuch weak organs as thofe of the public tiius difealed, rather than pour it upon them at once in a flood of fplendor. The apoflle " fed his Corinthian converts with milk and not witli H O R C I Hornc. v.ith meat," when he found tliem unable to bear the '"''^^^•^ latter food ; and there is reafon to fufpedl: that the car- nal followers ffWathurton, :ind Sherlock, and South, were unable to bear, at once, fucli llrong meat, as that v/hich makes the fifteenth pfalm a portrait of our Sa- viour. Indeed, we think it not improbable that the mind of Sherlock would have recoiled with horror from the very conception of the pojfibility of Jefus Chrift " fwearing to his neighbour and difappointing him," though that conception muft have paifed through a mind which was certainly as pure as his. The commentary, however, though truth thus compel; us to fay that, in our opinion, it is far (rom perfeifl, is certainly a work of great harning, great genius, and fervent piety, and fuch as the devout Chriftian will perufe again and again with much advantage. Dr Horne's next work was of a different kind, and, v^e think, of a fuperior order. In the year 1776 was publiflied a letter of Dr Adam Smith's, giving an ac- count of the death of Mr David Hume. The objedt of the author was to fliew that Mr Hume, notwithftand- ing his fceplical principles, liad died with the utnioft compofure, and that in his life as well as at his death he had conduced himfelf as became one of the wifell and beft men that ever exifted. The letter is very much laboured, and yet doss no honour either to the author or liis friend. It could not reprefent Mr Hume as fupport- ing himfelf under the gradual decay of Nature with the hopes of a happy immortality ; but it miglit have re- prefented him as taking refuge, with other infidels, in the eternal fleep of death. This, though but a gloomy prolpeft, would not have been childilh ; but the hero of the tale is exhibited as talking like a fchool boy of his conferences with Charon, and his reluflance to go into the Stygian ferry-boat, and confoling himfelf with the thought of leaving all his friends, and liis brother's family in particular, in great profperity ! ! ! 'i'he ab- furdities of this letter did not efcape the watchiul and penetrating eye of Dr Home ; and as he could not miftake its objeft, he held it up to the contempt and fcorn of the religious world in A Letter to Adam Smith, L. L. D. on tke Life, Death nml Philofophy of his Friend David Hume, Efq; by one of the People cnUed Chr[Hians. The reafoning of this little traft is clear and couclufive, while its keen, though good humoured wit is inimitable ; and it was, fome years afterwards, followed by a feries of Letters on Infidelity, compcfed on the fame plan, and with much of the fame fpirit. This fmall volume, to the fecond edition of which the letter to Dr Smith was prefixed, is better calculated, than almod any other with which we are acquainted, to guard the minds of youth againft the iniidious llrokes of infidel ridicule, the only dangerous weapon which infidelity has to wield. When the letters on infidelity were piibliflied, tlieir author had for fome time been Dean of Canterbury, where he was beloved by the chapter and almoll adored by the citizens. He was a very frequent preacher in the cathedral and metropolitical church, where the writer of this (hort fkctcli has litlened to him with de- light, and feen thoufands of people of very various de- fcriptions hang with rapture on his lips. As a preacher indeed he excelled ; and notwithdanding the fliortnefs of his fight, which deprived him of fome of the graces of a pulpit orator, fuch were the excellence of his matter, the fimple elegance of his ftyle, and the fwcetnefs of SoppL. Vol. II. 77 ] ii O R his voice, that, when at the primary vifitaiion of ilij pr;- fent archbiihop, he preached liis admirable fernion on the Duly of Contending fir the Faith, the attention of more th.an 2000 people was fo completely fixed, that the fmali- eft noife was not to be lieard through the whole crowd- ed choir. Of the importance of preachintr, and qX th.e proper mode of performing that duty, he had very ju(t 'notions; and though he never had himf:lf a paroctiial cure of folds, it v/as the defire and pleaiure of his life to make himfelf ufeful in the pulpit wherever he was, whether in town or in the moll obfcure corner of tlio country. Four or five volumes of his fermons have been publidied fince his death. In the year 17S7 lie jjublilhed, under the name of zii undergraduate ot the univerfity of Ojfrrd, a letter m Dr Priefl'ey, in which lie made that oracle of Socinian- ifm almolt as ridiculous as, in tiie letter to Dr Sraitli, he had iormerly made the hero of modern fcepticifm. The merits of Dr Home, which had made him pre- fident of Magdalen College, a king's chaplain, and dean of Canterbury, raifed him, we think in the year 1730, to the fee of Norwich ; and he had foon an opportunity of (hewing that he had not loft fight of his fpiritual character in the fplcndor of the peer of parliamcn:. The Scotch Epifcopahans h.ad for fome time been foli- citing the legillature to repeal certain penal laws of un- common feverity, under which they liad groaned for upwards of forty years; but they found it a work of no little difllculty to make the equity of their claim ge- nerally underllood*. In icmoving this difSculty no man was more allillinp to them than the Dean of Canter- bury, to whom their religious and political principles were well known ; and he continued Ills alllftance aficr he was billiop of Norwich. Indued tiie whole bench (hewed, on this occafion, a zeal for the in'.ercfts of true religion every way becoming their chara<51er of Chriftian hiihops ; and alter Dr Home was removed to a better world, the Scotch Epifcopahans found among his furvi- ving brethren friends as zealous and adivc as he. l3r Home, though a very handlbme man, was not naturally of a llrong conftitution ; and from thedilad- vantagc of being uncommoply near fiehted, lie had not been able to incrcafe itt ftrength by tlie pradlice of any athletic f.vcrcife. The only amnfement in which he took delight was agreeable converfation ; and his life was therefore wjiat is called fedent.iry. The conic- quence of this was, tliat the infirmities of age came fiil upon liim ; and when the defign was tornied of niiking him a billioii, he felt liimfclf little inclined to undcilakc tlie charge of fo weighty an olllcc. He wj~, liowcvcr, )ircvailed upon to accept of the fee of Norwic!) ; but lie enjoyed his new dignity for a very Ihort period, if lie can with truth be laid to have cn/otri.' it at all. His health declined rapidly; and, in the autumn of 1791, he fuffered, while on the road from Norwich to liaih, a paralytic ftroke, the cfFcifis of which he never reco- vered. He lingered a montli or two, with fuch appa- rent changes in the (fate of his health as f imitiincs gave delufive hopes to his family, till the 171]! of January 1792, wlicu he died In the (ii<\ year ot his age, with thole hopes wlvch can be excited only by the conlciouf- ncfs of a well fpent life, and by a firm Iruil in the pro- mifes of the gofpel. In this Ihort (ketch of the lite of bifliop Home we have taken the liberty to r xprefs our diircni from fome Z of 1 (orr.f . • See Scotch Episcopa- lian's in this SufJiL- nietit- II O R C 178 ] H O V Iloins of his opinions, anj to (lute the reafons on which that II tlliicnt relU. J3y hinrifclt we know that this part of our vli^^^J^^^ sonduift would have been applauded ; but it is pofllble that by feme of his Iriendsit may be deemed d.licfpccfl- ful to his memory. 'I'o ihefe gentl*men we beg leave to obferve, th.it it' Johnfon made the praife of Kyr!, Pope's man of Rol's, really more folid by making it more credible, it will be dilHcult to perfu.)de us that we h ive done any injury to Dr Heme's fame by avoiding the extravagant panegyric of ihofe who feem to have conddered him as a man exempted from error. He ■was (irll induced to favour the Hutchinfonians becaufe he thought he perceived danger to religion in the New- tonian doifirines of attrailion and repultion ; and we very readily admit that many Newtonians, not underftanding t.he dodlrines of their nnlter, have exprellsd thcmfelves in fuch a manner as could not render a religious man paiti;il to their fyftem. But from the dangers of mif- take no fyliem, whether religious or philofophical, was ever free ; and the atheillical purpofes which the agency of ethers and celeflial fluids has lately beenmade to ferve, mult induce every man of piety to paufe before he ad- mit fuch agency. Dr Home lived to witnefs fome of its pernicious elfefls ; and wc have reafon to believe that they made a due imprefllon on his mind ; but he i'pcnt his latter years, as indeed he had fpent tiie greater part of his life, in nobler purfuits than the fludy of hu- man fcience ; he fpent them in the proper employments of a Clirilli.m, a clergyman, and a bllliop. His faith was founded on a rock ; and it was that genuine faith which worketh by love; for though his preferments were rich, his charity kept pace with them ; and it has been proved that, nof.vith'.tanding his proper eco- nomy, he hoarded not one fliilling of his annual in- come. Tiiis was an elevation of character above all li- terary, above all philofophic fame. The author of this article had the honour to be known to Dr Home, to enjoy, if he miHook not, a fhare in his friendlhip, and to correfpond with him regularly for many years ; and there is not one of his rational admirers wlio more fully admits the truth of the charader given of him by Dr Thnrlow late bifhop of Durham when fucceeding him in the office of proftor in the Univerfity. " As to the lall prcflor (faid he) I fliall fpeak of him but in few words, for t!ie truth of which I can appeal to all that are here prefent. If ever virtue itfelf was vifible and dwelt upon earth, it was in the perfon who this day lays down his office." Soon after he was advanced to the prefidentfhip of Magdalen col'ege, this great and good man married the only daughter of Philip Burton, Efq ; a gentleman of confiderable fortune. By this lady he had three daugh- ters, of whom the eldell was married to a clergyman a fhort time before the death of her father, and the two younger weie, in 1796, refiding with Mrs Home in Hertfordfliire. HOK.NTOWN, a village in Maryland, 31 miles from Snowhill, 26 from Drumniond, or Accomack court-houfe, in Virginia, and 168 from Philadelphia. — Morse. HOROGRAPHY, the art of making or conftrufl- ing dish ; called alfo dialling, horologiography, gnomo- wica, fciatherica, photofciatherica, &c. HOROPTER, in optics, is a right line drawn through the point where the two optic axes meet, pa- Horfe- rallel to that which joins the centres of the two eyes, or neck-field the two pupils. point. HORSENECK-FIELD-POINT, a round bluff on HoveLat- the coail of Greenwich townfliip in Conneflicut, 2 tic miles E. of the New. York line at Byram river. — Morse. --^'^'"^•^ HoRSKNECK, a point of land, on the north fide of Long-Ill and, between Hog's Neck and Eafton's Neck. HoRSENECK, a town in Fairfield county, Connefti- cut, called by the Indians Pai horn fing, was fettled in 1680. It lies fix miles N. E. of Rye, in WclIChefter county, New- York State. A bloody battle was fought here between the Dutch and the Indians, in 1646. The Dutch with great dilficulty gained the victory. Great numbsrs were ilain on both fides; and their graves appear to this day. It is 53 miles S. W. of New-Haven, and 37 N. E. of New- York city. — lb. HoRSENF.cK, a village in Elfex county, Ncw-Jerfey, on the fouthern bank of Palfaic river above the Little Falls, four miles S. W. by S. of the town of Patter- fon. — ib HORSE-Shoe, in fortification, is a work fometimes of a round, fometimes of an oval figure, inclofed with a parapet, raifed in the ditch of a marlhy place, or in low grounds ; fometimes alfo to cover a gate ; or to ferve as a lodgment for f:.ldiers, to prevent iurprifes, or relieve an over tedious defence. HORSHAM, a townfhip in Montgomery county, Pcnnfylvania. — Morse. HOSACK, or Hutfick, a townlhip in RenfFalaer county, New-York, fituated on the eallern boundary of the State, contains 3035 inhabitants, 419 of whom are eleftors. — :h. HOVEN is a word of the fame import with rai- fedj/nueUfil, tumefisd. It is particularly applied to black cattle and (heep, when from eating too voracioufly of clover, orany other I'ucculent food, they become fwollen. Such cattle are, in the language of the farmer, called, Hoi'EN-Cattle ; and the beaft, whether bullock or fheep, which is hoven, when left without relief, dies in half an hour. The caufe of the difeafe is the extra- quantity of air taken down with that kind cf food, which, in its pallage from the paunch upwards, forces the broad leaves of the clover before it, till they clofe up the pafTage at the entrance of the paunch, and pre- vent the wind from going upwards in its regular courfe. The ufiial method of relief is to ftab the animal in the paunch ; an operation which is always dangerous, and has often proved fatal. It was therefore with good reafon that tlie Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, voted a bounty of fifty guineas to Mr Richard Eager of Graffliam farm, near Guildford, for making public a very fimple method praflifed by him for the cure of hoven cattle. It is this ; " let the grazier or farmer have always ready fmooth knobs of wood, of different fizes, fixed to the end of a flexible cane, which for oxen fhould be at lead fix feet long, and for fheep three feet. When a beaft is hoven, let one perfon take hold of him by the noflril and one horn ; let another hold his tongue fafl in one hand, putting the cane down his throat with the other. Be careful not to let the animal get the knob of the cane between his grinders : obferve alfo to put the cane far enough H O U C 1/9 ] H O U I Houghton. enoLH^h down ; the whole length will not injure. You ^'^~''''^^ will find the obflaclc at the entr.ince of the paunch ; pufh the cine hard, and when you perceive a fmell to come from the p.iunch, and the anim il's bodj- to fink, the cure is performed, and Mature will aft for itfelf." This method, we doubt not, will prove fuccefsful ; but might not the purpofe be as well, if not better, eStit- ed, by uling, inftead of the cane and knob, a piece of thick lliffrope, which, in many places of Scotland, is employed to force down turnips or potatoes when they lliok in the thtnat of a bullock ? HOUGHTON ( ) is a man to whom the fcience of geography is ib much indebted, that we are almoft alham-id to confefs that we know not his Chri- ftian name, the place where he was born, or the age at ■which he died. He had been a captain in the 69th regi- ment, and in the year 1779 had afted under General Rooke as fort major in the iiland of Goree. Healing, fome time in the year 1789, or perhaps earlier, that the African alJ'ocialion wifhed to penetrate to the Niger by the way of Gambia, he expreiFcd his wiilingnefs to under- take the execution of their plan. For this talk he was pecsliarly fitted. A natural intrepidity of character, which feemed inacceflible to fear, and an eafy flow oi conftltutional good humour, wliich even the rougheft accidents of life were not able to fubdue, formed him for exploring the country of relentlei's favages ; whilll the darknefs of his complexion was fuch, that he fcarcely differed in appearance from the Moors of Barbary, whofe drefs in travelling he intended to affume. His inftructions from the afiociaticn were, to afcer- tain the courfe, and, il poOible, the rile and termination of the Niger; and after viliting the cities of Tombuc- Too and Houssa (fee thefe articles in this Supplement), to return by the way of the delart, or by any other route which the circumftances of his fituation at the trme might recommend to his choice. Having left England on the i6th of Oflober 1790, he arrived at the entrance of the Gambia on the loih of November, and was kindly received by the king of Barra, who remembered the vifit which the Major had . formerly paid him from the ifland of Goree ; and wlio now, in return for a fmall prefent of the value of 20s. cheerfully tendered proteflion and affiftance as far as his dominion or influence extended. An offer from the niafter of an Englifli veflel em- ployed in tlie trade of the river, enabled the Major, and the interpreter he had engaged on the coaft, to proceed to Junkiconda ; where he purchal';d from the natives a hcrle and five afles, and prepared to pafs with tlie mer- chandife which conllituted his travelling fund, to Me. dina, the capital of the fmall kingdom of WooUi. Fortunately for him, a few words, accidentally drop, ped by a negro woman in the Mandingo language, of which he liad haftily acquired a fuperficial knowledge, excited fufpicions of danger; and gave him intimation of a confpiracy which the negro millrelTes of the tra- der?, who feared that the Major's expedition portended the ruin of their commerce, liad formed againft his life. Afraid, therefore, of travelling by the cuUomary route, he availed himl'elf of the opportunity which the dry fea- fon and the tide of ebb afforded of fwimming his horfe and his afles acrol's tlie llream ; and having by thofe means avoided the parties who were fent for his dellruc- tion, he proceeded with much dillkulty oa thcfouiheru ProaeJ'tifgs cftbc Afri can AJfoiia- ijon. fide of the liver, to that dirtria of Cantor wl.ith is op. Hough-.o.. pofiie to tlie kingdom of Woolli. Tnere h: repalfeJ "*^~''"— ' the Gambia, and fent a mefienger to inform the kin ' of his arrival, and to requcll a guard for his protcciiji:.' An eicort, commanded by the king's fon, was imnif- diately difpatched ; and the Major, whole intended pre- fent had been announced, was kindly received, audhof. pitably entertained at Medina. The town is ficuated at the diftance of about qcd miles by water from the entrance of the G imbia ; and the country adjacera abounds \\\ corn and cattle, and, generally I'peaking, in all things that are requilite for the fupport, or eilential to the comfort tf life. Tv.u different ftifts of religion diltingu'lh rather than divide the people ; the on, is compofed of (lie profcllbrs of tlv.- Mahomedan faith, who are called Bulhrcens ; the other, and, it is faid, ilie more numerous, coiilifts of tliofe who, denying the milTion of the propl:ct, avow theni- lelves deilts, and from their cuftom of dt inking with freedom the liquors of which he prohibited the ufe, are denominated S( nikees or drinking men. Ill a letter from Major Houghton to his v.Ife, which a feaman prcferved from the wreck of a velfel in which the difpatches to the fociety were lol>, the Major in- dulged the reflexions that naturally arofe from his pall and prefent fituations. A bilious fever had attacked him foon after his arrival in the Gambia ; but his health was now unimpaired — a confpiracy had afl'ailed his life ; but the danger was palfcd — the journey trom Junki- conda had cxpofed him to innumerable liardltips ; but he was now in poirefiion of every gratification which the kindnefs of the king or the holpitality of the people could enable him to supy. Deliglited with the healthi- nefs of the country, the abundance of tlie game, the fe- curity with which he made his excurlions on horfeback, and above all, with the advantages that would attend the erecfion of a fort on the falubrious and beautiful hill of Fatetenda, where tlie Engblh once had a fartory, he exprelles his earneft hope that his wife willhereaficr accompany him to a place in which an in:cme of ten pounds a year will fupport tliem in atllu-'nce ; and that ihe will participate with liim in the pleafure of rapidly acquiring that vail wealth which he imagines its com- merce will afford. While, in this manner, he indulged tlie dream of fu- ture prol'perity, and with IliU more ample fitislaiflion contemplated the eclat of the dilcoveries lor whicli he was preparing, but in the purfuit of which he was re. tarded by the abfence of the native merchant, f.ir whofe company he had engaged, he found himfclffud- denly involved in unexpeifled and irreliiUble misfortune. A fire, the progrefs of which was accelerated by the bamboo roofs of the buildings, confumed with fucli ra- pidity the houf'e in which he lived, and with it the greateft part of Medina, that feveral of the articles of merchandize, to which he trullcd lor the exfiences of his journey, were deilroycd ; and to add to his afflic- tion, his faithlefs interpreter, who had made an inclTec- tual attempt on his goods, dilappearcd wiih liis liorfe and three of his aiies ; a trade gun which he lud pur- chafed on the river foon afterwards burit in his hands, and wounded him in the face and arm : and though the hofpitable kindnefs of the people of the neighbouring town of Barraconda, who cheerfully cpciieJ iheii houfcs 10 more liian a thoufaaj families, whoi'e tcne- Z 2 nicnts 11 o u [ ly Houghton, mcnts the llames liAil confumeJ, was anxloudy exerted '"'"^''"'*' for his relief; yet tile lofs of his goods, and the confe- (]\itnz diminution of his iriivelling fund, were evils which no kindncf5 could remove. It v.'as in this fitualion that, weariid with tlic fruit- lefs hope of tlu return of the native trader, with whom lie had contrafled for his journey, he refolved to avail himl'eif of the comp.iny of another flave merchant, who was lately arrived from the foiith, and was now on his way to iiis farm on the frontier of the kingdom of Ij imbouk. Accordingly, on the evening of the 8ih of May, he proceeded by moon light and on foot, with his two alfes, which the fervants of the llave merchant offered to drive wi'.h thtir own, and whicli carried the wreck of his fortune; and journeying by a north-ealt courfe, arrived on the filth day at the uniiihv.hited fron- tier which feparates the kingdoms of Woolli and Bon- dou. He had now parted the former limit of European difcovery ; and while he remarked with pleafure tlie numerous and extenfive population of this unvifited country, he obferved, that the long black hair and copper complexion of the inhabitants announced their Arab original. They are a branch of that numerous tribe %vhlch, under the appellation of Foolies, have over- ipread a conliderable part of Senegambia ; and their leligious dilliniftions are fimilar to thoi'e whicli prevail in the kingdom of Woolli. A journey of 150 miles, which was often interrupt- ed by the engagements of his companion, who traded in every town, conduilad him to the banks ot the Fa- 5enic, the fouth-weftera boundary of the kingdom of Bambouk. Its flream was exhaidled by the advanced Itatc of the dry feafon, and its bed exhibited an ap- pearance of flate intermixed with gravel. Bambouk is inhabited by a nation, whofe woolly hair and fable complexions befpe|a)c them of the negro I ace, but whofe charafler feems to be varied in propor- tion as the country rifes from the plains ot its weftern divifion to tlie highlands of the call. Dillinguilhed ir.to feifls, like the people of Woolli and Bondou, by i!ie different tenets of Mahomedans and Deifts, they are equally at peace with each other, and mutually to- Liate the refpeflive opinions they condemn. Agriculture and pafturage, as in the negro dates on the coaft of the Atlantic, are their chief occupa- tions ; but the piogrefs which they have made in the ma- uufailuring arts, is fuch as enables them to fmelt their iron ore, and to furnilh the feveral inftruments of huf- bandry and war. Cloth of cotton, on the other hand, which in this part of Africa feems to be the univerfal wear, they appear to weave by a difficult and laborious procefs ; and to thefe two circumftances it is probably owing, that with them the meafure of value is not, as on the coafl, a bar of iron, but a piece of cloth. The common vegetable food of the inhabitants ap- pears to confift of rice ; their animal, of beef or mut- ton. A liquor, prepared from fermented honey, fup- plies the want of wine, and furnidies the means of thofe ieftive entertainments that conftitute the luxury of the court of Bambouk. On the Major's arrival at the banks of the river Fa- leme, he found that the war which had lately fubfifted between the kings of Bondou and Bambouk was ter- minated by the ceffioQ to the former of the conquefts o ] H O U he had made in the low land part of the dominions of HooRhtoa. the latter ; and that the king of Bondou had taken up "-^^^'"'-^ his refidence in the territory wliicli l.e had thus obtain- ed. The Major haflened to pay his refpeds to the vic- torious prince, and to offer a fimilar prefent to that which the kings of Barra and Woolli had cheerfully accepted ; but to his great difappointment an ungra- cious reception, a fullen permillion to leave the prefent, and a Hern command to repair to the frontier town from which he came, were followed by an intimation that he lliould hear again from the king. According- ly, on the next day, the king's fon, accompanied by an armed attendance, entered the houfe in which the Ma- jor had taken up his temporary dwelling, and demand- ed a fight of all the articles he had brought. From thefe the prince felefled whatever commodities were beft calculated to gratify his avarice, or pleafe his eye ; and to the Major's great difappointment, took from him the blue coat in which he hoped to make his ap- pearance on the day of his introdudion to the Sultan of Tombuvfloo. Happily, however, a variety of ar- ticles were fuccefsfuUy concealed, and others of inferior value were not confidered as fufficiently attraiflive. The Major now waited witli impatience for the per- formance of the promife which the flave merchant, with whom he had travelled from the Gambia, had made of proceeding with him to Tombuifloo ; but as the mer- chant was obliged to fpend a few days at his rice farm on the banks ot the Faleme, the Major accepted an in- vitation to the hofpitality of his roof. There he ob- ferved, with extreme regret, that the apprehenfion of a fcarcity of grain had alarmed his friend ; and that, dneading the confequences of leaving his family in fo perilous a feafon to the chances of the market, he had determined on coUeding, before his departure, a fuf- ficient fupply for their fupport. This argument for delay was too iorcible to be oppofed ; and tlierefore the Major refolved to employ the interval in viliting the king of Bambouk, who refidcd in the town of Fer- banna, on the eallern fide of the Serra Coles, or river of Gold. Unfortunately, however, by a miftake of his guide, he loft his way in one of the vaft woods of the country ; and as the rainy feafon, which commenced with the new moon on the 4th of July, and was intro- duced with a wellei ly wind, was now fet in, the ground on which he paifed the night was deluged with rain, while all the iTcy exhibited that continual blaze of lightning, which in tliofe latitudes often accompanies the tornado. Diftreffed by the fever, which began to affail him, the Major continued his route at the break of day, and waded with difficulty through tlie river Serra Coles, which was fwelled by the floods, and on the banks of which the alligators were bafking in the temporary fun-fiiine. Scarcely had he reached Ferbanna when his fever rofe to a height that rendered hi.-n delirious ; but the ftrength of his conllitution, and the kindnefs of the ne- gro fam.ily to which his guide had condudted him, fur- mounted the dangerous difeafe; and in the friendly re- ception which was given him by the king of Bambouk, he foon forgot the hardfhip^ of his journey. The king informed him, that the loffes he had lately fuftained ia the conteft with the armies of Bondou, arcfe from his having exhaufted his ammunition j for, as the French traders H O U I iS Houghton, traders, who formerly fupplied his troops, had aban- '^"''~'''"**^ doiied the tort ot St Jol'eph, and, either from the dry- ncfs cf the lall leafon, cr irom otiier cuufcs, had delerc- ed the navigation ot the; upper part ol' the Senegal, he had no means ot repleuithing his itores; whereas his enemy, the king o) UonJou, coniinued to receive from the Britilli, through the channel of his agents on the Gambia, a conftant and adequate I'upply. Major Houghton availed hinifeU of the opportunity which this converl'ation afforded, to fugged to the king the advantage ot encouraging the Britilli to open a trade by the way ot his dominions to the populous cities on the banks of the Niger. Such VMS die Hate of the negociation, when all bufi- nefs was fuf])endi.d by the arrival of the annual prcfents of Mead, which the people of Bambouk, at that feafon of the year, are accuftomed to lend to their king ; and which are always fcUowed by an intemperate fellivalof feveral fucceffive days. In the interim, the Major received, and gladly ac- cepted, the propofal of an old and refpeitable merchant of Bambouk; who offered to conduift him on horfe- back to Tombufloo, and to attend him back to the Gambia. A premium of L. 125, to be paid on the Mijor's return to the Britilh factory at Junkiconda, was fixed by agreement as the merchant's future re- ward. It was further determined, that the Major fliould be furnilfied with a horfe in exchange for his two afl'es ; and fliould convert into gold duft, as the mod portable fund, the fcanty remains of the goods he })ad brought from Great Britain. Tliis plan was much approved by the king, to whom tiie merchant was perfonally known; and who gave to the Major at parting, as a mark ot his efleem, and a pledge of his future friendihip, a prel'ent of a purfe of gold. With an account ot thefc preparations the Major clofed )iis lad difpatch, of the 24th July 1791 ; and the A- frican affociation entertained tor fome time finguine hopes of his reaching Tombuftoo. Alas ! thefe hopes were blafted. Mr Park, wlio fucceeded him in the ar- duous talk of exploring that lavage country, learned, that having reached Jarra (See that article in this Supplement J, he there met with fome Moors who were travelling to Tifheet (a place by the fait pits in the Great Defart, ten days journey to the northward) to purchafe fait ; and that the Major, at the expence of fome tobacco and a mufket, engaged them to convey him thither. It is impoffible (fays Mr Park) to form any other opinion on this determination, than that the Moors intentionally deceived him with a view to rob, and leave him in the Defart. At the end of two ilays he fufpe<Sed their treachery, and infifted on returning to Jarra. Finding him perfid in this determination, the Moors robbed him of every thing which he polfelf- ed, and went off with their camels Being thus defcrt- ed, he returned to a watering place, in polfcllion of the Moors, called Farra ; and being by ihcfc unfeeling wretches refiifed food, which he had not taded for fome days, he funk at lad under his misfortunes. Whether he adlually died of hunger, or was murdered outriglit bf the favage Mahometans, Mr I'ark could not learn ; but he was fhewn at a didance the fpot in the woods to which his body was dragged, and where it was left a prey to corruption. Thus peiillied, in the prime of life, Major Houghton, I ] H O U a man whole travels enlarged the limits of European HouiTj. dilcovery, and wliofe accounts of the piaccs which h.; ^-^"'^ vifited wfre drongly continued by the inteljigenc- which the Britilh conful at Tunis collecbd froo th-; Barbary merchants. HOUSSA, the capital of an African empire, on the banks of the Niger, is a city which has excited mucli curiofity among men of fciencc, fince it was firft men- tioned to a committee cf the African Alfociation about the year 1790. The pcrfon from whom they re- ceived their information was an Arab, of the name of Shabeni ; who faid that the population of HoulTa, where he had refiJed two years, was equalled only (f> far as his knowledge extended) by that of London and Cairo : and, in his rude unlettered way, he defciibcd the government as monarchieal, yet not unlimited ; its juftice as fevere, but directed by written laws ; and the rights of landed property as guarded by the inditutions ot certain hereditary ofiicers, whol'e fundions appear to be fimilar to tliofe of the Canongoes of Hindodan (See Canongoes, in this Suppl.) ; and v/hofe important and complicated dtities imply an unufual degree of civiliza- tion and refinement. For the probity of the merchants of Houlfa, the Arab exprclfed the highed refpeiS ; but remarked, with indignation, that the women were ad- mitted to fociety, and that die honour of tlu hud>and was often infecurc. Of their written alphabet he knew no more, than that it is perfedly different from the Arabic and the Hebrew chara<flers ; but he reprefcnted the art of writing as common in Hcuffa. And when he dcfcribed the manner in whidi tlieir pottery is made, he gave, unknowingly to himfelf, a reprcfentation of the ancient Grecian wlucl. In palTing to Houlfa from Tombuctoo, in which lad city lie had relided feveii years, he found the banks of the Niger more numerouf- ly peopled than thofe of the Nile, from Alexandria to Cairo ; and his mind was obvioufly impreifcd with higher ideas of the wealth and grandeur of die empire of Houifa, than of thofe of any kingdom which he had feen, England alone excepted. The exidence of the city of HouiT.i, and cf the em- pire thus dcfcribed by Shabeni, was drorgly confirmed by letters which the committee received from his Ma- jedy's confuls at Tunis and Morocco ; ar.il it has been put beyond all polfibility of doubt by Mr Park, who re- ceived from various pcrfons fuch concurring accounts of it, as could not be the offspring of deliberate falfthood. From a well informed lliereeff, who had vifited Houifa, and lived fome years at Tombuiloo, he learned, that the former of thefe cities was the largcd that the iiiercef had ever feen ; and by comparing this man's account cf its population with that of various other cities, cf which Mr Park had feen one or two, we can hardly edi- mate the inhabitants of Houifa at a lefs nurr.bcr than icOjOOO. Many merchants, with whom our traveller converfed, reprefcnted Houifa as larger, and mere po- pulous than Tombii(ftoo, and th.e trade, police, and government as nearly the fime in botli. In that cafe, tlie king of Houifa and chief officers of date mull be Moors, and zealots lor the Mahometan religion ; but they cannot be fo intolerant as the fovcreigii of Tom- bufloo and his mlniders ; lor in HouHa, Mr Park was told that the negroes are in greater proportion to the Moors than in Tombiu^op, and that they have like- wife foinc lluirc in the govcinmeut. According to ac- count H O U [ 182 ] H O U Houfatoiiic cniir.ts ilcriveJ from Barb.iry nierchantf, ihe people of IIoii(r.i have tl.c art ol ten)pciir.g their iion with mcro than liurnpean rtjll ; and their files in particular are mucli Uiperior 10 thole of Great Biitaiu and France. The confiils at Tunis and Morocco alFured ilie coni- mittec of the African Ad'oci ition, that at both tlici'e courts the eunuchs of the feraglio are brought from Hon (Fa. To thofe who may dill entertain doubts of fo much refinement being to be iound in the interior parts of a country, conlidered as peculiarly favage, we Ihall only fbfcrve, in the words of the committee of alFociation, that it is by no means " impollible tiiat the Carthagi- I ians, who do not appear to have pcrillitd with tlieir cities, may have retired to the fouthern parts of Alri- ca ; and though loft to the Defart, may have carried with tlicm to the new regions which they occupy, fome portion of thofe arts and fciences, and of that commercial knowledge, for which the inhabitants ot Carthage were once fo eminently famed. In Major llennel's lafl map of North Africa, Houffa is placed in 16° and abcut 20' N. L. and 4" 30' E. Long. HOUSATONICK, a river of Conneaicut, in the Indian language fignifying over the mountain, rifes by two fources ; the one in Lanefborough, the other in Windfor, both in Berklhire county, Maifachufetts. I'hefe branches form a junflion near Salifbury, and the liver after pafTing through a number of towns, empties i;fclf into Long-Ifland Sound, between Stratford and Milford in Conoeilicut. It is navigable abcut 12 miles, to Derby. A bar of ihells, however, at its mouth, obftrufts the navigation of large velfels. In this river, between Salifbury and Canaan, is a catarafl, where the water of the whole river, which is 150 yards wide falls perpendicularly 60 feet. — J\Iorse. HOUZOUANAS are a wandering people, who inhabit that part of Africa, which, in a direction from eafl to weft, extends from CafFraria tu the country of the Greater Niniiquas (fee Nimiquas, in tliis Sup/)!.) According to the map prefixed to VaiUant's new travels, the ditliiiff occupied by the Houzouanas lies between 16° and 29'' call longitude. Of its breadth from fouth to north we are ignorant ; but it begins at the 23d parallel, and ftretchcs northward probably a great way. M. Vaillant is inclined to believe, that the Houzoua- nas are the original ftem of the various nations, inhabit- ing at prefent the Ibuthern part of Africa, and that from them all the tribes of the eaftern and wellern Hottentots are defccnded. The people thcmfelves know nothing of their origin ; but to the qucftions that are put to them on the fubjecT:, they always reply, that they inhabit the country which was inhabited by their •anceftors. At the Cape, M. Vaillant received tlie fol- lowing account of them, which, though he does not warrant its authenticity, has much the appearance of being; authentic. When the Europeans firft eftablifhed themfelves at the Cape, the Houzouanas inhabited the country of Camdebo, the fnowy mountains, and tlie diftrift that feparates thefe mountains from CafFraria. Become neighbours to the colony, in confequence of its extend- ing itfelf towards them, they at firft lived on peaceable terms with the planters ; and, as they difplayed more intelligence and greater adivity than the Hottentots, they were even empl yc d in preference toalTift incultl- Houzob- vating the land and in Icrming the Icttlement. Thisgood *"" undei Handing and haimnny were, however, foon inter- rupted by that inultiiude of lawlcfs banditti fent from Holland to people the ccunlry. Thofe worihkfi profligates will.ed to enjoy the fruits of the land without the trouble of tilling it. Educa- ted, befules, with all the prejudices of the whites, they imagined tliat men of a different cclcur were born only to be their llaves. They accordingly fubjtfled them to bondage, condemned them to the moft laborious fer- vices, and repaid thofe fervices with harlh and fevere treatment. The Houzouanas, incenfed at fuch aibitra- ry and tyrannical conduct, refufed any longer to work for them, and retired to the defiles cf their mountains. The [lanters took up arms and purfued them ; they malFacred ihsm without pity, andfeiz^d on their cattle and their country. Thofe who el'caped their atrocities betook thcmfelves to flight, and removed to the land which they now occupy ; but, on quitting their former polFeflions, they fwore, in their own name and that of their pofterlty, to exterminate thofe European mon- fters, to be revenged againll whom they had fo many incitements. And thus, if tradition be true, was a peaceful and induftrious nation rendered warlike, vin- diflive, and ferocious. This hatred has been perpetuated from generation to generation, though the Houzouanas of the prefent day are ignorant of the original caufe of it. Bred up with an invincible averfion to the planters, they know only that they are animated to plunder and deftroy them ; but it is only by a vague fentiment of deteftation, with the fource of which they are unacquainted ; and which, though it renders them cruel towards the planters, does not prevent them from being good, kind, and humane, towards each other. The Houzouanas, being known only by their incur- fions and plundering, are in the colonies often confound- ed with the Bn(hmen, and dllllnguifhed by the fame appellation. Sometimes, however, from their tawny colour, they are called Chinefe Hottentots; and, by means of this double denomination, ill-informed travel- lers may eafily be led into an error, of which the con- fequence muft be, that their narratives will be replete ■with abfurdity and falfehoods. Their real name, and the only one which they give themfelves, is that of Houzouara ; and tliey have no- thing in common with the Bolhmen, who are not a diftind people, but a mere colledfion of fugitives and free-booters. The Houzouanas form no alliances but among themfelves. Being almoll always at v^ar with the furrounding nations, they never mix wlt.h tlicm ; and, if they confent at any time to admit a ftranger in- to their hordes, it is only after a long acquaintance, a fort of apprenticefhip, during which he has given proofs of his fidelity, and eftabllflied his courage. Such in- deed are their courage and predatory habits, that they are the dread of all the furrounding tribes ; and the Hottentots who accompanied M. Vailhnt trembled at the very thought of entering the Houzouana territo- ries. Nay, after they had lived many days among them, and had experienced their fidelity, they conti- nued under the daily apprehenfion of being maffacred by them. Yet one of their own countrymen, who had lived long among the Houzouanas, gave fuch a charac- Ur H O U [ 183 ] H O U HoDzou. ter of that people as (hould liave banlfiicd thoCe idle an enteiprizing European ihiough that lon^ and ha- H«» ^_^!1^:,^__, fears. zardoiH journey. " The Houzouanas (fald he) are by no means what Yet thefe people, fo fuperior both in body and n-.Ind you fuppole them to be, murderers by profeaiosi. If to the other natives of South Africa, are but of low they fometimes llied blood, it is not from a thitft of Ilature ; and a perlon five feet four inches in height is carnage, hot to make juft reprifals that they take up accounted among them very tall ; but in their littl- bo- arms. Attacked and perlecuted by iurrounding na- dies, perfealy well proportioned, are united with fur- tions they have found themlelves leduced to the ne- pnfing llrength and agility, a certain air of airurance. ceffity ol flying to inacceUihie places among the b.inen boldnefs, and haughtinefs, which awes the b-holder mountains, where no other people could exill. and wiili which our author was greatly pie tfed Of " If they find antelopes and damans to kill ; if the all die favage races, he faw none that appeared to be en- nymphs of ants are abundant ; or it their good fortune dowed with fo aflive a mind, and fo hardy a conftitution brings thsm plenty of locufts— they remain within the Their head, though it exhibits the principle charac- precinds ol their rocks ; but if the provifions neceflary teriftics of that of the Hottentot, is, however, rounJ-r to fubfirtence fail, the nations in their neighbourhood towards the chin. They are alfo not fo bhick in com- muft fuffer. Fiom the fummits of their mountains, plexion ; but have the lead colour of the Miliys, difi they furvey at a dillance the countries around ; and, if tinguilhed at the Cape by tlie name' of LouJuir,;:' they obferve cattle, they make an incurfion to carry Their hair, more woolly, is fo iliort that he ima-iced them off, or llaughter them upon the fpot, according at firll their Jieads to have been fhaved. The nolt too to circumftances ; but though they rob, they never is Hill Hatter than that of the Hottentots ; or, rather, kill, except to defend their lives, or by way of retalia- they feem altogether deftitute of a nofe'; what they tion to revenge an ancient injury. have confiRing only of two broad nodrils' which pro- " It happens fometimes, however, that after very jed at moft but five or fix lines. From tliis conforma- fatigning expeditions they return without booty ; either tion of the nofe, a Houzou-.na, when fcen in profile, is becaufe the obje.fls of their attack have dtfappeaied, or the reverfe of handfome, and confiderably refembles'an becaufe they liave been repulfed and beaten. In fuch ape. When b=held in front, he prefints, on the firlt cafes, the women, exafperated by hunger and the la- view, an extraordinary appearance, as half the face mentation of their children crying for food, become al- feems to be forehead. ' The features, however, are fo mod furious with padion. Reproaches, infult, and expreflive, and the eyes fo large and lively, that, not- threats, are-employed ; they wilh to feparate from fuch withftandlng this lingularity of look, the countenance daftardly men, to quit hufbands deftitute of courage, is tolerably agreeable. and to feek others who will be more anxi.us to pro- As the heat of the climate in which he lives rend-ri cure provifion for tliem and their children. In Ihort, clothing unneceffary, he continues during the whole having exhauUed whatever rage and defpair could year almoft entirely naked, having no otiier covering fuggelt, they pull off their fmall apron of modelly, and than a very fmall jackal fl;in faltened round his loins by beat their huihands about the head with it till their two thongs, the extremities of which hang down tohii arms are weary of the exercife. knees. Hardened by this conftant habit of nakednefs, " Of all the affronts which they can offer, this is the he becomes fo infenfiblc to tlie variations of the aimoi"- moft iniuhing. Unable to withlland it, the men in phere, that wlien he removes from the burning fands their turn become furious. They put on their war- of the level country to the fnow and hoar-froll of his cap, a fort of helmet made with the Ikin that covers the neck of the hyma, the long hair of which forms a crefl that floats over the head, and, fetting out like madmen, never return till they have fucceeded in tarry- ing off fume cattle. mountain-, he feems indifferent to, and not even to feel the cold. His hut in no wife refembles that of the Hottentot. It appears as if cut vertically through the middle; fo that the hut of a Hottentot would make two of tliofe " When they come back, their wives go to meet of the Houzouanas. During their cnvgratlons, they them, and extol their courage amidft the fondeff ca- leave them ftandlng, in order that, if any other horde reffes. In a word, nothing is then thought o{ but of the fame nation''pafs that way, they may make ufe mirth and jollity ; and, till fimilar fcenesare lecallcd by of them. When on a journey, they have nothing to fimilar wants, pall evils are forgotten." repufe on but a mat fufpendeJ from two flicks, and Such was the charader given of this formidable placed in an inclined pofition. They often even fleep people to M. Vaillantat his lirll interview with them ; on the bare ground. A prpjedting rock is then fut". and during the long excurfions whicli he made in their ficicnt to fhelter them ; for every thing is fiiited to a company they did not belie it in a (ingle inllance. In people whofe conftitutions are proof againd the fevered many refpdfls they appeared to reiemble the Arabs, fatigue. If however tliey Hop anywhere to fojourn who, being aho wanderers, and like them brave and for a while, and find materials proper for conftruiflin'* addiifled to rapine, adhere with unalterable fidelity to huts, they then form a kraal ; but they abandon it on their engagements, and defend, even to the lall drop of their departure, as is the cafe with all llic huts whi.h their blood, the traveller who civilly purchafes their they ereiff. fervices, and puts himfelf under their protection. In This cudom of labouring for others of tlieir tribe our author's opinion, if it be at all praflicable to tra- announces a focial chara^ler and a benevolent dlfpoli- verle from fouth to lu.rth the whole of Africa, it could lion. They are indeed not only affeclionate hufbands only be undtr the condu>5l of the Houzouanas ; and he and good fathers, but cicellent companions. When really thinks that fifty men of their temperate, brave, they inhabit a kraal, there is no fuch thing among iliem and indefatigable nation, would be fufhcicnt to protc«.^ as private propcity ; whatever il>ey polfels is In corn- won. II o u C 1S4 j a u D rnon. It" tv.-o hordes of ihc fame lutlon meet, the re- ccpt!<m is en bo:Ii lides f'tie;idly ; tliey allonl eadi o- ther mutual protciflion, and confer reciprocal obliga- tions. In Ihort, they trcac one another as brethren, tliouj;h perhaps they are perfect Ibangers, a;iU have never fisn each other liefore. Acfiive and nimble by nature, the Houzouanas cor- fidcr it as amuieinent to climb mountains, and the moil elevated peaks ; and tbcy conduced M. Vaillant, his fervants and ca'.lle, over precipice?, and througli defiles, which he and his Hottentots would have deemed ablb- lutily impad'ible. The only arms of this people arc bows and ariows, in the ufe of which they are very ex- pert. The ariowp, wliich are iinccmmnnly Ihort, are carried on the llioulder in a quiver, about eighteen inch- es in length, and four in diameter, made of the bark of the ahe, and covered with the ikin of a large fpecies of lizard, which tbefe wanderers find in all iheir rivers pai ticulai ly on the banks of Orange and Fidi River. Ihift'jinal fires are a peculiar language underllood and employed by aimed all favage nations. None, however, have carried lliis art fo far as the Houzoua- nas, becaufe none have fo much need of underftanding and bringing it to perfedion. If it be neceflary to announce a defeat or a vi>flory, an arrival or departure, a fucceisful plundering expedition, or the want of alfift- ance, in a word, any intelligence whatever, they are able, either by the nuWiber of tlieir fires or the manner in which they arrange them, to make it known in an inftant. They are even fo fagacious as to vary their tires from time to time, lell their enemies Ihould be- come acquainted with their fignals, and treacherouily employ them in their turn to furprile them. Our author fays that he is unacquainted with the principles of tliefe fignals, invented with fo much inge- nuity. He did not requell information ; becaufe he very rationally interred that his reqiiell would not have iieen granted ; but he obferved, that three fires kindled at the diftance of twenty paces from each otlier, fo as to form an equilateral triangle, were the fignal for ral- lying. Among the phyfical qualities, which, in M. Vail- lant's opinion, prove that the Houzouanas are a di- ftinifl nation, he mentions the enormous natural rump of the women, as a deformity which dillinguilhes them from every other people, fivage or polilhed, which he had ever known. " I have ieveral times (fays he) had occalion to remark, that, among the lemale Hot- tentots in general, as they advance in age, the interior part of the back fwells cut, and acquires a fize which greatly exceeds the proportion it bore i:i infancy with the other parts of the body. The Houzouana women, having in their figure fome refeml)lance to the Hotten. tots, and appearing, therefore, to be of the fame race, one might be induced to believe that their projeftion behind is only the Hottentot rump more fwelled and extended. I obferved, however, that among the form- er this fingularity was an excrefcence of flow growth, and in fome meafure an infirmity of old age ; whereas among the latter it is a natural deformity, an original charafteriftic of their race. The Houzouana mothers wear on their reins, like our miners, a fkin which co- vers this protuberance of the pofteriors ; but which, being thin and pliable, yields to the quivering of the flefh, and becomes agitated in the fame manner. When Hudfon'a on a joutney, or whin they have children too yo'jing to Howland's fi llov/ tliem, iht-f place them upon their rump. I faw one of lliefe womea run in this manner witli a , child, about three years of age, that Hood ereft on its iVct at lier back, like a foot boy behind a carriage." If one half ot what our traveller f.iys of the adivity and enterprilwig fpirit of this lingular people he true, migi'.t not the African Affociatlon, now that the Cape is a Uritilli province, fend a feecnd Houghton, or fs- cond Park, to make difcoveries in that une.vplored country, under the proteflion of the Houzouanas i We do not indeed think that it would be polfible to tra- verfc the whole extent of Africa from fouth to north, but Vaillant penetrated farther in that dirciflion than any one had done before him ; and it appears, that with his intiepid Houzouanas he might have penetra- ted mucli farther. HOWLAND'S Ferry, i? the narrow part of the waters that feparate Rhode-Illand from the main land. It is about a quarter ot a mile wide. The bridge built acrofs this Itrait coil 3d,ooo dollars, and was carried away by a llorm in January, 1 796. It is rebuilt. —Mors.'. HUBBARDSTON, a townfhipin Worcefler coun- ty, Mali'achufetts, and formed the N. E. quarter of Rutland, until incorporated in 1767. It borders on the weftern part of Wachufet Hill, and contains 933 inhabitants. It is 20 miles N. Vv'. of Worceller, and 60 \V. of Bollon.— /<5. HUDSON'S BAY took its name from Henry Hudi'on, who difcovered it in 1610. It lies between ^^ and 65 degrees of north latitude. The eaflern boundary of the bay is Terra de Labrador; the northern part has a ftraighc coafl, facing the bay, guarded witii a line of ifles innumerable. A vad bay, called the Archiwinnipy Sea, lies witiiin it, and opens into Hud- inn's Bay, by means of Gulf Hazard, through which the Beluga whales pafs in great numbers. The en- trance of the bay, iVom the Atlantic Ocean, after leaving, to the north. Cape Farewell and Davis's Straits, is between Reiblution Ifles on the north, and Button's Ifles, on the Labrador coaft, to the fouth, forming the eaftern extremity of Hudfon's Straits. The coafts are very high, rocky and rugged at top ; in ibme places precipitous, but ibmetimc'. exhibit ex- tenfive beaches. The iilands of Sallfbury, Notting- ham, and Digges are very lofty and naked. The depth of water in the middle of the bay is 140 fathoms. From Cape Churchill to the fouth end of tiie bay, arc regular foundings; near the fliore, fhallow, with mud- dy or fandy bottom. To the northward of Churchill, the loundings are irregular, the bnttom rocky, and in fome parts the rocks appear above the furl'ace at low water. Hudfon's Bay is reckoned about 300 leagues wide, from north to fouth. Its breadth is unequal, being about 1 30 leagues where broadel^ : but it grows narrower at both extremities, being not much above 35 leagues in fome places. The conmierce in the countries adjacent to this inland fea is in the hands of an exclufive Britiih Company of its name, who employ only 4 fhips, and 130 feamen. The forts, Prince of Wales, Churchill river, Nelfon, New Severn, and Al- bany, are garrifoned by 186 men. The French, in 1782, took and deftroyed thele fettlements. See. faid to amount to the value of ;^'joo,ooo fterling. The Company's HUD C i§5 ] H U D Huufon't. Company's experts are to the amount of ^16,000, ^'■^"'''^^^ moftly the drugs of the market, which produce re- turns, chiefly in beaver fliins and rich furs, to the va- lue of /"29,00c; yielding government a clear revenue of ;^3,734. This includes the filhery in Hudfoii's Bay. The fkins and furs procured by this trade, when manufaflured, afford articles for trading with many nations of Europe, to great advantage. — ii. Hudson's Strait, <ir Frol/ijler's Mijlaken Strait, which leads into Hudfon's Bay, in a weilerly courfe is 76 njiles wide, between Cape Cl.idley and the S. point of Refolution Iflaad. — ib. Hudson's House, one of the Hudfon's Bay Com- pany's factories in N. America, lies on the S. W. fide of Sufliafhawan river, 100 miles eafl of Mancheller Houfe, and 167 S. E. by E. of Buckingham Houfe. N. lat. 53^ o' 32", W. long. ic6-' 27' 20''. — ib. Hudson's River palfes its whole courfe in the State of New-York, and is one of the largell and fined rivers in the United States. It rifes in a mountainous coun- try, between the lakes Ontario and Champlain. In its courfe foutheafterly it approaches within 6 or 8 miles of lake George ; tlien, alter a Ihort courfe E. turns foutherly, and receives the Sacondaga from the S W. which heads in the neighbourhood of Mohawk river. The courfe of the river iher.ce to New- York, where it empties into York Bay, is very uniformly S. 12° or 15° ^V^ Its whole length is about 250 miles. From Albany to lake George is 65 miles. This diftance, the river is navigable only tcr batteaux, and has two port- ages, occafioned by falls, of halt a mile each. The banks of Hudfon's river, efpecially en the wefteni fide, as far as the highlands e.\tend, are chiefly rocky cliifs, The palfage through the highlands, which is 16 or 18 miles, affords a wild romantic fcene. In this narrow pafs, on each fide of which the mountains tower to a great height, the wind, if there be any, is coUcfled and comprefled, and blows continually as through a bellows ; vedels, in paifing through it are often obliged to lower their fails. The bed of this river, which is deep and fmooth to an allonilhing dillance, ihrougb a hilly, rocky country, and even through ridges of lome of the highell mountains in the United States, mull undoubtedly have been produced by fome mighty convulfion in nature. The tide flows a icw miles above Albany, which is 160 miles from New-York. It is navigable for floops of 80 tons to Albany, and for fhips to Hudfon. Ship navigation to Albany is in- terrupted by a number of illands, and Qioals 6 or 8 miles below the city, called the Over/laugh. It has been in contemplation to confine the river to one chan- nel, by which means It will be deepened, and the dif- ficulty of approscliing Albany with velfels of a larger fize, be removed. About 60 miles above New- York the water becomes frelli. The river is ftored with a variety of fifli, which renders a fummer palfage to Al- bany, delightful and amufing to thole who are fond of angling. The advantages of this liver for carrying on the fur trade with Canada, by means of the lakes, are very great. Its conveniencies tor internal com- merce are Angularly happy. The produce of the re- motell farms is cali'y :a)d fpeedily conveyed to a cer- tain and profitable market, and at the lowcft expenf«. In this rcfpcifl, New-Yiiik li.is greatly the advantage of PfiilaJelpliia. A great proportiin of the prcduce SurPL. Vol. II. of Pennfylvania,Is carried to market in waggons, over HuJfo.. a great extent ( f country, fome cf which is rough ; ^■^'^''^^ hence it is that Philadelphia is crowded with waggons, carts, horfcs and their drivers, to do the fame bufincfs that is done in New-Yoik, wl-.ere all the produce of the country is brought to market by water, with much lefs Ihew and parade. But Philadelphia has other ad- vantages, to compenf.ite for this natural defcfl. The increaling population of the fertile lands upon the northern branches of tlie Hudfon, mull annually in- creafe the amazing wealth that is conveyed by its wa- ters to New-York. The northern and wellern canals, when completed, will be of incalculable advantage to the trade of this State. — ib. Hudson's River, a broad but fliort river emptying into Chefapeak Bay, in Dorchefter county, Maryland. Hill's Point, N. E. of it, fhapes the broad mouth of the river. — ib. Hudson City, a port of entry and pod town fitu- ated in Columbia county. New- York, on the eail fide of Hudfon's river, 30 miles S. by E. of Albany, and 132 north of New-York city. The limits of the cor- poration include a fquarc mile, and its privileges as 3 pert of entry extend no farther. In ihe autumn of 1783, Melfrs. Selh and Thomas Jjr.kinF, from Provi. dencc, in the State of Rhode-Illand, fixed on the unfet- tled fpot, whereon this city (lands, for a town, to which the city is navigable lor velfels ol any fiz.c. Tlie city is laid out into large fquares, bordering en the river, and divided into 30 lots. Other adventurers were admit- ted to proportions, and the town was laid out in fquares, formed by fpacious ftreets, crolling each other at right angles. Each fquare contains 30 lots, two deep, divided by a 20 feet alley. Each let is 50 feet in front and i 20 feet in depth. In the fpring ot 1 784, I'everal houfes and llores were ercifled. The increafe cf the town from this pcii.'d to the fpring of 1786, two years only, was allonilhingly rapid, and refleds great honour upon the entcri'rifuig and perlevering fpi- rit of the original founders. In the fpace of time jull mentioned no lefs than 150 dwelling- houfes, befidcs fhops, barns, and other buildings, four ware-houfcs, feveral wharves, fpermaeeti work?, a covered rope- walk, and one of tlie bell dilliUeries in America, were crefted, and 1,500 fouls collcifled on a fpot, wliich three years before, was improved as a farm, and but two years before began to be built. Its increafe lince has been very rapid ; a priniing-ofiice has been e(lab> lilhed, and feveral public buildings have been ercflej, befides dwelling houfe?, (lores, Sec. The inhabitants arc plentilully and conveniently lupplied witli water, brought to their cellars in wooden pipes, from a lprin;.j two miles from the town. It has a large bay 10 the fouthward, and llands on .'.n eminence from wJixh are extenlive and delightful views to the N. W. N. and round that way to the S. E. confiding of hills and vallies, variegated with woods and orchards, corn- fields and meadows, with the river, which is in moil places a mile over, and may lie feen a confiderable dillance to the northward, forming a number cf bays and creeks. From the S. F-. to the S. VV. the city- is fcicencd with bills, at difl'crent diftaiiccs, and wett afar off over the river and a large valiey, the prolpeft is bounded by a chain ot lliipendous mcnaiains, calleJ the Katts Kill, running to the W. N. \V. wiiicli add A a ma^n'ticcncc Hugh;-- burg, li U M C iS6 ] H U N nu-'Tiiiicencc and fablimity to the whole fceiie. Up- churcii and about yo houfes ; fituated on the fouth fide HuDg-ry. wards of I 200 lliiglii entered the city daily, for fevcnil of Swetara creclc, 6 miles north of MIddletown, lo E. ^'^^'''^^^ days togethsr, in February, 1786, loaded vilh grain by N. of Harrifhiirg, :ind ico wcQ-north-well of Plii- of various kind?, boards Ihinj^ks, (laves, hoops, iron ladtlphia. — i//. ■ ware, Hone for building, lire-wood, and fundry articles HUNGARY-Water, is fpirit of wine diftiUed of provifion for the m.irket, iVoiii which fome idea upon rofcraary, and which thertfore contains its oily may be ibrmed of the advantai^e of its fituation, witli and ftroiij^ fccnted edencc (fee Pharmacy, n'^ 365, Eti- refpeiTt to the cou:,try adj,icent,' which is every way ex- cyclj. To be really good, fays Profeffor Beckniann, ttnfive and fertile, particularly wellward. The original the fpirit of wine oii);bt to be very llrong, and the rofe- proprietors of Hudfon, offered to purchafe a traift of mary frelh ; and if that be the cafe, the leaves are as land adjoining the fouth pan of the city of Albany, proper as the flowers, wliich, accordin.^ to the prefcrip- and were conftrained, by a refufal of the propofition, tion of lome, (hould only be taken. It is likewife ne- to become competitors for the conimcrce of the nor- celfary that the fpirit of wine be diftillcd feveral times thern country, when otherwife they v.-ould have added upon the rofemary ; but that procefs is too troublefonie ereat wealth and confequence to Albany. There is a and e.ipenfive to admit of iliis water being difpofed of bank here, called Bank of Columbia, whofe capital at the low price it is ufiially fold for ; and it is certain, jnay not exceed i6o,oco dollars. It is compofed of that the greater part of it is nothing elfe than common Acc Ihares, at 400 dollars each. Hudfon city is go- brandy, united witii the eflence of rofemary in the fim- verned by a mayor, recorder, 4 aldermen, 4 iiffiflants, pled manner. In general, it is only mixed with a few and a number of other officers. The number of inlia- drops of the oil. For a long time pad, this article has hitants in Hud/on TownJl?ip, by the cenfus of 1790, been brought to us principally from France, where it is amounted to 2,1:84, including 193 (laves; and it ap- prepared, particularly at lieaucilic, Montpellier, and pears by the State cenfus oY 1796 that 338 of the other places in Languedoc, in which that plant grows inhabitants are eleiiors. Hudf m city is 4 miles S. in great abundance. W. of Claverack ; 47 north of Poughkeepfie ; and The name Hungary water feems to fignify, that this 43 fouth of Lanlinburcr. ib. water, fo celebrated for its medicinal virtues is an Hun- HUGHESBURG, a town in Northumberland gaiian invention ; and we read in many books, that the county, Pcnnfylvania, called aUb Cataiocffj, being litu- receipt for preparing it was given to a queen of Hun- ated at tiie mouth of Catawelfy creek, 25 miles N. E. gary by a hermit ; or, as otliers fay, by an angel, who of Sunbury. It contains about 60 handfome houfes, appeared to her in a garden, all entrance to which was and a meeting houfe for Friends. It is 144 miles N. (hut, in the form of a hermit or a youth. Some call W. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 40" 54'. — ib. the queen St Ifabella ; but thofe who pretend to be belt HULL, an inconfiderable town in Suffolk county, acquainted with tlie circumflanre affirm, that Elizabeth, on the foilth fide of Boflon harbour, MaiTachufetts, wife of Charles Robert king of Hungary, and daugh- containing 120 inhabitants. On the (ort on the ead ter of Uladiflaus II. king of Poland, who died in 1380 hill there is a well funk 90 feet, which commonly has or i 381, was the inventrefs. By often wafhlng with this Hljl. >fln. ventiont. 80 odd feet of water. — ii. fpirit of rofemary, wlien in the 70th year of her ac HUMAS, nn Indian village on the eafl fide of Mif- (he was cured, as we are told, of the gout and an uni fiflippi river in Louifiana, 60 miles above New Orleans The Humas were formerly a conliderable nation, but about 1770 were reduced to about 25 warriors. The Alabamas, whofe villages are near thofe of the Hu- mas, had, at the above period, about 30 warriors. verfal lamenefs ; fo that flie not only lived to pais 80, but became fo lively and beautiful, that (he was courted by the king of Poland, who was then a widower, and who wi(hed to make her his fecond wife. The Pro('e(for jullly confiders this ftory as a ridicu- and followed the French here when they abandoned lous fable (a). " It appears to me (fays he) mofl pro- the poll on Alabama river in 1762. The Chetimachas bable, that the French name l',-aii de la rtine d' Hon^rie, have about 27 warriors. ib. ^^^^ chofen by thofe who, in latter times, prepared fpi- HUMMEL'S TOWN, a thriving town in Dauphine rit of rofemary for file, in order to give greater confe- county, Pennfylvania, containing a German Lutheran quence and credit to their commodity ; as various me- dicines (a) It was firfl publifhed to the world in 1659 in a pofthumous work of John Prevot, who fays that in the beginning of a very old breviary, he (aw a remedy for the gout, written by the queen's own hand, in the fol- lowing words : , , • l l • 1 ■ r «< 1 Elizabeth, queen of Hungary, being very infirm and much troubled with the gout in the yzd year of my age, ufed for a year this receipt, given to me by an ancient hermit, whom I never iaw before nor fince ; and was not 'only cured, but recovered my ftrength, and appeared to all fo remarkably beautiful, that ihe king of Poland afsed me in marriage, he being a widower and I a widow. I, however, refufed him for the love of my Lord Jefus Chrlif , from one of whofe angels, I believe, I received the remedy. The receipt is as follows : " R. Take of aqua vits, four times diftllled, three p;irts, and of the tops and flowers of rofemary two parts : piit thefe together in a clofe veffel, let them (land in a gentle heat 50 hours, and then diftil them. Take one dram of this in the morning once every week, either in your food or drink, and let your face and the difeafed limb be wafhed with it every morning. " It renovates the (Irength, brightens the fpirits, purifies the marrow and nerves-, rellores and prelerves the flght, and prolongs life." Thus far from the Breviary. Then follows a confirmation which Prevot gives I'lom his own experience. Hunger- ford, • 1 Hunter. H U N [ 1S7 ] HUN dicines, fome years ago, \rjra esttlled in the gazettes In ilie winter 175;, Dr Hunter admitted Iiim to Huntrr. under t!ie title of Pompadour, though the celebrated a partnerlhip in his lefluies, and ;i certain portion oi" *^^ "" lady, from whofe name they derived their impoitance, the courle was allotted to him ; befides whicli, he gave certainly neither ever f.ivv ili;m nor ufed them." IciSures when the Dud>Or was called away to at'.end liis ' ■ " '" patients. Making anatomical preparations wa? nt iJiis tinje a new ait, and very little known ; every prepara- tion, therefore, that was llcilfuUy made, became an ob- jea of admir.ition ; many were wanting for the ufe of the ledures; and the Dodor being himfeU an eathi;- liUNGERFORD, a townlhip in Franklin county, Vermont, containing 40 inliabitants, 7 miles fouth of the Canada line and 14 eaft of Lake Champlain. — Lhrje. HUNGER CREEK, a llream which carries the various water machinery, in the new and thrivint; ma- iiufafturing town of Hamilton, between Albany and fiafl for the art, left no means untried to infufe iiit«> Iiis Schenecflady, New- York. — ib. brother a love (or his favourite purfuits. How well HUNTER (John), the celebrated furgeon, was the he fucceeded, the crOledlion afterwards made \rj Mr youngcfl child of John Hunter of Kilbride, in the Hunter will fufhcienlly evince. county of Lanark. He was born on the I4lh of July Anatomy feems to have been a purfuit for which 1728, at Long Calderwood, a fmall eftate belonging Mr Himter's mind was peculi^irly fitted, and heapplied to the family ; and loling his father when he was about to it with an ardour and pcrfeverance of which there i» ten years of age, he was, perhaps, too much indulged hardly any example. His labours were fo ufeful to his by his mother. One confequence of this was, that at brother's colle(flion, and lo gratifying to his difpofilion, the grammar-fchool he made no progrefs in learning ; that although in many other refj^fls they did not agree, and he may be faid to have been almoft totally illiterate this fimple tie kept them together for many years, when, in September 1748, he arrived rn London. His Mr Hunter worked for ten years on human anato- brother, Dr William Hunter, of whom an account is my, during which period he matle hinifelf mallet- of given in the F.ncyclopsdia, was then the moft celebrated what was already known, a; well as made f-rae addi- teacher of anatomy, and John had exprelTed a defire to tion to that knowledge. He traced the ramifications atlKl him in liis refcarches. The Doflor, who was very of the olfadlory nerves upon the membranes of the nofe, defirous to fcrve him, and anxious to form fome opi- and difcovered the courfc of fome of the branches i f nion of his talents for anatomy, gave him an arm to the fitlh pair of nerves. In the gravid uterus, he tra- diffeft for the niufcles, with the necellary direiftions ced the arteries of the uterus to their termination in how it was to be done ; and he found the performance the placenta. He was alfo the firft who difcovered the fuch as greatly exceeded his expedition. exiftence of the lympjiatic veliels in birds. His firft elFay in anatomy having thus gained him Many parts nt the human body being fo complex, fome credit, Mr Hunter was now employed in a direc- tion of a more difllcult nature ; this was an arm in which all the arteries were injedled, and thefe, as well as the mufcles, were to be expofed and prelerved. The manner in which this was performed, gave Dr Hunter that their ftruifture could not be nndevrtond, nor their ufes afcertained, Mr Hurler was led 10 examine limilar parts in other animal?, in which the (Iruauie was more fimple, and more v.ithin the reach of invelligation ; this carried him into a wide field, and laid the f(.undalioit fo much fatisfaflion, that he did not fcruple to fay, of his colleflion in comparative anatomy, that his brother would become a good anatomlfl, and In this new line of purfuit, this adive inquirer be- that he fhould not want for employment. From this gan with the more common animals, and pieferved fuch period we may conlider Mr Hunter as having ferioufly parts as appeared l)y their analogy, or in fume other engaged in anatomy ; and under the inllruflions cf Dr way, to elucidate the human economy. It was not liis Hunter, and his affiftant Mr Symonds, he had every intention to make dillei^ions ot particular animal-, but opportunity of improvement, as all the difleflions at to inftitute an inquiry into the various organisations by this time carried on in London were confined to that which the fun^ions of life arc performed, that he might fchool. thereby acquire fome knowledge of general princi- In the fummer 1 749, Mr Chefelden, at the reqiieft of pies. Dr Hunter, permitted him to attend at Chclfea Hofpi- So eagerly did Mr Hunter attach himfelf to com- tal; and he there karncd the firft rudiments of furgery. parative anatomy, that he I'ought by every means in his The following winter he was fo far advanced in the power the oppnitmiiiies d prc'fecuting it witli advan- knowledge (/f human anatomy, as to inllruft the pupils tage. He applied to the keeper of wild bealls in the in diir.(ftitn, to whom Dr Hunter had very little time Tower for the bodies nf iliofe which died there ; and to pay attention. This odice, theretore, fell almoft en- he made fimilar applications to the men who llioweJ tirely upon him, and was his conftant employment du- ring the winter f-^afon. In the fummer months of 1750, Mr Hunter attend- ed the hofpital a: Chclfea ; in 1751, he became a pu- pil at St Bartholomew's, and in the winter was prefcnt at operations occafioii.-»lly, whenever any thing extraor- wild hearts. He purchafed all rare animals which came in his way ; and thefe, with fuch ethers as were prc- fcnted to him bv his friends, he ciniullcd to the (how- men to keep till tliey died, the better to encourage them to affilt him in his la'>ours. His health w:j.s fo much imp.iired by cxcelfivc atten- dinary occurred. The following fummer he went to tion to his purfuit<, that in the ye,u 1760 he «as ad- Scotl.ind ; and in 1753 entered, it is diflicult to con- vifed to go abroad, hiving compUint'. in his bread, ceive lor what reafon, as a gentleman commoner at St which threatened to be conliimplive. In Oi^bber ot Mary hall, Oxford. In 1754 he became a furgeon's 'hat year, Mr Adair, infpev'loi-general of hoipitaU, ap- pupil at St George's hofpital, where he continued dn- pointed him n furgccn en the llalF; and in the follow- ring the fummer months ; and in 1756 was appointed ing fpring he went with the army to IJellille, leaving houfefurgeon. Mr Hewlbn to alhil his brother during his abfence. ■ A a 2 Mr II U N [ iS8 ] HUN Winter. Mr Hunter fcrved, while the war continued, as fe- In the year 1768, Mr Hunter became a member of Hunter, nior i'urgeon on the IblF, bolh in liellille and Portugal, the corporation of furgeons ; and in the year following, *-^~''"'** till the year 1763; and in that period acquired his through his brother's intereft, he was elcfled one of knowledjfc of gun-ihot wounds. On hisieturn to Eng- the furgeons of St George's hofpital. In May 1771, land he fettled in London ; where, not finding the e- his treatife on the Natural Hllh.ry of the Teeth was moluments from his half-pay and private practice fuffi- pnblilhed ; and in July of the fame year he married cient to fupport him, he taught praiflical anatomy and Mifi Home, the elded daughter of Mr Home, fiirgeon operative furgery for fcveral winters. He returned .ilfo, to IJurgoyiie's regiment of light horfe. Tiie expence with unabated ardour, to comparative anatomy ; and of his purfuits had been fo great, that it was not till as his esptrinients could not be cariied on in a large feversl years after his firft engagement with this lady town, he purchafed for that purpofe, about two miles that liis affairs could be fufficiently arranged to admit from London, a piece of ground near Briniplon, at a of his marrying. place called Eail's Court, on which he built a houfe. Though alter his marriage his private praftice and In the courfe ot his inquiries, tliis excellent anatomift prof(.llional charaiiter advanced rapidly, and thcMigh his afccrtained the clianges which animal and vegetable family began to increafe, he (lill devoted much of iiis fubftances undergo in the llomach wlien aded on by time to the forming of his collection, which, as it daily the gaflric juice; he difcovered, by means of feeding became laiger, was alfo attended with gi eater e.xpenctf. young animals with madJer (which tinges growing The whole fuit of the bell rooms in his hoiil'e were oc- bonet red J, the mode in which a bone retains its (hape cupied by his preparations j and he dedicated his morn- during its growth ; and explained the procefs of exfo- ings, from funrife to eight o'clock (the hour for break- liation, by which a dead piece of bone is feparated from fad), entirely to his puifuits. To thefe he added fuch the living. parts of the day as were not engaged in attending his His fondnefs for animals made him keep feveral of patients, different kinds in his houfe, which by attention he ren- The knowledge he derived from his favourite Audies dered familiar with him, and araufed himfelf by obfer- he conftantly applied to the improvement of the art of ving their peculiar habits and inftincls ; but this fami- furgery, and omitted no opportunity of examining mor- liarity was attended with confiderable rifk, and fome- bid bodies; irom which he made a collection of fafts times led him into fituations of dinger, of which the which are invaluable, as they tend to explain the real following is a remarkable inllance : caufes of fympioms, v.'hich during life could not be ei- Two leopards, which were kept chained in an out- aiftly afcert.iined, the judgment of tlie pradlitioner be- boufe, had broken from their confinement, and got in- ing too frequently milled by theoretical opinions, and to the yard among fume dogs, which they immediately delulive fenfations of the patients. attacked ; the howling tliis produced alarmed the whole In the praftice of furgery, where cafes occurred in neighbourhood ; Mr Hunter ran into the yard to fee which the operations proved inadequate to their inten- what was the matter, and found one of them getting tion, he always invcftigated, with uncommon care, the up tiic wall to make his efcape, the other furrounded caufes of that want of fuccefs ; and in this way de- by the dogs ; he immediately laid hold of them boih, tected many tallacies, as well as made fome important and carried them back to their den ; but as foon as they difcoveries, in the healing art. He deteiSed the caufe ■were fecured, and he had time to relkift upon the rifk of failure, common to all the operations in ufe for the of his own fuuation, he was fo much agipaied, that he radical cure of the hydrocele, and was enabled to pro- was in danger of fainting. pofe a mode of operating, in which that event can with On the fifth of February 1767, he was chofen a fel- certainty be avoided. He afcertained, by experiments low (if the Royal Society. His defire for improvement and obfervationj, that cvpofure to atmofpherical air in thiife blanches of knowledge which might allill in fimply, can neither pioduce nor increafe inflimmation. his refearches, led him at this time to propofe to Dr He difcovered in tlie blc-od fo many phenomena con- George Fordyce and Mr Gumming, an eminent me- nefted with lite, and not to be referred to any other chanic, that they fliould adjourn from the meetings of caufe, that he confidered it as alive in its fluid (late, the Royal Society to fome cotlee-houfe, and difcufs fuch He improved the operation for the fiftula lachrymalis, fubjecls as were conneited with fcience. This plan by removing a circular portion of the os unguis inftead was no fooner ellablifhed, than they found their num- of breaking it down with the point of a trochar. He bers increafed ; they were joined by Sir Jofeph Banks, alfo difcovered that the gaftric juice had a power when Dr Solander, Dr Mafkelyne, Sir George Shuckburgh, the ftomach was dead of diifolving it; and gave to the Sir Harry Englefield, Sir Charles Bhgden, Dr Noothe, Royal Society a paper on this fubjefl, which is publifti- Mr Ramfden, Mr Watt of Birmingham, and many ed in the Philofophical Tranfa(5tions. others. At thefe meetings difcoveries and improve- In the winter 1773, be formed a plan of giving a ments in different branches of philofophy were the ob- courfe of ledures on the theory and principles of fur- jeils of their confideralion ; and the works of the mem- gery, with a view of laying before the public liis own bers were read over and criticifed before they were opinions upon that fubjeft. For two winters he read given to the public. It was in this year that, by an his h&ares gratix to ihe pupils of St George's Hofpi- exertion in dancing, after the mufcles of the leg were tal ; and in 1775, gave a courfe for money upon the fatigued, he broke his tendo achillis. This accident, fame terms as the other teachers in the different branches and the confinement in confequence of it, led him to of medicine and lurgery. But giving leftures was al- pay attention to the fubjedt of broken tendons, and to ways particularly unpleafant to him ; I'o that the de- make a feries of e.tperiments to afcertain the mode of fire of fubmitting his opinions to the world, and learn- (heir union. ing their general eftimation, were icarceJy fufficient to overcome HUN [ 189 ] HUN Hunter, overcome his natural diflike to fpeaking in public. He ^'"^'"^^ never gave the fiift leifiure of his courfe without taking 30 drops of laudiinuin to take off tlie effefls of his un- ealinefs. Comparative anatomy mny be confidered as the pur- fuit in wliich Mr Hunter was conflantly employed. No opportunity efcaped him. In the year I773> ■*' ''^^ requeft of his friend Mr Wallh, he dilfeiled the torpe- do, and laid before the Royal Society an account of its eleiftrical organs. A young elephant, which had been prefented to the Queen by Sir Robert Barker, died, and tlie body was given to Dr Hunter, which af- forded Mr Hunter an opportunity of examining the ftrufture of that animal by affift ing his brother in the difleftion ; lince that time two other elephants died in the Qu^een's menagerie, both of which came under Mr Hunter's examination. In 1774, he publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfiiftions an account of certain re- ceptacles of air in birds, which communicate with the lungs, and are lodged both among the fleOiy parts and hollow bones of thefe animals ; and a paper on the Gilla- roo trout, commonly called in Ireland the Gizzar/Jtrout. In 1775, feveral animals of that fpecies, called the gymitotus eledrkus of Surinam, were brought alive to this country, and by their eleiftrical properties excited very much the public attention. Mr VValfh, defirous of purfuing his invelligations of animal eleflricity, made a number of experiments on the living animals ; and to give his friend Mr Hunter an opportunity of examining them, purchafed thofe that died. An anatomical ac- count of their eleftrical organs was drawn up by Mr Hunter, and publilhed in the Philofjphical Tranfac- tions. In the fame volume there is a paper of his, con- taining experiments on animals and vegetables refpec- ting their power of producing heat. In the courfe of his purfuits, Mr Hunter met with many parts of animals where natural appearances could not be preferved, and others, in wliicli the minuter vef- fels could not be diftiniftly feen when kept in fpirits; it was therefore neceifary to have them drawn, either at the moment, or before they were put into bottles. The expence of employing profefled draughtfmen, the difficulty of procuring them, and the difadvantage which they laboured under in being ignorant of the fubjevT' they were to reprefent, made him defirous of having an able perfon in his houfe entirely for that purpofe. With this view he engaged an ingenious young artifl to live with him for ten years ; liis time to be wholly employed as a draughtfman, and in making anatomical preparations. This gentleman, whofe name was Bell, ibon became a very good praflical anatomift, and Irom that knowledge was enabled to give a fpirited and ac- curate refemblance of the fubjects he drew, fuch as is rarely to be met with in reprefentations of anatomical fubjeds. By his labours Mr Hunter's colleiflion is en- riched with a confidcrable number of very valuable drawings, and a great variety of curious and delicate anatomical preparations. In January 1776, Mr Hunter was appointed fur- geon extraordinary to his Majefti^j and in the fpring he gave to the Royal Society a paper on the bell mode of recovering drowned perfons. In the autumn he was taken extremely ill, and the nature of his complaiots made bis friends, as well as himfelf, confider his life to be in danger. When he Hunter. reHjfljd upon his own filuation, that all his foitune ^-'^^''^ had been expended in his purfuits, and that his family had no provifion but what fliould arife from the fale of his cclleaion, he became very felicitous to give it its full value, by leaving it in a ftate of arrangement. This he accomphlhed with the affi.lance of Mr B-.ll and his brother-in-law Mr Home. In 1778, he publiniedthe fecond part of his Treatife on the Teeth, in which their dlfeafes, and the mode cf treatment are confidered. This rendered his work up- on that fubjea complete. He publiflied alfo in the 1 hilofophical Tranfadtions a paper on the Heat of Ani- mais and Vegetables. In 1779, he publilhed his account of the Free Martin in the Philofophical Tranfaaions; and in 1780, he hid before the Royal Society an ac- count of a woman who had the fmall-pox during preg- nancy, where the difeafe feemed to have been communi- cated to the foetus. In 1 781, he was eleftcd a fellow of the R0y.1l So- ciety of Sciences and Belles Lettres at Gottenburg. And m 1782, he gave the Royal Society a paper on the Organ of Hearing in Fifh. Befides tlie papers which he prefented to that learned body, he read fix Crocnion leftures upon the fubjeft of Mufcular Aaion. for the years 1776, 1778, 1779. 1780, 1781, and 1782. In thefe leflures hecolkaed all his oblervations upon mufcles, refpefling their powers and effefls, and the (hmuli by which they are alTeaed ; and to thefe he added Comparative Obfervations upon the movin" Powers of Plants. '^ T^efe le<51ures were not publiflied in the Philofophi- cal Tranfaaions, for they were withdrawn as foon as read, not being confidered by the author as complete di/Fcnations, but raiiicr as materials for feme future publication. It is much to be regretted (fays Mr Home) th.at ^Mr Hunter was fo tardy in giving his obfervations to the pubhc ; but fuch was liis turn for inveftigation, and fo extenfive the fcale upon which he inftitutcd his inqui- ries, that he always found fometliing more to be acccm- plifhid, and was unwilling to publilh any thing which appeared to himfelf untinKhed. His obfervations on the Mufcular Aaion of the Blood-veliels were laid before the Royal Society in 1780, and yet he delayed publilh- ing them till his Obferv.itions on ihe Blood and Inflam- mation \\'ere arranged : and they m.ikc part of ilic vo- lume which was publilhed after his de.uh. In 1783, he was chofen into the Royal Society cf Medicine and the Royal Academy of Surgery in P.ans ; and the fame year the leafe of the houfc which he oc- cupied in Jermyn llreet having expired, he pui chafed the leafe of a large houfe on the eaft lide of Leicellcr- fquare, and the whole lot of ground adjoining to Cafile- ftreet, on which there was another houfe. In the mid- dle fpace between the two houles, he ercaed, at the ex- pence of L.30CO, a building for his coUeaion ; though, unfortunately for his family, the kale did not eitenj beyond 24 years. In the building formed for the colhaion there was a room fifty-two feet long, by twenty-eight feet wide, lighted from the top, and having a gallery all round, for containing his preparation?. Under this were t"o apartments j one for bis loSures, and the other, with DO HUN [ 19 Hur.ter tio parlicul.ir deftination at firft, but afterwards made ^•'''^■^^•^^ ,ifc of for weekly meetings of medical friends during tlie winter. To tliii building the houfe in CalUe-lUeet was entirely fubfervient ; and the rooms in it were ufed for tlie different branches cf human and comparative anatomy. Abrut this period Mr Hunter may be confidered as at the height of his chinirs>ical career ; his mind and body were both in their full vigour. His h.*nds were capable of performing whatever was fuggefted by his mind ; and his judgment was matured by former ex- perience. Seme inllances of his extraordinary Ikill may very prt)peily be mentioned. ile removed a tumor from the fide of the head and neck of a patient at St George's Hofpital, as large as the head to wliich it was attached ; and by bringing llie cut edges of ihc fkin together, the whole was near- ly healed by the firft intention. He dilFeited out a tumor on the neck, which one of the bell operating furgeons in this country had decla- red, rather too llrongly, that no one but a fool or :i madman would attempt ; and the patient got perfedlly well. He difcovered a new mode of performing the opera- tion for the popliteal aneurifm, by taking up the fe- moral artery on the anterior part of the thigh without doing any thing to the tumor in the ham. The fafety and efficacy of \his mode have been confirmed by many (ubfequent trials ; and it muft be allowed to ftand very high among the modern improvements in I'urgery. If we confider Mr Hunter at this period of his life, it will afford us a ftrong piflure of the turn of his mind, of his defire to acquire knowledge, and his unremitting affiduity in profecuting whatever was the obje«ft of his attention. He was engaged in a very extenfive private praiflice ; he was furgeon to St George's Hofpital ; he was giving a very long courfe of leflures in the winter ; he was car- rying on his inquiries in comparative anatomy ; had a fchoul of pra(ftical human anatomy in his houfe ; and was always employed in fome experiments refpeding the animal econcmy. He was ahvays folicitous for fome improvement in medical education ; and, with the allillance ol' Dr For- ilyce, infiituted a medical fociety, which he allowed to meet in hi:; kflure-rooms, and of which he was chofen one of the patrons. Tlie fociety, called the Ly<eurn Med'icum Londinsnfe, under his aufpicesand thofeofDr Fordyce, has acquired conliderable reputation, both from the numbers and merits of its members. In the year 1786, in confequence cf the death of Mr Middleton, Mr Hunter was appointed deputy furgeon- general to the army. He now publifhed his work up- . on the Venereal Difeafe, which had been long e.xpeift- ed by the public ; and, if we may judge from the rapid fale of the firft edition, thefe expedations have not been difappointed. He alfo publilhed a work entitled, Ob- fervations on certain Parts of tlie Animal Economy. In this work he has colleded feveral of his papers in- lerted in the Philofophical Tranfadions, which related to that ful.jea, having permillion from the prefident and council of the Royal Society to reprint them ; there are alfo Obfervalions upon fome other Parts of the Ani- mal Economy, which had not before been publilhed. This work met wiih a very ready fale. o ] HUN In the year 17S7, lie gave a paper to the Royal Zo- Hunter, ciety, containing an Experiment to determine theeffeifl ^■^"^■'^^ of extirpating one Ovarium on tlie N'Jinber of Young ; a paper in which the wolf, j ickall, and dog, are proved to be of the fame fpeci.'s; and a third upon the Ana- tomy of the Whale Tiibe. Th-fe papers procured him the honor of receiving Sir John Copley's annual gold medal, given as a mark of diftinguiihed abilities. His colledion, which had bien the greit objefl of his life, both as a puifuit and an amufement, was now brought into a ftate of arrangement ; and gave liim at length the fatisfaiflion of fliewing to the public a feries of anatomical fa<5ls formed into a fyflem by v/hich the economy of animal life was illultratsd. Heiliewcdit to his friends and acquaintances twice a-year, in O&o- l)er to medical gentlemen, and in May to noblemen and gentlemen, who v/ere only in town during tlie fpring. This cuftom he continued to his death. Upon the death of Mr Adair, which happened in the year 1792, Mr Hunter was appointed infpeflor general cf hofpitals, and furgeon general to the army. He was alfo elefteda member of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. In the year 1791, he was fo much enga- ged in the duties of liis office, as furgeon-general to the army, and his private praiflice, that he lud little time to beftow upon his fcientifical objeifls ; bit his leifure time, fmall as it was, he wholly devoted to them. In 1792, he was elected an honorary member of the Chirurgo-Phyfical Society of Edinburgh, and was clin- fen one of the vice-prefidents of the Veterinary College, then firft eftablilhed in London. He publiflud in the Tranfaiflions of the Society for the Improvement of me- dical and chirurgical Knowledge, if which fociety he was one of the original members and a zealous promo- ter, three papers on the following fubjeifls : Upon the Treatment of Inflamed Veins, en Introfufception, and on a Mode of conveying Food into the Stomach in Cifes of Paralyfis of the Qifopliagus. He finilhed his Obfervations on the Economy of Bees, and prelented them to the Royal Socitty. Thefe ob- fervalions were made at E irl's Court, and liad engaged his attention far many years ; every inq-iiry into the economy of thefe infe>5ts had been attended by almoft unfurmoiintable difficulties ; but thefe proved to him only an incitement, and the contrivances lie made ufe of to bring the different operations of thefe indefatiga- ble animals to view were almoft without end. Earl's Court to Mr Hunter was a retirement from the fatigues of his profeffion ; but in no refpe>5l a re- treat from his labours ; there, on the contrary, they were carried on withlefs interruption, and with an un- wearied perfeverance. From the year 1772 till his death, he made it his cuftom to fleep there during the au- tumn months, coming to town only during the hours of bufinefs in the forenoon, and returning to dinner. It was there he carried on his experiments on di- geftion, on exfoliation, on the tranfplanting of teeth in- to the combs of cocks, and all his other inveftigations on the animal econcmy, as well in health as in difeafe. The common bee was not alone the fubjeft of his ob- fervation, but the wafp, hornet, and the lef» known kinds of bees, were alfoobje<fts of his attention. It was there he made the feries of preparations of the external and internal changes cf the filk worm ; alfo a feries of the incubation of the egg, with a very valuable fet of drawings HUN [19 HcntcT. draw ings of the wliole feties. The growth of vegetables *'"^~*"''*^ was alfo a iavourite fubjcift of inquiry, and one on which he was. always engaged in making experiments. The collcdion of comparative anatomy which Mr Hunter has left, and which may be confidered as the great cibjeift of his life, mtift be allowed to be a proof of talents, affiduity, and labonr, which cannot be con- templated wit'iout furprife and admiration. It remains an unequivocal ted of his perfeverance and abilities, and an honor to the country in whofe fchools he was edu- cated, and by the patronage of which he was enabled «n fo extenfive a fcale to carry on his purfuits. In this €olle(5lion we find an attempt to expofe to view the gra- ciations of Nature, from the moft (imple flate in which life is found to exift, up to the moll pcrfed and moft complex of the animal creation — man himfelf. By the powers of his art, this collcdor has been ena- bled fo to expofe, and preferve in fpirits or in a dried ftate, the different patts of animal bodies intended for fimilar ufes, that the various links of the chain of per- fe<5l!on are readily followed and may be clearly under- ftood. This collection cf anatomical facflt Is arranged ac- cording to the fubjecls they are intended to illuftrate, which are placed in the following order : Firjl, Parts conftrufted for motion. SecctiJly, Parts cffential to ani- mals lefpedling their own internal economy. Thirdly, Parts fuperadded for purpofes conne(fled with external objefts. Fourthly, Parts fi r the propagation of the fpe- ■cies and maintainance or fiipport of tlie young. Mr Hunter was a very healthy man for the Hrft forty years of his life ; and, if we except an inflammation of Ills lungs in the year 1759, occal'ioned moft probably by his attention to anatomical purfuits, he had no com- plaint of any confei]ucnce during that period. In the (pring of 1769, in his furty-firft year, he had a regular fit of the gout, which returned the three following fprings, but not the fourth ; and in the fpringof 1773, having met with fomething which very forcibly affec- ted his mind, he was attacked at ten o'clock in the fore- noon with a pain in tlie rtomach, attended with all the fymptoms of angina peBurls. In tlie life of him prefix- ed to his Trealife on the Blood, Injiammation, and Gun- Shot IVoundi, the reader will find one o{ the moft com- plete hillories of that difeafe upon record. Suffice it, in this place, to fay, that for twenty years he was fub- jeft to frequent and fevere attacks of it, which however did not, till a Ihort time before his death, either impair his judgment or render hirn incapable of performing operations in furgery. " In autumn 1790 (fays Mr Home), and in the ipiing and autumn 1791, he had more fevere attacks than during the other periods o( the ■year, but of not more than a few hours duration : in the beginning of Oiflober 1792, one, at which I was pre- fent, was fo violent that I thought he would have died. On Odlober the i6th, 1793, when in his ufual ftate of health, he went to St George's Hofpital, and meeting with fome things which irritated his mind, and not be- ing perfeiflly mailer of the circumftances, he withheld liis fentiments ; in which ftate of reftraint he went into the next room, and turning round to Dr Ilobertfon, one of the phyficians of the hofpital, he gave a deep groan and dropt down dead ; being then in his 65th jear, the fame age at which his brother Dr Hunter had died." I ] HUN It is a curious circumftance, that the Srft attack of thefe complaints was produced by an affection of tlie mind, and every t'uture return of any conf:qucDce arof.* from the fame caule ; and although bodily er.ercife, or dilUn'.ion of the ftomach, brought en flighter affec- tions, it ftill required the mind to be affcfted to ren- der them fevere ; and as his mind was irritated by trifles, thefe produced the moft violent tffedls ou the difeafe. His coachman being beyond his time, or a fervar.t not attending to his direftions, brought on the fpafm', while a real misfortune produced no tffeifl. Mr Hunter was of a (hort llature, uncommonly ftrong and aflive, very compadtly made, and capable oi great bodily exertion. His conntenance was animated, open, and in the latter part of his life deeply impreficd with thoughtfulnefs. When his print was (hewn to Lavater, he faid, " That man thinks for himfelf." In his ycuth he was cheerful in his difpofition, and entered into youthful follies like others of the fame age ; but v/ine never agreed with his ftomach ; fo that alter fome time he left it off altogether, and for the laft twenty years drank nothing b\it water. His temper was very warm and impatient, readily provoked, and, when irritated, not eafily foothsd. His diipofition was candid, and free from refcrve, even to a fault. Pie hated deceit ; and as he was above every kind of artifice, he detefted it in others, and too open- ly avowed his fentiments. His mind was uncommonly aiflive ; it was naturally formed for inveftigation, and that turn difplayed itielf on the moft trivial occafjons, and always with mathematical exaiflnefs. What is co- rious, it fatigued him to te long in a mixed company which did not admit of conneifled converfation ; more particularly during the Inft ten years of his life. He required lefs relaxation than moft other men ; feldom fleeping more than four hours in the night, but almoft always nearly an hour after dinner ; this, pro- bably, arofe from the natural turn of his mind being fo much adapted to his own occupations, that they were in reality his amufement, and therefore did not fatigue. In private practice he was liberal, fcrupuloufty honeft in faying what was really his opinion of the cafe, and ready upon all occafions to acknowledge his ignorance, whenever there was any thing which he did not undcr- ftand. In converfation, he fpoke too freely, and fometimes harfhly, of his contemporaries; but if he did not do juftice to their undoubted merits, it arofe not from envy, but from his thorough conviifli^n that furgery was as yet in its infancy, and he himfelf a novice in his own art; and his anxiety to have it carried to perfccflion, made him think meanly and ill of every one whofe ex- ertions in that rcfpcil did not equal his own. HUNTER FOR r, 21 miles weft of Schencflady, on the fouth fide of Moh.awk river, at the mouth of Schohary Creek, over which a bridge is about to be built. Here is an old church built in the reign of queen Ann, and 3 or 4 houfes. At this place was the Old Mohawk town, which was abandoned by that nation as late as the fpring of 1780. Thefe Indians had made confiderable advances in civilization— could generally fpeak the Englilli langu.igc, and numbers of them made profefllon ot their f.iith in the Chriftian religion. In the church which is now ftanding, they ufed to attend pubhc worfhip in \ht Epifcopal form. Theft Indiani HUN C 19^ ] H Y D Humf- hurj;. Hunterdon are naw fettle J, a p.irt of them on Grand river, a northern water of Lake Erie, and a part of them in acothsr part of Upper Canada. None of this nation ■ now remain in tlie United States. The father of the onlv remaining; fimily was drowned in 1788. — Morse. HUNTERDON County, in New-Jerfcy, is bounded N. by that of Morris, E. by Somerfet,' S. E. by Biir- lington, S. W. and W. by Delaware river, which fepa- rates it from the State of Pennfyivania, and N. W. by SuiTex county. It is about 40 mdes long, and 32 broad, is divided into 10 towr.fliips, and contains 20,253 '"' habitant;, including 1,301 fl.ives. On the top of Ivluf- konetcong mountain in this county, is a noted me- dicinal fpring, much reforted to. It ilTues from the fide of a mountain into an artificial refcrvoir, tor the accommodation of thcfe who wifli to bathe in, as well as to diink, the waters. It is a ftrong chalybeate. Trenton is the chief town. — lb. Vermont. It is fituated on the Canada lioe, having Hantfviae,' 46 inhabitants. — ;i. « j " HUNTSVILLE, a pofttowfi in North-Carolina, "I,^™^"' 10 miles from Bethania, and 16 from Rockford. — lb. \^-^r^ HURLEY, atownfhip inUlller county, New-York, containing 847 inhabitants ; of whom 116 are eledlors, and 245 flaves. The compaft part contains about 30 houfes, fituated on Efipus Kill, about 5 miles from the weft bank of Hudfon's river, and ico north of New- York. The lands around it are low and fertile, but infefled witli wild onions. — lb. HURON, one of the five principal northern lakes. It lies between 43° 30', and 47° 30' N. lat. and be- tween 80° 45', and 84" 45' W. long, and is reckoned to be upwards of 1000 miles in circumference. The fifh are of the iame kind as in Lake Superior, and it communicates with that lake through the (Iraits of St. Marie on the N. W. with Michigan on the W. and with HUNTERSTOWN, a village of Pennfyivania, fitu- Erie on the S. It is of a triangular (hape, and on the S. VV. part is Sagulnum or Sagana bay, 80 miles in length, and about 18 or 20 in breadth ; the other mod remarkable bay is "Thunder Bay. On the banks of the lake are found amazing quantities of fand cher- ries. The land bordering on the weftern fliore of the lake is greatly inferior in quality to that on Lake Erie. It is mixed with fand and fmall llones, and is princi- pally covered with pines, birch, and fome oaks ; but a little dillance from the lake the foil is very luxuriant. Twenty years ago, part of the Indian nations, called Chepaways and Ottawas, who inhabited round Sagui- num bay and on the banks of the hke could furnifh 2C0 warriors ; and thofe of the latter nation, who lived on the E. fide of Lake Michigan, 2i miles from Mi- chiUimakkinack could furnifh 2co warriors — ib. HURON, a fmall river of the N. W. territory, which, after a courfe of 38 miles, falls into Lake St Clair from the N. W. Gnadenhuetten lies on this river. Alfo the name of another fmall river in the fame territory, which runs N. eaftward into Lake Erie, 40 miles weftward of Cayahoga, and 15 S. E. of the mouth of Sandufky Lake. — lb. HURTERS, in fortification, denote pieces of tim- of Standing S;cne creek, 50 miles from the mouth of ber, about fix inches fquare, placed at the lower end of Juniatta, contains about 90 houfes, a court-houfe, and the platform, next to the parapet, 10 prevent the "aol. It is about 23 miles W. S. W. of Lewis Town, wheels of the gun-carriages from damaging the pa- and 184 W. N. W. of Philadelphia. — ib. rapet. Huntingdon, a poft-town on the north fide of HYDE, a maritime county in Nevvbem diftrift. Long Ifland, New-York, fituated at the head of a bay North-Carolina ; bounded E. by the ocean, "W. by in Suffolk county, which fets up fouth from the found, Beaufort county, N. by Tyrrel, and S. by atcdin York county, 25 miles W. by S. of York-Town. —lb. HUNTING-CREEK, in Virginia, runs eaft into Patowniak river, at the fouth corner of the territory of Columbia. — lb. HuNTiNG-CxEEK-TowN, a village In the northern part of Dorchcller county, Maryland ; 14 miles N. N. W. of Vienna, 16 S. by W. of Denton, and iS N. E. of Cambridge. — lb. HUNTINGDON, an extenfive and mountainous county in Pennfyivania, bounded N. and N. W. by Lycoming county, E. and N. E. by MiiHin, S. E. by Franklin, S. and S. W. by Bedford and Somerfet, and wefl by Wefimorcland. It is about 75 miles long and 39 broad ; contains 1,432,960 acres of land, divided into 7 townfhips, which contain 7,565 inhabitants. Liraeftone, iron ore and lead are found here. A furnace and two forges manufatfture confiderable quan- tities of pig and bar iron, and hollow ware ; large works have alfo been eflabllflied for manufafluring of lead. Chief town, Huntingdon. — II. Huntingdon, the capital of the above county, fituat- ed on the N. E. fide of Juniatta river, and at the mouth contains about 70 houfes, a Prefbyterian and Epifcopal church. It is 38 miles E. by N. of New-York city. It is oppofite to Norwalk in Connedicut, and contains 3,260 inh.abitants ; of thefe, ^^z are eledors, 213 llaves. — lb. Huntingdon, a townfliip in York county, Pennfyi- vania. — ib. HUNTINGTON, a townfhip in Fairfield county, ConneSicut, feparated from Derby on the north-eaft bv Stratford river, — lb. 120 inhabitants, of v\hom Carteret. 1048 are It contains 41 flaves. — Morse. HYCO-OTEE, or Hycoo, a fmall river which emp- ties into the Dan, about 4 miles above the mouth of Staunton river. — lb. HYDESPARK, a townfiiip in Orleans county, in Vermont, containing 43 inhabitants. It is 25 miles S. of the Canada line, and 126 north by eafl of Ben- nington. — lb. HYDROGRAPHICAL Ch.\rts or Maps, more Hunting-Town, a village on the weft fide of Che- ufually called fea-charts, are projeaions of fome part of " " " ' ihe fea, or coaft, for the ufe of navigation. In thefe are laid down all the rhumbs or points of the compais, the meridians, parallels, &c. with the coafts, capes, iflauds, rocks, (hoals, fliallows, Sec. in their proper places, and proportions. fapeak bay in Maryland, fituated on the S. E. fide of Hunting Creek, in Calvert county, 3 miles N. by W. of Prince Frederick, and 22 E. N. E. of Port To- baccn. — ;/). HUNTSBURG, atownflilp in Franklin county, in HYDRO. Hydrome- ter, II HyJrus. H Y D [ I HYDROMETER, is an inftrument, of which fo much has been faid in the Encycl. under that title, and in the article Specific Gravity, that we certainly , (liould not again iiuioduce it in this place, but to guard our readers againft error, when ftudying the works of the French chemiils. Thefe gentlemen, who are fo ftiongly attached to every thing wliich is new, as to believe that their anceftors have for ages been wander- ing in the mazes of ignorance, refer very frequently to the pefe-Uqumr of Baume ; and as that indrument has never been generally ufed in this country, it becomes our duty to defcribe its conllruction. Inftead of adopting the fimple method of immediate numerical reference to the denlity of water expreliid by unity, as is done in all modern tables of fpecitic gravi- ty, he had recouife to a procefs fimilar to that of gra- duating the llems of thermometers from two fixed points. The lirll of thefe points was obtained by im- merfing his inllrument, which is the common areome- ter, ccnlilting of a ball. Hem, and counterpcife, in pure water. At that point of the Hem which was interfeifled by the furfaceof the fluid, he marked ^ero, cr the com- mencement of his graduations. In the next place, he provided a number of folutions of pure dry common fait in water : thefe folutions contained refpciflively one, two, three, four, &c. pounds of the fait; and in each folution the quantity of water was fuch, as to make up the weight equal to one hundred pounds in the whole; fo that in the folution containing one pound of fait, there were ninety-nine pounds of water ; in the folution containing two pounds of fait, there were ninety-eight pounds of water, and fo of the rell. The inftrunient was then plunged in the tirll folution, in which of courfe it floated with a larger portion of the ftem above the fluid, than when pure water was Vifcd. The fluid, by the interfeiSion of its furface up- on the ftem, indicated the place for marking his firft degree ; the fame operation repeated, with the fluid containing two pounds of fait, indicated the maik for the fecond degree ; the folution of three pounds afford- ed the third degree ; and in this manner his enumera- tion was carried as far as fii"teen degrees. The tirft fifteen degrees afterwards, applied wiih the compalfes repeatedly along the ftem, fcrved to extend the gradua- tion as far as eighty degrees, if required. This inftrunient, which is applicable to the admea- furement of denfitics exceeding that of pure water, is conmionly diltinguilhed by the name of the Hydrometer for falls. The hydrometer for fpirits is conftrufled upon the fame principle ; but in this the counterpoife is fo ad- jufted, that moft part of the ftem lifes above the fluid when immerfed in pure water, and the graduations to exprefs inferior dcnflties are continued upwards. A folution often parts by weight oi fait in ninety parts of pure water, aflfords the firft piiint, or zero, upon t!ie ftem ; and the mark indicated by pure water is called the tenth degree ; whence, by equal divilions, the re- maining degrees are continued upwards upon the ftem as far as the fiftieth degree. Thefe experiments, in both cafes, are made at the tenth degree of Reaumur, which anfwers very nearly to fifty-five of Fahrenheit. HYDRUS, or W.\teii Serpent, one of the new fouthcrn conftellations, including only ten ftars. tJuppL. Vol. II. 93 ] H Y G HYGROMETER, is an inftrument of fo much Hjgromc- importance to the meteorologift, that it becomes us to '"■ give fome account of every improvement of it which h.is fallen under our notice. In the Encyclopaedia, the principles upon which hygrometers are conftruded have been clearly ftated, and the defers of each kind of hy- grometer pointed out. Inftead of hairs or cat-gut, of which hygrometers of the firft kind are commonly made, CalFebuis, a Bc- nediftine monk at Mcnt/, propofcd to make i'uch hy- grometers cf the gut of u lilk worm. When that in- fed is ready to fpin, theie arc found in it two velTtU proceeding from tlie head to the ftomach, to which they adhere, and then bend towards the bjck, wiiere they form a great many folds. The part of thefe vef- fels next the ftomach is of a cylindric form, and about a line in diameter. Thefe velllls contain a gummy fort of matter from which the worm fpins iis (ilk ; and, though they are exceedingly tender, means have been devifcd to extra<5l them from the infeiff, and to prepare ti.em for the above purpofe. When the worm is a- bout to fpin, it is thrown into vinegar, and fnfFc-rcd to remain there twenty-It ur hours; during which tin-.e the vinegar is abfoibed into the body of the infect, and coagulates its juices. The worm being then opened, both the veilcls, which have now acquired ftrenglh, are extracted; and, on account of their pliability, are ca- pable of ccnfiderable cxtenfion. That they may net, however, become too weak, they are ftretched only to the length <f about filteen or twenty inches. It ii obvious that they muft be kept fuflicicnlly extended till they are completely dry. Before they attain to that ftate, they mull be freed, by means cf the nail of the finger, from a fl my fubliance which adheres to them. Such a thread will fuftain a weight of fix pounds without breaking, and may be ufed for an iiygrome- ter in the fame manner as cat-gut ; but we confels that we do not cleaily perceive its fuperiority. To an improvement of the hygrometer conftruiflcd on the third principle, ftated in the Eny:lop,zdia, M. Hochheimer was led in the following mai-ncr: Mr Lowit/. found at Dmitriewlk in Aftracan, on the banks of the \S'olga, a thin bluifli kind of flaie which atlraded moifture remarkably foon, but again fullered it as foon to elcape. A plate of tliis flat- weighed, when brouglit to a red heat, 175 grains, and, when firturated with water, 247: it had therefore im- bibed, between complete dryncls and the point rf com- plete moifture, 72 grains of water. Louitz fufpendeJ a round thin plate of this flate at the end of a very de- licate balance, fiiftened within a wooden frame, and fuf- pcndcd at tlie other arm a chain of lilver wire, the end of which was made i^SS. to a lliding nut that m.iveJ up and down in a fni.ill groove on the edijc of one fide of the frame. He determined, by trial, the pofition of the nut when the balance was in equihbrioanJ w.'ien it had ten degrees of over-weight, and divided iho fpace between thele two points into ten equal parts adding fuch a r.umber more of thefe paits as might be ntcef- fary. When the ftone was fufpcndcd from the one arm of the balance, and at the other a weight equal to 175 grains, or the weight of the ftone when pcil'e(flly diy, the nut in the groove llicwed the exccfs of weight in grains when it and the chain were f > aJj\ifted lh»t the Uil.iDce ftood in cquilibrio. A purticuhir app.tiatus on B b the This apparatus ,"jh'dion. H Y G C 194 ] HYP Hypromc- the ikmc principles as a vernier, applied to the nut, glafs plate thus moirtened again to the balance, and Hyper- '^"■^ fiiswcd the excels of weight to ten parts of a grain, bring the latter into equilibrium by fcrewing the leaden l*"'^. ^'^~'''*~' Lowit/. remarked that tliis hygrometer in continued bullet. Mark then the place at which the bullet ftands wet wcatlier gave a moiflure of more than 55 grains, as the highell degree of moifture. 6 ~ and in a continued heat cf 113 degrees of Fahrenheit is to be iufpended in a fmall box of well dried" wood, only l>^ degree of moiltuic. fufficiently large to fuflfcr the glafs-plate to move up The hygrometer tlius invented by Lowitz was, hnv.-- and down. An opening mull be m<.de in the lid, cx- ever, attended v.-ith this f.iult, that it never threw cfi" aflly of fuch a fize as to allow the tongue of the ba- the moilluie in the fame degree as the aimofphere be- lance to move freely. Parallel to the tongue apply a came diier. It was alfo fonJclimes very deceitful, and graduated circle, divided into a number of degrees at announced moiRure when it ought to have indicated pleafure Irotn the higheft point of drynefs to the high- that drjnefs had again b :gim to take place in the at- e(l dei'iee ot moifture. The box mull be pierced with mofphcre. To avoid ihele inconver.itncies, M. Hoch- fniall holes on all the four fides, to give a free palT^ge lieimer propofes the following U'ttlod : to the air ; and to prevent moilhire from penetrating ". Take a fqi\are bar cf'lieel about two lines in into the v.ood by raii;, when it miy be requilite to ex- thicfenefj, and from ten to twelve inches in length, and pole it at a window, it mull either be lackered or Ibrm it into a kind of balance, one arm of which ends painted. To lave it at all times from rain, it may be in a fcrew. On this fciew let there be fcrewed a lead- covered, however, with a fort of roof fitted to it in the en bullet of a proper weight, inftead of the common molt convenient manner. But all thel'e external appen- wcights that are fufpended. 2. Take a glafs plate dages may be improved or altered as may be found ne- about ten inches long, and feven inches in breadth, de- celfary. llroy its polidi on both fides, fiee it from all moillure HYPEBOLA. Deficient, is a curve having only by rubbing it over with warm afhes, fufpend it at the one afymptote, though two hyperbolic legs running out other end°of the balance, and bring the balance into infinitely by the fide of the afymptote, but contrary equilibrium by fcrewing up or down the leaden bullet, ways. 3. Mark now the place to which the leaden bullet is HYPOTRACHELION, in Architeflure, is ufed brought by the fcrew, as accurately as polTible, for the for a little trize in the Tufcan and Doric capital, be- point of the greateft drynefs. 4. Then take away the tween the aftragal and annulets ; called alfo the col.^rin glafs plate from the balance, dip it completely in water, and gorgerin. The word is applied by fome authors five it a Ihake that the drops may run oft from it, and in a more general fenfe, to the neck of any column, or wipe them carefully from the edge. 5. Apply the that part of its capital below the aftragal. I. Ja3o1)ins. JACOBINS, in the language of the prefent day, is the name alTumed, at the beginning of the French revolution, by a party in Paris, \\hich was outrageouf- ly democratical, and fanatically impious. This party, which confided of members of the National AITembly, and of others maintaining the fame opinions and pur- fuing the fame objeifls, formed itfelf into a club, and held its meetings in the hall belonging to the Jacobin friars, where meafures were fecretly concerted for ex- citing infurre(5lions, and over-awing at once the legifla- ture and the king. Tlie name oi Jacobin, though it was derived from the hall where the club firft met, has fince been extended to all who are enemies to mo- narchy, ariRncracy, and the Chrillian religion; and who would have every man to be his own priell and his own lawgiver. Hence it is, that we have Jaco- bins in other countries as well as in France. Of the proceedings of the French Jacobins, fome account has been given, in the Encyc'.cfadia, under the title Revolutiph, and the fubjecl will be refumed in this Supplement under the fame title. The purpofe of the prefent article is to trace the principles of the fecfl from their fource ; for thefe principles are not of yeller- day. " At its very firft appearance, (fays the Abbe Bar- ruel), this feft counted 300,000 adepts; and it was fupported by two millions of men, fcattered through France, armed with torches and pikes, and all the fire- brands of the revolution." Such a wide fpread con- fpiracy could not be formed in an inllant ; and indeed this able writer has completely proved, that this feft, with all its confpiracies, is in itfelf no other than " the coalition of a triple feft, of a triple confpiracy, in which, long before the revolution, the overthrow of the altar, the ruin of the throne, and the dilfolution of all civil focie- ty, had been debated and determined." It is known to every fcholar that there have been in all ages and countries men of letters and pretenders to letters whu have endeavoured to fignalize themfelvcs individually by writing againft the religion of their country ; but it was relerved for the philofophifts (a) of France to enter into a combination for the expreis purpofe Jacobin »- (a) This term was invented by Abbe Barruel, and we have adopted it, as denoting fomething very different from the meaning of the word philofophcr. J A C [I Jacobiiis. purpofs of eradicatina; from the human heart every re- ^-'"■•'"^^^ ligious fenliment. The man to whom this idea firft occurred was Vohaire ; who, daring to hi je^ilous of his God, and being weary, as he faid himfelf, of hear- ing people repeat that twelve nun were fufJicicnt to ellabliih Chriftianity, refolved to prove that one might be fufficient to overtlirow it. Full of this projedt, he fwore, before the year 1730, to dedicate his life to its accomplilhment ; and for fome time he flattered him- felf that he (liould enjoy a^one the glory of deflroy- ing the Chrillian religion. ' He found, however, that affociales would be necefTary ; and from the numerous tribe of his admiiers and difciples, he chofe D'Alcm- bcrt and Diderot as the molt proper perfons to co- operate with him in hisdefigns. How admirably they were qualified to aift the part affigned them, may be conceived from the life of Diderot in this Supplement. But Voltaire was not fatisfied with their aid alone. He contrived to embark in the fime caufe Frederic II. of Pruflia, vho wilhed to be thought a philofo- pher, and who of courfe deemed it expedient to talk and write againll a religion which he had never (lu- dicd, and into the evidence of which he had probably never deigned to enquire. This royal adept was one of the moll zealous oi Voltaire's coadjutors, till he dif- covered that the philofopliills were waging war with the throne as well as with the altar. This indeed was not originally Wiltairt's intention. He was vain ; he loved to be carclled by the great ; and, in one word, lie was, from natural difpofition, an arillocrate and ad- mirer of royalty : But when he found that almoll eve- ry fovereign but Frederick difapproved of his impious projefts as foon as he perceived iheir ijfue, he determin- ed to oppofe all the governments on earth, rather tlmn forfeit the glory with which he had flattered himfelf, of vanquifliing Chrill and his apoftles in the held of controverfy. He now fet himfelf, with D'Alembert and Diderot, to excite univcrfal difcontent with the ellablilhed order of things. This was an employment entirely fuited to tlieir difpofition ; for not being in any kr^k great them- felves ()i), they wifhcd to pull all men down to their own level. How elFeclually they contrived to convert the Eucyclop.edie into an engine to ferve tlieir purfjofes, has been (hown already ; but it was not their only nor their mofl power) ul engine; they formed fee ret fo- cieties, affumed new names, and employed an enigma- tical language. Thus, Frederic is called I.uc ; D'Alem- bert, Prt^/iT^ora/, and fonietimes Z>V»/rrtH(/; Voltaire, Ra- ton ; and Diderot, Pinion, or its anagram Tonpla ; wliije the general term for the confpirators is Cacoucc. In their fecret meetings they profelled to celebrate the myfteries of Mylhra ; and their great ol>je<a, as they profelfed to one another, was to confound the ivretch, meaning J — C — . Voitaire propol'ed to ellablidi a colony of philofophifts at Cleves, who, protci.'led by the king of Pruflia, might jiublidi their opinions without dread or danger ; and Frederic was d fpofed to take them under his protcdion, till he difcovcrcd that their 95 : J A C opinions were anarchical as well as impious, when he JaoSini threw them off, and even wrote againll them. ^«.^~'^». They contrived, however, to engage the roinifters of the court of France in tlieir favour, by pretending to have nothing in view but tlie enlargement of fcience, in works which fpoke indeed telpcftfuUy of revelation, while every difcovery which they brought forward was meant to undermine its very foundation. \Vhea the throne was to be attacked, and even v.hen barefaced atheifm was to be promulgated, a number of impious and licentious jiamphlets were difperfed, for fome time none knew hew, from a fecret iociety formed at ihe Hotel d'llolbach at I'ari-. Thefe were f ild for trifles, or diftributed^rnZ/V to fchoolmallers, and others who were likely to circulate their contents. D'Alembert, Diderot, and Condorcct, who was now alfociated with the other cimfinrators, flattered t!ie ambition of every man among tlie great, and efpecially ofilie Duke d'Or- leans, the ricliell fubjed in Eiirojie, and a prince of the blood of France. The hi ft and the laft cf ihcfe three adepts, had, by their mathematical knowledge, got fuch an afcendcncy in the Royal Academy cf Sciences, that: they could admit or exclude candidates as tliey knew them to be friendly or inimical to ilie projocis of the confpirators ; and they had contrived, by matchlefs ad- drefs and unwearied perfevcrance, to fid almoll all the feminaiics of education with men of their own prin- ciples. Thus was the public mind in France completely cor- rupted, when the mafon lodges, over which tiie infamous Orleans prefided, weie vi/iied by a delegation from the German illuminati ; and nothing more was nece'fary to produce tiie feci ot Jacobins, by whole intrigues and influence, France, as M. Barruel espreiTes himfolf, has become a prey to every crime. It was by the ma- chinations of this fed that ics foil was ftaincd with the blood of its pontiffs and priells, its rich men and nobles; with the blood of every clais of its ci.izens, with' u- re- gard to rank, ageorfe.x. 'I'hcfe difciples of Voltaire were the men wno, after having made the unfortunate Louis, his qiiecn and filler, drink to the very dregs, the cup of outrage and ignominy during a long confine, m.ent, I'olcmnly muidered them on a fcAtfolJ, proudly menacing; all the fovereigui of the earth with a fiinilar fate. Yet think not, indignant reader, that the ways of Providence are unequal. 'i"he nations of Europe were ripe for challifement, and that challifement theii: villains were employed to inflid : but tlieir own punilh> ment did not linger. Voltaire died in agonies of de- fponding remorfe, whicli can be exceeded only by the torments of the damned. Thtre is reifon to bilieve that the end of D'Alembert and Dident very much refem1)led thatof iheir leader ; while the m-TC haiilened adept, Condorcct, became hii own executioner; and the other chiefs of the rebellion have reguhrly infl dcd ven- geance on each other, every ahci.ilion of the French conllitutinn (and thefe alterations have been many) be- ing followed by the execution oi thofe by whom liie government was pitviouily aJminiltercd. B b 2 JAG- (b) We do not by this mean to iiifinnate that D'Alembert was not a man of fcience. He was perhaps the only man ot Icience in that gang ; but he was a mailer of no fcience but mathematics ; and his birth being ob- fcure, if not fpurinus, and abHrad mathematics not funiilliing ready accefs to the great, his ideas, wlien compa- red with Voltaire's, were groveling, and (as M. Barruel fays) he was afraid to be fccn. JAG [ JAGHIRE, afiignment made in Bengal by an Im- perial grant upon the rcvtnue of any dillriifl, to defray civil or military charges, penlions, gratuities, &c. JAGHIREDER, the holder of a Jaghire. St. J AGO, the largeft and moll populous of the Cape tie Vtrdii ill.mds, of which fonie account has been gi- ven in the Er.cyclop.tdia, is reprefented by Sir George Staunton as liable to long and excellive droughts, for which no philofophical caufe can be affigned. When the enibilfy to China touched at it in tlie Litter end of 1792, it was in a Rate of abfolute famine. Little or no r.iin had fillen tor about three years before. The rivers were almofl all entirely dry. The furlace of the earth waf, in general, naked of any heil>ai;e. The greatcll part of the cattle had perifhed, not lefs tlirou^h drought than want of food. Of the inhabi- tants, many liad migrated, and many were familhed to death. Nor was this calamity peculiar to St Jago. All theiflmds of Cape de Verde were faid to have experi- enced the fame long drought, and to be confequently in a (late of fmiilar defolatioii. Yet the frequent fhowers which were obferved by the firll navigators who touch- ed at St Jago, induced them to give to the ifland the name of Pluvtalii ; and no change had been obi'erved in the Heady cunent of wind, blowing from the eall, which is common to tropical climates. " What were the uncommon circimiftances (fays Sir George) that took place in the atmofphere of that part cif Aliica to which the Cape de Verde Illands lie con- tiguous, or in the vaft cxpanfe of continent extending to the eafl behind it, and from which this direful efieifl mull have proceded (as they happened where no man of fcience exiftcd to obfeive or to record them), will therefore remain unknown. Nor is theory bold enough to fupply the place of obfervation. Whatever was the caufe which thus arrefted the bountiful hand of Nature, by drawing away the fources of fertility, it was obfer- vable, that fome few trees and plants perfevered to fiou- rifli with a luxuriance, indicating that they Hill could extrafl from the arid earth whatever portion of humi- dity it was neceifary to derive from thence for the pur- pofc of vegetable lile, though it was denied to others." Befide the trees of the palm kind, which are often found verdant aniidll. burning fands, nothing, for ex- ample, could be more rich in flavour, or abound more with milky, though corrofive juice, than the afclepias gigantea (fee Asclepias, Encycl.), growing plenti- fully, about feveral feet high, without culture, indeed, but undillurbed, it being of no avail to cut it down in favour of plants that would be nfelul, but required the aid of more moifture from the atmofphere. The jitro- phacurca«, or phylic nut tree, which the French Weft Indians, with fome propriety, call hois immorlel, and plant, on that account, in the batmdaries of their edates, appeared as if its perpetuity was not to be afFeded by any drouglit. Some indigo plants were ftill cultivated With fuccefs in Ihaded vales, together with a few cot- ton llirub?. Throughout the country fome of thofe fpecies of the mimof 1, or fenfitlve plant, whicli grow into the fr/.e of trees, were moil common, and did not appear tolanguifh. In particular fpots the annona, or fug-ir apple tree was in perfetl verdure. The borafTus, or great fan palm, lifted, in a few places, its lofty head and fpreadlng leaves, with undiminilhed beauty. In a bottom, about a mile and a half behind the town of 96 3 J A G Praya, was ftill growing, in a healthy ftate, what may be called tor fize a phenomenon in vegetation, a tree known to botanills by the name of adanfonia, and in Enghfli called 7/iouLy bread tree. The natives of St Jago call it kahifera ; others baobab. Its trunk mea- fured at the bale no lefs than 56 feet in girth ; but it foon divided into two great branches, one rifmg perpen- dicularly, and meafuring 42 feet in circumference. That of the other was about 26. By it Hood another of the fame fpecies, whofe fingle trunk of 38 feet giith, at- tracted little notice from the vicinity of its huge com- panion. But the annual produce of agriculture was fcarcely to be found. Tlie plains and helJs, foimcrly pioduc- tive ot corn, fugarcanes, or plantains, nouiilhed by re- gular falls of rain, now bore little femblance of vegeta- tion. Yet in the fmall number of plants which furvi- ved the drought, were fome which, from the fpecimens fent to Europe, were found to have been hitherto un- known. Vegetation quickly, indeed, revived wherever, through the loil, any moifture could be conveyed. Sir George reprefents Praya, the reftdence of the Portuguefe Viceroy, as a hamlet rather than a town. It confifts of about 100 very fmall dwellings, one ftory high, fcattered on each fide of the plain, which extend- ed near a mile in length, and about the third of a mile in breadth ; and fell oil, all around, to the neighbour- ing valleys and to the fea. Not being commanded by any neighbouring eminence, it was a fituation capable of defence; the tort, however, or battery, was almofl in ruins ; and the few guns mounted on it were moftly honey-combed, and placed on carriages which fcarcely held together. A party belonging to the embaffy crofTed the coun- try to the ruins ot St Jago, the former capital of the iOand, fituated in the bottom of a vale, through which ran a ftream then both fmall and fluggifh. On each fide of that ftream are the remains of dwellings of con- fiderable folidity and fize ; and the fragments of glafs luftres, ftill hanging from the ceilings of fome of the principal apartment!-, denote the elegance or riches that were once difplayed in tliis now deferted place. Not above half a dozen families remain in it at prefent ; the reft abandoned it, or perilhed. Here was ftill, how. ever, an attempt at a fljglu manufadlory of ftriped cot- ton Hips, the fame as are made in the other parts of the ifland, fir the ufe of the Africans on the main, who pay for them in flaves, elephants teeth, and that gum which is generally called arabic. Amidft tlie ruins of St Jago the party found a Por- tuguefe, to whom I ne ot them was recommended, and who received them with the moft cordial hofpitality in his lioufe, and treated tliem with every fpecies of tropi- cal fruits from his gai^den, lying on each fide the river. Wz had been a navigator; and informed them that the ifle of Brava, one of the Cape de Verde's, was a fitter and fafer place for fhips to call at for water and provifions than the ifland ot St Jago ; that it had three harbours ; one called Puerto Furno on the eaft fide c£ the ifland, from which velfeis mull warp, or be towed out by boats ; the Puerto Fajendago to the weft; and the Puerto Ferreo to the fouth, which was the beft for large (hips, and into which runs a fmall river. In an- other of the Cape de Verde iflands, called San Vicente, he obferved that there was alfo a large harbour on the north J A L C I Jaloffs. north end, but that frefh water was at fome diftance ^•^'"''^'^^ from it : and there was likewife a good port at Bona- vifta. This information of the harbours in the ifle of Brava was confirmed by accounts given by others to Kir Erafmus Gower, who recommends to make a tiial of them. JALOFFS, or Yaloffs, are an acflive, powerful, and warhke people, inhabiting great part of that trail of Africa which lies between the Senegal and the M in- din;jo dates on ihe Gambia (See Mandihgoes in this SuppletneKt). Their nofes, fays Mr Park, are not fo much deprelfed, nor their lips fo protuberant, as thofe of the jfencrality of Afiicans; and ihouiih their fkin is of the deepeft black, they are confidered by the white traders as the mod fightly Negroes in that pait cf the continent where they live. They are divided into fe- veral independent ftates or kingdoms, which are fre- quently at war with their neighbours or with each o- ther. Jn their manners, fuperllitions, and government, they have a greater releniblance to the Mandingoes than to any other nation ; but excel them in the manu- fadure of cotton cloth, fpinning the wool to a finer thread, weaving it in a Itroader loom, and dyeing it of a better colour. They make very good foap, by boil- ing ground nuts in water, and then adding a ley of wood a(he?. They likewife manufaflure excellent iron, which they carry to Bondou to barter for fait. Their language is faid to be copious and fignificant, and is often learned by Europeans trading to Senegal. From the nnmes of their numerals, as given by Mr Park, it would appear that their numeration proceeds hyjivei, as ours does by tens. Our author relates the event of a religious war, which, as it difplays a generofity of charaifler very uncommon among favages, will afi'ird pleafure to the minds cf many of our readers. Almami Abdulkader, fovereign of a Mahomedin kingdom called Foota Torra, fent to Damel, a king of the Jaloffs, an imperious mef- fage, commanding him and his fubje^ts to embrace in- ftantly the faith of the prophet. The ambalfador ha- ving got admilTion to the prefence ot Damel, ordered fome Biiflirecns {i.e. Mahomedan Negroes) who ac- companied him, to prefent the emblems ot his midion. Tv;o knives were accordingly laid before the JalotP prince, and the ambalfador explained himfelf as follows : " With this knife (faid he) Abdulkader will conde- fcend to fiiive the head of Daniel, it Damel will em- brace the Mahomedan faith ; and with this other knife Abdulkader will cut the throat of Damel. if Damel re- fufes to embrace it: Take your choice." — Damel coolly told the ambafiador that he had no choice to make : he neither chofe to have his head Ihaved, nor his throat cut. And with this anfwer the ambalfador was civilly difmilFed. Abdulkader took his meafures accordingly; and with a powerful army invaded Darnel's couiitiy. The inhabitants of the towns and villages filled up iheir wells, deftroyed their provifions, carried off tlieir effeils, and abandoned their dwellings, as he approached. By this means he was led on from pl.iec tn place, until he had advanced three days journey into the country of the Jaloffs. He had, indeed, met with no oppofition ; but h.s army h.id fuffered fo much from the fcarcity of Water, that feveral ot his men died by the way. 'I'his induced him to direifl his march towards a watering 97 ] J A R place in the woods, where his men, having quenched Jiloft. their ihirft, and being overcome with fatigue, lay down ^■^^'^^""^ cartlefsly to fleep among the bulhes. In this fitua- tion they were attacked by D imel before day-break, and completely routed. Many of them were trampled to dea;h as they lay aileep by the Jaloffs horfes ; others were killed in attempting to make their e.'cape ; and a Hill greater number were taken prifoners. Among the latter was Abdulkader himfelf. Tliis am'iitious or rather frantic prince, who, but a month b.-fore, had lent the threatening mcffage to Damel, was now him- felf led into his prefsnce as a miferable captive. The behaviour cf Damel, on this occafion, is never mention- ed by the finging men* but in terms of the higheft ap- • 7-^, i,;/,^ probation ; and it was, indeed, fo extraordinary in an rlam t/'iu African prince, that the reader may find it difficult to ctuntrj. give credit to the recital. When his royal prifoner was brought before him in irons, and thrown upon the ground, the magnanimous Damel, inftead of fetting his foot upon his neck, and ftabbing him with his fpear, according to the cuftom in fuch cafes, addreffed him as follows: " Abdulkader, anlwer me this queftion. If the chance of war had placed me in your fituation, and you in m ne, how would you have treated me .>" " I would have thrull my fpear into your heart (returned Abdulkader with great hrmnefs) ; and I know that a fimilar fate awaits me." " Not fo (fiid Damel) ; my fpear is indeed red with the blood of your fubjects kill- ed in battle, and I could now give it a d;eper llain, by dipping it in your own ; but this would not build up my towns, nor bring to life the thoul'ands who fell in the woods. 1 will not therefore kill you in cold blood, but I will retain you as my llave, until 1 perceive that your prefence in your own kingdom will be n > longer dangerous to your neighbours ; and then I will confi- der of the proper way of difpofing of you." Abdul- kader was accordingly retained, and worked as a llave for three months; at the end of which period, Damel liftened to the folicltations of the inhabit.ants of Foota Torra, and rcftcrsd to them their king. Strange as this (lory may appear, Mr Park has no doubt of the truth of it. It was told to him at Malacotta by the Negroes; it was afterwards reljted to him by the Eu- ropeans on the Giimbia ; by fome of the French at Goree ; and confirmed by nine flaves, who were taken prifoners along with Abdulkader by the watering place in the woods, and carried in the fame fliip with him to the Weft Indies. — Such generofity as this reflects ho- nour on human nature. JARRA, is a town of confiderable extent in the Moorilh kingdom of Ludamar in Africa. The boules are built of clay and ftone intcrmiied, a kind of wall very common in many parts of Scotland, where clay is made to fupply the place of mortar. The grea'er part of the Inhabitants of Jarra are Negroes from the bor- ders of the fouthern ftates, who picfcr, fiys Mr Park, a precarious protedion under t!ic Moots, wl-.ich they purchafe by a tribute, to the being continually eipofeJ to their predatory hoftilities. The tribute which they pay is confiderable; and they manifeft the moil unli- mited obedience and fubmillion to their Moorilh fupe- riors ; by whom they are, in return, treated with the utmoll indignity and contempt. The Moors in lhi«, and the other ftates adjoining the country of the Ne- groes, rcftmblc in ih;ir ncrfoas the Mulattoes cf the Weft I C E [ 198 ] J E B lata. Weft Indies, and feem to be a mixed race between the kept in that manner for a long time. Plutarch fays, II Moors, properly fo called, of the north, and the Ne- that a covering of chaff and coarfe cloth is fufficient ; ,^^^4^^:,^^ groes of the fjuth ; po/i'elling many of the worll qua- and at prefent a like method is purfued in Portugal. iities of both nations. Jarra is fitualed in 15*^ 5' N. Where the fnow has been colleifted in a deep gulph, Lat. and 6" 48' E. Long. fome grafs or green fuds, covered with dung from the lATA, a bay on the coaft of Chili. — Morse. ftieep-pens, is thrown over it ; and under thefe it is fo IBBERVILLE, a river or ratlier a fort of natural well preferved, th^it the whole funimer through it is canal, of W. Florida, which, wlicn the MiffilTippi over- fent the dillance of 6c Spaniih miles to Lifbon. flows, and is high enough to run into it, (which is gene- " When the ancients, therelore, wifhed to have cooling rally inthemomhs of M.iy, June, and July ) formsacom- liquors, they either drank the melted fnow, or put fome munication ior veffels drawing three or four teet, from of it in their wine, or they placed jars filled with wine the Milfillippi to the gulf of Mexico, eaftward, through in the fnow, and fuffered it to cool there as long as they the lakes Mauripas and Pontchartrain. This canal, thought proper. That ice was alfo preferved for thi which has been dignilied with tiie name of river, is like purpofe, is probable from the tcftimony of various dry all tlie reft of the year. It is a mile below a village authors ; but it appears not to have been ufed fo much ot Alabama Indians, 35 miles from the fettlenients of in warm countries as in the northern. Even at prefent Point Coupee, 99 W, by N. of New-Orleans, 204 fnow is employed 'n Italy, Spain, and Portugal ; but in N. W. of the Brflize, and 270 W. of Penfacola, by Perfia ice. I have never any where found an account jthe above lakes. It receives the river Amit or Amite, of Grecian or Roman icehoufes. By the writers on from tile northward, wliich is navigable for batteaux agriculture they are not mentioned." to a ccniiderable diftance. — ib. ICHNOGRAPHY, in architedure, is a tranfverfe IBIS. Under the generic name Tantalus ('^z;- or horizontal fedion ot a building, exhibiting the plot cycl.), we have defcribed, after Mr Bruce, a bird which of the whole edifice, and of the feveral rooms and apart- he found in Abyflinia, and concluded to be the facred menls in any ftory ; together with the thicknefs of the ibis of ancient Egypt. M. Vaillant, during his laft walls and partitions ; the dimenfions of the doors, win- travels in Africa, found, in fome lakes near the ele- dows, and chimneys; the projeflures of the columns and phants river, a bird very different from Mr Bruce's, piers, with every thing vifible in fuch a fev.'lion. ■which he conlidered as belonging to the fame fpecies ; ICHUA-TOWN, in the Genelfee country in the and which he defctibes thus: It is three feet in height. Slate of New- York, is an Indian village at the mouth Its head and throat, which are extremely b.ire, are co- of Ichua Creek, a north-eaftern head water of Alle- vered with a fkin of the brighteft red, terminated by a ghany river. It is fio miles eafterly of Fort Erie, 70 band of a beautiful orange, which I'eparates the naked E. by S. of La Boeut, and 67 S. V/. by S. of Hart- part from that covered wiili leathers. The upper part ford on Genelfee river. — Morse. of the wings, having broad ftripes of a fine violet co- ICUNADA DE BARRUGAN, a town on the lour, agreeably fhaded, is bordered by a white band of river La Plata, in S. America. — ii. feathers, the thick and iilky beards of which, feparated ICY CAPE is the northwefternmoft head land of from each other, have a perfeft lefeniblance to a rich N. America, fituated in the Northern ocean. Be- fringe. The quills of the wings and tail are of a green- tween this cape and Cape North, in Afia, is the open- ifli black, which, as it receives the light in a more ing into Behring's Straits, which lead from the Nor- or lefs oblique direftion, alfuraes the appearance of tliern into the Pacific ocean. — ii. violet or purple. The reft of the plumage is of a beau- JEBB (John;, was born in Southampton-ftrect, Co- tiful white. The bill, which is long and foniewhat vent Garden, London on tlie 1 6th of February, 1736. crooked, is yellow ; as are the feet. This bird belongs He was the eldcft fon of the Rev. John Jebb, dean of to the genus of the ibis, of which we are already ac- Caftiel, in the kingdom of Ireland. He received the quainted with feveral fpecies. elements of his education in different fchools, and was ICAQUE POINT, on the E. end of the ifland of admitted, July 7, 1753, penfioner in the univerfity St Domingo, lat. 19" 2'. — Morse. of Dublin, whence he removed, November the 9th ICE House. See that article, Encyclopadia. Pro- 1754, to St Peter's college in Cnmbridge, where lie was feffor Beckmann, in the third volume of his Hiftory of likewife a penfioner. In January 1757 he proceeded to the Inventions, has proved clearly that the ancients were degreeof A. B. andhis place in ihediftribulion of .acade- well acquainted with what ferved the purpofe of ice- mical honours was, on that occafion, fecond wrangler, honfes. the late eminent mathematician Dr Waring being the " The art (fays he) of preferving fnow for cooling firft. In 1758 he obtained the fecond prize of fifteen liquors during the fummcr, in warm countries, was guineas, annually given by the univerfity to the authors known in the earlieft ages. This praflice is mention- cf the beft compofitions in Latin profe, being fenior *Prc'jrb ^^ ^y Solomon,* and proofs of it are fo numerous in or middle bachelors of arts. Dr Roberts, afterwards XXV. I's". '' ih^ works of the Greeks and the Romans, that it is provoft of Eton college, obtained the firft. unnecelFary for me to quote them, efpecially as they In the month of June 1760, Mr Jebb was ad- have been colledled by others. How the repofitories mitted probationer fellow of St Peter's college, and for keeping it were conftructed, we are not exprefsly proceeded to the degree of Mafter of Arts at the com- told ; but it is probable that the fnow was preferved in mencement in the fame year; and on the firft ot July pits or trenches. 1761, was confirmed fellow by Dr Mawfon, bilhop " When Alexander the Great befieged the city of of Ely. Petra, he caufed 30 trenches to be dug, and filled with On the 6th of June 1762, he was ordained dea- fnow, which was covered v.ith oak branches ; and which con at Bngdea by Dr John Green, biflicp of Lin- coln ; Iclinogra- phy. II ]cbl,. J ^ B c Jebb. coin; and on the zjih of September, 1763, he was ^"^'^^^ admitted by the fame bi(hop inio prielVs orders. On the 22d of Auguft, 1764, Mr Jebb was col- lated by Dr Matthias Alawlbn, billmp of Ely, to the fmili vicarage of Ganilingay, near Potton, in Beiitord- (liire, upon the recommendalion of Dr Law, malkr of Peterhoofe. On the I7ih of the following Odlober, he was elefled by the univerfity into the reiflory of O- vington, near V/atton, in Norfolk, after a competition ■with the Rev. Henry Turner, then fellow of .St John's college, afterwards vicar of Burwell, in Cambridgefhire. Upon catling lip the votes, there appeared to be for Mr Jebb 91, for Mr Turner 73 ; and accordingly he was inllituted into the fame the 15th of December fol- lowing. On the 29th of the fame month, (December 1764) Mr Jebb married Anne, eldeft daughter of the Rev. James Torkington, redor of Little Siukeley, in Hun- tingdonniire, and of lady Dorothy Sherard, daughter of Philip, fecond earl of Harborough. Eaily in the year 1765, Mr Jebb, together with the Rev. Robert Thorpe, fellow of Peterhoufe, and the Rev. George Woolafton, fellow of Sidney college, publifhcd, in a fmall quarto, n comment on thofe parts of Sir Ifaac Newtcn's Prhtcipia which more immediately relate tn the fyftem of the world. The title of the joint work of thefc able and judicious philolbphers was, " Exccrpta quxdam e Newtoni principlis philolophla; naturalis, cum noiis variorum." A work, of which the univerfity of Cambridge continues to bear teftimo- ny to the excellence, by the general ufe of it in the courfe of academical education. Mr Chappelow profeifur of Arabic, dying on the 14th of January 1768, Mr Jebb offered himlelf a can- didate for the vacant chair; but it was given to Dr Hallifax, afterwards bifhopof Glouceiler ; a man of de- ferved celebrity, of whom we regret that it was not in our power to give a biographical fketch. On July 10. 1769, Mr Jebb was inftituted to the vica- rage of Flixton, near Bungay, in Suffolk, on the prefen- tation of William Adair, Efq. of Flixton-hall ; and on the 4th of April 1770, was inftitutcd to the united reftories of Homertfield and St Crofs, parilhes conti- guous to Elixton, upon the fame prefentation : being alfo, in the funimer of the fame year, nominated chap- lain to Robert earl of Harbnrough. In confequence of the acceffi'in of thefe preferments, though not con- fiderable in themfelves, he refigned, fome time in the month of October 1 771, the reftory of Ovington, which he had received from the univerfity ; and Mr Sheepftianks, fellow of St John's college, was eleded in his place. Dr Hallifax focceeding to the profeflbrfhip of civil law, in the month cf October 1770, upon the death of Dr Ridlirgton, Mr Jebb once more folicited that of A- rabic, which Dr Hallifax then vacated: but he had by lliis time difplayed fuch an innovating fpirit in religion, that the univerfity gave the vacant protclforlhip to Mr Cra- Ten, a man rcfpe<fted even by Mr Jebb and his friends. Early in the year 1 771, a defign was formed of a p. plying to parliament for relief in the matter of fub- icription to the liturgy, and thirty-nine articles of the Church of England ; and in the profecution of this de- fign Mr Jebb took a very aiJlive part. He attended different meetings of the difcontcnted clergy, held at the 99 ] J K B Feathers tavern, London, affifted in the drawing up cf their petition, and wrote their circular letter, which gave 10 the public an account of their aims. He bu- ficJ himfelf at the fame time in making various at- tempts to liring about what he called a refoimation of the univerfity of Cambridge, but finding them fruit- lefs, he retired, on the 2;thof June 1772. to Bungay, where he (tudied Frencli and Italian, and proceeded in a plan of iome political or conjliimional Uflures. He had by this time ceafed to read the prayers of the church, though he flill continued to preach occa- fionally ; and iJie Archdeacon of Suffolk, holding, this year, his ufual vifitation of fome neighbouring pariOies in the church of Flixton, Mr Jebb preached fuch a fermon againlf I'libfcription, as drew upon himfelf a public rebuke from the Archdeacon, in the preience of the clergy. "Much altercation, (fays he) enfued : and tor fome days I expected a fummons to Norwich ; but have heard no more of it. / aaed thiii, -ivilh a vie'w to call the attention of the Nor'-jjich clergy to our caufe ; and have in part fuccecded." He aifted much more honourably than thi?, when, '" 17731 he refigned all his preferments in the church : which fuiely he ought not to have retained one day alter his confcience would not permit him to read the prayers of t!ie liturgy. He now refolved to become a phyfician; and after attending St Bartholomew's hof- pital in London for fix months, as the pupil of Dr William Pitcairn, he received, on the ifith of March 1777, a diploma of Doiflor of Phyfic from the univer- fity of St xinJrews ! ! He did not, however, com- mence prai-Tice till the 5th of February i 778 ; and even then he continued to attend the leflures of Dr Hrin- ter, Mr John Hunter, and Dr Higgins. On the 18th of February 1779 '"^ ''^'^'^ elefted a Fellow of the Royal Society. Dr Jebb, at the breaking out of the American war, had fhewn himfelf at Cambridge a warm paitizan of the revolting colonies ; and of courfe a keen advocate for v.'hat he called, and, we doubt not, thought, the civil liberties of m.inkind. He now fignalized him- felf by " An addrefs to the Freeholders of Middlefex," aifembled at Free maion's tavern in Great Queen-ftreet, on Monday, December the 20th 1779, for tlie purpofe of ellablKhing meetings to maintain and fupport the freedom of election. Upon this occafion, he commu- nicated to James Townfend, Efq. chairman of that meeting, the above addrefs, under the fignature cf " Salus Publica;" prefiimi:\g, that if the fentimcnts " appeared to be founded in reafon, they would not be the lefs regarded on account rf their being fuggefled by an unknown individual." This addrefs was immediately printed, .tnd very foon pafled through three editions, each being enlarged by the addition of frcfh matter; and in 1782, followed the fourtli edition corrcfled, which alfo bore our au- thor's name in the title page. About the end of February 1780, Dr Jebb was ap- pointed by the committee of the county of Hunting- don, one of their deputies, to attend a meeting in Lon- don of reprefentativcs from certain other petitioning counties, in order to concert mcafures for the more «f- feftual reform of the prcfent conftiiution of the houfe of commons. Soon afterwards he became one of the noil a^ive members of " the foeiety for conftiiutional information; Jtbt. J E B C Jcbb. information;" of which the objefl, according to their ^"'"""^ own account, was to difFiife throughout the kingdom, ai viniverially as poffible, a knowledge of the great prin- ciples of conllitulional Ireedom, particularly fucli as re- fpeft the eleflion and duration of the reprefeutativebody. " With tliis view (fay they), con ftitutional trafts, intend- ed for the extenfion of this knowledge, and to communi- cate it to perfons of all ranks, are printed and diftri- buted gratis, at the expence of tlie fociety. Elfays, and extrafls from various authors, calculated to pro- mote the fame defign, are alio publifhed under the di- reftion of the fociety, in feveral of the newfpapers ; and it is the wilh of the fociety to extend this know- ledge throughout every part of the united kingdoms, and to convince men of all ranks, that it is their inte- reft, as well as their duty, to fupport a free conllitu- tion, and to maintain and allert tliofe common rights, which are effential to the dignity and to the happinefs of human nature." Could Dr Jebb have forcfeen all the mifchiefs which have fl jwed from this inRitution ; could he have forefeen the wonderful fpawn of fac- tious focieties which have fprung from it as from a parent flock, our veneration for genius and learning will not permit us to believe, that he Would have ne- glefled the ftudies of his profelTion for the fake of tak- ing the lead in party politics. Dr Petit, one of the phyficians of St Bartholo- mevv's hofpital, dying the 26th of May, Dr Jebb offer- ed himfelf a candidate to fucceed to that appointment. The eleflion came on the 23d of June; when Dr Budd, his antagonift, fucceeded by a great majority. The oppolition which was made to his eleflion at St Bartholomew's, followed him in the winter, when he ofTered himfelf at Si Thomas's hofpital in the bo- rough. Indeed he relinquiflied his pretenfions there fooner than in the former place ; but for no other rea- lon than becaufe he found that all his political prin- ciples were likely to be again objedleJ to him, and to hazard his luccef?. In the year 17S3 he concurred with others in form- ing " the fociety tor promoting the knowledge of the Icriptures," which met firft on tlie 20th of September in that year, and whofe meetings continued to be held, and, for ought we know to the contrary, are llill held at Ellex houfe. The (ketch of their plan wab chiefly written by Dr Jebb ; and tlieir object was to propa- gate the doclrines of Unitarianifm, for which he was as great a zealot as for civil liberty. His health now began to decline ; but during his confinement, he ftudied the Saxon language, the An- glo-Saxon laws, Englilh hiflory and antiquities, with a view to e.\3mine into our criminal code, and particular points of liberty. The vigour of his mind was ftill equal to tlie furnifhing himfelf with this frefti (lore of knowledge ; he forefaw the advantage of fuch an ac- quifition in the invefligation of the legal rights of Eng- lillimen, and had defigned to have employed it in the fupport of fome great conftitutional queftions, which he confidered as elfential to the freedom of his country. But as the year began to dawn, it was very ob- fervable to many of his friends that, according to every appearance, and without fome very great and Angular effort of nature, his increafed debility would defeat every exertion of the moft judicious medical afllftance, and teiminate die remaining fparks of human life. 00 ] J E R In this enfeebled ftate, his mind was aftive. His JefTcrfouit, " Thoughts on Prifons" were printed and circulated ' in the county of Suffolk in 1785, by his much valued ^..^^v-w friend Mr Lofft ; and there is fufllcient reafon for con- cluding that this little traift had effeft on the delibera- tions of the jullices at Ipfwich and Bury, then en- gaged in ereding a new gaol for tlic divifion of Ipf- wich, and a new houfe of correflion for that of Bury. The good effe(51s of this very excellent trad, it was apprehended, would be extended by a more general publication. In this hope Dr Jebb revifed and cor- reeled it with his dying hand : and his furviving friend publiflied it foon after his death, adding thereto " an abftraift of felonies created by flatute and other articles relative to tlie penal law. He continued to linger till May the 2d 1786, when, about 8 o'clock in the evening, he breathed his laft, leaving behind him, among men of different perfuafions, very different characters. By the difrenters he is fel- doni mentioned but as the Great jfebb ; by churchmen, his abilities are univerfally allowed, whilft regret is ex- prefled that they were fo often employed in fupport of faiflion and herefy. His moral charaifler has never g been afperfed. JEFFERSONIA, a new plant lately difcovered in Georgia by Dr Brickel of Savannah, and fo named by him in compliment to the vice prefident of the United States. In the Aloitlhly Magazine for July 1798 we have the following defcription of it : Jefferson I A pentandria monogynia. C<i/jx, below, compofed of five ihort oval imbricated leaves ; corolli, monophyllous, funnel fliaped, on the re- ceptacle, fub-pentangular, bearing the filaments near the bafe, its margin hypocrateriform, divided into five round duds nearly equal ; fyl(, piliform, Ihorter than the pe- tal, but longer than the ftamens ; Jl'gma, quadrifid ; an- thers, ereit, linear, fagittated; fruit, two univalved, ca- rinated, polyfpermous capfules, united at the bafe, open- ing on their tops and contiguous fides, having flat feeds, with a marginal wing. Only one fpecies is as yet difcovered, Jcffcrfonia fem- pervirens. It is a fl)rub with round poliflied twining flems, which climb up on bulhes and fmall trees ; the petioles fliort, oppofite ; leaves oblong, narrow, entire, evergreen, acute; flowers axillary, yellow, having afweec odour. The woods are full of this delightful fhrub, which is covered with blolToms for many months in the year. JERBOA, fee Mus, Encycl. where defcriptions are given of the jaculus or common jerboa, and of the Ara- bian, Egyptian, and Siberian jerboas. A variety of this animal has lately been found in Canada by Major- general Davies, F. R. S. and L. S. who fays it belongs to Schreber's genus of Dlpus, and may be thus charac- terifed : Dipus Canadensis palmis tdradaSylis, plaiilit pentadaByli!, caudi annulali undique fetosJ, corpore Ian- giore. 'Yht truth, however, feems to be, that it is only a variety, if indeed a variety, of the Sibeiian jerboa. The beautiful figure indeed given by General Davies of the Canadian jerboa differs in fome refpedts from our figure of the Sibericus. Its ears lie flat and farther down the neck ; its belly is not fo large ; its toes are longer : and it has no brufh at the end of the tail ; but the habits of the two animals feem to be the fame. This will J E R C Jerboa, will be apparent from the following extrafls of the Ge- '^'^^'^'^ neral's letter to the Linnean Society : " The firft I was fo fortunate to catch was taken in a large Held near the fall* of Montmoreiici, and by its having ftrayed too far from the (kirts of the wood, allowed myfelf, with the aifirtance of tliree other gen- tlemen, to furround it, and after an hour's hard chale to get it unhurt, though not before it was thoroughly fatigued ; which might in a great meafure accelerate its death. " During the time the animal remained in its ufual vigour, its agility was incredible for fo fmall a creatuie. It always took progredlve leaps of from three to tour, and fometimes of five yard?, although I'eldom above 1 2 or 14 inches from the fuilace of the grafs ; but I have frequently obferved others in Ihrubby places and in the woods, amongU plants, where they chiefly refide, leap confiderably higher. When found in fuch places, it is impolfible to take them, from their wonderful agihty, and their evading all puriuit by bounding into the thick- eft cover they can find." That the Canadian, as well as the Siberian Jerboa fleeps through the winter, leems evident from a fpecinien having been found, towards ihe end of May, indofed in a ball of clay, about the fize of a cricket ball, nearly an inch in ihicknefs, perfectly fmooth within, and about twenty inches under ground. It was given to the Ge- neral : who proceeds thus : " How long it had been under ground it is impoffi- ble to fay ; but as I never couU obfcrve thefc animals in any parts of the country atter the beginning of Sep- tember, I conceive they lay themfelves up fome time in that month, or beginning ot October, when the froft be- comes Iharp : nor did 1 ever fee them again before the laft week in May, or beginning of June. From their being enveloped in balls ot clay, without any appearance of food, I conceive they fleep during the winter, and remain for that term without fullenance. As foon as I conveyed this fpeclmen to my houie, 1 depolited it, as it was, in a fmall chip bo.\-, in fome cotton, waiting with great anxiety lor its waking; but that not taking place at the feafon they generally appear, I kept it until I found it begin to fmcU : I then llurfed it, and preferved it in its torpid pofuion. I am led to believe, its not recover- ing from that llate arofe trom the heat of my room du- ring the time it was in the box, a fire having been con- llantly burning in the llo\-e, and which, in all probabi- lity was too great for refpiration. I am led to this conception from my experience of the fnow bird ot that country, which always expires in a few days (atter be- ing caught, although it feeds perfei.11y well) if expofed to the heat of a room with a fire or (love ; but being DOurilhed with iiiow, and i<ept in a cold room or patfage, will live to the middle of lummer." Another variety of this fpecies is defcribed by Ben- jamin Smith liarton, M. D. Profetlor of Butany and Natural Hillory, in the Univerfity ot Pcnnlylvania, in the fourth volume of the 'I'raniadions or tiie American Philofophical Society, p. 1 15 and 116. " Tliis aniirial," fays the Doctor, " is about the ll/.e of the conrmon houfe-moufc. 1 weighed two of ihcm. The dilference in their weight was very firiall. That of which 1 have given a figure, and from which the following delcrip- tion is prmcipally taken, weighed nine penny-weights, and twenty-two gr.ains, foon after the death of the ani- Suppr,. Vot. II. mal, and before the bowels were taken out. Like all tlie other fpecies of Dipus, this n furnilhed with two denies primores, or cutting teeth, in each jaw. Tliefe teeth are (harp at die points, and of a chefnut-brown colour. The upper-jaw projcfls confiderably beyond the lower. 'I'he noiliils are open. The whilkers are long. The ears are fmall, fomewhat oval, and cover- ed. The fore-feet, er rather arms are fhort, and are turnifhed with four toes or fingers, the nails of which arc long, and very (harp. Befides thefc fingers, theio is a kind of minute tuborculum, in place of a th.;nr.b. This tuherculum is entirely deftitute of a nail. The hind legs are very long, and are fiirnilhed with five toes, the three miJdle ones being long, (lender, and nearly of an erpial length. The tv/o fide-toes arc much lliorter. The ioncr toe is the Ihoriell of the five. The head, the back, and the whole upper part ai the body, are of a reddilh-brown colour, fomewhat ii»- clining to yellow. Tlie back is marked by a d.-.rker 'brown than the other parts. The whole under fide of the body, beginning with the upper jaw, and ending at the anus, is of a cream colour ; as are, likewife, the infides of the fore-legs, or arms, and the infides of the hind-legs. A yellow ftreak, or band, beginning near the lower part of the nollrils, on each tide, runs along the wh 1« length of the head and neck, the upper and under fide of the forelegs, from thence all along the body, termi- nating with the thighs, at the joint. The tail is confiderably longer than the body, gra- dually tapers from its origin, and is finely cili ited, or lightly covered with hairs, its wliole length. It endi in a fine pencil of hairs. The upper (\\^ is of a flate- brown colour, the under fide is of a yellowilh-creani colour. It is compofed of a great number of j lints. JETTE, the border made round the (lilts under a pier, in certain old bridges, being the f ime with darling j confillingof a (Irong framing of timber tilled with ftones, chalk, &c. to prcfervc the toundations of the piers from injury. IGN.A.CIO, St, a town in the eifiern part of Peru, and on the N. (\-^t of Amazon river. — Morse. IGORNACHOIX, a bay in the ill.ind of Newfound- land, fouthward of St J )lin's Bay. — //;. JII^LIFREli; is a town on the nortlicrn bank of the river Gambia, oppofite to James's ill md, where the Engliih had formerly a fmall (ort. The kingdom of Barra, in which it is fituated, produces great plenty of the necclfaries of lite; but the chief trade of the inhabi- tants is in ftlt, which tiiey carry up the river in canoes; and, in return, bring down Indian corn, cotton cloths, elephants teeth, fmall quaniiiies of gold dufl, io. The number ot caioes and people conllantly employed in tliis trade, make the king of Barra (fjys Mr Park) more formidable to Europeans thin any other chieftain on the river, and hive encouraged him to ellab'.ilh thofe exorbitant dutie;, which tr.idets of all nations arc ob- liged to pay at entry, amounting nearly to L. 20 on every vell'cl, grc it and fm.ill. Thcle duties, or cuftoms, are generally cullcvTed in perl'in by the alkaid or gover- nor ot Jlllifree, who is attended by a numcn us train oi noil'y and troublofume dependants, who, by their fre- quent intercourl'u with t!ic Enghtli, have ac<iuircd a fmattcring of our language, and beg for every thing which they fancy with (uch c.irncllncl's, that traders, in C c order Jerboa. II Jillifis.-. ILL [20 order to pet quit cf them, are frequently obliged to gram their requefts. Lat. 13° 16'. Long. i6'» jo' eaft Irorn Greenwich. ILEIGNES, or St Cbarhs, a tov/n on the S. fide <.f the island of St Domingo, aiul 200 fatlioms from the city of St Dorr.ingo. It is inhabited by emigrants from the Cinary illands, and has a few Iheets wiiicii run from tlie four cardinal points, and cut each ( tlicr at right angle,'. The icihabilants are the mt U inuullii- ous people in the Spaiiilh part of the ifland. — Mont. ILHEOS, a captainlhip S. of that called Bay of All-Saint?, and in the middle divifion ol Brazil. Chief town, Paya. lllieos, the capital of ihe above province, Uandi about jo leagues N. E. of Porto Segaro, and as far S. VV. of the Bay of All-Saints. It is watered liy a river of the famo name, and contains about 200 families. S. lat. 15" 40', W. long. 34" 28'. — ib. ILLINOIS, a large navigable river of the N. W. Te.ritory, formed by the conlluence of the rivers Pkin, and Theakiki, in 41" 48' N. lat. and in 83° 42' W. longitude. This noble branch of the Miffiflippi, after running a ferpentine S. W. courfe, through an extenfive ccuntry of rich, fertile land, and receiving a vail num- ber of rivers from 20 to 100 yards wide, which are navigable for boats from 15 to 1 80 miles, approaches within 5 miles of the MifliJlppi ; from thence running taftward about 12 miles, it pays its tribute by a mouth 400 yards wide, in 3S<' 40' N. lat. and in 92'' 12' AV. longitude ; oppofite the large cave, I 76 miles above the Ohio and 18 above the Miffouri. The lands en the banks of the Illinois, particularly thofe on the S. E. fide, are perhaps as fertile as any part cf North- America. They produce in the mofl luxuriant plenty, wheat, rye, Indian corn, peas, beans, flax, hemp, to- bacco, hops, grapes, apples, pears, peaches, dyeing roots, medicinal plants, See. Here alfo grow large forefls rf hickory, oak, cedar, mulberry trees, 5cc. Savannas, or natural meadows are both numerous and ektenfive. In the forefls are great variety ot animals, as buffaloes, deer, &:c. and in the rivers are plenty of fifh, particularly cat, carp, and perch, of an enormi us lize. Such is the abundance of wild grapes in this country, that in the year 1769, the French planters upon this river made above iio hhds. of ftrong wine, from thefe grapes. On the nortii-wellern fide of this river is a coal mine, which extends for half a mile along the middle of its banks, and about the fame diftance below the coal mine are two fait ponds, 100 yards in circumfeience, and f'evcral feet in depth. The water is flagnant and of a yellowifh colour; but the French and natives make good fait from it. The Illinois furnirties a communication with lake Michigan, by Chicago river, between which and the Illinois are two portages the length of which do not »xceed 4 miles. ] I L L The whole length of the river from the fource of illumiiuti. Theakiki, which is but a lliort tliftance from the river ^-'"^''"^^ St Jofeph, oppol'ite to Fort St Jofeph on the north, is 480 iTjiles. The Indians have ceded to the United States, by the treaty rf Greenville, in 1795, * *'*"^ of land 12 miles Iqnare, at or njar the mouth of the Illi- nois; alfo a trafk 6 mdti Iquarc, at the Old Prarias fort and village near the fou h end of Illinois Lake. That lake is t nly a dilatation of the river, and is fitu- ated about 240 miles behw the fource of Theakiki, and 43 below the Salt Pond^. It is 20 miles long and 5 mil'.s broad in tlie middle. — ib. I1.1.1NOIS Indiiins inhabit near Cahokia on the Miflif- fippi. Warridrs 260. — ib. i ILLUMIMATI is the name which was affumed by Ol.jea of a fecrct fociety or order, founJcd on the firll of May ''"•'"""'*- 1776, by Dr Adam Wcifhaupt profclFor of canon law in the uiiiverfity of Ingolftadt. The real objeifl of this order wa3,by clandelline arts, to overturn every govern- ment and every religion ; to bring the fliences of civil life into contempt ; and to reduce mankind to that ima- ginary (late of Nattire when they lived independent of each other on the fpontaneous producflions of tlie earth. Its avowed objecl, however, was very different. It pro- feiTed to difiVile from fecret focieties, as from fo many centres, the light of fcience over the world ; to propa- gate the pureft principles of virtue ; and to re inflate mankind in the happinels which they enjoyed during the golden age fabled by the poets. Such an objeifi was well adapted to make a deep impreffion on the in- genuous minds ot youth ; and to ycmng men alone Weifhaupt at tirft addreil'ed himfelf. It will naturally occur to the reader, that the means of attaining this glorious objeft fhould have been made as public as poffible; and that the veil of fecrecy throwa over the proceedings of the order was calculated to ex- cite fufpicion, and to keep even /oa/Aj men of virtue and fagacity at a diflance. In any other country than Ger- many fecrecy might perhaps have had this efFeift ; but various circumftances conlpired there to make it operate with a powerful attra<5lion. Ever flnce free-mafonry had acquired fuch reputa- tion throughout Europe, a multitude of petty fecret focieties had been formed in the univerfities of Ger- many, each having its lodge, its mailer, its myfleries, all modelled on thofe founded by mafons coming from England and Scotland (a). Before the foundation of Weifhaupt's order, thefe lodges, we believe, were in general harmlefs ; or if they were produiSive of any evil, it was only by giving the youth of the univerfities a tafte for fecrecy and myflicifm. Of this Weifhaupt availed himfelf; and as foon as he had conceived the out- lines of his plan, and digelled part of his fyflcni, he ini- tiated two of his own pupils, to whom he gave the names of (a) Such, we are forry to fiy, is the cafe (lill. In a letter, dated the loth of May 1799, which we received from a gentleman of learning and honour then refiding in Upper Saxony, is the following account of the univer- fity of Jena : " This univerfity contains from two to three thoufand (Indents, who are almoll all republicans, and go about the country in republican uniforms. They are all formed into clahs or Jicrst focietiei ; and the quarrel of one member of a club is taken up by all. The confequence is, that the number of duels among the different clubs is inconceiveable. The weapon is generally the fabre, and the duel often ends in the death of one •f the combatants." Yet gentlemen of Great Britain fend their fons to Germany to be educated ! I L L C 203 ] I L L niuminiti. of AjAr and Tiberius, alTuming that of Si-artacus ^■*''^''"*"~' to himfelf. Thefe two dil'ciples ibon vying with their mafter in impiety (for it will be ften by and bye that he was mod impious), he judged them worthy of being ad- mitted to his myfteries, and conferred on them the high- eft degree which he had as yet invented. He called them /^^rw/ap/to, denominated this monftrousaflbciation, THB ORDER OF ILLUMINATI, Or ILLUMINF.ES, and iu- ftalled himfelf general of the order. When public report fpread the news in Germany of this new order having been founded in the univerfity of Ingollfadt by Weifhaupt, it was generally fuppofed to be one ofthofe litllo college-lodges which could not in- lereft the adepts after they had finillied their fli'diss. Many even thought that Weilhaupt, who was at that time a fworn enemy to the Jefuits, had founded this lodge with no other view than to form a party for him- felf againft thefe fathers, who after the fuppreflion of their order, had been continued in their offices of public teachers at the univerfity of Ingolftadt ; and this opi- nion the illuminees were at pains to propagate. His charaflcr, too, was at this time fuch as to remove every fufpicion from the public mind. A feemiiig alliJuity in his duty, and a great Ihew of zeal and erudition in expounding the laws, eafily inilled people to believe tliat his whole time and talents were engrolfed with the fludy of them ; and it we are to credit his own account, Ingolfladt had never witneifed a profelTorfo well calcu- lated to add new luftre to its univerfity. J This feems, indeed, to h.ive been the general opinion Art of the as well as his own; for, fome time after the foundation foundsr. of his order, he applied himfelf with fuch diligence and apparent candour to the duties of his office, that he was chofen what Abbe Bairuei's tranflator calls superior of the univerfity. This new dignity only added to his hypocrify, and furnilhed him with frcfh means of carry- ing on his dark defigns. He converted his houfe into one of thofe boarding-houfes where young men, perpe- tually under the eye of ihcir mailers, are lupjiofed to be better preferved than anywhere elle from the dangers whicli threaten them at that age. He folicited lathers and mothers to entruft their children to his care ; and, counterbalancing in fecrct the lelTons which he v/as ob- liged to give in public, he fent home his pupils well difpofed to continue the fame career of feduiflion which he himfelf carried on at Ingollladt. Atrocioufly im- pious, we fee hira (fays M. Barruel), in the firit year of his illuminifm, aping the God of ChrilU inity, and or- dering jljnx, in the ibilowing terms, to propagate the doiSrincs of his new gofpel : " Did not Chtift fend his apoftles to preach his gofpel 10 the univeifc ? You that are my Peter, why Ihould you remain idle at home? Go then and preach." Thefe preachers had yet received no particular defig- nation ; lor when his firit adepts wore initiated, he was far irom having c'impleted the code oi his order. He knew that years and experience were nccclfary to pcr- feift that gradual fyllem of initiations and trials which, according to the plan he had conceived, his novices were to undergo ; but he could not endure the idea of facrificlng years to mere theoretic projects ; and he flattered himfelf with the hopes of fupplying the defi- ciencies of his incomplete code by provifional regula- tions and private inftrudions, and of acquiring alTociatcs who would receive his new gofpel implicitly, and co- Illuminati, operate with him in all his views. v.^^v^^r' i\t lengtli, however, the code was completed, and 3 the fed divided into two grand c lalfes j and eachof thele ^^'r^^^ again fubdivided into lelfer degrees, pioportioned to the divided in- progicfs of the adepts. tocUffcof " The firjl clafs is that of Preparation. It cor- 4 tains four degrees, viz. thofe of Novice, of Mincrval, of Prcpira- Minor IJlumime, or Jllumitialus Minor, and of Major ''°'' ""'* Illumin'^e, or Itluminatus Major. To this clafs belong liliewifelome intermediary degrees, borrowed fioni free- mafonry, as means of propagation. Of the nufonic degrees, the code of the illuniinati admits tliefnft three without any alter all on ; but it adapts more particularly to the views of the fed the degree of Scotch Kiiight, and If yles it the degree of D'lrUVin^ Illumlme, or Illuminatui di rig ens. 'L'he ficond clafs is that of the Mvstfries, w'ich s are fubdivided into the /ejir and greater t/iyfteri.-s. The "^^^ ^'^1^- lelfer comprehend llic priellhood, and adminillration of '"■""• the fed, or the degrees oi prirjls, and of regin'.s ox prinres. In the grenler myjleries aic comprehended the two degrees of Magus, or philofopher, and of the Mar.-ling. Tlie eUcl of the latter compofe the counM ami dtgrc: of Areopagites. " In all thefe dalles, and in every degree (fays the Abbe Barruel), there is an office of the utnioft confe- quence, and which is common to all the brethren. It 1 is that wliich is occupied by him who is known in the The re' code by the appellation of Recruiter, or Brother Infi-"^^"- nualor. This (continues our author) is not a term rf my invention : it is really to be found in the code, and is the denomination ot tiiat iUuminee whofe employment is to entice members into the led." As the whole lirength of the order depended upon the vigilant and fucceUful exercife of this office, fome brethren were carefully inflruiflcd for it who mi>;ht af- terwards vifit the dilferent towns, provinv-es and kins;- doms, in order to propagjtc tli; duclrines of illuminifm. Weilhaupt propofed to fele>.T as his apolUes cither weak men who would implicitly obey his orders, or men of abilities, who would inipinv.- tlie office by artifices of their own. It was, however, a duty whicli every bnther was obliged to exercife once or twice in his lite, under the penalty of being for ever condemned to the lower degrees. To Rimulate the ardour of the brother infinuator, he was appointed fiiperior over every novice whom he fliould convert. ToalFill his judgment, he was inlUuiT- cd in three important points concerning the difoription of men whom he ought to feleifl for converli^in, the means which he ouglit to employ fir enticing them to enter the order, and the arts v/hich he ought to llu Jy to form their charader. ^ To enable the recruiter vi determine wliom he ought ^ to felei5l lor convcifion, he w.is to iiifinnatc himfelf in'o To pry in* all companies; he was to pry into the charaiHer of all «"!■«: cha- whom he (liould meet with, w bather friends, relations, [■,! ."»° Ihangers or enemies ; he was to write down ali his re- marks regularly every diy ; 10 p >int out their llrong and weak fides, their palliins and pujudicff, tl.clr inti- macies, their intercfts, and their fortune. Thisjoumil was to be tranfmitted twice every month to the fupe- riors ; by which means the order would learn who wire C c 2 iiiendlj all men. I L L C 204 ] I L L ninininati. friendly or hoftile to their views, and who were the in- ^"^"^''^^^ dividuals to whom they ought to direft their arts of fe- du(5)inn(B). The perfons to be excluded were all fuch as would expofe the order to fufpicion or reproach. All indif- creet talkers, all who were proved violent, and difficult to bemaiugcd, all aJdiiflcd to drunkennel's, and all Pa- gans, Jews, and Jeluits, were 10 bo rejected. As the patronage of princes would tend much to enrich and (Ircngihcn the lociety, it was agreed to admit them to the interior degrees, but they were never to be initialed into the grand rnylleries; they were never to rife be- yond the degree ot Scotch knight. g The perfcins to be feleftcd were young men of all Terfons ftations, from eighteen to tliirty ; but pailiculaily thofe V^T'^'^ for whofe education was not completed, and confequently t e order, „,jj,,|g habits were not formed. " Seek me out (fays Weifliaupt in his direjftions to the infmuator) the dex- terous and dafhlng youths. We mull have adepts who areinfinuating, intriguing, full of lefource, bold and en- terpriling ; they mull alfo be flexible and traflable, obe- dient, docile, and fociable." In another place he fays, " Above all things pay attention to the figure, and fe- leifl the well made men and handfome young fellows. They are generally of engaging manners ajid nice feel- ings. When properly formed, they are the bed adapted for negociations ; for firft appearances prepoifefs in their favour. It is true, they have not the depth that men ot more gloomy countenances often have. Tiej are twi the pirjons to be enirujlcd wiih a rcx'olt, or the care cfjlir- riiig up the perfle ; but it is for that very reafon we mull know how to choofe our agents. I am particularly fond of thole men whofe very foul is painted in their eyes, whole foreheads are high, and whofc countenances are open. Aboire all, examine well the eyes, for tliey are the very mirrors of the heart and foul. Obferve the look, the gait, the voice. Every external appearance leads us to dillinguilh thofe who are fit for our fchool.'' Thougli young men were preferred, yet perfons of all ages were to be admitted if their charaifter accorded with the principles of the oider. The infinuator was defircd to feck out thofe who were dillinguilhed by their power, riches, or learning. " Spare no pains (fays Wcilhaupt), fpare nothing in the acquifition of fuch adepts, li heaven refufe its fuccour, conjure hcU. F/e3ere Ji nequeas fuperos, Acleroiila moveto." Peifons were to be Angled out from thofe profeffions which give men influence over others, or put them in the moll favourable fituati, n for dili'eminating any pe- culiar opinkins. With this view, fthooimallers, and fu- pcrintendants of ecclefiallic fcmiraries, were to be f lught after with much care. BooklUlers, ptift-mallers, and the fecretaiics of poll dflices were alfo to be felec- ted. Thofe profeffions which accullomed men to fpeak and argue, as that ot counfellors and attorneys, and even phylicians were alfo to be courted. " They are Worth having (lays Weifliaupt), but they are fcmctimcs real devils, fo diflicult are they to be led ; tliey are, however, worth having \%hen they can be gained over." Every exertion was to be made to gain the officers of a prince, whether prefiding over provinces or attending him in his councils. " He that has done this, has done more than if he had engaged the prince bin. felf." There was alfo another defcription of men of whom Weilhaupt very wifely judged that they would be ad- mirably fitted for the diffulion of his doiflines. Thefe were the difappointed and dillatisfied. «' Seleifl thofe in particular (fays he) who have met with misfortunes, not from accidents, but from fome injullice ; that is to fay, in other words, the difcontented ; for fuch men are to be called into the bofom of illuminifm as into their proper afylum. When the infinuator has made choice of his viiflim, he is required to draw from his diary a view of his cha- rafter, opinions, principles, and connexions. This he is to tranfmit to the fuperiors for their examination, and that they may compare it with the diaries which they have already received, perhaps from ditferent infinua- tors. When the choice of the infinuator is approved, the fuperiors determine which cf the infinuators will be bell qualified to pertorm the talk of feducing their can- didate. Two different methods were recommended ; one of which Illuminati. 9 To be re- duced by whatever mcatts ; 10 And their charaflcrs tranfmittcd to the fupe- riors. (b) As a fpecimen of the journals kept by the infinuators, and of the charaiflers which the illuminees felefted for propagating their principles, we Ihall give the charafler of Zwack, denominated Cato, as it is defcribed in the tablet of iiis infinuator Ajax (Mafl'enhaufen). " Francis Xaverius Zwack was fon of Philip Zwack, commiflary of the Chambre des Coriiples, and was born at Ratifbon ; at the time of his initiation (29th May I'J'/G) he was twenty years of age, and had finilhed his col- lege education. " He was then about five feet high ; his perfon emaciated with debauchery ; his confl;itutinn bordering on me- lancholy ; his eyes of a diity grey, weak and languilliing ; his complexion pale and fallow ; liis health weak, and much hurt by frequent diforders ; his nofe long, crooked and hooked ; his hair light brown ; gait precipitate ; his eyes always call towards the ground ; under die nofe and on each fide of the mouth, a mole. " Hislieart tender and philrnthropic in an extraordinary degree ; but floic when in a melancholy mood ; other- wife a true friend, circumfpcdl, refcrved, extremely fecrel ; often fpeaking advantageoufly cf himfell ; envious of other people's perfcftions ; voluptuous ; endeavouring to improve himfelt ; little calculated for numerous aflem- blies ; choleiic and violent, but eafily appeafed ; willingly giving his private opinions when one has the precaution to pralfe him, though contradifting him; a lover of novelties. On religion and confcience widely differing from the received ideas; and thinking precifely as he ought, to become a good member of the order. " His predominant pafllons are, piide, love of glory, probity ; he is ealily provoked ; has an extraordinary properrfity for rnylleries ; a perpetual cufiom of fpeaking of himfelf and of his own perfeftions ; he is alfo a per- feft mafler in the arts of dilFimulation ; a proper perfon to be received into the order, as applying himfelf par- ticularly to the lludy of the human heart." Such is the charaifler of th« beloved difciple of Weilhaupt, the in- comparable Cato, and a leader of the fed of the illuminees ! I L L of know- illuminati. which was to be employed in enticing men who were ^^"^''^^^ fomewhat advanced In life or diltiiiguilhed by I'cience ; the other was to be ul'ed in feducing young men whofe char:i(Ser was not formed. II With men of knov. ledge, who had already imbibed Proper me- the principles of modern phil(>fopliifm (for i.o true phi- thods of fi.-- lofophers were to be attempted), the infinuator was to ducingmen gliume the charafter of a philolopher well acquainted with the myiieries of ancient times. He was to defcant upon the importance of the fecret doifti ines tranlmitted by tradition, to quote the gymnofophifts of India, the priefts of His in Egypt, and thole of Eleulis, with the Pythagorean fchnol in Greece. He was to learn by heart certain padagss Irom Ifocrates, Cicero, and Seneca, that he might have tiiem ready upon all occa- (ions. He was to throw out hints, that ihefe fecret doc- trines explained the difl'icult queltions concerning the origin and order of the univerfe, the Providence of God, the nature of the foul, its immortality and future deftination ; he was to inipire them with the belief that tlie linowledge of ihefe things would render life more agreeable and pain more fiipportable, and would en- large their ideas of the mwjeliy of God ; he was then to declare that he had been mitiated into thefe myfteries. If the candidate expreffed any curicfity to be made ac- quainted with them, the inlinuator was hrft to afcertain his opinions upon fome leading points, by propoling to him to write a dilFertation upon certain queltions. Should the anfwers not pleafe the infinuator, he was to relinqutlh his prey ; but Ihould they be fatisfavSory, tlie candidate was to be admitted to tlie firft degree. When the feledted viaim was young, and had not im- , bibed any of lliofe opinions which correfponded with ' the principles of the ieit, a different method was to be followed. "Let your fiili; care (fays the legillalor to his infinuators) be to gain the afFeiflion, the confidence, and the elleem of thole whom you are to entice into the order. Let your whole condui.'t be fuch, that they fhall furmife fomething more in you than you wi(h to Ihew; hint, that you belong to fome fecret and powerful fo- ciety ; excite by degreeb, and not at once, a willi in your candidate to belong to a fiinilar I'ociety. Certain arguments and certain books, which the infinuator muft Jiave, will greatly contribute to raife I'uch a wiih ; fuch, for example, are thofe which treat of the union and ftrength of aflbciations." Every infinuator muft be provided with books of this fort. But that their fuccefs might not depend folcly upon books, Wellliaupt gave to his dlfclples a fpecimen of the artifices which they might employ. The inli- nuator might begin by obferving, that a child in the cradle, abandoned to itfelf, is entirely helplefs ; and that it is by the aflillance of others that It acquires ftrength ; and that princes owe their greatnefs and their power to the union of their fubjefls. Then the Infinuator might touch on the importance of knowing mankind, and the arts of governing them ; that one man of parts might ea- fily lead hundreds, even thoufands, if he but knew bis advantages. He was next to dwell upon the defeifts of civil fociety ; to mention how little rellel a man can ob- tain even from his bell friends ; and how very necellary it is for individuals to fupport one another in thefe days : to add, that men would triumph even over heaven were they but united. He was to adduce as examples, the influence of the freemafons and of the Jefuits. He was 13 Intothc no- il And yoiin men, [ 20J ] ILL to afTert, that all the great events which take place in the Illuminat; world depend upon hidden caufes, whicli thefe focleties ^— '^''"'^ powerfully influence. He was to awake in the bread of his pupil the delire of reigning in fecret ; of prepa- ring in his clofet a new ccnftitution for the world j and ot governing thofe who think they govern others. Alter thefe, or other artifices of the fame kind, have been employed, if the candidate be Infpired with an ar- dour to be initiated, and givefatisladory anfwers to the ^"^'•'"^ queflions propofed to him, he is immediately admitted a novice. But ihould he rejed all means of feduc'lion, let him take heed to himfelf ; "for the vengeance of fecret focleties Is not a common vengeance ; it Is the hidden fire of wrath. It Is Irrtconclk-able ; and fcarce- ly ever does It ceafe the purfult of its viiftlms until it has fcen them immolated." The peilod of the novlclite varied according to the age of the new convert to lllumlnlfm. At firft it con tlnued three years for thole under eighteen years of age, two years for thofe between eighteen and twenty- four, and one year for tliofe who were near thirty ; but it was afterwards fhoitened. The novice was not acquainted with any of the or- der except his infinuator, under whofe diretftion he remained during his noviciate. The firft Icd'uns which he was taught refpecTed the inviolable nature of the le- crecy which every lllumlnce was obliged to obfervc. He was told that filence and fecrecy were the very foul of the order ; that Ingcnuoufnefs was a virtue only with refpecl to his fuperiors ; and that diftruft and teferve Were fundamental principles. He was enjoined never to fpeak of any circumllance relating to the order, con- cerning his own aJmlllion, or the degree which he had received, not even before brethren, without the ftrongell necefllty ; and was required to fign a declaration to this purpofe. The novice was next taught the diiftlonary of the or- der, its geography, calendar, and cypher. To prevent Diaionar)-, the poilibllity of dlfi:overy, every illumlnee received a g^^t^raf hy, new name, vi'hich was charatteriftic of his diipofitlons, '"'''"''•^» 14 Period of tlic novi- ciate. 15 or of the fervlces which were expected of him. Thus Vt ,iP^ " Wellhaupt, as we have obferved, was called Sparlacui, dcr becaufe he pretended to wage war againil thofe opprel- fors who had reduced mankind to flavcry ; and Zwack, as we have feen, was named dilo, becaufe he had written a dlifertation in favour of fuicidc, and had once determined to commit that crime. According to the new geography of the order, Ba- varia was called Achaia ; Munich was called rithens ; Vienna was named Rome ; Wurtzburgh was denomina- ted Carthage; and Ingchladt, the fountain of the or- der, was called Efhcjus, and by the profound adepts ElctiJ'is. The novice had alfo to learn the Perfian c.-i- lendar, which the order had adopted. Their era began A. D. 630. Tlie months received new names ; May wii caWcd Atlarpahafcht ; June, Chardad ; July, Th:r- meh ; Auguft MerJedmeh ; and l"o on. 'I'he cypher confided of numbers which correfponded to the letters of the alphabet, in this order <;, I, e, d, anfwering to the numbers 12, 11, 10, 9. The novice had next to ftudy tht J!alules of the il!u- vtineei, which he was alfured contained nothing injurious to the ftatc, to religion, or to good morals. He was next defired to apply himfelf to acquire the morality of the order : which he was to do, not by reading the go- fpcls, 1 L L [ 206 ] I L L 16 Kovice nbliged to driw his own cha- ridcr. niunriiiai!. fpcls, but by perufing Epiaciiis, Seneca, and Anto- ^^^^"^^"^ niiius, and by fiudying the woiks c>( the mcdcrn fo- phills Weiland, Meiners, and Helvcliiis, 5:c. The ftu- dy ot" man was alio recommended as llie moft intertft- ing of all the fciences. He was taught this lUidy not merely as a fcience, but as an art. A model of a jour- nal was given him, and he was required to infert in it obfervations upon the charafler of every perfon thai he happened to meet with. To quicken his diligence, the inlinuatnr occalionally examined his journal. In the mean time the inlinuator was watching him as a cen'.inel, and noting down regularly obfervations upon the de- fefls and merits of his pupil, which he always fent to his fupcriors. The great obje^ of the infinuator was to entangle tlie novice, and to bind him indilfulubly to the order. With this view he required the novice to draw a laitblul pic- ture of himfelf, under the pretence that he would thus know himfelf better. He delired him to write down liis name, his age, his country, his refidcnce, and his employment ; to give a lid of the books in his library ; to ftate his revenue ; to enumerate his fiiends and ene- mies, and the caufe of his enmities. He was alfo to give a finiilar account of his lather and mother, bis brothers and fillers, and to be very careful in pointing out their Mliions and prejudices, their lUong and weak fides. In the mean lime, the iufmuatorwas occupied in draw- ing up a new ftateraent of every thing he had been able to difcover of the charaifter and condud of the novice. This Hatcment was tranfmitted to the fuperiors, and compared with the former. If the novice was approved, he wa.s then admitted to the fecond degtee, upon his an- Iweiing, in a fatisf.iclory manner, twenty-four grand quellions, which might enable the order to judge of his principles and the credit to which he was entitled, and would fi.x h the fuperiois nees now begin to appear, as will be evident from the t'ollowing quedions which we have felefled : Have you ferioully relieved on the importance of the ftep you take, in binding yourfelf by engagements that are unknown to you ? Should you ever difcover in the order any thing v/icked or unjull to be done, what part would y('U take? Do you, moreover, grant the power be was determined to give implicit obedience to all the IHuminati. laws of the order? The infuiuaor became fecurity for ^•^~'''^*^ his pupil, and then requellcd for him ihe proteftion of the order, which the fuperior granted with great folem- nity, protcfting that nothing would be found there hurt- ful to religion, to morals, or to the ftate. Having thus f^id, the fuperior takes up the nai;ed fword, and point- ing it at the heart of the novice, threatens him with the fatal confequences of betraying the fecrets of the order. The novice again takes an oath, by wliich he binds himfelf, in the moft unlimited manner, to ferve the or- der with his life, honour, and eftate, and to obferve an inviolable obedience and fidelity to all his fuperiors. He is then admitted a Minerval, and henceforth is al- lowed to attend the academy cf the fcft. The Minerval acadeany was compofed of 10, 12, or 19 15 M nervals, and placed under the dire<£lion of a ma- Minerval jor lUuminee. It met twice every month in an inner ''""""'^ ' apartment, feparated from the other rooms of the man- fion by an antichamber; the door of which was to be lliut with care during the meeting, and (Irongly feeu- red by bolts. At the commencement of every meet- ing, the prelident read and commented upon fome fe- leh. paifages of the Bible, Seneca, Epifletus, Marcus Aurelius, or Confucius ; evidently with a view of dimi- nilhing the reverence for the facred writings, by thus placing them on a level with the heathen moralills. Then each brother was afked what books he had read fince lad meeting, what obfervations he had made, and what fervices he had performed for promoting the fuc- cefs of the order? To each Minerval academy a library belonged. This 10 was formed by the contributions of the brethren, by Its library, prefents of books, and by another method very ex- All lUuminees aifting as librarians, or i traordinary. m down by Itronger ties to the authoiity of keepers of archives, were admoniihed to ^<"<j/ fuch s. The detellabie principles of the illumi- books or manufcripts as might be ufeful to the order. ■ At one time, fending a lift of the books which he widi- ed to be embezzled from the library of the Carmes, Weiftiaupt fays, " All tliefe would be of much greater ufe if they were in our hands. What do thofe rafcals do with all thefe books ?" Every brother at his admiffion wis required to declare to what art or fcience he meant ch'efly to apply ; and it was expeftod, that he (bould afterwards every year give of life and death to our order or fociety ? Are you difpofed, upon all occafions, to give the preference to an account of the difcoveriesor iinprL.vements which he 17 Power of life and death j^^^ „( oi,r order over all other men ? Do you fubjedl the'Tode^'' yourfelf fa a W;ni/ofe</»Vw<', ivithout any rejlrialon luhat- fotver ? The novice having thus furrendered his confcience, his will, and his life, to the devotion of the confpirators, and thus fubfcribed, with his own hand, and confirmed by his oath, a refolution to become the moft abjeft flave, was now deemed qualified to afcend to the fecond degree, called Minerval. 18 In the dead hour of midnight he was conducted to a retired apartment, where two of the order were waiting to receive him. The fuperior, or his delegate, appear- ed (landing in a fevere and threatening pofture ; he held a glimmering lamp in his hand, and a naked iVord lay before him. The novice was alked, whether he Hill per- filled in his intention of adhering to the order ? Upon anfwering in the affirmative, he was ordered into a dark room, there to meditate in filence on his refolution. On AdmilTion to the de-' gree of Mi nerval. had made. All the other brethren who were occupied in tiie fame ftudies, were defired to give him every pol- fible affiftance. Thus a kind of academy was formed, to which thofe who could not ferve it by their talents might give pecuniary contributions. That this acade- my might have the appearance of a literary fociety, prizes were annually diftributed ; the beft difcourfe was publifhed, and die profits fent to die coffers of the or- der. Every month the prefidcnt was to take a review of the faults which he had obferved in his pupils, and examine them concerning thofe which they might have been confcious of in themfelves ; and it would he an un- pardonable negleift, fay the llatutes, fiiculd any pupil pretend, that during the fpice of a whole month he had remarked nothing reprehenfible. It is impoflible to read thefe rules without admiring them. Were men but half as anxious, attentive, and his return, he was llricHy and repeatedly quellioned if careful, to render themfelves good citizens and good men I L L [ 207 ] I L L llluminat;. men, as thefe men were to render themfelves fuccefsfiil Above all, they were dircifted to avtil themfelves of ninmlnsti. conl'pirator":, what a blcired world iliould we fee ! The Minerval was rigoroully Icrutinized, whether he was ready to iubmit to every torture, or even to com- mit fuicide, rather than give any information agamit the order. Surcidc was reckoned not only innocent, but ho- nourable, and was alfo reprefented as a peculiar fpeciesof thofe moments when tliey obfcrved a pupil difccntented with the world. «' It is then (fays VVeilliaupt) you mull prefs the fwelling heart, Simulate the fenfibilliy, and den'onllrale how nectlfary fecret focicties are fcr the attainment of a better order of things." Having palled with .".pplaufe through the Qates of 12 Minor illu- minees trainfd for the degree bC voluptuoufneft. In order to difcover the lentlments of pre baticn already defcribed, the minor illuminee is the Minervals upon this fubjeift, they were required to promoted to the rank of major illuminee, or Scotch write a dilfertation upon the ciiarailer and death of Ca- ncvice. As major illuminee, he is encnmpafTsd with to, or any limilar fubjccf. They were alio defired to more rigid chains; and as Scotch novice, he is dif- difcufs the favourite dodrine of Weifiiaupt, that t/.>e patched as a miirior.ary into mafonic lodges, to convert end fanfUfes the rrnans ; a principle of the mofl per- the brethren to illuminifm. nicious tendency, whidi would render calumny, ali'ain- Thi candidate lor this degree is flriflly examined, in nation, fediiion, and treafon, laudable, and excellent, order to difcover what opinions he now entertains con- Next, they were called upon to compolb a diffcrtation, cerning the ol.jc^^ of the fcciety ; the motives that by which tlieir opinions concerning kings and prielfs prompted him to join it ; whether he is difpof^J ftill to might be afcertained. If they pci formed all thefe talks co-operate with the rell of the brethren in accnmplilh- wiih the fpirit of an infidel, and the defperate firmncfs iiig the grand objetfl ; and whether he be a member of of a confpirator, they were then judged worthy of be- any other fociety ; and what are the duties which it re- iug promoted to the degree of minor illuminee. quires. The min(>r illuminee'. held meetings fimilar to thofe The fertile genius of Weifiiaupt is not exhaufted ; he of the Minerval academy. It was necell'ary that the has Hill in referve artifices more profound, and bonds prelident tliould be one who w-as railed to the degree of more powerful ; his refources keep pace with the pro- prieft, and initiated in the mylleries : but he was re- grefs of his fchemes. He now lays a fn arc for his pu- quired to perfuade his pupils, that beyond the degree pils, from which he hopes r.one can efcape, and there- which he hid attained there were no mylleries to be fore he flatters himfelf they are his for ever. He de- dilclofed. The minor illuminees were to be lb trained, mands of every candidate for higher dejrees, to write, that they might look upon themfelves as the founders as a proof of confidence, a minute and faithful account of the order; that by this powerful motive they might of his whole life, without any referve or dilfimulation. be animated to diligence and exertion. With this view, Referve or dilllniulation would indeed be vain ; for the hints were fcattered rather than precepts enjoined. It mod fecret circumllances oi his life are already well was infinuated, that the world was not fo delightful as known to the adepts, my means of innumerable fpies, it ought ; that tlie happinefs lor which man was made who, by the appointmsnt of the fuperiors, have, un- is prevented by the misfortunes of fome, and the crimes known to him, been watching and fcrutinizing all his of others ; that the wicked have power over the good ; adfir ns and word?, his temper, pafi'ions, and opinions, that partial infurreiflion is ufelefs ; and that peace, con- Now is prefented to the candidate the code of the tentment, and fafety, might be eafily obtained by means brother fcrutator, called by the order the nofce le iffum drawn from the greateft degree of force of which hu- (know ihyfelf). This is a catechifm, containing from man nature is capable. Such views, it is added, aftu- a thoufand to fifteen hundred queiiinns, concerning his ating a fecret fociety, would not only be innocent, but perfon, his healtli, his education, his opinions, his in- moft worthy of the wife and well-dlfpofed. clinations, his habits, his ])a(lions, his prejudices, and WeilTiaupt had formed, with peculiar care, a code even his weaknelfes. Queftions are alfo propofed re- for this degree, which was intitled /«/?/-a..7;o/Mybr/brm- fpefting his acquaintances, his relations, friends, and ing vfejul Labourers hi Illuminifm. Thefe inllruflions enemies. The candidate is required to enumerate his difcover an aftonifhing knowledge of human nature, and favourite colours, to deftribe his language, the nature are drawn up with a degree of fyfiematic coolnefs which of his converfation, his gait and gelluics. Nothing, in perhaps no confpirator before him ever exhibited. He fliorr, is omitted that can tend to diftinguifh his charac- lays down rules, by which the charafter of almoll any ter as an individual, or as a member of fociety. Upon perfon may be afcertained. He recommends to the many qualities in his characfer, thirty, forty, or fome- minor illuminees, to attend to the conduit of any per- times near a hundred quedions are propofed. The fon entrufted to their care, at two periods ; when he is following fpecimcn will enable the reader to judge what tempted to be what he ought not to be, and when, re- aftonilliing care Weifhaupt employed to difcriminate moved from the infiuence of every external temptation, charaiffers. he follows the didlates of his inclination. They were Is his ^<j/V flow, quick, or firm ? Are his fleps long, to lludy the peculiar habits and ruling paflions of each ; fliort, dragging, lazy, or ikipp'ng ? Is his Ajnyuj^c re- to kindle his ardour by delcanting on the dignity of the gular, diforderly, or interrupted I In Ipeaking, docs he order, and the utility of its labours ; to infufc a fpirit agitate his hands, his head, or his body with vivacity ? of obfervation, by afking queftions, and applauding the Does he clofe upon the perfon he is fpeaking to ? Decs wifdom of the anfwers ; to correifl the tailings of their he hold him by the arm, clotlies, or button hole? Is pnpil, by fpeaking of them as if they were not his, he a great talker, or is he taciturn? If fo, why? Is it and thus making iiim judge in his own caufe ; to in- through prudence, ignorance, refpe(51, or (loth? &c. ftrucl and advife, not by tedious declamation, but by Concerning his c.hicalion, he is qucftioncd to whom fometimcs dropping a few words to the purpofc, when docs he owe it ? Has he always been under the eyes of the mind Hiould be in a proper ftate to receive them, his parents? How has he been brought up? Has he any 2? Scotch no- vice. 24 Candidates fcr higher degrees fubmit to new uials. I L L [ 208 ] 1 L L lildTiinati. any eflsetn for his ma tiers ? Has he travelled, and in might form two others. " Let thcfc (fays he) only lUuminatl. ^"^"""^^ what countries ? be united, and nothing will be inipoflible to our order." ^-^^^^-^ By thcfe queftions his temper and difpofitions might All this is very fpecious : it is well contrived to fafci- be accurately known. His leading pillions would be n»te the imagination of the young, and the Iieart of difcovered by tlie following queries. " When he finds the generous and benevolent, while, under all this pre- l)imfcU witli different parties, which does he adopt; tended regard to virtue and to the happinefs of mankind, tlie lirongcll or the weakeft ; the wittied or the moll is concealed a nioft formidable confpiracy againll the ilupid ? Or does he form a third ? Is he conftant and peace of the world. firm in fpite of all obftacles ? How is he to be gained ? After this addrefs is delivered, the major illuminee by pr.iife, by flattery, or low courtlhip ; by women, is prcfented with the codes of the infinuator and fcru- money, or the entreaties of his friends ? Does he love tator; for he iiiuft now infpefl the pupils of the infi- fatire ; and on what does he excrcife that talent ? on re- ligion, hypncrily, intolerance, government, nilnilUrs, monks ?" ixc. All tliefe quellions are to be anfwcred and ilhiQrated by fafls. It is neceliary to obferve, that the fcru- tators alfo give in written anfwers to all thefc queftioas. When tlie candidate has thus given a minute hillory of liis life, and revealed all his iccrets, his foibles, his er- rors, his vices, and his crimes, Weilliaupt triumphantly exclaims, " Now I hold him ; i defy hin; to hurt us ; it' he Ihould wi(h to betray us, we have alfo his fe- crets." 25 nuators, and muil excrcil'e the ofiice of fcrutator while prefiding over the Minerval academies. The next degree, whicli is that of Scotch knight, is botli intermediate and liationary. It is (lationary ^"'^''''S''"! for tliofe who are not fufficiently imbued with 'hs T • 'u"^ principles of the order, and intermediate for thcfe who have imbibed the true fpirit of illumin'fm. The Scotch knights were appointed the directors of all the prepa- ratory degrees, and to watch over the intereds of the order within their dilUivft. They were to ftudy plans for increafmg the revenues of the order, and to endea- vour to promote to public offices of confidence, of The adept is next introduced into a dark apartment, power and wealth, as many of the adepts as poffible ; \vherc he foleiinily fvvcars to keep fecret Whatever he and to drive to acquire an abl'olute fway in the ma- may learn trom the order. He then delivers up the fonic lodges. They were to procure the management hidory of his life, fealed, when it is read to the lodge, of the malbnic funds ; and while they were to perfuade and compared with the charaifter drawn of him by the the brethren that thefe were expended according to brother fcrut.itors. A corner of the veil is now lifted their own orders, they were to employ them for pro- up, dill, however, with extreme caution. Nothing ap- pears palpable but the purelt principles and moll ge- nerous deligns. At the fame time many things are darkly fuggeded, which are incompatible with puiity :Lnd generoluy ; for while the utmoll care is employed to deceive the underdanding, nothing i can tend fecretly to corrupt the heart moling the views of tlie order. Thus one oflice of the Scotch knights was to embezzle the money that was entrudetl to them, in order to dift'ufe truth, and to make virtue triumpli. After palling with applaufe through this long and neglefted that tedious probation, the adept is introduced to the clafs A number of of the myderies. He is not yet, however, made ae- quedions are alked ; the evident intention of which is quainted with the whole fecrets of the fcciety ; he mull to make the adept difcontented with the prefent moral dill fubmit to new trials ; his cuiioljty mud be farther {government ot the world, and to excite the defire of excited, his imagination mud be kept longer upon the attempting a great revolution. After anfweiing thefe dretch, and his principles of depravity be rendered <lucdions, the fecretary opens the code of the lodge ; more violent and inveterate before the vail be entirely ;ind having informed tlie young illuminee that the ob- withdrawn, which will difcover to him Weilhaupt and jedt of the order is to diffufe the pure truth, and to his infernal ciew, plotting the dedruiflion of the laws, make virtue triumph, he proceeds to fhow that this fciences and religion of mankind. The degree of is to be accomplilhed by freeing men from their preju- epopt or pried, to which the adept was next railed, d'ces, and enlightening their underllandings. " To nper>ed to view, however, fo great a part of the myf- attain this, (continues the fecretary), we mud trace teries, that the reader will be fully prepared to expe^T: the origin ot all fciences, we mud reward opprelfedta- the fecrets which remain to be unfolded in the other lents, we mull undertake the education of youth; and, degrees. forming an indifloluble league among the mod powerful Before being admitted to the degree of epopt, the 26 geniules, we mud boldly, though with prudence, com- adept was required to give a written anfwer to ten pre- Prepara- bat luperdition, incredulity, and folly ; and at length liminary quellions. The infinuations againd the eda- tions for firm our people to true, juft, and uniform principles on blifhed order of the world, which had formerly been '''= P"^*^" all fubjeds." The fecretary adds, that in attempting to fiightly mentioned, increafe now to an indireft propo- "^^ dived vice of its power, that the virtuous may be re- fal to attempt a complete revolution. The candidate Warded even in this world, the order is counteraded by is afked, whether he thinks the world has arrived at princes a/icl priejls, and the poUlical conJ}ilutions of na- that happy date which was intended by nature ? Whe- tkis ; that, however, it was not intended to excite re- ther civil adociations and relicion attain the ends for volutions and oppofe force by force, but merely to which they were deligned ? Whcil.er the fciences are bind the hands of the protctftors of diforder, and to conducive to real happinefs ? or whether they are not govern without appearing to command ; that the pow- merely the offspring of the unnatural date in which men ers of the earth mud be encompalfed with a legion of live, and the crude inventions of crazy brains ? It is tlien indelatigab'.e men, all direifling their labours towards propofed as a quedion, whether there did not in an- the improvement of human nature. Were there but cient times exid an order of things more fimple and a certain number of fuch men in every country, each happy ? What are the bed means for redoring man- kind, ILL ^ C 209 ] Hluminiti. kind to that ftate of felicity ? Should it be by public Every man. 1 L L 17 Inftrudi- ons previ- ous (o ad- milTion. - meafures, by violent revolutions, or by any means that luoiild enfure fucccfs ? Would it not be proper, wilh this view, to preach to mankind a religion more per- fedt, and a philofophy more elevated? And, in ihe meantime, is it not advifable to difTeminate the truth in fecret focieties ? Should the anfwers given to thefe queftioirs accord with the fentiments of the order, on the day fixed for the initiation, the candidate Is blindfolded, and, along with his introducer, is put into a carriage, the win- dows of which are darkened. After many windings and turnings, which it would be impoflible for the adept to trace back, he is condnfled to the porch of the temple of the myfleries. His guide (trips him of the mal'onic infignia which he wore as a knight, re- moves the bandage from his eyes, and prefents him with a drawn fword ; and then having ftridtly enjoined him not to advance a ftep till he is called, leaves him to his meditations. At length he hears a voice ex- claiming, " Come, enter, unhappy fugitive ; the fa- thers wait for you ; enter, and (hut the door after you." He advances into the temple, where he fees a throne with a rich canopy lifing above it, and before it, lying upon a table, a crown, a fceptre, a fword, fome pieces of gold, and precious jewels, interlaid with chains. At the foot of the table, on a fcarlet cufhion, lie a white robe, a girdle, and the fimple ornaments of the facerdotal order. The candidate is required to make his choice of the attributes of royalty, or of the white robe. If he chufe the white robe, which he knows it is expecfted he fhould do, the hierophant, or inllruiflor, thus addrefl'es him : " Health and happinefs to your great and nnble foul. Such was tlie choice we expect- ed from you. But (lop ; it is not permitted you to inveft yourfelf with that robe until you have heard to what we now deftine you." The candidate is then ordered to fit down ; the bonk of the myfleries is open- ed, and the whole brethren liften in filence to the voice of the hierophant. The evordiimi is long and pompous ; much artifice is concealed in it, and much eloquence difplayed. It expatiates on the fubllme and generous views of the fo- ciety ; evidently with the defire of lulling afleep the fufpicion of the candidate, of exciting him to admira- tion, and of inlpiring him with enthuliafm. The hie- rophant then proceeds to unveil the myfleries. He launches out into a fplendid delcription of the original ftate of mankind ; when health was their ordinary ftate, when meat, and drink, and ftielter, were their only wants. At that period (fays he) men enjoyed the roort ineftimable blelhngs, equality and liberty ; they en- joyed them to their utmoft extent : but when the wan- dering life ceafed, and property ftarted into exiftence ; when arts and fciences began to Hourilh ; when a dif- tinflion of ranks and civil alfociations were eflabliflied, " liberty was ruined in its foundation, and equality dif- appeared. The world then ceafed to be a great fami- ly, to be a fin2,le empire ; the gre.it bond of nature was rent afunder." Wants now incrcafed, rind the weak imprudently fubmitted to the wnfe or the llrong, that they might be protefled. As tJie fubmidion of one perfon to another ariles from want;, it ceafcs when the wants no longer cxift. Thus the power of a tathcr is at an end when the child has acquired his (Irength. SuppL. Vol, II. having attained to years of difcretion, Hluminati. may govern himfelf ; when a whole n.ntion, there- ^•^''^~^^ fore, is arrived at that period, there can exilt no farther plea for keeping it in wardlbip. Such a ftate as that of civil fociety, is then repre- fented as incompatible with the pradlice of virtue. " Wilh the dlvifion of the globe, and of its ftates, benevolence (fays the hierophant) was reftrained with- in certain limits, beyond which it could no longer be extended. Patriotifm was deemed a virtue ; and he was ftyled a patriot who, partial towards his country- men, and unjuft to others, was blind to the merits of ftrangers, and believed the very vices of his own coun- try to be perfedlions. We really beheld (continues he) patriotilVn generating localifm, the confined fpirit of families, and even egoifm. Diminifh, rejc<fl tliat love of country, and mankind will once more le.irn to know and love each other as men. Partiality being caft afide, a union of hearts will once more appear, which will expand itfelf over the globe." Thefe unphilofcphical dechimations, enthufiaflicallf pronounced, at length make the profelyte exclaim, in unifon with his mafter, " Are fuch tlien rhe coiife- quences of the inftitution of ftates, and of civil fociety ? O foUy ! Oh people I that you did not forefee the tale that awaited you ; that you (hould yourfelves have fe- conded your defpots in degrading human nature to fer- vitude, and even to the condition of the brute !" Having wrought up the profelyte to this pitch of frenzy, and enumerated all the evils which, according to Weilhaupt, arife from political alfociation, the hie- rophant comes to reveal the means by which the grie- vances of the human race may be rcdrelfed. " Piovi- dence (he fays) has tranfmitted the means to us rf fc- cretly meditating, and at length operating, the fulva- tion of human kind. Theie means are the fecret fchools of philofophy. Thefe fchools have been in all ages the archives of nature, and of the rights nf man. Thefe fchools (hall one day retrieve the fall of human nature, and princes and nations shall disappear FROM THE FACE OF THE F.ARTH ; and that withoUt any violence. Human nature Ihall form one great family, and the earth fhall became the habitation of the man of reafon. Reafon Jhall be the only book of lazi's, the fole code of man. This is one of our grand myjleries. Attend to the demonftration of it ; and learn how it has been tranfmitted down to us." This pretended dcmonllralion makes part of the fame fophiftical harangue; and confifts in panegyrics on the dignity of human nature ; in a bafchfs morality ; and in a fcandalous perverfion of the Chrifti,in fcriptures, with a blafphemous account of the miniftry of ilie Sa- viour of the world. " What ftrange blindnefj (continues t!)e hiero- phant) can have induced men to imagine, that human nature was always to be governed as it has hitherto been ? Where is the being, who has condemned men, the beft, the wifcft, and the moll enlightened mer, to perpetual Havery ? Why Ihould human nature be be- reft of its moll perltifl attribute, that of gnverning iticlf ? Why are thofe perfons to be always led v.'ho are capable of conduifling thcnifelves ? Is it then im- poftiblc for mankind, or at leaft the greater part of them, to come to majority ? Arc we then (alien fo low as nut even to feel our chains, as to hug them, and not 1) d cheriUi I L L [ 2IO ] I L L nees ene- mies to commerce, irummsii. thcrilli the flattering hope of being able to break them, '"""^'""^ and recover our liberty ? No; let us own lh.it it is not impolllble to attain universal independence." ai? The principal me;ini which Weilhaupt offers to his Theillurai- ;,Jepts fjr the conqiiell of tliis land of promife, is to Jiniinilh the wanto if the pople j and accordingly the code dentniiices eternal war with every fpccics ot com- merce. Hence the hierophant proceeds to inlorm the candiJatc, lh.it he who wilhe.-. to fubjefl nations to his yoke, need bnt to create wants, which he alone can f.itisfy." " Confer (fays he) upon the m:rcanlile irile fome rank or fome aiulioiity in the government, and you will have created perhaps the molt formidable, the moft defpotic cf all powers. H.-, on the contrary, who vilhcs to render mankind free, teaches them how to refrain from the acquintion of things which they can- not afford : he enlightens them, he infjfes into them bold and inflexible manners. If you cannot diffule, at the fime inllant, this degree of light among all men, at leall begin by enlightening yourl'elf, and by render- ing yourfelf better. The mode of diffuting univetfal liglu is, not to proclaim it at once to the whole woild, but to begin with yourfelf; then turn to your next neighbour : you two can enlighten a third and a fourth : let thefe in th.e fame manner extend and multiply the number of the cliilJren of light, until numhsrs and force Jhiill throw fower into jour hands. You will foon ac- quire fuflicient force to bind the hands of your opponents, to fubju^ate them, and to ftifle wickednefs in the em- hryo;" i.e. you will foon be able to llifle every piin- ciple of l.iw, of government, of civil or political lociety, whofo very inflitution, in the eyes of an illuminee, is the germ of all the vices and misfortunej ot human nature. The hierophant, continuing to infill on the neceflity of enlightening the people to operate the grand revo- lution, feems to be apprehenfive that the candidate may not yet cleaily conceive the real plan of this le- volution, which is in future to be the fole objefl ot all his inftruflions. Let your inflruiElions and lights be univerfally diffufed ; fo Ihall you render mutual lecurity univerfal ; and fecurily and injlruclion will enable us to Ifue "wilhout prince i,r government. The inllruiflion which ij to accomplilh this great end, is inllruclion in Kioralily, and morality alone; for "true mcralily is no- thing elfe than the art of teaching men \o fhaht off their ivarc'jh'ip, to attain the age of manhood ; and thus to need neither piinces nor governments. The mora- lity which is to perform this miracle, is not a morality of vain fubtleties. It is not that morality which, de- grading man, renders him carelefs of the goods of this world, forbids him the enjoyment of tlie innocent plea- fures of life, and infpires him with the hatred ot his neighbour. Above all, it muft not be that morality vhich, adding to the miferies of the miferable, throws tliem into a Itate of pufiUanimity and delpair, by the threats of hell and the fear cf devils. It muft be a di- vine doflrine, fuch as Jefus tauglit to his difciples, and of which he gave the real interpretation in his fecret conferences." .p The impious hierophant then proceeds, with match- And blaf- lefs blafpfaemy, to reprefent the Redeemer of mankind phcniiciof as teaching, like the Grecian fophifts, an exoteric and Chriil. an efoteric Uoiftrine. He defcribes him as the grand 39 'I Iitir mo- rality ; mafter of the illuminces ; and affirms, thit the objeft of lUumiiiaii. \{\i fccrei, which ia loll to the world in geneial, has "^^'^'"'^^ beeu prcfervcd in their myllcries. It was " to rein- Ikate mankind in their ORiGiNaL EQUAHTy and Li- BERTV, and to prepare the means. This explains in what fenfe Chrilt was the ^.iviour and Redeemer of the •u-urld. Tiie dofliiiie of original tin, of the fall of man, and ot his regeneration, can now be underllood. The Hate of pure n.iture, of fallen or corrupt nature, and the Hate ot grace, will no lunger be a problem. MinkinJ, in quitting their Hate of original liberty, fell fiom the llate ot nature, and I'fl their Jigiiitw In their civil lociety, under their governments, they no longer live in the Hate vi pure nature, but in that o( fallen and corrupt nature. It the moderating of their paffi- ons, and the diminution of their wants, reinftate them in their primitive dignity, that will really conftitute their redemption and their _y?<j/i.' of grace. It is to this point that morality, and the muft perlect of all mora- lity, that of Jefus, leads mankind. When at length this docliine ihall prevail throughout the world, the reign of the good and of the eleifl Ihall be elUblilhed." This language (as M. Barruel obferves) is furely not enigmatical ; and the profelyte who has heard it without Ihuddering, may flatter himfclf with being worthy of this Antichriftian priefthood. He is led 31 back to the porch, where he is inverted with a white Preparato- lunic and broad icailet belt of filk. The lleeves o( toryriteato tlie tunic, which are wide, are tied in the middle and at the extremities with ribbons likewifi; of fear- let; and the candidate is recalled into the temple of myllcries. lie is met by one of the brethren, who does not permit him to advance till he has declared " whether he perfeilly underftands the dif- coutl'e which has been read to him ; whether he has any doubts concerning the doflrines taught in it ; whe- ther his heart is penetrated with the fane^ity of the principles of the order; whether he is feullb'.e of the call, feels the ftrengtli of mind, the fervent will, and all tlie difintereitednels requil'ite to labour at \he grand un- dertiiiing ; vihetlier he is ready to make a facriHce of his will, and to fuffer himfelf to be led by the moft fx- cel.'ent fupcriors of the order." The rites of the preceding degree were in impious de- -j rifion of thefacrament of the Lord'sfupper; thofeofthe Initiation prefentarean atrociousmimicryoffacerdotalordination; to the at which, as every one knows, the Lord's fupper is like- P"eftli<xxl» wife celebrated. A curtain is drawn, and an altar ap- {lears with a crucifix upon it. On the altar is a bible ; and the ritual ot the orderlies on a reading de(k, with a cenfer and a phial full of oil befide it. The dean, or prelident, who acls the part of a bifhop, bleffes the candidate, cuts hair from the crown of his head, a- noints liim, clothes him in the veftments of the prieft- hood, and pronounces prayers after the falhion of the order. He prefents him with a cap, laying, " Cover thyfislf with this cap ; it is more precious than the royal diadem." The mock communion is then dillri- buted ; and it confifts of milk and honey, which the dean gives to the profelyte, faying, " This is that which nature gives to man. Refleft how happy he would Rill have been, if the defire of fuperfliiities had not, by depriving him of a tafte for fuch fimple food, multiplied his wants, and poifoned the balm of life." The I L L C 211 ] I L L 33 Duties of the prieft <.r cpopt. S4 ^ualifica- tiims fuF the degree id regent. Illuminati. The ceremonies are terminated by delivering to the ^-'^'•■''~^ epopt that part of the code which relates to his new degree. Among the inftruftions which it contain?, the fol- lott'int; are more particularly worthy ot notice. The epopt, fays tlic code, " will take care that the writ- ings of the members of the order ihall be ci ied up, and that the trumpet of fame Ihall be founded in their ho- nour. He will alfo find means of hindi-ring the review- ers from ciijlin^ any fujpidons on the writers of the fefl." He is likewife inftrucfted to Ir't'ic the common people into the interefts of the order, and to corrupt their minds, by getting poiFedlon of fchools and other feminaries of learning. But " if it be necelHiry for us to be mailers of the ordinary fchools (fays the im- pious legiilator), of how mucii more importance will it be to gain over the Eccleftajlic Jcm'inar'ies and their fuperiors ! With them we gain over the chief part of the country ; we acquire the fupporl of the greatejl ene- mies to inmvalion ; and the grand point of all is, that tlirough the clergy we become mafters of the middle and loiver chijfes of the people." From the degree of epopt or prieft are chofen the regents or prince illuminees. On making this choice, fays the code, three things of the utmolt confequence are to be obferved. " i/?, The greateft referve is ne- celTary with refpe-fV to this degree : idly, Thofe who are admitted into it, muft be as much as poflible //•« men, zixd independent of princes : ^d!y. They muft have clearly manifefted their hatred of the general conjlitution, or the iicinal Jlate of mankind ; and liave fhewn how evidently they wifh for a change in thi government of the nuorld." If ihcfe requifites be found m an epopt who afpires to the degree of regent, fi.x preliminary quef- tions are put to him; of vihich the obvious meaning is to difcover, whether he deems it huvful and proper to teach fubjefls to throw off the authority of their fove. reigns, or, in other words, to deftroy every king, mi- nifter, law, magiftrate, and public authority on earth. When ihcfe queftions are anfwered to the fatisfac- tion of his examiner, he is informed, " that as, in lu- ture, he is to be entruftcd with papers belonging to the order of tar greater importance than any wliich he has yet had in his pndeflGon, it is neceil'iry that tjie ordt-r Ihould have farther fecuriiie-. He i.-, tlieiefore, com- manded to make his luill, and inf^^rt a claufe with re- fpeft to any private paj'-ers wliich he may leave, in cafe of fuddcn death. He is to get a formal or juridi- cal receipt for that part ol' his will from his family, or from the public ni.igiltrate; and he is to take their promifes in writing, that they are to fulfil his inten- tions." This precaution being taken, and the day fix- ed for his inauguration, he is admitted into an ante- chamber hung with black, where he fees a Ikeleton, elevated two fteps, with a crown and fword lying at lilaminati. its leet. Having given up the written difpofitions, Sec. ' — '::'^- refpecling his papers, his hands are loaded with chains AdmlLi. as it he were a llavc, and he is left to his meditations, to ihii de. A dialogue then takes place between his introducer 2"=- and the provincial, who is feated on a throne in a fa- locn adjoining. It is in a voice loud enough to be heard by the candidate, and confifts of various quef- tions and anfwers; of which the following may ferve for a fpecinien : Prov. Wlio has reduced him to this flate of fla- very ? ylnf. by the Introd. Society, Governments, the Sciences, and falfe Religion. Prov. And he wilhes to caft off this yoke, to be- come a feditious man and a rebel ? jinf No; he wilhes to unite with us, to join in OUR FIGHTS AGAINST THE CONSTITUTION OF GO- VERNMENTS, the corruption of morals, and the profa- nation of rehgion. He wilhes, througli our means, to become powerful, that he may attain the grand ul- timatum. Prov. Is he fuperior to prejudices? Does he prefer the general inlereft of the univerfe to that of more limit- ed afj'o:iations ? Anj. Such have been his promifes. Prov. Aik him, whether the fkeleton which is be- fore him be that ot a king, a nobleman, or a beggar ? Anf. He cannot tell; all that he fees is, that this Ikeleton was a man like us ; and the charader of man is all that he attends to. After a great deal of infidious mummery like this, the cpopt is admitted to tlie degree of prince ; but be- fore his inveftiture with the inlignia of that order, he is exhorted to be free, i. e. to be a man, and a man who knows how to govern himfcif ; a man who knows his duty, and his imprefcripubte rights ; a man who ferves the univerfe alone ; whofe aiftions are folely direil- ed to the general benfit of the world and of human na- ture. " Every thing elfc {f<iys the provincial) is injus- tice." A long panegyric is then made on die hap- pinefs which will be experienced by mankind, when every father of a family (hall he fovereit,n in his tran- quil cot! when he that wilhes to invade ihel'e facteJ rights fhall not find an afylum on the face of the earth ! wlicn idlenefs fhall be no longer fullered ; and when t/.e clod of if clefs fciences flail be cajl aftde ( c ) ! .c The fgn of this degree coiififted in extending out sign of the the arms to a brotlier with the hands open ; the gripe degree, was to feize the brother by the two elbows, as it were to prevent him from falling; and the ':ford was re- demption! The ejiopt was invtlled wi;h his princi- pality by receiving a buckler, boots, a cloak, and a D d 2 hat i (c) This will naturally fiirprife our readers; but it could not fiirprife him to wliom it was addrcffed ; for when candidate for the priellhood, he had been aiked, " Do the feiences which men cultivate furnilh diem with real lights ? Are they conducive to real happinefs ? Are they not, on the contrary, the off^pring of nim- berlefs wants, and of the unnatural llate in which men live ? Arc they not the crude inventions of crazy brainf ?"' There were, however, to be academies for the cultivation of fuch fcienccs as fuitcd tlic deligns of the order. Each academy was to conllft of nine epopts, ci whom fcvcn were to prefidc rcfpciflively over fn many depart- ments of fcience, whilft the other two were to officiate as fecrelaries. One of the departments included the oc- cult fcienccs, to which belonped the art of rai/ing the feals of the Icters of all who belonged not to the Cider, and of fecuring their own letters againff limilar pradices I I ILL [21; Hlumlnati. hit ; and on receiving the booti, he was defired lo fear —"^''■^^ ,., ^^,j which mi,i!,lit lead to tlie propajjation or dif- covery of kappincfs. Thus decor. ited, the prince illu- niinee received x\\c fralcrnal embrace, and heard the in- llniiftions for liis new degree. One would think th;it the adept had now airived at the very acme of piolanenefs, and trcafonable confpi- r.icy. He has been initiated in niylleries whicli bur- lef(|ue Chiillianity and its Divine Author, and at tlic lame time vow vengea\ice againll all government, all law, and all fcience ; yet Wtjlhaupt, in a letter to Cato Zwack, his incomparable man, fays, th.it he ha; ccin- pofed four degrees above that of regent, or prince-il- luminee ; witli refpci!^ even to tlie /oai^y? of wliicli, his degree of priert will be fi)unJ no more than child's play. " The ritual of thefe degrees, (fays he), I ne- ver fuffer to go out of my hands. It is of too ferious an import; it is the key of the ancient and modern, llie religious and political, hillory of the univerfe." This caution of the chief confpirator has deprived us of the power to give fo particular an account of thefe degrees as we have done of the preceding ; but the Abbe Barruel allures us that they were reduced to two, viz. that of 2vIaGus, and that of the Man-king ; .ind that thefe two conflituted the greater myste- ries. When the adept was admitted to the degree of 7nagiis, he was illuminized only in philofophy and reli- gion ; when to that of man-king, new ligiits were given him refpeiling property, and every fpecies of political alfociation. The Abbe quotes a pafiage from zhe Cri- tical hijlory of all the degrees of Uluminifm, written by a man of lionour, who had palfcd through them all, which will give the reader a futEcient idea of the objeft of thel'e lall degrees. -7 " With rcipeA to the two degrees of ma^us and of Oljedsof man-king (fays this writer), there is no reception, that the degrees jj j^ f.iy^ there are no ceremonies of initiation. Even of im^us jj^^ ^ig^j jj^j i^jjj permitted to tranfcribe thefe degrees ; an nun- ^j^^^ ^^j^ j^^^^ ^^^^ ^^.^j^ ^^^ ^^^ j^ ^j^^ reafon why ] I L L king. I do not publifh them with tliis work. Tlie firft is that of Magus, called alio philofopher. It contains the fundamental principles of Spinozifm. Here every tiling is Material ; God and the world are but one and tiie fame thing ; all religions are inconfiftent, chimeri- cal, and the invention of ambiiious men." That this is the do<51rine of Spinoza, and that Spi- noza was an atheill, is mod certain ; but though nothing can be effentially worfe than atheifm, we are ftrongly inclined to fufpedt that, at the initiation of the Magus, expreQlons mull have been ufed more fhocking at leajl to the ear than the philofophic jargon of the apoftate Jew. It is long fince the philofophy of Spinoza was in Ger- many recommended from the prefs (fee Spinoza, En- cycl.) ; it is but very lately that a profeffor in the uni- verfity of Jena publilhed a book, in which he teaches that there is no God, and that we abfurdly give that title to the relations of Nature (d) ; and fomething ap- proaching fo near to atheifm had been communicated to the adept when he was admitted to the priefthood, that we are perfuaded Weilhaupc muft have alluded to language at Icaft different from that in which Spinoza Illuiniiiatu taught his daik dodiines, and that language, accompa- ^■-'~^'""^-' nied perhaps with impious and audacious geftures, when he faid tiiat, compared witii his higher mylleries, his degree of pried was but child's jilay. What gives fome degree of probajjility to this conjee- A(t,^irn, ture, if it be nothing more, is the lollowing fact related anj by tlie Abbe Barrucl. During tlie French revolution (fays that able and well inlormed writer), a comedian appeared (e), dielled in the facerdotal robes of the illu- minees, and perfonally defying Almighty God. " No ! (faid the impious wretch) ihoa doll ni.t exilt. If thou haft power over the thunderbolts, grafp them ; aim them at tlie man who dares fct thee at defiance in the face of thy altars. But no ! I blalphenie thee, and I ftill live. No ! thou doll not exill." It will be feen by and bye, that the chiefs of the revolution, and even numbers of their tools, were illuminized ; and it is im- probable that this blafphemer, who was arrayed in the infignia ot the epopts, made ufc of the language and geftures of the higher myderies ? Whether it be or not, Si. Barruel has proved, even from the writings of Wei- lliaupt himfelf, that the magi were at lead atheids of the fchool of Spinoza. " The fecond degree of the grand myfteries, called the Man-king, teaches (according to the author of the Critical Hiltory), that every inhabitant of the country or town, every lather of a tamily, is fovereign, as men formerly were in the times of the patriarchial life, to which mankind is once more to be carried back ; that in confequence all authority and all magidracy muft be deftroyed." This may appear to be nothing more than what the adept has been already taught in the lelTcr myfteries ; Savaeifai. and it is in fad nothing more than that to which he muft have feen thel'e mylleries tending ; but the reader underftands not the language of the illuminees, if he fuppofes that, by the patriarchal date, they mc.tn fuch a date as that of the patriarchs of the Old 'I'cii.nnent. No ! their patriarchal date is the fancied lavage date of the atheidieal philofophers of Greece and Rome, when mankind had neither property nor fixed habitation. This is evident from one of the dilcourfes of the hiero- phant ; in which he tells the adept, that it would have been happy for man " had he known how to preferve himfelf in the primitive date in which Nature had pla- ced him ! But loon the unhappy germ developed itfelf in his heart, and reft and happinefs difappeared. As families mviltiplied, the necelFary means of fubfidence began to fail. The Nomatle or roaming life eeafed ; pro- perty began ; men chofe fixed habitations ; agriculture brought them together ; liberty was ruined in its FOUNDATIONS, AND ECiUALITY DISAPPEARED." To redore that libeity and equality, iheiefore, which is the ultimate objeiS of the order, and conftitutes the Man-king, all property mud be abolilhed, every houfe burnt, as well the cottage of the peafant as the palace of the prince; and mankind muft once more inhabit woods and caverns without clothes and without fire, and fally out occafionally to encounter their fellow- brutes. I (d) We learned this from the letter already quoted in note (a.) (e) He does not fay where this appearance was made ; but the circumftances related lead us to fuppofe that it wa« in a church. I L L C 213 ] I L L Savage Stale. Mluminati. brutes, and to fearch for food among the wild herbs of *'"'""'^*~' the deferc. According to Mochus the Phenician, and the Gretk philofophers of this hoptlul fchool, this was • See t^^ original ftate of man* ; and to thia (late it was the Doig't Lit- objeft of Wtilliaupt and bis adepts to reduce man again. tir on tie Hencc vve liear them lavilhing the molt rapturous enco- miums on the Goths and Vandals who over-ran the Roman empire, annihilated the arts, put a liop to agriculture, and burnt the towns and villages of civi- lized Europe ! It was thus, according to the illuminees, that thole barbarians regenerated mar.kind ; but the re- generation was not complete ; for the G.iths and Van- dals could not preferve themfelves from the contagion of civil life; and their fall from favagifm to fcience drew from Weilhaupt's hierophanls the moll piteous lamentations ! The lart fecret communicated to the moft favoured fjjj ]3(j (-£. adepts was the novelty of the order. Hiiheno their crct of the zeal had been inflamed, and their refpeifl demanded to •ider. an inftitution pretended to be of the higheft antiquity. The honour of inflituting the niylleries had been fuc- ceffively attributed to the children of the Patriarchs, to ancient philofophers, even to Chrill himfelf, and to the founders of the mafomc lodges (fee Masonry in this Suppl.) But nov/ the time is come when the adept, initiated in the higher myfteries, is fuppofed to be fuf- ficiently enthuliaftic in his admiration of the order, to be entrufted with the hidory of its origin. Here then they inform him, that this fecret fociety, which has io artfully led him from myllery to myftery ; which has with fuch perfevering induftry rooted from his heart every principle of religion, all love of his country, and affeilion for his family ; all pretenfions to property, to the exclufive right to riches, or to the fruits ot the earth ; — this fociety, which has taken fo much pains to demonllrale the tyranny and dcfpotifm ot all laws hu- man and divine, and of every guvernment, whether mo- narchical, ariftocratical, or republican ; which has de- clared him free, and taught him that he has no fove- reign on earth or in he.;ven ; no rights to relpcct in others, but thofe of perteil equality, of favage liberty, and of the moft abliilute independence ; that this fo- ciety is not the offspring of an ignorant and fuperfti- tious antiquity, but of modern philofophy ; in one word, that the true father of illun.inifm is no other than Adam Weilhaupt, known in the fociety by the name of Sp.\rtacus ! Thii important fecret, however, remained a myftery even to the greater part of the mngi and the man-kin^s, being revealed only to the grand council of areo[>tigUes, and to a few other adepts of dif- tinguilhed merit. So zealnufly was the order bent upon propagating I'ropofal '^^ execrable principles llirough the whole woild, that for a female fome of the chiefs had planned an order of female a- order, depts, in fubfervienc\ to the deligns of the men. " It will be of great fervicc, (fays 6'i(/»-Zwack), it will procure us both information and money, and will fuit charmingly the tafte of fome of our trucft members, who are lovers of the fex." An affelFur of tlie Impe- rial chamber at VVefzlar, of the name of DlM.furt, but known among the ilhiminees by that of Alinoj, ex- prelfcd even his delpair of ever bringing men to the grand objcd of the order without the fupport of fe- male adipts ; and he makes an offer of his own wife and bij four daughters-in-liiw 10 be fiift iniliateU. This will tire their roving fan- This order was to be fubdlvided into two clafTcs, each Illutr.in»ti. forming a feparate fociety, and having different le- crcts. The lirit was to be compofed ot virtuous wo- men ; the fccond of the wild, the giddy, and the volup- tuous. The brethren were to conduifl the firft, by promoting the reading of good books ; and to train the fecnd to the arts of feci ei/y gratifying their pajfions. The wife of an adept named Ptolemy Magus was to prefide over one of the claffes ; wliich (fays Minos) will become, under her management and his, a very pretty fociety. " You mull contrive pretty degrees, and dreffes, and ornaments, and elegant and decent ri- tuals. No man muft be admitted. This will make them more keen, and they will go much farther than if we were prefent, or than If they thought that we knew of their proceedings. Leave them to the fcope of their own fancies, and ihey will foon invent myfterics which will put us to the blulh, and myfleries which we can never equal. They will be our great apolllcs. Refledl on the refpeifl, nay, the awe and terror, infpired by the female myllics of antiquity. Ptolemy's wife mud dired them, and fhe will be in(lru<5led by Pto- lemy; and my llep-daughters will confult with me. We mufl always be at hand to prevent the introduction of any improper quellion. We mull prepare themes for their difcullion : thus we fhall confefs them, and in- fpire them with our fentiments. No man, however, mull come near them, cies, and we may expeft rare myfterics !" But notwithftanding all the plans and zeal of this ^^ profligate wretch and others of the fraternity, it does R^jcited not appear that the General Spailacus ever confented 7 ■ P'^^* to the eftablilliment of the (illeihood. He fupplied, however, the want of fuch an inftitution, by fecret in- llru(5lions to the regents, on the means of making the in- fluence of women over men fubfervient to the order, without entrnfting them with any ot the fecrets. " The fair fex (fays he) having the greateftpart of the world at their difpofal, no Itudy is more worthy the adept than the art of faitery, in order to gain them. They are all more or lefs led by vanity, curiofity, pleafure, or the love of novelty. It is on that fide, thereiore, they are to be attacked, and by that to be rendered fubfer- vient to the order." That Weiftiaiipt's figacity had not on this occalion forfaken him, is very evident ; fince it has been proved that the Get man fair, who were the correfpondents of the illuminees, welcomed the French invaders of their native country.* Nay, fo lately as • d, Robi- laft winter, our correlpondcnt in Saxony heard leveral fon'i Prfft of thefe illuminized lacies exprefs a wilh that the'/-' C»^i- French might invade and conquer England; for then, "^" faid they tea and coffee would be cheaper ! It is not enough for the founder of a fedl of confpi- rators to have fixed the precile objefl of lus plot'. His acc' mplices muft form but one body, animated by one fpirit ; its members muft be moved by tiic fame laws, under the inCpedlion and government cf the fame chiefs. A full account of the government of Weilhaupt's or- der will be fouivd in the valuable work of Abhc Uar- ruel ; our limits permit us to give only fuch a general view of it as may put cur readers on their guard againft the fecret machinations of tlicfe execrable villains, wliofe lodges are now recruiting, under different deno- minations, in every country in Europe. Wherevcrilluiniiiiinil-as gained a footing, as the mean* o2 I L L [ 214 ] I L L 44 Their mode of cotrefpon- <lence; ^nummat;. of fubordination, there is a general divifion of command '~^"~,''"~' as wcU.isol loc;ilhy. The canMilaUs a.nd novicts are each SuWina- under the direaion nf his own iulinu;itor, who introdu- tion of the ces him into the JlTinen/al loJjes ; each Minerval lodge h 15 illuminecs. a iupcrior from among the preparatory clids, under the infpeaionof the intermediary chils. S«maiiy lodges con- ftitute a dirtria, under the diredion of a luperior, wlium the order calls dean. The dean is fubjeifted to the prcvin- cial,v/ha has the infpcaion and command of all the lodg- es and deaneries of the province. Next in order comes the national fupenor, who has full power over all within his nation, provincials, deans, lodges, S:c. Then comes the fupreme council of the order, or the aienpagites, over which prefidcs the general of illumiuifm. 'I'hus has the order formed within itfelf a fupreme tribunal, to whofc in<niilition all nations are to be fabjcfled. The :ireopa£;ites, confiding of twelve fathers of the or- der, with th'e general at their head, form the centre of communication with all the national faperiors on earth; each national h the centre of one particular nation ; the provincial, of one province ; the dean, of the lodges within his deanery ; the niincrval majhr, of his acade- my ; the -venerable, of his mafonic lodge ; and the inft. nuator or recrailer, of his novices and candidates. The higher degrees (fays ^Veilhaupt in one of his inflruflions to the regents) mult always be hidden from the lower. The fimple iUnminee, therefore, correfponds with his immediate fiiperior, knowing perhaps no other member of the order ; the latter, with his dean ; and thus gradually afcendingto the national fuperiors, who alone are acquainted with the refidence of tlu areopa- ■'ites.as tliey again are with the name and refidence of the general. Any member, however, of the inferior degrees, may occafionally corrtfpond with his unknown fuperi- ors, by addrelling his letters ^u: bus licet ; and in thsfe letters he may mention whatever he thinks conducive to the advancement of the order. If he be a novice, he may in thefe letters inform his fuperiors how his in-_ ftruclor behaves to him, or may draw the charader of any perfon whatever. When the letter of any adept contains fecrets, or complaints which he chufes to con- ceal from his immedi.ite fuperior, he directs it Sol- or Prima ; and then it can be opened only by the provin- cial, the national fuperior, the areopag'Ues, or the gtne- ra't, according to the rank of the v. riter, which is by fome contrivance unknown toM. Barrtiel, indicated on the outfide of the letter. The provincial opens the letters of the minor ^luA. major illnniinees which are di- refled Soli ; the ^libus liceis of the epopts ; and the Primes of the novices ; but he cannot open either the Primo of the minerval, the .W/of the Scotch knight, or the ^liuus lied of the regent. lie can only form a con- jeaure as to the perfons who open his own letters, andthofe which lie is not permitted to open himfelf. When it confidered, that by one of Weifnaupt's Aiidoi-Jv- ftatutes, the provincial has in each chapter or diltrift iug imjror. a confidential epopt, who is his fecrel cenfir or fpy ; tance to that thefe fpics are to infinuate thernfelves into all coni- iheir order, ponies, and colleft anecdotes of ficret kijiorj ; that the hiftorian of the province is to infcrt thefe anecdotes in- to a journal kept for that pnrpofe ; and that the pro- vincials are obliged to forward the contents of thefe journals to the high fuperiors of the order — fome notion 45 may be formed of the influence of the general and arc- !llun»in«tl. cpagires in every country into which illuniinifm has """'^ """'' found Its way. " Th; means of acquiring an afcen- d incy over men (fiys Wcilhau,"t) are incalculable. Who could enumerate them all \ They mull: v.iit- with the difpolition of the times. At one period, it is a talte for the marvellous that is to be wrought upon. At another, the lure of fecret focieties is to be held out. For this reafon, it is very proper to make your inferiors believe, without telling them the real (late of the cali:, that all other fecret focieties, particularly that of Freemafonry , are fecrelly directed by us. Or elfe, and IT IS REALLY THE FACT IN SOME STATES, THAT PO- TENT MONAR.CHS ARE GOVERNED BV ODR ORDER. When any thing remarkable or important comes to pafs, hint that it originated 'with our order. Should any perl'on by his merit acquire a great reputation, let it be generally undcrllood that he is one of us. " If our order cannot ellablilh itfelf in any particti- ^(, lar place, with all the forms and regular progrefs of By every our degrees, fome other form mijl lea/fumed. Always ■"<=*"'> have the objed in view; that is the eifential point. No Pj** ""^ matter what the cloak be, provided you fucceed ; a cloak, however, is alivays necejfary, for in fecrecy our Jlrength lies. The inferior lodges of free- masonry ARE THE MOST CONVENIENT CLOAKS foT our GRAND OBJECT ; becaufe the world is already fa- miliarized with the idea, that nothing of importance or '■j.'orlhy nf tkeir atlenlion can fpring from jnif/niry." No artifice, however, is to be lett untried. " Yon may attend large and commercial towns during the times of fairs in different charafters ; as a merchant, an officer, an abbe. Everywhere you will perfonate an extraordi- nary man, having impoitant bufincfs on your hands; but all tliis mufl te done with a great deal oi art and caution, lelt you fliould have the appearance of an ad- venturer. You may write your orders with a cLymical preparation of ink, which difappears after a certain time. Never lole light of the jnilitary fhools, of the acade- mies, printing preffls, libraries, cathedral chapters, or any public ejlabhjhments that can influence education or go- vernment. Let our regents perpetually attend to the various means, and form plans, for making us mas- ters 0/" a// thefe ejlabl'tfhments. When an author fets forth principles true in themfelves, but which do n'^t as yet fuit our general plan of education for the luorld, or principles, the publication of which is premature ; every elFort mull be made to gain ever the author : but Ihould all our attempts fail, and we Ihould prove un- able to entice him into the order, let him le difcredited by every piffible means." Of their methods of difcrediting authors, one has come to our knowledge, which mud be intereding to fome of our readers. Dr Robifon's work, entitled Proofs of a Confpiracy, &c. which firft unmaflied thefe hypocrites in this country, found its way into Ger- many, and was tranflated into the German language, and expofcd to fale at the Leipfic fairs. The illumi- necs, under the difguife of merchants and abbes, attend- ed, and bought up the whole imprefTion, which they committed to the flames. A fecond edition v.-as pub- liflied, and it ihared the fame fate(ir). This was a more compendious way of anfwering the learned au- thor \ (f) This information was communicated to us by a geatleman of charafter, who was at Leipfic when the 47 Illuintnifni of France ILL [2 lUurainaii. thor than that which has been adopted by the Jacobin ^'■*'"'''''"~' jjurnalills in London; but peihaps it may convince the readers of thelc journals, ih.it tiie Doctor has not fo far miilaken the kni'e of the wii.ings of I'hih and S/iurt.icus, Ai their iiluiiuniied nialters wifh thv-m to be- lieve. When thefe arts of diifeminating the diforganizing and impious principl.-s ot the order are duly conlideied, and when it i« remembered that its einiifaries dare not difobey a fingie injunction of the high fuperiors, with- out expoling thenHeives to poilbn, or to the daggers tf a thoaland unfeen alfiffins, no man can be furpnfed to learn that the illuniinees contiibutcd greatly to the French revolution. The philufuphers of France had indeed piepared the public mind lor embracing readily the doctrines of illurninimi ; and fo early as 1782, P/ji/o and Sparlacus had formed the plan of illuminizing that nation; but they were afraid of the vivacity and ca- price of the pe iplc, and extended not their attempts, at that time, beyond Stralbourg. Already, however, there cxilled forne adepts in the very heart of the king- dom ; and the Marquis de Mirabeau, when ambaifador at the court ot Berlin, was initiated at Brunlwick by a dilciple of Philo Knigge's. On his return to France he began to introduce the new myllcries among his ir.afi>nic brethren. The Rate of free mafonry was at that time peculiarly adapted to the views of the confpirators. The French had engrafted on the old and innocent Britilh mafonry a number cf degrees gradually nfing above each other, to the very myiteries of illuminifm itfelf (See Mason- RT, in this SuppL). Thcfe were called the philofophl- cal degrees, and comprehended the knr^hti of the fun, the higher Rojicrucians, and the knights Kadtfh. At the head cf all thele iocieties, whether ancient or mo- dern, were three lodges at P.tris, remarkable for the au- thority which they exercifed over the rell of the order, and Philip of Orleans was the grand-mailer. So early as the year 1787, France contained 282 towns, in which were to be found regular lodges under the diredlion of that execrable wretch. He increafed their num- ber, by introducing to the mafomc myllcries the lowtik of the rabble, as well as thole French guards whom he dellined to the fubfequent attack ot the ballile, and to the ftorming of the palace of his near relation and royal mafter. In every country town and village lodges were open for alfembhng the workmen and peafantry, in hopes of heating their imaginations with the fophillicaled ideas of equality and liberty, and the rights of man ; and it was then that Miiabeau invi- led a deputation from the order of Weilliaupt, which very quickly difluled the light of illuniinilm through the whole kingdom. Inllead of 5/>iir/af«/-Weiltiaupt, CiJ/o-Zwack, and P^/o-Kniggc, we lind wielding the firebiand'. of revolutr)n in the capital of France, Philip tf Orleans, Mirnbeiiii, Syeyes, and Conjsrcft. The day of general inlurrcdllon was fixed by ihele milcreants for the 14th of July 1789. At the fame hour, and in all parts of France, the cries of equaiily and liberty rel'cunded fi I ini the lodges. The Javobir. clu is were foimed ; aiid hence iprung tlie revolution, with ail its horrois of aihcifni, murder and maflacre ! 5 ] I L L 48 By means of free raa- £uiiry. In fupport of this account of the illuminecs we have Illiimiiiati. not loaded our margin with authorities ; becaufe our ^•^~''~''~^ ditail has been taken wholly from the valuable woiks of Abbe Bariuel and Dr Rcbilon, to which we r:fer our readers for much curious information that our li- mits do not permit us to give. We cannot, however, conclude the article, without making fome remarks en that fpecious principle by which the confpirators have deluded numbers, who abhor their impi.-tics, and who would not go all their length, even in rebellion ; we mean the maxim, that " it is our duty to love all men with an equal degree ot affccflion, and that any partial regard for our country, or our children, is unjufl." That this maxim is lalfe, every Chrijlian knows, be- 49 caufe he is enjoined to " do goodiiidctd unto all men, I'f9"'Jncns but morf cfpecially to them who are of the houfthold of!" ''"^ '^""" faith ;" bccaule he is told that " it any man provide not principli* for his own, and efpecially for thole of his own /y)«/f , of illumi- he haih denied the faith, and is worfe than an inlidel ;" niCm; becaufe his divine mailer, immediately after relbh-ing all duty into the love of God and man, delivers a pa- rable to fliew, that we neither can, iicr ought to love all men equaUy ; and becaufe the fame Divine Perfon had one difcip'.e whom he loved more than the reft. But we wilh thofe phikfophers, who talk perpetually of thi michanifm oi the human mind, and at the fame time affect to have no/ar/w/fondnefs lor any individual, but to love all with the fame degree of ratknal affeiflion, to conlider well whether fuch philanthropy be confill- ent with what they call (very impropcily indeed) n.e- chanifm. If this mechanifm be \ai one of there fays it is) notljing more than a/lrallion and repulfion, we know that it A///«o/ extend with equal force over the whole world ; becaufe the force of attraftion and repulfion varies with the diftance. If by tins abfurd phral'e, they mean a fet of hiJiinSiv! propenlities, or feelings, we know that among lavages, who are more governed by inftinft than civilized men, philanthropy is a feeling or propenlity of a very limited range. If they believe all our palllons to originate in felt love, then is it cer- tain that our philanthropy mull be progrcQive ; em- bracing full, and with ftrongefl ardour, our relations, our friends and our neighbours ; then extending gra- dually through the fociety to which we belong ; then grafplng our country, and lall of all the whole human race. Perhaps they may fay thit reafon teaches us to love all men equally, b;caiife fuch equal love would contribute mo[l_to the fum of human happinels. This fome of them indeed have aiflually laid ; but it is what no man of retleiftion can poflibly believe. Would the fum of human happinels be increafed, were a man to pay no greater attention to the education of his own cliildren than to the education of the children of llran- gers ? were he to do nothing more for hit aged and iielplefs parents than for any other old pcrlbn what- ever ? or were he to negleifl the poor in his neighbour- hood, that he might relieve thofe at the dlllance of 1000 miles ? Theli: quellions are too abfurd to merit » ferious anlwcr. When a man, thertfore, boafts of his univerfal bene- volence, declaring himlelf ready, without fee or re- ward, to facritice every thing dear to him for the beue- fi: twoimpreirions-if die book were ihus difpofed of. The Abhd Darruel's work has uo doubt been anfwered ia tbe fame way, though we cauagt fay fo upuu the fame authority. I M P Uuminati, II Impcrfccl. C 2l6 ] I M P 5° Exemplifi- ed in the coiuiudt of the illunii- nces. fit of flran^ers whom he never faw; and when he con- demns, in the cant phrafe ot fairion, that nirrow po- licy which does not confider the whole human race as one great family — we may lately conclude him to be either a confummate hypocrite who loves none but iiimfeU, or a philolbphical fanatic, who is at once a ftranger to his duty and to the workings of his own heart. If this conclufion require any farther proof, wc have it in the condufl of Wudiaupt and liis areopagitcs. In the hand writing of Caio, his incompurable man, was found the de(cripti<in of a ftrong box, which, if lorced open, would blow up and deflroy its cuntenti ; feveral receipts for procuring abortion; a compofition which I'linJs or hills when fpurted in the face ; tea for procu- ring abortion ; HerhiX qu£ habent qualiiatem dchteream ; a method for tilling a bed chamber with peJliL-ntial tia- pours ; how to take oft imprelFions of feals, fo as to ufe them aJ'teriuarJs as feals ; a receipt ad exeilandum fura- rem uterinum; and a dilTertalion on Juicide. Would genuine philanthropifts have occafion for luch receipts as thefe ? No ! the order which ufed them was founded in the mod confummate villany, and by the moft de- teftable hypocrite. The inceftuous Weilhaupt feduced the widow of his brother, and folicited poifon aiid the dagger to murder the woman whom he had fondly prelTed in his arms. " Execrable hypocrite (fays M. Barruel), he implored, he conjured both art and frienJ- Ihip, to deftroy the innocent viiflim, the child, whofe birth mull betray the morals of his iather. The fcan- dal from which he Ihrinks, is not that of his crime : it is the fcandal which, publilhing the depravity of his heart, would deprive him of that authority by which, under the cloak of virtue, he plunged youth into vice and error. / am on the eve (fays he) of lofing that re- putation which gave me fo great authority over our people : My Jijler-in-latv is with child. I ivill hazard a defpe- rate blow, for I neither can nor ivill lofe my honour" Such is the benevolence of thole who, banilhing from their minds all partial affeftion for their children and their country, profefs themi'elves to be members of one great family, the family of the world ! IM.A.GINARY Quantities, or Ivipoff.ble Shtanti- iies, in algebra, are tlie even roots of negative quanti- ties ; which e.\prellions are Imaginary, or impollible, or oppofed to real quantities; as »/ — aa, or * »/ — a*, &c. For as every even power of any quantity what- ever, whether politive or negative, is necelfarily pcfitive, or having the fign -j-, becaufe -}- by +, or — by — , give equally -|- ; hence it follows that every even power, as the fquare for inftance, which is negative, or having the fign — , has no poffible root ; and therefore the even roots of fuch powers or quantities are faid to be impoffible or imaginary. The mixt expreffions ari- fmg from imaginary quantities joined to real ones, are alio imaginary ; as a — y/ — aa, or ^ -|- ^Z — "•'■ lMACiA-.iRr Roots of an equation, are thofe roots or values of the unknown quantity, which contain fome imaginary quantity. Thus, the roots of the equation xx-^■aa=:o, are the two imaginary quantities +\/ — aa and — ^/ — aa, or -^ a \/ — i and — a -v/ — i • IMPACT, the fimple or fingle aflion of one body upon another to put it in motion. Point of impadt is the place or point where a body afls. IMPERFECT Number, is that whofe aliquot parts, taken all together, do not make a fum that is Imper!«le, equal to the number itfelf, but either exceed it, or fall II fhort of it ; being an abundant number in the former !^^PH'!i?"\ cafe, and a defeftive number in the latter. Thus, 12 is an abundant imperfcvt number, becaufe the fum of all its aliquot parts, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, makes 16, which exceeds the number 12. And 10 is a defeilive imperfedlnumber, b;caule its aliquot parts, i, 2, 5, taken all together, make only 8, which is lefs than the number 10 itfelf. IMPERIALE, a city of Chili in South-America, 6 leagues from the South Sea, having the river Cauten to the fouth .and another river to the weft, both navi- gable. It is fituated on a rifing lleep neck of land, hard to be afcended. In 1600, it was taken by the Indians, after a year's fiege ; moft of the inhabitants having perilTied by famine. They burnt the town, and then laid fiege to Soforno. In this war Valdivia, Argol, Sanda Cruz, Chilla, and Villa Rica were taken. After which they became fo confident of their (Irength, that they fought the Spaniards bravely, and in fome meafure revenged the cruelties they had committed upon their countrymen. The Spaniards afterwards built a town here called Conception. S. lat. 38" 42', W. long. 73° 25'. — Morse. IMPOST, in architeiflure, a capital or plinth, to a pillar, or pilafter, or pier, that fupports an arch, &c. IMPULSION, is the term employed in the ^^^- X)o&rine ol guage of mechanical philofophy, for exprefllng a fup- impulfion. pofed peculiar exertion of the powers of body, by which a moving body changes the motion of another body by hitting or ftriking it. The plaineft cafe of this aftion is when a body in motion hits another body at reft, and puts it in motion by the ftroke. The body thus put in motion is faid to be impelled by the o- ther ; and this way of producing motion is called im- ruLsiON, to diftinguifli it from pression, thrusting, or PROTRUSION, by which we pu(h a body from its place without Itriking it. The term has been gradually extended to every change of motion occafioned by the collifion of bodies. When fpeculative men began to collect into general ' clalTes, the obfervations made during the continual ex- . ' °'y "' ertions of our own perfonal powers on externsl bodies, in order to gain the purpofes we had in view, it could not belong before they remarked, that as we, by the flrength of our arm, can move a body, can ftop or any how change its motion; fo a body already in motion produces effefts of the fame kind in another body, by hitting it. Such obfervations were almoft as early and as interefting as the other ; and the attention was vsry forcibly turned to the general fafts v.-hich obtained in this way of produ- cing motion ; that is, to the expifcation of the general laws of impulfion. We do not find, however, in what remains of the phyfical fcience of the ancients, that they had proceeded far in this clafllfication. While mechanics, or the fcience of machines, had acquired fome form, and had been the fubjeft of fuccefsful ma- thematical difculllon, we do not find that any thing fi- milar had been done in the fcience of impulfe. Yet the artillery of ancient times was very ingenious and p^-.wer- ful. But although Vegetius, and Ammianus Marcelli- nus, and Hero, defciibe the mechanifm of thefe engines with great care, and frequently with mathematical ikill, we fee no attempts to afcertain with preclfinn the force of the mifTile weapon, or to ftate the efficacy of the battering IMP [2 Impulfion. battering ram, by meafures of the momentum, and com- ^■^"^^~"*^ parifon of it with the refiftance oppofed to it. The engineers were contented with very vague notions on thefe pointi. Ariftotle, in his 2 olh Mechanical Queftion, and Ga- len in fome occafional obfervations, are the only au- thors of antiquity whom we recollcdl as treating the force of inipulfe as a quantity fufceptible of meafure. Their obfervations are extremely vague and trivial, chiefly direifled, iiowevcr, to the difcrimination of the force of impulfe from that of prefllire. In more modern times, great additions had already been made to the affiftance we had derived from the impulfive efficacy of bodies in motion. Water-mills and wind-mills had been invented, and had been applied to fuch a variety of piirpofcs, that the engineers were fall acquiring more diltincl notions of the lorce of im- pulfe. Naval conflruiflion was changed in fuch a man- ner, that there hardly remained any thing of the ancient rigging. The oblique a.5Hon of wind and water were now found even more cffeflive than the dire(fl ; and fliips could now fail with almoll any wind. All thefe things fixed the attention of the engineers and of the fpecu- latift on the numberlefs modifications of the force of impulfe. But it foon appeared that this was a refined branch of knowledge, and required a more profound ftudy than any other department of the fcience of motion. At the fame time, it was equally clear, that it was alfo of fupcrif r importance. Mills worked by cattle, or by men's h.;nds, were everywhere giving place to wind and water-mills ; and a Ihip alone appeared to every intelli- gent mechanician to be the greateft effort of human in- vention, and mofl deferving his careful ftudy. All thefe improvements in the arts of life derived their efH- cacy from the impulfe of bodies. The laws of impul- fion, therefore, became the ohjeiSs of fludy to all who pretended to phllofophical fcience. But this is a branch of ftudy wholly new, and derives little affiftance from the mechanical fcience already acquired ; for that was confined to the determination ot the circumftances which regulated the equilibrium offerees, either in their combined aiffion on bodies in free fpace, or by the in- tervention of machines. But in the produflion of mo- tion by impulfe, the equilibrium is not fuppofed to ob- tain ; and therefore its rules will not fclve the moft im- portant queftion, " What will be the precilc motion ?" Galileo, to whom we are indebted for the fiift dif- coveries in the dodliine of free motions, was alfo the firft who attempted to bring impulfion within the pale of mathematical difcuflion. This he attempted, by en- deavouring to ftate what is the force or energy of a body in notion. The very (;bfcure rcfledions of A- liftotle on this fubjeiff only ferved to make the ftudy more intricate and abftrufe. Galileo's refleiftlons on it are void ot that luminous pcrlpicuity which is feen in all his other writings, and do not a]ipear to lijTe iatis- fied his own mind. He has recourfe to an experiment, in order to dlfcover what prclfure was excited by im- pulfion. A weight was made to fall on the fcale of a balance, the other arm of which was loaded with a cnn- fider.ible weight ; and the force of the blow was efti- mated by the weight which the blow could thus ftart from the groimd. The rclults had a certain regularity, by which fome analogy was obferved between the Sltpl. Vol. II 17 ] IMP weights thus ftartcd and the velocity of the impulfe ; Impulfion. but the anomalies were great, and tiie analogy was fin- — ^"^''~"~' gular and puzzling ; it led to many intricate dilcuftions, and fcience advanced but flowly. At laft the three eminent mathematicians, Dr Wal- , j,,.*„f lis. Sir Chrillopher Wrenn, and Huyghen-, about the i„:puifion fame time, and unknown to each another, difcovered diicovcrcd the fimple and beautiful laws of colliUon, and commu- by Walln, nicated them to the Royal Society of London in 1O68 ^^■"""•^'■■<* (Phil. Tranf. n" 43—46)- Sir Chriftopher Wrenn "">S'''"'- alfo invented a beautiful method of demonftrating the doflrine by experiment. The bodies which were made to ftrike each other were fufpended by threads of equal length, fo as to touch each otlier when at reft. When removed from this their vertical fituatiun, and then let go, they ftruck when arrived at the loweft points of their refpeftive circles, and their velocities were propor- tional to the chords of the arches through which they had defcended. Their velocities, after the flroke, were meafured, in like manner, by the chords of their arches of afcent. The experim.ents correfponded precifcly v/ith the theoretical doiffrine. In the mean time, this fubjcfl had keenly occupied the attention of philofophers, who found it to be of a very abftrufe nature; or, which is nearer the truth, they indulged in great refinement in ptofecuting the ftudy. The firft attempts to meafure the impulfive force of bodies, by fetting it in oppoiitlon to pre(]ure.s which had long been meafured by weights, gave rife to fume very refined reflcflions on the nature ot thefe two kinds of forces. Ariftotle had fiid that they were things altogether difparate. If fo, there can be no pro- portion between them. Yet the analogy obferved in the experiments above mentioned of Galileo, Iliewed that impulfe could be gradually augmented, till it ex- ceed any prelfure. This indicates famenefs in kind, ac- cording to Euclid himfelf. A curious experiment of Galileo's, in which the impulfe of a vein ot' water vyas fet in equilibrio with a weight, feemed not only to efta- blifti this identity beyond a doubt, but even to (hew the origin of preflure itlelt. The weight in one fcale is fuftained as long as the ftrcam of water continues to ftrike the other fcale. In this experiir.ent, therefore, prelfure is equivalent to continual impulfe. But conii- nual impulfe is not conceivable : we mulf confider the impulfe of the ftream as \\\^ fuccfjjive impulfe of the dif- ferent particles of water, at intervals which arc altoge- ther indiftinguifliable. From thefe confiderations were deduced two very mo- mentous doiflrines: 1. That prelfure is nothing but repeated impulfe ; 2. That altliough preflure and im- pulfe are the fame in kind, they arc incomparable in magnitude. The impulfe is equal to tlic weight of a column of water, whole length is the height recef- fary for communicating the velocity. Now this is iij- ccliant ; and the weight is fuftained during any the fmallcft moment of time, by the Impulfe, not of the whole column, but of the infenfible p irtinn of it v\hicli is then making its ftroke. Impulfe, therefore, is infi- nitely greater than pie'Jure. Thclc abftrufe fpeculatiims have a cliurm for certain ^ ingenious fpeculativc minds ; and when indulged, will Impulfe lead them very far. Accordingly, it was not long before ''•'i'l '» be fome of the moll ingenious philofopliers of Europe ''"^ ""^ taught lliat impulfe was the fjle origin of prellure. "".-IL E c There I M P [ 218 ] I M P Imru'.fion. There is but one moving power (faid they) in meclia- ''^^''^'^ „ical nature: This is iinpuUe. — Nihil moveliir (fays Euler) nijl a contipio et tnolo. Moreover, having been long and t.Hmiliirly converlant with tlie aflions of ani- mals, and the actions of moving bodies, and conceiving, with fiiflicient dilUnanels, that impenetrable bodies cannot move without moving thofe with whicli they are furrounded and in contaa, they imagined that they fully underftood h<Av all this difplaccment of bodies is carried on ; and therefore tliey maintained, that any motion is fully explained when it is lliewn to be a cafe (f impiilfion. But tliey fav/ many cafes of motion \vhere this impnUion could not be exhibited to I he fenfes. Thus, the fall of lieavy bodies, the mutual approach or recefb of magnetic and electric bodies, exhibited no fucli operation. But even here their experience helped tliem to an explanati; n. Air is an invifible fubftar.ce, and its very exiftence was for a long time known to us only by means of its impulfe. As we R-e that prelFures are generated by tlie impulle of water and of air, may there not be fluids llill more fubtle than air, by whofe invi- fible impulfe bodies are made to fall, and magnets are made to approach or avoid each other ? The impof- ilbility of this cannot be demonllrated, and the laws of impulfe had not as yet been fo far invelligated as to Ihew that they we; e incompatible with thofe produc- tions of motion. It was therefore an open field tor dif- culTion; and the philofophers, without farther hefiti- tion, adopted, as a firll truth, that all motion what- ever IS PRODUCED BY IMPULSION. The bufiuels of the philofi.pher, therefore ifay they), is to invelligate what combination of invifible iinpuluons is competent to the prodndion of any obferved motion ; fuch as the fall of a heavy body, the elliptical motion of a planet, or the polarity of a magnetic needle. ThecuTious difpo- fition of iron-filings round a magnet encouraged this kind of fpeculation : It looks fo like a llream of fluid ; but it is a number of quiefcent fragments of iron. This^ does not hinder us horn fuppofin^ fuch a dream, not of iron-filings, but of a magnetic fluid, which will arrange (fay the atomills^ thofe fragments, jult as we fee the flotc-giafs in a brook arranged by a ftream of water. Fluids, therefore moving in llreams vortices, and a thoufand different ways, have been fuppofed, in order to explain, that is, to bring under a general known lav of mechanical Nature, all thofe cafes of the pro- duvftion of motion where impulfion is not obferved by the fenfes. As we have gradually become better acquainted with the laws of the produftion of motion by impulfion, we have been able to explode many of thofe proffered ex- planations, by (hewing that the genuine refults of the fuppofed invifible motions, that is. the impulfions which they would produce, are very unlike the motions which we attempt to explain. It has been (hewn, that the vor- tices fuppofed by Des Cartes, or by Leibnitz, or by Huyghcns, cannot exifl; and they have been given up. But it is anfwered to uU thofe demonftralions of futili- ty, that Rill the axiom remains. Motion is pioduced only by impiilfe; but we have not yet difcovered all iheprifibiliiies ot impulfion ; and we muft not delpair of difcovering that precife fet of invifible motions, and confequent impulfions, of which the phenomenon before us is the neceffiry refult. But this is by no means fuffivient authority for de- ferting the rule of philofophizing, fo prudently and ju- Impulfion. dicioully recommended by Sir llaac Newton ; namely, ^-'"^'"'^^ not to admit as the caufe of a phenomenon any thing -j-jie amili- that is notyfi;; to operate in its produftion. The pru catien of dence of this rellriftion is evident ; and it has alio been this prin- fufficiently Oiewn (Philosophy, Emycl. n° j^^ &c.), •^■r''^ '^ ''=>- that true phihfuphical explanation, orextcnfion of know- ^"""'"' ledge, is unattainable, if this rule be not llridlly adhered to. AV'c therefore require a cogent reafon for a prac- tice that opens the door to every abfurdity, and that cannot give us the knowledge which we aie in quell of. What, then, is the reafon that always induces phi- lof iphers to have recourfe to impulfion for the expla- nation of a phenomenon, and to reft fatisficd in every cafe where it can be clearly proved that the phenome- non is reilly a cafe of impulfion? We fay that we in- quire into the reafon why a body falls, and that we will be fatibfied il it can be lliewn us that it has received a number of impulfions downward. Do we inquire why a body in motion puts another body in motion by hit- ting it ? And if we do, h »ve we difcovered the reafon ? We believe that none of the philofopheis, who have re- courfe to invifible impelling Huids, ever afk a reafon for motion by impulfion. Indeed they fiiould not, other- wife it would ceafe to be a firft principle of explanation. Other philofophers, indeed (namely, fuch as afk no rea- {•^■n for the weight of a body, but the fi.it of the Al- mighty), require an explanation of motion by im- pulfe, and think that, in almoft every cafe, they have found it out. If the philofophers afk no re.^fon for this produiflion of motion, they niuft (that it may feive as a principle of explanation) fay ihatimpulfivenefs is an original pro- perty of matter, either contingent or eifenti/il. Accor- dingly, we believe that this, or fomethinghke this, has been aifumed as a principle by the greater part of me- chanicians. It has been affumed, as we have obferved in the article Dynamics, Suppl. that a 7noving body polfeifes the power of producing motion in another body by hitting it; and they call it the impulsive force of movir.g bidies — the force inherent in a moving body. The reader will have obferved, in our man- ner of treating that article, and alfo in feveral paffages of different articles of the Encyclopedia, that we do not confider this affumplion as very clearly autho- rifed by obfervation, or deducible by abftrafl reafoning, from the firft principles of philofophy. There is no branch of natuial philolbphy on wliich fo many ingeni- ous diflertations have been written ; and perhaps there is none that has been more fuccef fully profecuted : Yet this is the only part of the fcience of motion that has given rife to a feiious difpute; a dilpute that has di- vided, and ftdl divider, the mechanicians of Europe. Snme may think it prefumptuous in us, in a Work of this kind, v.hlch only airos at coUeifling and exhibit- ing in one view the exijiing Jcience of Europe, to pre- tend to give new dodtrints, or to decide a quelUon which has called forth all the powers of a Leibnitz, a Bernoulli, a Jurin, a M'Laurin, 6cc. But we make no fuch pretenlioni ; we only hope tliat, by feparating the queftion from others with \\hich it h.is. in every in- ftauce, been complicated, and by confidering it apart, fuch notions may be formed, in perfeifl conformity to the principles adopted by all parties, that the m' ftery, which has gradually gathered like a cloud, may be dif- pelled^ I M P [ Impuinon. Inquiry in- to its truth. 6 \Vc learn the exig- ence of matter chiefly by means of touch. The excite- ment of touch is ac- companied by tlic feel- ing of ex- erted prcf- furc. polled, and all caufe of difference taken away. We ap- prehend that this requires no very extenfive knowledge, but merely a dud attention to the conceptions which we form ot the aftions of bodies on each other, and a preciilon in the ufi of the terms employed iu the dil- cuflion. We truft that our philofophical readers perceive and approve of our anxiety to ellablifli (in the article DvNAMics, Supi>l.) the lejJing principles of mechani- cal philofophy, from which we are to reaion in luture on acknowledged facts, or laws of human thought. It is not fo much the queRion, What is the eflence of material Nature, from which all the appearances in the univerfe proceed ? as it is, What do we know ol it ? how do we come by this knowledge? and what ufe can we make of it ? The ta;nia knows nothing of the folar fyftem, and man is ignorant of the caufe of iinpulfive- nefs. Other intelligent creatures may have fcnfes, of which this is the proper objcifl ; and others, of a llill more exalted rank, may perceive the operations of mind as clearly as we perceive thofe ot matter, while they are equally ignorant with ourfelvcs of the caufes which conneft the conjoined events in either ot thofe opera- tions. But " known unto God, and to Him alone, are all His works !" To accomplifh this purpnfe, we direded the reader's attention to what pali'es in his own mind when he thinks on the mechanical phenomena of Nature ; on what he calls body ; on the perceptions which bring it into his view, and which give him all the notions that he can form of iis dillinguilhing, its charaifleriftic properties. How does he leain that there is matter in a particular place.' He has more than one mean of information ; and each of thefe informs him ot peculiar qualities ot the thing which he calls nialter. Many appearances fugged to his mind the prefence of a body. Show a monkey or a kitten (and even fometimes a human in- fant} a mirror, and it will inllanily grope round it to find a companion. Why does the creature grope about fo ? It is not contented with the tirll inJicJtion of matter, and nothing will fatisfy it but touching or grafping what is behind the mirror. It is by our fenfe of touch alone lliat we get the irrelillible conviiftion that matter or body is perceived by us, and it never fails to give us the perception ; nay, we have the per- ception even in fome cafes where the experienced phi- lolbpher thinks hin)f-lf obliged lo doubt of its truth. Some fenfations, aiiling Ironi fpafm, cannot be dillin- guilhed from the feelings of touch ; and the patient in- liils that fomething prcffes on the dil'cafcd part, while llie phyfician knows that it is only a nervous afleiftion. Every perfon will think that a cobweb touches his face when an eleflrilied body is brought near it, and will try to wipe it off with his hand. But the modern philofopher fees good reaf m for aiierting, that in this inllance our feeling gives us very inaccurate, if not er- roneous, information. He (hews, that the faift, of which our feeling truly informs us, is tlie bending ol the fmall hairs or down which grow on the face, and that thefe only hare been touched ; and tlie fiilh wcrs ot yEpi- nus deny that even tliis has been demonllrated. The philolophcr adopts this mode of perception as unqucllionable, and allows that, and that alone, to be matter, which invariably ptoduccs this I'tnfation by con- ti2uity. Buteng.iged in fpeculatious which fix liis at- 219 ] IMP tention on the external objea, he neglefls and over- impuICon. looks the inflrument of ir.foimation, and its manner of '-^"■''^'^ producing the effea, juft as the aftronomer overlook i the telcfcope, and the unicn and deculfaiion of the rays of light which form the piifture by which he per- ceives the fatellite of Jupiter travel acrofs his di(k. The philofopher finds it convenient to generalise the im- menfe variety of touches which he feels from ertemal bodies, and to confider them as the operations of one and the fame difciiminating quality, a propesty inhe- rent in the external fubftance body ; and he gives it a name, by which he can excite the fame notion in the minds ol hi» hearers. It is worth while to attend to what has been done in this matter, becaufe it gives much inlormation concerning the firll principles of media- nifm. An exquilite painting has fomel:mes fuch an ap. pearance of prominence, that one is difpofcd to draw the finger along it, and we expeA to feel fome rough- nefs, fome objlrud'wn, fomething that prevents the fin- ger from going over the place. Pei haps we doubt, and want to be allured. We piefs a little dofer ; but feci no obllruflion; and we delill. The very firft appear- ance, therefore, which this indicating quality, viewed as the property ot external matter, has in our conceptions, is that of an obftruflion, an obftadc, to the exertion of one of our natural powers. The power exerted on this occafion is familiarly and dijliniiniely known by the name of pressure. This is the name of our own ex- ertion, our own aiflion; and, in this indance, and (we think) in this alone, the word is uftd purely, primitive- ly, and without figure. When we fay that a llone prelfes on the ground, we fpeak figuratively, as truly as when we fay that the canJleftick (lands, and the fnulFers lie, on the table. It is a perfonincation, autho- rifed by tlie fimilarity of the effeds and appearances. Further, when we fpeak of our ptelfure on any thing, with the intention of being precife in our communica- tion, we (peak only of what obt.iins in the touching parts of the finger and the thing prclfed, paying no at- tention to the long train of intermediate exertions of the mind on the nerves, the nerves on tlie mufcuiar fibre, the fibre on the articulated m.tchine, and the ma- chine on the touching part t,f the finger. And tlius th.e exertion of the fenticnt and adlive being is attribu- ted to the particles of lilclel's inactive matter at the ex- tremity of the finger, and thefe are laid to pref» imme- diately on the touching parts ot the external body. And, lalUy, as this our exertion is unqucllionably tlie perceived employment of a faculty in us, wliich we call force, power, Jhen^tb, dillinguilhing it from every other faculty by thefe names ; we lay (but figuratively), that force or power is exerted at the lips of the fingers, and we call it the force or pressure. By far the greatcll part of our aiTions on estern.il )| bodies is with the intention of pult-ng them out of And pref- their prefcnt fituations ; and we can l;ardly feparaie f"'''- " "•"* (he thought of enerted prclftirc fri m the thoucht ot "' ". 1 ■ • ' .,-.1 r \ •\ • r r liippolcd m motion produced by it. 1 herefore, amiolt at its hr(i ji„,\,,i appearance in the mind, prellure comes before us as a every pro- MOvisG power. Nay, wc apprehend, that the more duc^i.m of we Ipcculalc, and the moic we aim at ptecilion in our meiioii. c'-aiceptions, we Ihall be the mure leady to gram that we have no clear concepuon of any other moving power. No man will contend that he has any conception at ail of the power exerted bv the mind in moviog ^^ bodv. ' li c 2 It Inipulfion. <) f xamin.i- tion of the iiifliinccj. of this percep- tion. lo Tliey are • Ceiierally iigiir.itiv«. II We ob- fcrvt many prelTurcs. IMP [2 It is of importance to refleft on the manner in which this notion is extended to all other prodmflions of mo- tion. We think tluit this will Ihew, that in every cafe we fuppofe prelhire to be exerted. The philolbpher proceeds in his fpeculations, and obferves, that one man can prefs on another, and can pulh him out cf his place, in the fame way as he re- moves any other body ; and he cannot obferve any dif- ference in his own exertions and fentacions in the two cafes. But the man who is pulhed has the fame feel- ings of touch and pieiFuie. By wit'idrawing irom the preliure, he alfo withdraws from tlic fenfation ; by withlt.inding or relilling it, he feels the preliure nl the other man ; an J what lie feels is the fame with what he i'eeli when he preilbs on ths other perfon, or on any piece of matter. The fame lenfations of touch are excited. He attributes them to the prelRire of the o- ther perfon. Therefore he attributes the fame fenfa- tions to the counter-prefflire of any other body that excites them. Farther, he can refill to fuch a degree, that he is not pufhed from his place. In this cafe, the s^re.itefl preliure is exerted, and is felt by both. Each feels that the more he relills, the greater is the mutual preliure. And each feels that, unlefs he not only do not rejiji, hut alfo •vj'itkdra'w hhnfelf iiom the prelfure of the other, he will be prelicd, and the other will feel counter-prelTure, the fame in kind with what is produ- ced by his refiftance, though lefs in degree. All thcfe thing; are dittiniflly and invariably felt ; but they require attention, in order to be fubjefts of recolleilion and after-confideration. From this, and no other fource, are derived all our notions of corpo- real preliure, of counter prelfure, of aflion, re-aftion, of refijlunce, and of i/iadivity or inertia. Our notions of moving power, of the mobility of matter, and of the necellity of this power to produce motion in matter, have the fame origin. Our notions alfo of the refin- ance of inanimate matter, indicated by the expendi- ture of aiflual prefiure, are formed from the fame pre- mifes : the counter-prelFure, or what at leaft produces the fame feelings in the perfon who is the mover, is confidered as the property of dead matter ; becaufe we feel, that if ive do not exert real force, we are difplac- ed by the fame prelfure that would difplace a litelefs body of the fame bulk. Thefe diredf inferences are confirmed as we extend our acquaintance with things around us. We can exert our force in bending a fpring, and we feel its coun- ter-prelFure, preciftly fimilar to that of another man. We feel that we muft continue this prelfure, in order to keep it bent ; and that as we withdraw our prelfure, the fpring follows our hand, flill producing fimilar feelings in our organs of touch, and requiring fimilar exertions of our llrength to keep it in any Hate of ten- iion. Thefe phenomena are interpreted as indications of prefl'ures aiffually exerted by the fpring, and quite different from what we Ihould feel from its mere re- fiftance to being moved. This a(5fion refembles our own exertion in every particular ; it produces all the efFeds of prelFure ; it will fqueeze in the foft flexible parts of our body with which we aft on it ; it will com- prefs any fofibody, jufl as we do ourfelves ; it will put bodies in motion. Farther, we can fet the aftion of one fpring in oppolition to that of another, and obferve that each is bent by bending the other; and we fee 20 ] IMP that their touching parts exert prefTure, for they will Impulfion. comprefs any foft body placed between them. •«.»-^»--^»^ Thus, then, in all thofe calcs, we have the fame no- tion of the power immediately exerted between the two bodies, animated or inanimated. It is always pref- fure. If indeed we begin to fpeculate about the mo.lut operandi in any one of thefe inllances, we find that we mull Hop Ihuit. How our prelfure excites the feeling of prelFure in the other perfon, or how it produces mo- tion, eludes even conjectuic — So it is — Nay, how our intention and volition cauf;i our limb to exert this pref- fure, or how tlic Ipringinefs of a fpring produces fimi- lar effecl^, remains equally hid from our ken. Un- wearied fludy has greatly advanced our knowledge of thefe fubjeds in one refpeft. It has pointed out to us a train of operations, which go on in our animal frame before the oltenfible prelFure is produced : we have difcovered fomething of their kind, and of the order in which they proceed ; we have gone farther, and have difcovered, in fome of the prelfures exerted by lifelefs matter, fimilar trains of inietvening opera- tions. In the cafe of a fpiing, we liave difcovered that there is a certain combination of the properties of all Its parts neceliary lor thevifible exertion. But what is the principle which thus makes them co-operate, we cannot tell, any more than in our own exertions of prelfure. Such being the origin of our notions on thefe fubjedls, it is no wonder that all our language is alfo derived from it. Force, power, prelFure, aftion, re-ai5lion, refinance, Impullion, are, without any excep- tion, words immediately exprellive of our own exer- tions, and applied metaphorically to the phenomena of matter and motion. Laffly, when we fee a body in motion difplace another body by hitting it, and endeavour to form a notion of the way in which this motion is imme- diately produced, fixing our attention on what palFes in the very inllant of the change, we find ourfelves flill obliged to fuppofe the thing we call prelfure. We can have no other conceptirm of it ; and there is no violence in this adl of the imagination. For we know, that if we are jollied from our place, and forcibly driven againft another perfon, we put that perfon in motion without any intention or aflionof our own; and we experience, in doing this, that the very fame feelings of touch and prefFure are excited as in the inllances of the fame mo- tions produced by exerted preflion. We alfo fee, that when a body llrikes another, and puts it in motion, it makes an impreflion or dimple in it if foft, or breaks ic if brittle ; and in fhort, produces every effeft of pref- fure. A ball of foft clay makes a dimple in the ball of foft clay which it difplaces, and is dimpled by it. Springy bodies comprefs each other in their collifions, and refile from each other. In fhort, in every cafe of this clafs, mutual prelfure, indicated by all its ordina- ry effeifls, appears to be the intermedium by which the changes of motion are immediately produced ; and the previous motion of the Itriking body feems to be only the method of producing this prelFure. From this copious induction of particulars, and rz careful attention to the circumflarces of each, we think PrefTure is it plain, that pielFure is the only clear notion thata ,.';™y mind, not familiar witfi Icrupulous difculfion, forms of ^j^j^ ^f ^^ • moving power ; and therefore that it is very lingular to moving think of excluding it from the lift, and faying that im- power. pulfioQ ItnpulCon. I 13 Many pref- fures are inexplica- ble by im- puirion. 14 All prcf- furck do not I TO- diicc a fen* iililc mo- tion, I M P [2: pulfion is the only power in nature, and the fource of all pre flare. It may peihaps be faid, thu the mutual immediate aflion to which the vulgar, and many philofophers, have erroneoufly given the metaphorical name prclTure is, indeed, the real cauie of motion or change of mo. tion ; but flill it is now properly called impullion, be- caufe it is occafioned only by the previous motion of the impelling body. We conceive clearly, (they may fay) how this previous motion produces the impullion. Since matter is impenetrable, we fee clearly that a fo- lid body, or a folid particle, cannot proceed without difplacing tlie bodies with which it comes into contafl ; ve have notions of this as clear as thofe of geometry ; whereas, how preffure is produced, is inconceivable by us. If we prefs a ball ever fo llrongly againft another, and remove the obllacle which prevented its motion, it will not move an inch, unlefs we continue to follow it, and prefs it forward ; but we fee a moving body pro- duce comprefllon, bend fprings, make pits in foft bo- dies, and produce all the eifeds <if real animal prelliire. Impulfe, therefore, is the true caufe of motion, and the folicitation of gravity is nothing but the repeated im- pulfe of an invifible fluid. But, in the firll place, let it be obferved, that both parties profcis to cxpUin the phenomena ot mechanical nature, that is, to make them eafier conceived by the mind. Now it may be granted, that could we have any previous conviiflion of a fluid continually flowing toward the centre of the earth, we could have fome notion of the produdion of a downward motion of bodies, but not more e.xplanation than we have without it, becaufe impullivenefs is as little underftood by us as prefl'ure. But there are thoufands of inftances of moving for- ces where we cannot conceive how they can be pro- duced by the impulfe of a body already in motion. There appear to be many moving powers in nature, independent of, and inexplicable by, any previous mo- tion ; thtfe may be brought into aftion, or rccafions may be afforded for their action, in a variety of ways. The mere will of an animal brings fome of them into adion in the mternal procedure of mufcular motion ; mere vicinity brings into aftion powers which are almoll irrefiltible, and which produce moft violent motions. Thus a little aquafortis poured on powdered chalk contained in a bomblhell, will burif it, throwing the fragments to a great dillance. A fpark of fire brings them into aflion in a mafs of gunpowder, or other combuftiblcs. And here it defervcs remark, that the greater the mafs is to which llie fpark is applied, the more violent is the motion produced. It would be juft the contrary, if tlie motion were produced by impull'e. For in all cafes of impullion, the velocity is inverfely proportional to the matter that is moved. When a ipring is bent, and the two ends are kept together by a thread, a prelFure is excited, which continues to aiff as long as the thread remains entire. What contriv- ance of impelling fluid will expLiin thi«, or give us any conception of the total ceffation of this prelfure, when the thread is broken, and the fpring regains its quicf- cent form ? We can explain, in a moft intelligible manner, why the hardeft prelfure produces no fenlible motion in the cafe referred to above. We can conceive, wiih fulli- cient dillindncfs, a tube filled with Heel wires, coiled ] I M P up like cork fcrew?, and comprefled together into Vith !r:pu!5on. of their natural length. A tube of 10 inches long will '-^~^''''^ contain 100 of them. While in this ftaie, comprefTed by a plug, we can fuppofe each of the fprings to be tied with a thread. Suppofe now that the thread of the fpring next the pillon is burnt or cut ; it will prefs on the pillon, and force it out, accelerating its motion till it has advanced one inch ; after this, the pilton will proceed with a uniform motion. It is plain, that the velocity will be moderate, perhaps hardly fenfible, becaufe the preffure acted on it during a very fhort time. But if two fprings have been fet at liberty at the fame inflant, the prelfure on the pillon will be continued through a fpace of two inches, and the final velocity will be greater, becaufe the fame (not a double) pref- ture will be exerted through a double fpace. Unbending four fprings at once, will give the piflon a double veloci- ty (See Dynamics, Suf>pl. n° 95). Now theefTeifl of the motion of the fecond fpring is to keep the prelfure of the firfl in action during a longer time, by following it, and keeping it in a flate of comprcirion. There is notliing fuppofed of this kind in the cafe of flrong preffure alluded to ; and therefore no motion is produced when the ob- flacle is removed, except what the infenf'ible compref- llon produces by accelerating the body along an infen- fible i'pace. If all the 100 fprings are difengaged at once, the piflon will be accelerated through 100 inches, and will acquire ten times the velocity that one fpring can communicate (A'^. B. The force expended in mo- ving the fprings themfclves is not confidered here). It is in this way only that the previous motion of the impelling body adls in producing a confiJerable motion. The whole procefs will be minutely confi- dered by and bye. We may now afk, how it is fo clear a point, that a '.? folid body in motion mull difplace other bodies ? This Impulfio" feems to be the very point in queftion. Is the affirma- J-'i^jriy"^"" live deduced from our notion of folidity ? What is our ccivcdthaa notion of folidity, and whence is it derived I We appre- preffure. liend, that even this primary notion is derived from pref- fure. It is by handling a thing, and finding that we cannot put our hand into the place where it is with- out difplacing it, that we know that it is material. All this is indicated to us by the feeling excited by our prelliire. We feel this property always as an obltacle ; and therefore fay, that by this property it refills our preffure. Nay, there are cafes where even the philo- ibpher prefers this quality to inipullivends as a tell of matter. To convince another that the jar out of which he has poured the water that tilled it is not empty, b>it full of matter, he dips the mouth cf the jar into water, and Ihows, that although he prefs it down till the fur- rounding water is above the bottom ol it, the water has hardly gotten tialf an inch into the j^r ■, there is fome'hing there which keeps it out ; there is matter in it. He tiien opens a hole in the bottom cf the jar ; the water immediately riles on the inlide rf the jar, and fills it. He fays that the prelfure of (he water has driven the matter out by the hole ; and he coiifirmt the materiality of what is expelled, by holding a leather above the holt ; it is agitated, Ihewing that the ex- pelled thing lias inipullivencfs, another property (he lays) of matter ; what filled the j.ir was air, and airia motion is wind. The philofopher can exhibit fume new cafes, where fomething like iaipulflvcnefs appears. I M V [ 'Hipuinon. i6 Motion docs not impel by transfuiiug inherent force or in- herent mo- tion. 17 This in- volves ab- 'urjities. A (lender m^ignct ni:iy be fet on one end, the i'ow.h pole, for inllance, and will llaiui in that Cotceiinij litua- tion. It" a perlon bring tlie north pole ot a powertul magnet hallily near tlie upper end, it will b; dirovvn down, jull as it may be blown down by a puffot wind; therefore (fays the phllofopher) there may be appear- ances of impullion, and I may imagine that there is impelling matter ; but nothing but matter excludes all oth:r matter from its place : this property, theretorc, is the lurell tell of its prel'ence. Thus we fee, that our notion of folidity or impene- trability (a name dill indicating an obllacle to prcf- fure), gives us no clearer conception ot the produc- tions of motion by iniptilfion than prellure does ; for it is the fame, or indicated by the fame fenlations. The quellion now feems to be reduced to this — Since the llrongeft prelFure of a (piiefcent body does not pro- duce mo'tion, or excite that kind of prellure which is the immediate caufe of motion, while a body in mo- tion, exciting but a very moderate prelfiire (as may be feen by the triflir.g compnjjion or dimpling,^ produces a very confiderable motion, how is the previous motion conducive to this purpofe ? The anfwer ufually given is this: Abody in motion (by whatever caule), peileveres in that motion by the inherent force ; when it ai lives at another body, it cannot proceed, without dilplacing that body ; the nature of the inherent force is iuch, that none of it is loft, and that a portion ot it palies in- to the other body, and the two bodies inl^antly pro- ceed with the fame quantity of motion that was in the impelling body alone. This is an exact enough narra- tive of the general fad, but it gives no great expla- nation of it. If the impelling body perfeveres in its motion, by means of its inherent force, that force is exerted in performing its ofBce, and can do no more. The impelled body teems as much to polfefs an inherent force ; for the fame marks and evidences of preifure on both fides are obferved in the collifion. If both bodies are foft or comprcllible, both are dimpled or comprelfed. We are as much entitled, therefore, to lay, that part of the force by which it perfeveres at reft, pailes into the other body. But the relt, or quief- cence of a body, is always the fame ; yet what palies into the impelling body is d;fterent, according to its previous velocity. We can form no conception how the half of the inherent force of the impelling body is expended by every particle, pailes through the points of contaft, and is diftributed among the particles of the impel ed body : nay, we cannot conceive this halving, or any other partition of the force. Is it a thing Jui generis, made up of its parts, which can be detached from each other, as the particles of lalt may be, and really are, when a quantity of freth water is put into contaft with a quantity of brine \ We have no clear conception of this ; and therefore this is no elucidation of the matter, although it may be an exaft ftatement of the vilible faft. Let us take the fimpleft poflible cafe, and fuppofe only two particles of matter, one of which is at reft, and the other moves up to it at the rate of two feet per fecond. The event is fuppofed to be as follows : in the inftant of contafl, the two particles proceed with half of the former velocity. Now this indant of time, and this precile point of Ipace, in which the contad: is made, is not a part cf either the time or fpace bifore ,2 ] I M P collifion, or of ilinfe after collifion ; it is the boundary Impulfioii. between both ; it is the lad inllant of the former time, ^-''~^^^"*^ and the liill inllant of the latter time ; it belongs to botli, and may be laid to be in bath. What is the ftate or condition ot the impelling particle in this inllant I In virtue of the previous motion, it has the determination, or the force, or the power, to move at the rate of two leet per fecond ; but, in virtue of the motion after coU lilion, it has the determination or power of moving at the rate of one foot per fecond. In one and the fame inllant, therefore, it has two determinations, or only one of them, or neither of them. And it may, in like manner, be laid of the impelled body, that in that in- llant, it was bolli at reft, and moving at the rate of one foot per fecond. This feems inconceivable or ab- furd. It is not perhaps very clear and demonftrable, nor »" is it intuitively certain, that the moving body or par- 'nip>^"'^e- ticle mull dilplace the other at all. All that we know "„ 'ntujtiye is, that matter is moveable, and that caufes of this property of motion exifl in nature. When they have produced matter, this motion, they have performed their tafk, and the motion is their complete etfeift. The particle continues in this condition torever, unlefs it be changed by fome caufe ; but we do not fee any thing in this condition that enables us to fay what caufes are competent to this change and what are not. Is it either intuitive or demoiiltrable, that the mere exiftence of another par- ticle is not a luiKcient or adequate caufe .' Is it certain that the arrival at another particle is an adequate caufe ? or can we prove that this will not ftop it altogether : The only conclufion that we can draw with any confidence is, tiiat " two particles, or two e<iual bodies, meeting with e(iual velocities in oppoiite direifiions, will ftop." But our only leafon for this conclufion is, that we can- not affign an adequate reafo.i why either fhould pre- vail. But this form of argument never carries luminous convi(5tion, nor does it even give a decilion at all, un- lefs a number of cafes can be fpecified, uhich include e-oiry pojfibh refult. This can hardly be alTirmed in the ptefent cafe. We apprehend, that the next c ife, in point of fim- 19 plicity, has ftiU lei's intuitive or deduclive evidence ; But an ob- namely, when bodies meet in oppofite dirciflions with"^'^ equal quantities of motion. It is by no means eafy, if it be at all pollible, to fhew that they muft ftop. The proof proceeds on fome notion of the manner in which the impullion, exerted on one particle, or en a few of each body, namely, thofe which come into contacl, is diftributed among all the particles. A material atom is moved only when a moving force adls on it, and each atom gets amotion precil'ely commenfurate to the force which acfluates it. Now, it is fo far from being clear, how a force impreffed on one particle of a folid body, occalions an equal portion of itfelf to pals into every particle of that body, and impel it forv/ard in the fame direction, that the ver^• authors who alfume the prefent piopofition as an elementary truth, claim no fmall honour for having determined with precilion the moving forces that are exerted on each particle, and llie circumllances that are necelTary for producing an equal progrelFive motion in each. It was by nome.ins an eafy problem to fliew, that the motion of the body (eftiraated by an average taken of the motions ot every particle) is precifely that which is announced by this propofition. IMP [2 Impulfion. propofition. We muft alfo confiderhow this inveftiga- ^■^'"'^^**^ tion is conduaed. It is by afTuming, that whatever force connecfls a particle a with a panicle I, or what- ever force <i exerts on b, the particle b exerts an equal force on a in the oppdite dire<ftion — Surely no logi- cian will fay that this is an intuitive truth. The contra- ry is moft diftini5>ly conceivable. It was a difcovtry of the aftronomers, that eveiy defle^^ion toward the fun is accompanied by an equal defleftion of the fun. It was a (lifcovery that a piece of iron attradls a load- llone; and it was a difcoviiy (and we dare not yet af- firm it to be without exception) that every adion of bodies is accompanied by an equal and contrary re-ac- tion. But this is by no means a firli principle. It is . the ex predion of a mofl generally obferved fafl, a fum total of knowledge. When received on this authority, it is fully competent to folve every cafe of impulfion, in- dependent of all obfcure and illogical dodrines of force inherent in moving bodies, cf force of inertia, of com- munication ot motion, &c. The impoffibility of conceiving the detachment of part of the /o/vf inherent in A, and transferring this part into B, and the fimilar impoQlbility of conceiving the imparting to B fome of the inolion that was in A, fliould make us rejefl any propofition involving fuch conceptions, and refufe its admiflion as an elementary truth. Much more fliould we reje(fl a propofition that obliges us to fuppofe that a particle of matter has two determinations, forces, motions, or call them by any o- ther name, in one and the fame inftant. One of thefe necelfarily excludes the other. Indeed this was fo evi- dent, even to the ir.oft eminent partisans of the doc- trine of the tran-'-fufion of inherent force, and others confequent on it, tlut they found ihemfclves obliged to deny that there was fuch a thing in the world as a perleflly hard body, in which the motion iruifl be in- llantaneoKlly changed into another, differing from it by any fenlible quantity. Tlie cxillence of peifeftly hard bodies is pofitively denied by tlie celebrated nn- theniatician of Bade, John Bernoulli, in his Dilfeita- tion on the Communication of Motion, which contend- ed for the piize given by the Academy of Sciences at Paris 1710. His reafon for this rejedion is fingulai-, and fomewhat amufing. " In the collifionof peifedly hard bodies-, the coufcr'valio virium vlvarum, demondra- ted by the mod eminent mathematician (Mr Leibnitz), to be a law of nature, would be broken without any effedl being produced. He does not obfervc, that it is as completely broken by claftic bodies in the in- ftant of greateft compreihon. A Ikitilli philofophcr, aullius aildidus jurare in verba magiftii, a(ked. What will be the cafe of two encountering atoms of mat- ter ? Without calling them hard, we mull: conceive that they acquire their changes of motion in the in- ftant of mutual contaft, and that they acquire them totally, being 'xtnnti, indivifible. Nj anfwcr has been given, or indeed cm be given, but what implies the fame difficulty. From all thai has been faid, we mult conclude, that this branch of mechanical philof phy is not put, by thole philof iplier<;, into the condition of an cleiTientary foundation of clear and demonllrati»'c fcience J that il:c tiansfufion or tranMertncc, cither of force or motion, is not a thing of wiilch we have a dil"- tind concepticn ; and that it neceliarily leads us in;o very untenable djdiiucs. Far lefs does it fcem f.ifc for 23 ] 1 M P us to confide fo much in its clearnefs and certainty, as ImrulEon. to affirm, that impulfion is the fole moving force in '-•^'^^'^^^ mechanical nature, and the fource of what we call prcf. fure. All this difficulty and obfcuriiy has arifcn from our arrogant notion that we are competent judges of (iril principles ; whereas we muft acknowledge, that we can only perceive fuch as are properly related or accommo- dated to our intelledual powers : thefe powers, being fpecific and peculiar, cannot judge of principles of the firft clafs, but of thofe only that are futiably compound- ed. We can never know or comprehend any efftniial property of matter — we can only know the reUtlive properties oifuch matter as <vie fee. Tlierefore let us quit entirely the barren and tiacklefs 20 fields of abftradion, and reft fatibfied with contemplating "'"''""•■f'" •vikat the Author of Nature has exhil)ited to our view, 'j ' ,^T"" \ c 1 111 I - 1 • 1 • <■■" or^'y "y and Jucb as he has been pleaied in his wildom to exiii- cbfcrving bit it. We grant that there arc no bodies open to nature our infpeflion which are perfedily hard, receiving finite changes of motion in an inftant. It has not pleafed God to put any fuch within our reach. When God created matter, it was with the purpofe of forming a beautiful univerfe of this matter. He therefore gave it properties which fitted it tor this purpofe. It is this matter only that he has expoled to the wondering view of man. Thanks to his bounty, he has alfo given us properties ol mind, by which this adaption, when perceived by us, becomes a fource of dignified pleafure to the obferver. A Nev>'ton, to whom " jfovis omnia />/<7M," a Daniel Bernoulli, were rapt almolt into ecfta- cy by a fingle atom, when they obferved how its pro- per ties, and only Inch properties, fitted it for making part of a world, which Unwearied, and from day to day. Should its Creator's power dilplay. Let the unhappy La Place confider tliefe properties, which enfure the permanency of the folar fyftcm through ages of ages, as proofs of fatalifm, as qualities eifential to matter. But this Gallic torch effaces the bloom of life from the univerfe, the cxprelFion of the Supreme Mind which fliines from within ; and it fpreads over the countenance ot Nature the ghaftly palenefs of univerfal death. But let us Britons rather follow the example of our illuftrious countryman, and folace our- felvcs with every difcovery which tends to quicken our perception of Nature's animated charms. Let us liftcn to the conjedures of him who had already difcovered fo many, and who endeavoured to remove the veil which concealed the reft. Newton, in his maturity of judgment, after having >» colleifted much information Irora his unwearied cxpe- ^'ovm,; riments in ma>;netllrn, in chcmlftry, in optics, &c. faiJ, I""*""" -T* . iniicrcftt 111 that " he ftrongly fuf|)ei.1ed, that, in the fame mm- ,11 ma,tcr. ner as the bodies of the folar fyltem were onncifled Ncwtnn'i by gravitation, fa the particles of fu'ilunary bodies conjcilure were connefted together, and affscl .d c.ich other, by '•"r™"'* means of furccs which aifted at fmall, .ind, in many ^f if"'"' cafes, infenlible di'lanccs ; prodjcing the phemniena " of cohefion, in all it.<i forms o{ hardrefs, elafticity, duifliliiy, f ftnefs, fluidity, by whldi their ra;clianicai anions on each other were modified and regulated." Father Bofcovlch, one of the firft mnthematicians of Europe, was the Srft who gave this corjed'jie of Ncw- toa's viih. I M P [ 224 ] I M P Impiilfion. ton's the attention that it fo highly deferved. Other ^-'''^^^^^ writers, indeed, fuch as KeiU, Fieind, Boerha.ivc, &o. took occaGondl notice of it, and even made Ibnie ule c.t it ii> their atlempts to expl.iin Ibme coniplic.ued phe- nomena of r.utiiie. But they were fo catelei's in their employment of Newton's conjecture, fo completely neglcfted his cautious manner of proceeding, indul- ged fo wantonly in hypothetical alfuniptions, and rea- foned fo falfely from them, that they brought his conjecture into difcrcdit. Bofcovich, on the contrary, copied Newton with care, and fccured his progrefs as he advanced, by the aid of geometry j cllablilhing a fet of uncontrovertible propofitions, whicli mud be the inevitable rcfults of the premifes adopted by him. He then proceeded to compare thefe wiih the phenomena of nature ; and he ftiews that the coincidence is us com- plete as can be defued. All tliis is done in liis Theoria Philofopbix Naturalis, firft publilhed at Vienna in 1759. ^\'e have given a very fliort account of it in the article BoscoviCH, Supp\.\ but it hardly goes beyond the enunciation of the general principle, and the indication of its applicability to the purpofe; intended. His ap- plication to the prodoiftion of motion by the collifion of bodies, is peculiarly fatisfaaory. But as the work is written chiefly with the view of gaining the approba- tion of perfons well inftrudled in natural philofophy, it can hardly be called an elementary work, or be employ- ed for the inftruflion of perfons entering on the Rudy. We lliall attempt to explain this important law of me- chanifm in a way that will give our readers a diftinft r;0tion (and, we apprehend, a juft one) of the proce- dure of Nature in all the cafes of impiilfion that lue can ohferi'e. AVe hope to do this, by confidering the changes of motion produced by moving bodies in a certain feries of familiar cafes, where the procedure of nature may be dillindly obferved, and where it is uni- formly conceived by ev«ry fpfiftator ; and which will gradually lead the mind to thofe cafes where the pro- cedure is not obferved with dillinflnefs ; but the fimi- larily to the former cafe is concluded by fo fair ana- logy, that we imagine no pcifon will controvert it. We Ihall begin by attending to the manner in which two magnets in motion afFeifl each other's motions ; a phenomenon that is familiarly known in the general, although, perhaps, few perfons have attended to it mi- nutely. Mate XXIX. Let us, therefore, fuppofe two magnets, A and B ai (fig. 1.) equal in weiglit (in the firft hiQance). Let Examina- them be made to float on water, by placing them on tiouofthe pieces of cork. Let them be placed with their north mutual ac- ^^^j^^ touching each other. Let A be held faft, and let B be at liberty to move. We know that it will gradu- ally recede from A, with a motion that would continu- ally accelerate, were it not for therefiQanceof the water. What is the inference drawn from this appearance I Surely this, that either a moving power, inherent in A, repels B, or that B avoids A, by an evafive power inherent in itfelf. It is immaterial for our purpofe which opinion we adopt. Let us fay that A repels B. This admits more concife language than the other. If we prevent this motion of B by means of a very flen- der fpring applied to its remote end, we fhall obferve that the Ipring is bent back a little, juft as if we were pudiing away tlie magnet gently with the finger ; and we obferve, that the bending of the fpring is fo much lions of magnets. the greater as B is nearer to A. We can judge of the ImpuUion. intenlity of the force by which B is aifliiated, by the ^^"^^^^ bending of the fpring — This force is equal to dlM-weight of any nody that will bend the fpring to the fame de- gree. Tills force i, analogous, therefore, to the weight, the prelFure of gravity, and we may call it a prelfuic, and mealure it by grains weight. Every force that can bend a fpring will move a body. This is a well known fa<ff . Therefore it is next to cert.'sin, that it is this force which caufes B to recede from A ; nay, if we compare the motion of B with whatyJsu/d' refult from the adlion of a force having this very intenlity, and varying in tlie fame manner by a change of dif- tance from A, taking in the diminution which the re- fillance of the water mull occafion, v/e lliall find the motions precifely the fame. All this can be difcovered by Dynamics, n" 95, &:c. Therefore we muft con- clude that this, and no other, is the caufe of the re- ccfs of B. If, inllead of placing B in contaft with A, we place it at a diftance from it, and pulli it toward A with an initial velocity, fomewhat lefs than it would have ac- quired in that place by its reccfs from A, we fhall find that it will approach A with a motion gradually retarded, till it Hop at a fmal! dillance from A ; and will now recede from it again with an accelerated mo- tion. In fliort, we fhall find that its whole motion to and from A is precifely the fame with what refults from a fimilar computation by n" 95. of Dynamics. The whole of this phenomenon is conceived by every beholder, who has not imbibed fome peculiar theory of a llream of impelling fluid, as the indication and effeft of a repulfive force exerted by A on B, or of a quality of B, by which it recedes from A. If now B be held faft, and A be fet at liberty, it is obferved to be repelled by B, or to recede from B, in the fame manner, and with tlie fame force. Thus, the two magnets appear to affeifl each other's motions, and are thought, and faid, by all to repel each other. The effeLl appears curious, but excites no far- ther thought in moll minds: it is only the fpeculatift that begins to fufpeft that he has not conceived it pro- perly. Now, let us fuppofe that B is afloat on the furface of the water, and at reft ; and that A is pufhed to- wards it, by a fingle llroke, cauling it to move fo mo- derately that it fhall not fttike B, but have its motion deftroyed by the repulfion before it reaches it ; and let us farther fuppofe, that the initial velocity of A was exaflly meafured — the fafl: will be as follows. As foon as A comes within a certain dillance of B, its motion begins to be affcflcd ; it gradually dlminiflies, and at length it ceafes entirely, and A remains ever after perfeiftly ftill. But it is alio obferved, that in the in- ftant that A flackens its motion, B begins to move ; that it gradually accelerates in its motion, and at lall acquires the initial velocity of A, with which it pro- ceeds, till the refiftance of the water brings it to reft, perhaps at a confiderable dlftance from A. This ex- periment is very amufing, and the initial velocity of A may be increafed in each fucceeding trial, till at laft it ftrikes B. Even then the general appearance remains the fame: A is brought to reft and remains at reft, neither refiling nor advancing forward ; and B moves off with the initial velocity of A. What we wifti to be npulfion. 2.1 Firft cafe. A moving toward B at reft. IMP [2 be particularly noticed is, that as long as the initial ve- ' locity of A is lefs than a certain quantity (depending on the iliength of the magnets), the motion is ccm- raunicated to B, or, to expref> it more cantioufly, mo- tion is produced in B, without any thing liappeuing that can get the name of impullion with propriety. In the ordinary conceptions and language of mankind, impulfe always fuppofss aiJ>ual contaft ; and impuUion is equivalent to a blow or a ftroke. Both of thcfe are indeed metaphorical terms, as well as impulfion. Perhaps the word " to hit," exprelFes this particular cafe more purely, and it is perhaps without any figure, and is the appropriate word. We do not fpeak at prefent of tlie conception and language of philofo- phers, but of pcrfons taking an unconcerned view of things, without any iiuentiou of fpeculating farther a- bout the matter. Appearances perfedlly fimilar are obferved in elec- trified bodies. If we hang two equal bunches of very light downy feathers by two equal linen threads, fo as to hang clofe by each other like pendulums without touching, and if, after having eledtrified them fo that they repel each other to fome dillance, we draw one of them, which we fliall call A, conliderably afide from the perpendicular, and then let it go to fwing like a pendulum ; we lliall obferve, that inftead of accelerating till it reach the lowell point of its vibration, its motion will be retarded ; it will llop entirely when its thread is perpendicular, and will remain at reft. In the mean time, the other bunch U will acquire motion, which will gradu.<lly increafe till it equal the motion of A in its maximum ftate ; and with this it would proceed for ever, were it not rifing like a pendulum in the arch of a circle. The general faifl is the lame as in the cafe of the magnets. The moving body is brought to reft, in which ftate it continues, and the qiiiefcent body moves off wiih an ultimate velocity, equal to the initial velocity of the other; and all this happens without contafl or impuKlon, but is produced by the mutual re- pulfion of the eleiiliified bodies. If this general f:iL^ be compared with what happens in the coHilion of two billiard balls, it will be found perfcdly fimilar in every refpecfl, but that of the con- ta(ft and the impulfion, properly fo called. Tlie im- pelling ball is brought to reft, and remains at reft ; and the impelled ball moves off with the velocity of the impelling ball. This being the cafe, it is plain that we may derive fome iniormation from the motion of the magnets, that muft greatly aftift us in our conceptions of what pades in the rapid, if not inftantaneous, produiflion of motion in a billiard ball, by liitting it with another. In the cafe ot the magnets, we perceive, and can difcriminate, a progretlive train of changes, which terminate in a final change, perfedtly fimilar to the change in the im- pulfion of the billiard ball. This will juftify a very minute attention to, and ftatemcnt of, all the circum- llances. Let us attend to the procefs of this operation, and the proJuiTtion of motion in the magnet originally at reft, and tlie abolition of it in tli; one originally in mo- tion ; and let us refletl on what palfcs in our minds when we try to explain it to ourfclvcs. The trials men- tioned at firft, when one magnet was held faft, liiew us that each magnet repels or avoids the other, and that Ri;ppL. Vol. II. 25 ] IMP this aftion Is found to be equal on both fides, produ- Impulfi»ii. cing equal comprefllon of the fpring employed for sf- -—"^^^^ certaining the intenfity of this repulfion when the di- ftances are the fame. This is the fafl. It is no lefs a faa, that equal moving forces, fu.h as equal prelfures muft be fuppofed to be, produce equal changes of mo- tion in their own direaion. Therefore, as foon as A comes to fuch a diftance from B that the mutual afliou takes place, both magnets are afiefled, and equally af- fected ; that is, equal clianges of motion are produced on each, but in oppofite direflions. The motion of A is diminifhed, perhaps r^-^th part, in T^h of a fc- cond, and (let it be carefully remembered) while A palfes over a certain fpacc, fuppofe the lotii of an inch. During this fmall portion of time, B acquires as much motion as A lofes. This is not the motion loft by A. This is inconceivable ; for motion is not a thing, but a condition. But it is an equal li^^ree oi' mi. lion. B has palfed over a fmall fpace during this time, perhaps the 50th part of an inch, with an almoft imperceptible motion, that is gradually accelerated from nothing. Since A is moving (after than B, it muft ftill gain upoa it ; and therefore the mutual repulfion will ipcreafe ; and in the next icth of a fecond this force will take another and greater portion of A's original velocity from it, and will add a greater velocity to that already acquired by B. And thus, in every fuccecdiiig minute portion of time, the motion of A will be more and more diminilhed, and that of B as much increafed, by the equal, though continually increaling, fimultaneous re- pulfions acting in oppofite directions. It !•, evident, that it is polfible th.it the velocity of A may be ft) mucli di- minilhed, and that of B f.> much increafed, that tiie re- maining velocity of A Ih ill be juft equi;! to the acqui- red velocity of B. Till this happens, the diftances of the magnets have been continually diminilliing ; for A has been moving fafter than B, and gaining on it. If the operation of t!ie mutual repulfions could be ftopped at this inltant, both magnets would move forward tor ever with equal velocities. It is of particular import.snce to know what this 14 common velocity is. This is determined by onr pievi. '^<:y «c- ous knowledge, that the magnets repel ot avoid each ''"'" * other with equal forces. Thefe forces may vary by a vclodtTx- vaiiation of diftance ; but tlie f'orce aifting on A is al- ways equal and oppolite to the force ading at the lame time on B. This is tlie uncontroverted (nit (the au- thority for wliich fhall loon be confidered). Thefc equal forces muft tlicicfore produce equal and oppofnc changes of motion. The motion acquired by B is e- qual to that loll by A. But the magnets being fuppo- fed equal, and moving wiLh equal velocities, they hare c<iual quantities of motion. Therefore the motion hc- quired by B, or that loft by A, is equal to wliat remains in A ; that is, A has loft half of its motion, and there- fore half of its velocity ; or the common vel )city is half ot the primitive velocity of A. It was for the fake ot a fomcwhat eafier difcuflion thjt we fuppofed the magnets to be of equal weights. But it is almoft equally eafy to alcertain wliat tliis common veloci'y will he in any other proportion of the quanti- ties ot matter in A and B. It is a matter ot unexcell- ed experience, that whatever be the weight or ftreng:h of two magnets, their aiftions on each other arc always equal. Therefore Uie fimultaneous force muft always F f produce. I M P C 226 ] I M P Inipulfioii. produce equnl changes of motion in ihc txro bodies. ^■^"'''^^^ Uut the change of motion is exprelfcd by the produdt of the quantity ot matter and the chanj;e of velocity. Therefore let A and B rcprefent the quantities of mat- ter in the magnets ; and let a be the primitive velocity of A, and X thV velocity wliicli obt.iins when both are moving with one velocity. The vclncity loll by A is a — X. 'i'hercfore we mud have 15 .vrr A X « — x, = A a — Ax A 25 Namely. Ax and A rt = A X + B .v, = A + B X •'<■. The common velocity is therefore oi- 16 But this docs nut continue, and the and .V == A -f B "=7 tairted by dividing the frlmilive quantity of motion ly the ' Jum of the quantities of matter. This may be conceived more compendioudy in an- other way. Since B acquires as much motiim as A lofes, the whole quantity of motion is the fame as be- fore : Therefore tlie common velocity mull be had by dividing this quantity of motion by the whole quantity of matter. But we wilhed to make the reader keep his attention fixed on the (leps of procedure, and fee the conneclion of each with the caufes. We (hall find that this period of the whole procefs, namely, the moment when both bodies have acquired a common velocity, and the piecife magnitude of this velocity, are points of peculiar importance in the doc- trine of impullion ; indc.;d they almofl comprehend the whole of it. But this is a (late that cannot continue for a moment in the example before us. The repuifive or cvafive forces are lliU acting on both magneti, and Hill dimi- nilh the motion of A, and equally increafe the motion magnets fe- of B. Therelbre tlie velocity of A, in the very next paratc. moment, mud be leis than that of B ; and B has, dur- ing this moment, gained on A, or has removed farther from it. This continues ; A is flill retarded, and Bis ac- celerated; and therefore gains more and more upon A, or fep irates farther and fat ther from it. This muft continue as loug as the mutual repulfions arc fuppoied to aft. If we fiippofe that the fiifible action of thef; forces is li- mited til fomc determinate dillance, the mutual adion will ceafe when B has get to that dillance before A. We may call it the inaili'vc diflance. Alter this, A and B will proceed with the velocities which they have at that inllant. Let us inquire into thefe final velocities ; and thus complete our acquaintance with the procefs. We fee (and it is important) that the magnets are in their llate of greatell proximity at the inllaiu of their moving with a common velocity, and that after this they gradually I'eparate, till tJiey are again at their in- the inftant ^"^"^^ dillance. During this feparation they attain dif- t>f iicarcft tances from each other equal to what they hid during approach, the period of their mutual approach. At thefe dillan- ces llie repulfions are the farce as before, and aft in the fame direftion. Therefore, in each moment of fepara- tion, and at each dillance, A lullains the fame diminu- tion, and B gets the fame augmentation of its motion, as when they were at the lame dillance in the period of their mutual approach. The fums total, therefore, cf thele equal augmentations and diminutions mull be equal to the augmentation and diminution duii.ig the approach. Therefore the whole diminution of A's mo- tion mull be double of the diminution fuftained during the approach ; and the whole augmentation of B's mo- tion mufl, in like manner, be double of that acquired 27 The com- mon Tclo- tity i' at- tained at during the approach of A. Hence we eafily fee, that ImpulfioB. when the magnets are fuppofed equal, A muft be '^^"''''^^ brought to reft; for in the period of approach it had loft half of its velocity. It muft now have loft the whole. For limilar reafons B mull finally acquire the primitive velocity of A j for in the inftant of greateft proximity, it had acquired th: half of it. Thus we fee, that the equal mutual repulfions are jg precifely adequate to the produftion of the changes of RcpuICon motion that are really obfervcd ; and muft therefore be " ^ '^"f^ admitted as the immediate caufes of ihel'e changes. adequate to It is equally e::fy to afcertain the final velocities ^j,j'^(f'^' when the magneis are vX uneqiul fixes ; for the eqiiali- ^^ ty of their mutual repulficns is not aflFffted by any in- Effcd equality of their niiignit\ides. Their leparations, and when the the changes of motion diirinjr thefe reparations, will be ""g"<^'» ttie lame with ilieir appiijacli.s and the corrtfpondrng jj_ changes of motion ; and the wlu le change on each will be double of the chan^'e full.iined at the inftant of greateft proximity and comiiifn velocity. Hence we learn, that the final velocity of B is 2 x, or -:; — f ; and the final velocity of A is A — B X A-fB' For the pri- A -f B mitive velocity of A being a, and the common veloci- ty, in the inftant of neareft approach, being ^— the lofs of velocity is a — Ba A + B' _ Aa + Ba — A« A + B . + B Therefore the final lofs of velocity is 2 Ba A-hB' and the remaining final velocity is a — Aa -f- B.7- Ba li X a 2B. A + b' A -f B A + B Let us, in the next place, lee what will be the re- ^o fult when both of the magnets are in motion at the be- H. Cafe, ginning of their mutual aftion. And, firll, let bcith Soth mag- move in one direftion. Let A, movintr with tlie ve- ".'="!"""'" 1 ■ .in • ■ 1 .• J- n- ■ 1 "on ni one locity a, overtake i», moving in the lame direftion with djrjaion. the velocity t, lefs than a. Moreover, let the veloci- ties a and i be fuch, that their difference a — /> is fome- what lei's thin tlie fum of the velocities a and ,?, which the mutual repulfions of the magnets would generate in them, if the magnets were placed in contaft, and al- lowed to recede from each other till they get beyond their acting dillance. Ihefe things being premifed, let the raagnets be fet in motion in the fame direftion ivi-.li the above-men- tioned velocities a and i. Tiie magnet A mull gaiu on B, and at laft come fo n;ar it, that the mutual re- pulfions begin to aft on both. It is plain, that the mo- tion of A will be diminilhed, and that of B increafed, by equal cjuanticies, during every minute portion of the time of their mutual aftion. It is alfo evident, that the velocity of A may be fo much diminifhed, and that of B lb much incrcafed, that they Ihall be rendered equal. Alfo this will happen before the magneis touch one another; becaufe the original drtTerence of their quantities of motion has been fuppofed lefs than the motion which the reptilllve forces are able to generate or extinguifli, by afting on them through the whole diftance wliich gives occafion to their aftioH. Tliere- £oic I M P i J«npnI(ioa. fore ihe difference of the velocities is lefs than the fum ^^'"^'''"**^ of the velocity «, which tlie mutual repulfion can take from A, and the velocity S, which it can give at the fame time to B. The magnets will gradually approach, and the mutual repulfions, and confequent diminution of A's, and augmentation of B's motion, will gradually increafe, till the fum of « and 13 is jufl equal to the dif- ference of a and i; that is, till the bodies are moving with one velocity. If the mutual repulfions were anni- liilated at this inftant, the bodies would move ferward with this common velocity. What this is we determine with great facility, as we did in the former cafe : Be- caufe the repulfions produce equal and oppofite chan- ges of motion in the magnets, as mucli is taken from A X a as is added to B X ^ ; and the fum of A X n, and Bxi, is equal to the fum of Ax-v and Bx-x, or A+B X « -■ A X a -f B X ^, and X = "^ '' + ^ ^. A -|- B Therefore l/)e common velocity is had hy di-oiiling the fum cf the primitive quantities of t/ntion by the fum of the quan- tities of matter. But tlie repulfive forces continue to afl as in the for- mer cafe. The motion of A is ftiU more diminilhed, and that of B augmented : Therefore the velocity of B A.a + h b , niuft now exceed the velocity of A, and the magnets ■'^ + B mufl feparale. Reafoning in the fame way as in the but tlie former cafe, it is evident that the mutual aftion does •pzXxe and "°' ceafe till the magnets have feparated to' their inac- the change t''^ diftance from each other, and that the whole change is doubled of motion in each is double of the change that it had io each. fuftaincd when they were in their greateft proximi- ty, and moving with a common velocity. Thefe confidcrations enable us to alcertain the final flate of A<7 -f A* C 227 ] I M P Let us, in the next place, fuppofe the magnets to impuKlon. be moving in oppofite direiflions with the velocities a ^^'"^"^^ and L ; and (in order that the magnets may not ftrike mJmi^ each other) let the fum of a and b be lefs than the fum movW in 31 Common relocity each. The common velocity is There- A -f B fore the change made on the velocity of A, at the in- Aa-f B* ftanl of greateft proximity, is a X~a -b . moving in of a and fi, which the repulfions of the magnets would orP"'""'-" <>'- produce by repelling them from contaft to their inac- "'-''io"*- tive diftance. As foon as the magnets arrive at their afting dif- tance, their mutual and equal repulfions immediately begin to diminifh both of their motions ; and in any mi- nute portion of the period of their approach, equal quantities of motion are taken from each. It is evi. dent, that if the primitive quantities of motion have been eqiial ; that is, if A and B have been moving with ve- locities reciprocally proportional to their quantities of matter, then, when the motion of one of them has been annihilated by their mutual repulfion, the motion of the other will be deltroyed at the fame time, and both will be brought to reft. Were the repulfions annihilated at this inltant, they would remain at reft. But becaufe thofe forces continue their aftions, the magnets will fe- parate again, regaining, at every diftance, the velocity which they had, when at that diftance, during their mutual approach ; and wlien they have reached their inactive diftance, they will have regained each its ori- ginal momentum and velocity, but in the oppofite dl- redion. This needs no farther comment; but mull be kept in mind, becaufe this cafe has a prccife coun- terpart in the collifion of folid bodies, meeting each other in oppofite directions with equal momenta. But it the momentum of one exceed that of the otiier, thus, if A X a be greater than B x *, then, when the mag- net B is brought to reft, A has flill a momentum re- maining equal to A a — B *. Having therefore a certain relocity, whde B has none, it m'uft approach ftill nearer to B, and a Itill greater repulfion will be ex- erted on B than if A had alfo been brought to reft, but ftill repelling B. Since B is now acquiring mo- tion in the direflion oppofite to its former motion, and ■o , ■^ " "^ and the final velocity of A is a — A is ftill lofing motion, a time muft come when the A-f. B 2 B X a — b A-f B on the velocity of B is = A X " — * In like manner, the change produced Aa -f Bi , ^ — b, or = ■{■ B is i -f A + B and the final velocity of A -t- b . We may alfo obtain the final velocity A-f B ' ' of each, by taking its initial velocity from twice the common velocity. If, in this example of two magnets in motion, we fuppnCc them of equal weight, we fhall find that they will finally proceed with exchanged velocities. For ;, -n ■ ■ 1 • , 2 B X a — b when A = B, it is plain that a — n — I y. a A X <i— * -/., = « is = i -f A -f B -\- I, = b : and IX"- ■ b, =b + a- IS = b + b, r: a. motion of A is fo much diminiflied, and that of B i'o much augmented, that they are moving with a common velocity in the direiflion of A's primitive motion. The reafoning employed in the foregoing examples fiiews us, that, in the prefsnt cafe alfo, this ftaie of common ve- locity is alfo the itate of the greateil proximity, and that the magnets feparate again, till they attain their diftance of inaflion, and that the total chantje in each is doubleof whatit wasin their ftate of greateft proxiniitv. To find this common velocity, recolkcl, that when ^^ the momentun of B was extinguilhed, that of A was Ca-rirnoii ftill z= A fl — B b. From what has been already faid velocity «= on the other cafes, we know that when the conimori - ^ " — ^<i velocity obtains, the whole momenta are ftill equal to , ^^ "*" ^ A a — lib. Therefore the common velocity X niuft be i" . doubled by the fubfc- qucnt Icpa- rjlioa'. A + B This cafe is eafily fubjcfled to experiment, and will be found fully confirmed, it we take into account the re- tardations occafioned by the reliftance of the water to the motions. - A a_-- B b ~ A -r"ii~* nie vel.icitv Irfl Ao— ^Bji _"b X A -f B " ~ B A .{- li muft therefore be <j — and ihe final velocity will be 2 B X a + * The final motion of A will be A + B in the fanae dire<flion as at firft", if a be greater than Ft* 2 li I M P [ 228 ] I M P Impull'ion. L""^ . otherwife it will be in the oppofite direflion. A + B III like manner, the change of velocity in B is i + . " ", becaufe the former velocity 1/ is dctlroyed, A + U and the new velocity is ^ "7 „ '" tl>e oppol'rte Ji re£)ioD. This is A+_B A X i + i A + & and the final velocity of B is = i • 2 A X a + * 34 The chan A + 13 Thus we have lliewii, in the cafe of magnets afting ,... ...... on each other by rcpiillive forces, or aiftuaied by forces gesofmo- equiv.ilent to rcpuUive forces, how changes of mo- tion in the tion are produced, which have a great refeniblance to magnets ^1^^,-^ ^.jjich are feen in the coUifion of folid bodies. The motions which obtain in the inftant of greateft proximity are precifely fimilar to what are chfirved in the coUifion of unclallic bodies. Tlielr common velo- arc fimilar to thofc in the colli- iton of bo- dies. city after Aa — Bl> coUifion is Aa + Bb always = - — A + h according as the bodies were moving in A-t-B the fame or in oppofite direftions. The hnal motions of the magnets are alfn precifely fimilar to what arc ab- fer-ueJ in the coUifion of perfeftly elallic bodies. _ We took the inllance of magnets, becaufe the objeft is fa- r'^ . . miliar; but we can fuhftitute, in iinat;ination, an ab- •'— ; and therefore m vv —Ji, and rtraifl repulfive force in place of m.ignetifm, and we can '" t any intenfity, and any law and limits of aiflion and therefore thc/uw remains unchanged. When the inipiJfiou. motions are in oppofite direiJlions, equal quantities are taken fiom both; and therclore the t//^f.r«f<f remains unchanged. Tliis is called the conservatio momen- TORUMi and it is uiiially enunciated by faying, that the quantity of motion, ellimated in one direflion, is not changed by the equal and nppolite ailions of the bodies. This is a particular cale of a general law af- firmed by Des Cartes, that the qaantity of motion in the univeifc remains always the fame when eftimaled in any one direflion. 4. When the whole procefs is completed, the fum jg of the produifls made by muhiplying each body by the Conser- fquarc of its final velocity, is equal to the fum of the pro- vatio Vi- duds made by muhiplying each body into the fquare "'"" ^''" of its initial velocity. For when the procefs is com- pleted, the two bodies are at the fame diftaiice from each other as when the mutual adion began. There- fore, during the procefs, each body has palfed over an equal fpace, and in every fimilar point it has been aifl- ed on by an equal force (although this force be differ- ent in different points of this fpace). Therefore, in every inftant, the fimultan^ous piodui5ls of the quantity of matter by the momentary variation of the fquare of the velocity are equal on both (ides, ; and therefore the pro- duels of the quantity of matter by the whole change of the fquare of the velocity are alio equal on both fides. See Dynamics, Stippl. n' 95. and no. where i;» = X V— v' alTign 1 ^ , , . - , , 1 we pleafe. We can imagine it fo powerful, that al- though its aflion be limited to a very fmall, and even infenlible dillance, it (hall always reduce the meeting bodies to a common velocity before they come into ac- tual contaa ; and therefore without any real impulfion, asimpullion is commonly conceived. There are fome farther general obfervations that may be made on thofe motions which are of importance. 1. We fee that the changes of motion, and confe- quently the anions, are dependent on the relative mo- thsngcs are dons only, whatever the abfolute motions may be : for changes are always as a — b when the bodies are mo- ving in one direftion, and as a -)- i when they are mo- ving in oppofite direftions. Now a =1= h is the relative motion. , ^ , , ,• 2. The change of velocity in each of the two bodies is inverfely as its quantity of matter, or is proportional to the quantity of matter in the other bod y. T he ~- h .'5 Thefe proport nnal to the relative /notion. ■.b J AXfl- and 36 . And rcct- jirocally as the quanti- B X a ties of mat- changes in A and B are ■■ ^ ^ - ^ The changing forces being equal on both lides, pro- duce equal changes' in the quantities of motion ; and therefore produce changes of velocity that are inverfely as the qu.antities of matter. 37 3. During the whole procefs, the fum of the momen- CoNSER- ta, or quantities of motion, remains the fame, if the vATioMo- bodies are moving in one direaion : if they are moving in oppofite diredicn.s it is the difference of momenta that remains the fame ; for in every inftant of the procefs equal changes of momentum are made in oppofite di- reiticns. When the motions are in the fame direftion, as much is taken from the one as is added to the other > llENTO- RUM nxv' — V'=///. Now, fince thefe changes are in oppofite dire<5tions, as much is added to one produdl as is taken from the other, and the lum of the products of the quantities of matter by the fquares of the final velocities, is equal to the fum of the projucls of the fame quantities of matter by the Iquares of the initial velocities. This is a particular cafe of the famous conservatio Thefe tw« viRiUM vivARUM, claimed as a mighty difcovery by tfreoremi the partizans of Leibnitz, and afcribed to him ; but are not he has no claim whatever to the difcovery. It was P""'^'j'''^ communicated to tlie Royal Society of London in 1668 f"^^*""' by Huyghens, as one of the general laws of impulfion, obtaining in what he caUs hard bodies. Several of the I^eibnitzian fchool, indeed, extended it farther than Huyghens had done ; fome of them indeed very lately. The obfervation of this general law was foon applied to many excellent purpoles in the folution of very intricate problems ; becaule it often faved the trouble of tracing the intermediate fteps of a complicated procefs. Af- fured that thefe produiflb were invariable, the mathema- tician found it an eafy matter to ftate what conditions of the queftion infured this equality of produfts ; and thus the problem was folved. In this manner Daniel Bernoulli gives molt elegant folution? of fome, other- wife almofl iniraflable, problems in Hydraulics. For fuch reafons, as a mighty aid in mechanical inveftiga- tion, the difcovery of Huyghens is extremely valuable. Its merit in this refped is perfciffly fimilar ;though per- haps fomewhat- greater) to Dci Carles's obfervation of the confervatio momentorum. It is alf 1 like the obfer- vation or difcovery of Maupertuis, which he calls the h-w d'jmalleji aa'ton (indeed it is the fame under a dif- ferent I M P r 229 ] I M P Impnlfio*. ferent afpe(5l), or La Grange's lanu cf virtual ve/ocitUj, r In tfie mnm^nf ^f „,.,► a ■ • -. j , >,. v-**^-^^ ^. . s '' . fa J "» 5- /" me moment ot greateft vicinity and common Impulfion. or D'Alembert's liiv of equliibrium of adion ; — all of velocity thefe are general fafls, laws by which the changes ci motion are olferved to proceed. But their authors have vaunted them as principles, as caufes, trom which to conclude effetis ; whereas they are really inductions from paiticuhr inlt.mces. We muft alio obferve, that this law ot confervatio •viriiim vivarum was not deduced either by Huyghens or any of the Leibnitzian fchool, by reafoning from more general principles. It was an cxpifcation of famenefs in events, diverlitied by other circumflances. We do not recollei.T: any autlior who has given what can be called a demonllration of it, de- there is a certain determinate lofs of the vt- res vivj:, or produds of the matter by the fquare of the velocity ; and this lofs is proportional to the 1 .■i9 /'» vivm J. r , • , "- 1- -r— • — ...>. loft ill the iquare of the relative motion. The vires viva, at coUiDon of the commencement of the mutual aaion, are = y7a' umbftic + B// (I.). In the moment of greateft pro-ximity, ^"'^"• the quantity of matter A + B is moving with the common velocity ^+^ ; therefore the vtret vivte are = A + B X Aa + B^' A + B» ducing it from principles or laws Hill more general. We A* «' -f B' i' + A B X 2 a iJ _ A a + B A' _ " A + li ' ~ apprehend, that the piefent cafe of its truth has been fo demonftrateJ by us. The principle is, that " a mo- Ting force is to be meafured by the change of motion produced by it ;" And the law to which this principle is applied is, that " the mutual repulfions of magnets are equal and oppofne ;" and the application is made by means of the " 39th proportion of the firft book of Newton's Principia." Our principle, which is the fame with Sir Ifaac Newton's fecond law of motion, is really an axiom of human thought. The propofition is the confequence logically drawn from this axiom ; and the law of magnetifm is an obferved faift. We hope to Ihew by and bye, that this propofition, which is our n° 95 of Dynamics, is found to obtain in every inllance that has been or can be given of the confervatio virium vivarurt, and tliat this confervatio is only another way of expreffing the propofition. Having done this, we fhall not think ourfelves chargeable with vanity wlien we fay, that we have given the lirll demonrtration of this famous law. We cannot refufe ourfelves fome fatisfac- (II.). A4- B I. X A + B = A' a= + B' i' + A B X a' X ^'. II. X A + B = A'a' + B'^' + AB X 2 ah. Difference Lofs of vis viva =: AB A + B AB xa~b'. a — i', a quantity that is proportional to a — b'', the fquare of the rela- tive velocity a — b. Had the bodies been moving in oppofite dirciflions then (II.) X A + B would have been A* a' -f B* — A B X 2 a *, and the difference from Aa' -(- Bi» X A + B would have tieen = A B X 1 + 3', propor- tional to the fquare of the relative velocity a •{■ b. Such is the fad ; and we Ihiill find it of importance phyfijai in the great debate about the force ol moving bodies, taufe of Let us inquire into the phyfical or mechanical caufe of it. this lofc. In the moment ot common velocity, the bodies are nearer to each other than they are at the beginning and at the tion at having done this ; becaufe it has been fo highly end of their mutual aflion. Therefore (when they are efteemed, chiefly for the fupport derived from it for the moving in onedireiftion) the body A, which follows, has Leibnitzian meafurement of the force of moving bodies been retarded through a fpace which is greater than the by \he f quart of the velocity which it communicates; fpace along which the preceding body B has been accelc- whereas it is the logical confequence of the force be- rated. But, becaufe the fimultaneous forces acting oa ing proportional to the fimpk velocity. We have only the bodies along thefe unequal fpaces are always equal, taken a weapon out of the hands of a plunderer, and the area which meafures the diminution of the fquare of rcllorcd it to its lawful owner. Sir Ifaac Newton. Nan A's velocity (Dynamics, n° 95.) mull exceed the a- ita certiindi cupidus, quam propter amorem : For we mull Ted which expreffes the augmentation of the fquare of fay, Tu pater et rerum inventor, tu patria nobis Suppeditas precepta, tuifque ex, inclute, chartii Floriferis ut apes in faliibus omnia libant. Omnia nos itidem depafimur avrea diSa Aurea, perpelud fei/iper dignijfima vilj. We truft that our reader will not think that this mi- B's velocity, and there muft be a lofs of vires viva. Now, we learned above, that the mutml a^ion 'i< the fame when the relative velocity is the fame ; and there- lore the approximation, which is the occafion of this aiflion, mull be the fame. And it is demonllrated in Dynamics, n" 95. that the area, whofe ablciffa is the fpace defcribed, and ordinates the forces, exprelfes the fquare of the generated or exiinguKhed velocity. This nute difcuffion of the mutual aftions of magnets or o- is evidently the relative velocity of the bodies, becaufe ther repelling bodies, in which we have engaged him, has been thrown awav, fince it has enabled us to appre- hend cleaily a cafe of two fuch general laws as the con- trvatio mor/ientorum, and the conjirvatio virium viva- rum. they arc brought to a common velocity in the infiant of greateft proximity ; that is, their relative velocity is deltroyed. 6. During the whole procefs, the common centre of -^ pofitiou or gravity (a) is moving uniloiinly with the The mo- velocity ''o" of the common . — ' — centre of pra\'iijr it (a) See the article Position m lh\s Supplement ; where it will be demonftrated, that tlie centre of gravity (de- not ehm- lermined in the ufual manner) is the point by whofe fituition and motion wc ellimate with the greaiell propriety g"' ^f 'he the fituation and motion of the affemblage, of which it is the centre: it is therefore called the centre of po- "'>"u-»l»e- siTioN. The reader is only defircd at prefent to recillciff, that the centre of gravity, or pofition of two bodies, is fituated in the line joining their centres ; and that its dillance from each is invcrfdy as their quantities of mai- ler j and tliat iIk' dilUncc and motion of ihe ccnUc is ihe nitdiura or average of ail llie dilUnces or motioas. ImpulQon. velocity Aa: I MP C For the motion of the centre of A + B pofition is the average of the motinn of every particle of matter in botli bodies. Aa is the lum of the mo- tions of every particle of matter in A, and B i is tlie fum of the motions of every particle in B, before tlie mutual a<5tions began. Therefore A^ + Bi is the whole motions when the bodies are moving in the lame dirciHion with their different velocities. The number of particles is A + B : Therefore, if the whole mo- tions be equally divided among all the particles, the ve- locity of each mud be '^f + .\^^ . This is the ave- rage motion, or the motion of the centre of pofition, deduced I rem the notion we vrilli to imprefs of the cha- raifler of this centre, as the index of the pofition and motion of any aifemblage of matter. This velocity may be deduced more eafily from its geometrical pro- perty. It is a point fo fituated between A and B, that its dillance frr.m each is reciprocally proportional to the quantities of matter in A and B, as i« well known of the centre of gravity. It is equally plain, ihat when the bodies arc moving in oppofite direiftions, the ave- rage velocity x mud be = Aa—Bi Thus fee A-fB that the motion of the centre of pofition, before the magnets have begun to aA on each other, is the fame with its motion when their mutual repulfion is the grcateft; namely, at the moment of their greatell vici- nity. It has continued the fame during the whole pro- cefs : for we have already fcen. that the fum or differ- ence of the momenta, or Aa^tr-Bl, remained always the , A a =i::zb , r fame : confequently — ; tt—> or x, the motion ot ^ ' A -(- B riie centre, remains always the fame. Therefore the propofition is denionllratej. It is, indeej, a trutli much more general than appears in the prefent inftance. If any number of lod'us le moxing with any ■velocities. 41 T]ie mo- tions, iu re- lation to the centre, arc- rccipro ■iiid in any direaiotis, the motion of the centre of pojstion is not affihed by their mutual, equal, ami opprjite, adions on each other. 7. During the whole motion, the motion of the bo- dies relative to each other, is to the motion of one of them, relative to the centre of pofition, as the fum of the bodies is to the otlier body : For when they were mo- .„ ^'"g with a common velocity, this velocity was the cally ai^he fame with that of the centre ; and they are then at reft, iodics. relative to each other, and relative to the centre. And becaufe their diftances from the centre are inverfely as the bodies, their changes of dillance, that is, their mo- tions relative to the centre, are in the fame proportion ; and the fum of their motions relative to the centre is the fame with their motions relative to each other. Therefore A -{- B : A=(i — b : motion of B relative to the centre. Indeed we faw, that in their mutu al aftion, A 330 ] IMP lary. We may alfo fee that their final velocity of mu- Impulfioa. lual recefs is equal to that of llu-ir firft approach, or, ^x^"^'"*— ' their relative motions are the fame in quantity after the aaion is over as before it began, but in oppofite diieiftions. All thefe general fadls, which are diftin(flly appre- ciable, and very perceivable, in this example of mag- nets, or ele(flri(ied bodies, are equally appreciable in all c.-ifes of mutual rcpulfions, however ftrong thefe may- be ; and although the fpace through which they arc ex- erted fhould be fo fmall as to elude obfervation, and though the whole procefs fliould be completed in an in- fenhble moment oi time. It fcarccly needs any comment to make it clear that 4J the very fame changes of motion mull take place, if a '^'l- ,'!'"''' folid body A fliould com« up to another folid body B, ''"ing hai at reft, or moving more flowly iu the fame dircflion, jhc f»me or moving in tlie oppofite diredlion ; provided that there cfTcifl with be a fpring interpoled between them, which may hinder 'he mutual A from Itriking B ; for, as foon as A touches the repulfiont. fpiiiig, it begins to prefs il agaiiift B, and, therefore, to comprefs the fpring. It cannot carry the fpring be- fore it, without the fpring's pulhing B before it. Pref- fure on B is required for this purpofe. This is fupplied by that natural power which we call elafticity, which is inherent in the fpring, whether it be in motion or at reft. It is not in a{lion,h\\t'\n capacity, faculty, capability, pcnuer, or by whatever name we may choofe to exprefs the pof- ftffion. The occalion required for its exertion iscompref- lion. This is furnilhed by the motion of A ; for A can- not advance with'ut comprelfing it. This inherent force of the fpring is kn'jiun to aift with perfeiS equality at both ends, in oppofite dircflions. It exerts equal and oppo- fite preffures on A and on B ; it diminilhes the motion of A, and equally augments the motion of B (if both arc moving that way). A is retarded, and B is acce- lerated; A is lUll moving faller than B; and therefore the comprcffion and the ccnfrquent reaiflion of the fpring iucreafes, and flill more retards A and acccle- lates B. After fomc lime, bctli bodies, wiiji tlie fpring compreffed between them, are moving with equal velocities ; the fpring, however, is llrongly read- ing on both, and mud now caufe them to feparatc ; llill retarding A and accelerating B — They muft fcparate more and more, till the fpring regain its ([uiefcent form, and its elaltic reaflion ceafs entirely. During its rellitu- tion, its prelfures are the fame as during its compreffion; therefore, the whole change produced on each of the bo- dies muft be double of what it was when thefpring wasin its ftate of greatell compreffion, and the bodies were moving with a common velocity. In fliort, the whole procefs in this example muft be precifely fimilar to that of the magnets in every citcumftance relating to the changes of motion in A and B. The common velo- city muft be = — ^— TTJ • "^^^ fi"3l velocity of A the change of B's motion was — At The bodies fcp:irate with the fame rela- tive veloci- ty whidi they ap- proached. change of A's motion was = A-hB Bxa — b a — b , , -, and the B 2 B, .b muft hs = a — — ; — > anu A + B that of B muft be = A -h B Hence we learn, that while the centre moves uni- formly, the bodies approach it, and then recede from it, with velocities reciprocally proportional to their quanti- ties of matter. This will be found a very ufeful corol- i+ 2 Afl =* The motion of the common centre A+B muft be unafftfted by the aftion of the fpring, and the motion of each body, relative to the centre, muft be reciprocally as its quantity of matter, &c. Sec. We I M P C 231 ] I M P Iinpu!iioii< 44 The chan- jjcs of mo- tion are produced by the in- herent for- ces which £onne>.1 the particles. AS Internal proccfs of change throujrh the fub- ftancc of each body. We apprehend that this procefs can fcarcely be call- ed impulfion ; A has not llruck B. Tlie changes of motion can fcarcely be afcribed to forces inherent in A or B, in confequence of their being in motion. Any perfon, not already warped by a theory, will (we think) afcribe ll.em to a force inherent in the fpring ; inherent in it, whether at reft or in motion, and only requiring a continued compreftion as the proper oppor- tunity for its continued exertion. 'J'his fpring may be fuppifed to make a part of B, or of A, or of both ; and then indeed, the force may be faid to be inherent in either, or in both. But it is not the peculiar force inherent in motion, or in moving bodies on/y — it is the icrcc oi elajlicisy, inlierent in part of the body, but re- quiring a continued comprcjjion for the produflion of a continued >f/i/r^5n. The edeft of this reaction is mo- dified by the very occafion <:<{ the conipreffion. This may be the elafticity of another fpring. In this cafe it will only comprefs that Ipring — It may be the advance of a body in motion ; the reaftion produces a retarda- tion of that motion ; it may be the obftacle of a <iuiefcent body — It will give it motion ; or, it may be the obllruolion by a body moving more flowly away than the fpring is prefFed forward — it will accelerate that motion. Thu?, in all thefe cafes, we cannot help dif- tinguilliing the immediate caufe of thefe changes of motion from the fuppofed force of a moving body. Nay, the proccfi of motion is fmiilar, even when we I'uppofe that the fpiing is not a thing external to the body, although attached to it ; but that the whole bo- dy, or both bodi'i'i, are fpringy, elaftic, and therefore conipreirible. As fooii as the bodies come into fen- fible contact, conipreffion mujl begin ; for we may fup- pnfe the bodies to be two balls, which will therefore touch only in one point. The mutual pielfure, which is necelfary in order to produce the retardation of A, and the acceleration of B, is exerted only on the fore- moll particle ot A, and the hindnioll particle B ; but no atom of matter can be put in motion, or have its motion any way changed, uiilefs it be i.{\z6. on by an adequate force. The lorce urging any individual par- ticle, mull be precifely competent to the produdion of the very change ( f motit n which obtains in that par- tick. Except ths two particles which come into con- tA& in the collifion, all the other particles are iiiime- di.itcly adluated by the forces which conneftthem with each other ; and the force ailing on any one is general- ly conipourdeii of many force> which conneft that par- ticle with thof^- ajjoinir.g. Therefore, when A over- takes B, the forenioll panicle of A is immediately re- tarded — the particles behind it would move forward, if their mutual connciftion were didolved in that inftant ; but, this remaining, they only approach nearer to the forcmoft ftriking particles, and thus make a compref. iion, which gives occalion for the inlierent elaflicity to exert itfeif, and, by its rea<aion, retard the following particles. Thus each (Iratum (fo to conceive it), con- tinuing in motion, makes a coinprellion, which occn- lions the clafticity to reaO, and, by rending, to retartl the llratum immediately behind it. This happens in fuccelhon : the comprcffion and clallic reaflion begin in the anterior ftratum, and take place in fucceffi n back- ward, and the whole body gets into a Hate of compref- fion. Things happen in the fimc manner in B, but in the contrary dircdlion, the foremoll rtrata being tlie laft which are comprefTcd. All this is done in an in- impuiron. ftant ^as wc commonly, but inaccurately fpeak), that ^■^~'^""*-' is, in a very fmall and infenfible moment of time ; but in this moment there is the fame gradual compreflicn, increafe of mutual aiflion, greatcll compreflicn, com- rnon velocity, fubfequent reftitution, and final fepara- tion, as in the cafe of bodies with a flendcr fpring in- terpofed, or even in the cafe of the mutually repelling magnets. In all the cafes, the changes of motion are produced by the elafticity or the repullion, and not by the transfufion of the force of motion. The changing force is indeed inherent in the bodies, but not becaufe they are in motion ; the ule of the motion is to give occafion, by continued comprefTion, for the continued operation of the inherent elallicity. The whole pro- cefs may be very diftincHy viewed, by making ufe of bodies of fmall firmrelt, fuch as foot-ball>, or blown bladders. If blown bladders are ufed, each loaded with fand, or fomething that will require more force, and confequently more compreffion to impel it forward ; we ihall obferve the comprell'ion of both to be very confider- able, and that a very fenfible time elapfes during the procefs of collifion. This may even be obfervcd very dillinflly in a foot-ball, which is always feen to reft a little on the toe before it fiies off by the ftroke. Whea one foot-ball is ftrongly driven againft another, they plainly adhere together for fome time, and then the llricken ball fiies off. If we return to the example of the two balls with the fpring interpofed, we may make fume farther ufeful obfcrvations. When the fpring is in its ftate of greatell compreflion, and the balls are moving with a common velocity, we can fupp^'fj that the fpring is arrefted in that fituation by a catch. It is evident that the two bodies will now proceed in contaft with this velocity, , • I. 1, n. u A<i=i:=Bi which we have (hewn to be = — r — ; — ,t-. A -f B Now, in the conftitution of fuch malTes of tangible 46 matter as we have the opportunity of fubjefling to our Nature of experiments, we find a ftate of aggregation which very |."^":L^ much relembles this. Somebodies are almoft perfectly elaftic, that is, when their fhapc is changed by external prelfure ; and that preliiire is removed, they recover their former lliape completely, and they recover it with great promptitude. Glafs, ivory, hard fteel, are oi this kind. But moll bodies either do not recover it com- pletely, or they recover it very ll>wly — fonic hardly recover it at all. A rod of iron will, when confidcrably bent, not nearly recover its Ihape ; a rod of lead ftill lefs; and a rod of foft clay will hardly recover it in ar.y degree. Thefe, however, are but gradations of one an! the fame quality : if the quiefcent form cf a body is very little difturbed, it will recover it again. Thus, a common foft iron wire of N" 6. and 12 inches long, if twilled once round, will return completely to its ori- ginal form, and will allow this to be repeated for ever; but il it be twilled 1 1 turns, it will untwift only 1 : and in this new fcrni it will tvvift and untwift one turn as often as we ple.ife. Even a rod of foft clay T'.th of an inch in diameter, and 7 feet long, will bear one twift as often as we pleafe : but if twifted 4 times, will untwift it- feif only one turn, and will do this as often as we choofc. In fliort, it appears that the particles of bodies, ufual- ly called unchftic, will admit a fgiail change of diftance or IMP [ 232 ] IMP Imiiulfion. or fituatJon, and will recover it again, exhibiling perfeft other at fen Able diflirces. Bodies which exhibit no Impulfioii. 47 Effca of thJK coUi- Hoa. The perfevSly elaftic bodies (hould fudain dafticity, in oppofition to very" fmall forces'; but if elalllcity whatever, Ihould continue in contafl after they are forced too far from this fituation, they have coUifion. The common velocity in tljcfe fhould be no tendency to return to it completely, but find inter- A a ^=. B ^ mediate Ikuations, in which they have the very fame A + B cdiineclions with the furrounding particles ; and in this changes of motion which are precifely double of the rcw fituation they can again exhibit tlie fame perfeift changes furtained by unelallic bodic, and (hould fepa- elafticity, in oppofition to very fmall forces. Mr Cou- j-jte after collifion with a relative velocity of recefs or lomb conceives fuch bodies to confift of elaftic particles: feparation, precifely equal to their relative velocity of they manifeft perfeifl elafticity, fo Ion;; as the forces mutual approach. And bodies polfeiring imperfeft ela- employed to change their Ihape do not remove the fticity, Ihould fuftain changes of motion, which differ particles from their prcfent contains ; but if they are from the clianges on unelallic bodies, precifely in pro- removed from thefe, they Aide on to other fituations, portion to tlie degree of elafticity which they are /(noiw/i \vhcre tliey again exhibit the fame appearances. To to poflefs. And, laftly, if the changes of motion which underlland this fully, the reader may confult the article obtain in the collifion of bodies, ate precifely thofc BoscovicH of this Supplemenl — The faci is fufficient which would refult fiom the operation otthofe inherent for our prcfent purpofe. Now, in this variable confti- forces of elafticity and cohefion, no other force tution, where the particles may take a thoufand differ- whatever concurs in their production: For we ent fitualions, and ftill cohere, it is plain, that when a know that thofe forces do tperaii in the collifion ; we fee body has been dimpled by compreiHon, the particles the compreffion and reftitution which are their cffeiflive have nothing to bring them back to their firft fituation caufes, and their immediate elfe«.'ls. If any other force when the compreffing force is removed : the utmoft were fuperadded, we fliimld fee its effefts alfo, and the elafticity to be expeded, is that which will not extend motions would be different from what they are. to one Ihift of fituation ; therefore, the reftitution is Now the fatl is, that lue have never Jeen a body that altogether infenfible. This is ihe cafe with all foft bo- i; n'd, in fome degree, compriftble. It has not pleafed dies, fuch as clay — the fame quality is maniferted in all the Almighty Creator to make any fuch here below, due'lile bodies, fuch as lead, foft iron and fteel, foft Affuredly He has not found fuch to be of ufe for the copper, folt gold. purpofes He had in view in this our fublunary world. Now let one ot thefe bodies ftrike another. The com- We know of no body that is pcifeflly unchangeable in preffion, or the Aiding of the particles over each other, its fhape and dimenlions. It is therefore no lofs what- requires force, or mutual preffure — This being accom- ever to us, although we fhould not be able to fay a pri- panied by a rea(fHon perfedly equal, muft operate, du- ori what their motions will be in collifion. We cannot ring the compreffion, precifely as the equal repulfive even fairly guefs them, by reafoning from what we ob- forces did. It will take as much momentum from A as ferve in otlier bodies : For it is juft as likely that their it gives to B ; fo that A a =±^ B b will remain invari- ably the fame, and a common velocity will at laft ob- A a =t: B /■ ^, _ , tain, = — 5 jj — . The comprelLon can proceed no farther, and the two bodies muft now proceed in con- taft with this velocity. And thus we fee, that in the cnfe of compreflTible, but unelaftic bodies, the changes of motion are pro- duced by the cohefive forces inherent in the bodies ; but not inherent in them becaufe tb.ey are in motion. We fee clearly in this way, how the pendulum ufed by Robins and his followers gave a true meafure of the velocity of the ball. All the while that it was pene- trating into the pendulum, overcoming the cohefion as it went in, this cohefion was afling equally in both direc- tions. While the fibre was breaking, it was pulling both ways j it was holding back the ball which was breaking it, and it was pulling forward the parts to which it ftill adhered ; and when it broke at laft, it had produced equal effeds on the ball and on the pendu- lum in oppofite diredions. By fuch a procefs, the pendulum was gradually accelerated, and acquired its Utmoft velocity when the ball had ceafed to penetrate : Therefore, this velocity muft be = -^r ;— ' A -f. pend"'. What fhould we now expeifl to happen in the collifion of bodies ? Such bodies as exhibit perfeft elafticity, when examined by bending, or other fit trials, Ihould have their motions changed precifely like the magnets, or bodies which repel or avoid each motions may refemble thofe of perfeftly elaftic bodies as thofe of unelallic bodies ; for we find that bodies of the moll extreme hardnefs are generally highly elaftic. Diamond, cryllal, agate, quartz, and fuch like, are the moll elallic bodies we know. Philofopher;, however, rather think that the motions of perfe(5Hy hard bodies will refemble thofe of unelallic bodies ; beciule elaftici- ty fuppofes compreffion. We do not pretend to fay with confidence, what would be the motion of a fingle atom of matter (which cannot admit oi comjireirion) which is hit by another in motion. We fee all the par- ticles of terrcftrial matter connefled with each other by certain modifications of the general force of cohefion, fo as to produce various forms of aggregation ; fuch as aerial fluidity, liquid fluidity, rigidity, fofinefs, dudi- lity, firmnefb or hardnefs ; all of v.hich are combined with more or lefs elafticity. Thefe tangible forms re- fult from certain pofitive properties of the material atoms of which the particles are compofed ; and, in all the cafes which come under our obfervations, thefe pro- perties produce preffures of one kind or another ; all of which are moving forces. They are inherent in the particles and atoms : therefore when fuch atoms are in motion, thefe forces are in a condition which affords occafion for a continuation of this preffure that is com- petent to the produdion of motion in another particle. But what would be the event of the meeting of atoms divefted of fuch forces, we profefs not to know, or even to conceive. The faifl alfo is, that all the changes of motion, com« monly called impulfions, •which have been obferved, are precifely I M P C ^33 ] I M 1' Inipiilfion. The iibft-r- vc-a cficds of collilion arc pcrfcCrt- ly conform- able to the propofi- tioiis now eftablillicd. 49 Extcniive proof of tlie uuivcrfal- ity of equal a6lion and readiioR. precifcly fuch as have been defcribeJ. Unel.itlic bodies ., , , . Afl=i=Bi „ proceed in contaft wiih the velocity — , — Per- feilly chdic bodies fepar.ite after collilion, and each lulVtins double of the change that is lultained by an un- ci, iHic body. Bodies of imperfeci el.ilticiiy dilF;r from tlic two (imple cafes, precifely in the proportion of the elallicity difcoverable by other trials. The mutual ac- tions are obferved to be in the proportion of their rela- tive motions, whatever the real motions may be. For not only are the changes of progrcllive motion exaftly in this proportion, but the coraprcffions and changes ot figure, which we conlider as the immediate occafions of thofj aflions, are alio obferved to be in the fame propor- tions, in a// ca/fs thai 'wc can obfcrve and 7:ieajare •vjilh accuracy. All thefe things can be afcertained with 5j;reat precifion by means of the collifion of pendulous bodies in the way pointed out by Sir Chrillopher Wren (a method attributed by the Fiench to their country- man Mariotte, but really invented by Wren, and exhi- bited to the Royal Society of London the week after he communicated his theory of impullion). We mull alio infer from thefe fads, that the aftions of bodies on each other are mutual, equal, and oppofue. This is really an inference irom the phenomena, and not an original or tirll principle of realoning. The contrary is conceivable, and therelore not abfurd. In the fame way that we can conceive a magnet repelling iron, without imagining that the iron repels the magnet, we may conceive a golden ball capable ot impelling a leaden ball before it, without conceiving that the leaJen bill will impell the golden bill. We do not find this caly i:iJocd ; becaufe the contrary is fo familiar, that the one idea inllantly brings the other along with it. We apprehend it to be impoflible to demonltrate, that a leaden ball will not ftop as foon as it hits the golden ball, or v':ce vcrfa. But all our experience Ihevvs u;, that the prelfures exerted in contad are mutual, equal, and oppofue. Tlie fame thing is obferved in :he lorces which conned the parts of bodies. A quantity ot fand or water balanced in a fcaie will remain in equilibrio in whatever way it is llirred about ; its parts always exert the fame prelfure on the fcale : io does a body fufpend- ed by a llring or reftinp; on the fcale, by whatever points it is fupported. This could not be if the parti- cles did not exert mutual and equal forces ; nor could the phenomena called impulfions be what they are, if the prelfures occalioned between the particles by the com- prellions and dilatations were not mutual and equal. This law of a<5lion and readion mull be admitted as nniverfal, though contingent, like gravity. Doubtlel's it refults from the properties whii.h it has pleafed the great Artift to give to tlie m itter of which He has iormed this world. There is one way in which we can conceive, mod diftindly, how this may be a unlverfal property of matter. If we grant the reality of atti ac- tions and repulfions e dijianii, and fuppofe that every primary atom of matter is precifely liinilir to every other atom in all its properties, and that this alfeni- blage of properties conllitutes it a material at mi ; it fol- lows, that every atom exerts the fime attractions and repulfions, or has the fame uniting and cvalive tenden- cies, and then the law (jf aftion and equal icadion fol- lows of courfc. This is fuiely the very notion that any perfon is difpofed to enteitaln oi the nut:er. And it iiuppu. Vol. It. mechanical force and mobility are the qualities which Inpulfion. dillinguilh what is material from mind or other imrin'e- ^•'^'^•-^ rial fubftances, the law of equal and contrary reacts a fecnis neatly allied to the clal's of tirll principles. Ot all the phtn nnur.i that indicate this p.-rtett cquu- lity of aaion and rcadion, the moll fufccpiible ot ac- curate examination is the fainenefs or equality of action when the relative m )tions are eqnal. Now there is no phenomenon more ceitain than this. In coiillquence of the rotation of the earth round its axis, ai:d us revo-- lution round the fun, it is plain that all our experimetus and obfervations are on relative motions only. Now, we not only find that tha anions of two bodies fubjec- ted to experiment are e(iual when the relative molion^^ are equal, but we find that all our meafures of adion on a hngle body are proportional to the apparent mo. tions which they produce. It requires precifely the fame force to impel a ball eartward, wellward, fouth, or north, at 12, or 3, or fi, or 9 o'clock : )et the reiil motions arc immenicly dillerent in all thefe cafes, and it is only the relative motions that have the proportions which we obterve. Another very important point de- ducible from our experiments is, that the (mtis prefure produces the lame change of motion, whatever may be the velocity. We know this by obllrving, that when the mutual dimpling or compreflion is the fame, the change ot motion is the fame, whatever be the liour of the day. This could not be if it required a greater prelfure to change the velocity looooo into looooi, than to change the velocity i into the velocity 2. Ytt this is one of Leibnitz's great meraphylical arguments for proving that the force accumulated, and now inhe- rent, in a moving body, is proportional to the fqnare of its velocity. We beg that this may be kept in remem- brance. it mull be granted, that what we have already faid on the lubjeft of impullion may be called an explai.j- tion ; for it deduces the phenomena Irom general and uncpaellionable principles, and from acknowledged laws of Nature. Tlie only principle uled is, that a moving torce is indicated, charactenfed, and meafnred, by the motion which it piodnces. It is an acknowledged law of Nature, that prcffures are moving forces ; alio, that: moving forces appear in cafes where we obferve neither prelfures nor impulfions, and whitli we call repullions or evahve tendencies ; that tiief.' are mutual an J equal : and we have fhewn, how a ceitain let of changes of motion refuli from them, and have llated diliimitly the whole procclV : we Ihewed, that thel'e phenomena are li- milar to thole of common impullion; and we tlien iliewed in what manner the motion of a body givii oc- cafion to the exertion of various moving forces, called dijVicUy, cok/ion, &c. and that this exertion mull pro- duce motions limilar to thole produced by repullions c dijlanti ; and, laltly, we inferred, from the pert^tft fanienefs of ihofe refults with ihe adual phenomena of impullion, that thole corpukular forces are the imme- diate and only caufes of llie changes called inipiillions, and commonly afciibed to a if^ul'ur lorcc inheienl in a moving body. ^^ From a coUeiffive view of the whole, we think it clear, why doci that the opinion that impullion is the folc caufe of mo- thcphilolo- tion is unwarranted. We lee that the phenomena of r'"^"' •"''"/"' impulfion are broucht about by tlie imiuedhtc operation '" "^'' "".'" . "^ ,. , ^ ,. 1 1 • ■ n - r gravitauon, of piellurc J and we lee numberleU inllanccs ot prtllure, ^^.^ |,j, ;„,. G g in pulCon i familiar. IMP [2 fmpnlCon. in which we cannot find the fmalleft trace of impullion. ^'^'~''^*^ It is therefore n nioft violent and unwarranted opinion, which afcribes to repeated unperceivcd inipulfions all tliofe I'ohcitations to motion by which, or in confc- tjuence of which, liic molions of bodies are alL'ded by diliant bodies, or bear an evident relation to ihe fitua- tiin and diftance cf other bodies ; as in the ex.iinples of planetary defleiflion, tcrrcflrial gravitation, m.ignetical and elefliical deflexions, and the like. There is nothing in the phenomenon of the prellurcof gravity that i'ccms tomakeinipulfion mere neceliavy or more probable than in the preliineol elafticity, whether that of a fpring or of an expanlive flaid. The aJmillion of an unperteiv- ed fluid to efF;i5l thofe inipullions is quite unwarrant- ed, and the explanation is therefore unpliilofophical, even although we Ihould pciceive intuitively that an atom in motion will ))ut another into motion by hitting it. We apprehend that this cannot be aflirmed with any clear perception of its truth. fj On the whole, therefore, we niuR afciibe lh<it con- Impiilfion tented acqiiiefcence in the explanations of gravitation, is fiipi'ofed and Other attrjflions and repuUions, by means ol ini- tobc better puijg ^jj' the acquiefcence be not pretended), to the fre- undcrltood q„g(,j.j. ^^j familiarity of impulfion, and perhaps to the peifonal fliare and interell we have in this mode of producing motion. Wc know that it is always object- ed that nothing is explained, when wc fay that A re- ptU 13, or tiiat B avoids A ; but we mull fay in return, that notliing is explained, when wc fay that A impels L by hitting it, or that 1j flies away Irom the ftroke. Why fhould it not be allowed to ufe the term repelling power, when it is allowed to ufe the term impelling power, the force of impulle, inertia? All thcfe terms only exprefs phenomena. Duca the word body exprefs any more ? The nuxim, that a body cannot aiff 'wiere It is not, any more than zvhcn it is not, is a quaint and lively ex- bctter uii- preflion, and therefore has conliderable effsfl : It may be dcrltood. granted ; for we apprehend that we unJerlland fo little about •zv/)en and "u'/i^re, that we cannot demonilrate the aflirmative or negative in either cal'c, and that they are on a p.ir with rcfpeil to our knowledge of them. We can have no doubt, however, ot the fai5t, that our mind can bo afteded by an external objeft that is merely re- coUcifled. And wc apprehend, that we know nothing of the difference between body and m'n.d but whiit we have learned by experience. Body, for any thing that wc alUiredly know to the contrary, may alftift, or be aSFcded by, a diliant body, as well as mind may be. It is therefore worth while to pay fome farther attention to the phenomena, in order to fee whether this expe- rience is fo univerlal and unexcepted as is believed. As Mr Cotes, and many of Newton's difciples, are accufed ot explaining many phenomena by attraftion and repul- fion v.'hich tlieir opponents allirm to be cafes of impul- f.on ; it is not imjioflible but that ordinary obfervers, who have no preconceived theories, may imagine impu!- fions to obtain in cafes where a more accurate infpec- lion would convince them that no impulfion has hap- pened. Inquiry in- When we kick away a foot-ball, we confider it as tothcfanii-a fort of folid continuous body; yet we know that liarity of it mud be filled with ccimprelfed air. It may not impulfion. Ug impoflible to have it of its round Ihape without be- i"foot-Ml'. '"S '" ''^'^^ = b"' ^^e f'"ow tlut, in this condition; it It is not 34 ] IMP would not fly away from our foot by tlie ftrolte ; we Impulfion. ihould only force in the fide which we kick, and the ^-^^^'^^^ flaccid (kin would lie at our feet. But when it is fil- led with llrongly ccimprelfed air, we can form to our- felves a pretty dirtlnft notion how it is made to move ofl. Our foot prefTes on a pirt of the fkin : this com- prelTes the air againit the anterior part of the bag, and iorces it away. If we reflect more fericufly on the proccfs, we can ftill conceive it clearly enough, by thinking on a row of aereal particles, reaching fiom the part (Iruck by the foot to the anterior part, each touch- ing the other, and therefore forcing the anterior part forward. The air is conceived to confid of a number ot little fpherules in contacft, each of which is com- prelhble ; and we think the operation illuftrated by fuppofing each to be like a little vefide or bladder. 'I'his we believe to be the ufual way of conceiving the conlUtution of expanfive fluids : But this will noL agree at all with the known properties of air ; for it can be Uiicflly demonflrated, that if fuch a coUeiflion of claflic veficles be compreded into the halt of their ordinary bulk, every velicle will be changed Irom a fphere into a perfecS cube, touching the adjoining cubes in every point of its lix fides, and flrongly preflisd againft them. It can alfo be deroonllratcd, that if a leaden cube of one inch be included in the box, and placed with its fides parallel to the fides of the box, and the compref- fion be then made, all the little cubic veficles will ac- quire the fame pofition. If the box be now turned up- fide-down, it can be demonflrated that the weight of this leaden cube will not be fulhcicnt for overcoming the rcfiftance of the comprelled cubes. This cnmpref- fcd niafs will not be fluid, but will require a very con- fiderable force to prefs the leaden cube through it, jalt as we find fuch a force neceifary for moving a body through melted glafs : the particles no longer ilide on each other like uncornprefled fphendes ; each will re- quire about half of tlie comprefling force, in order to overcome the friiflion, or obflrucflion like friifiion, pro- duced in Aiding along the furface of the contiguous cubes. But we know that air remains peiieclly fluid, although vaftly more coniprelfcd than this. This, there- fore, cannot be like the conditution or form of air. Moreover, it is well known tliat air has been made ten times dcnfer than its ordinary llale, and is then pertecft- ly fluid. It has alfo been made a hundred times rarer, and it Ifdl remains perfecflly fluid. In this ftate its particles mud be ten times farther removed from eacli other than in the former date, of a thouland times greater denfity. Yet we know that this rare air is compreifed with a force eqaal to the weight of a dratuni of mercury -fd of an inch in thicknefs, and that if -fd of this preifure be re- moved, it will expand till it is 150 times rarer than common air ; that is, there is fome force which puflies the particles dill farther from each other. This force evidently extends beyond the tentli particle of air that is made ten times denfer than common air. Therefore the eladicity of air docs not aril's from the conta6l of panicles, which are eladic like blown up bladders, but fiom fome force which extends beyond tlie adjoining particles. There is no gr<:ater reafon, therefore, for fuppofing, that the particles of air touch each other, than for fuppofing that the two magnets touch each other becaufc they repel. A row of magnets floating on quickfilver, and placed with their fimllar poles front- ing I M P C 235 ] I M 1^ Impulfion. Is very doubtful. 54 Many cafes of doubtful cental. S5 Vcr)' re- markable cofc of con- vex Knfti falfdy fecniing to touch. Ing each other, and ver)' near, will tend to feparate, and tliey require to be held in by a {lo\> put at each end of the canal ; and if one ftop be gradiiilly with- drawn, the magnets will all fep irate, and exhibit the j^eneral mechanical cftciSs of a row of aereal p.irticles feparating by the removal of prcflure. There fcenis, therefore, to be the fame neceflity for the operation of an intervening impelling Huid for producing this fepa- ration or cLUlicity of the aereal mafs, as for feparating the magnets. The refult of thefe remarks feems to be, that the impulfion of a foot-ball is not brought about in the way that is commonly imagined, by the excitement ot corporeal prefl'ure at the points of contact of the two foot-ball«. For we fee it almolt demonllrated, that the progrefTive motion of the anterior part of one of the balls has been produced without contafl, or, at lead, by the intervention of repulfions acfling at a diftance. — May not this obtain, even in the points in which we fuppofe the two balls adually to touch, in the ad of impulfion ? But farther — Every perfon has obferved the brilliant dew drops lying on the leaves of plants. Every perfon acquainted with Newton's optical difcoveries, miift be convinced that the dew-drop is not in mathematical conta(5l with the leaf; if it were, it could have no bril- liancy. Moll perfons have oliferved the rain drops of a fummcr fiiower fall on the furface of water, and roll abnit for a few feconds, exhibiting the greateft brilliancy. They cannot, therefore, be in inatliema- tical contaft with the water. There muft be a fmall dillance between them, and therefore fome force which keeps them afunder, and carries the weight, that is, coiinieia<fls the downward prclFure of the rain drop. We know that fome infeifts with long legs can run about on the furface of water ; and if we lift them care- fully, and fet them on glafs, their feet do not wet it. Put a little fpirit of wine into tliis water, and make it lukewarm, and the infect inltantly finks up to the belly, and cannot move about as before: Its feet will now wet a glafi. A well-polifhed Reel needle, even of confiderable lize, if perfeflly clean and dry, will float on water without being wetted : It is obferved to make a confiderable deprefllon on the furface of the water, juft as a heavy bar of iron would make when laid on a feather bed — the needle difplaces a quantity of water equal to itfelf in weight, yet does not touch it, for it is not wetted. If it be previoully wetted, it will not difplacc any water, and will not Boat. There is fume- thing, therefore, which keeps the water at a dillance from the feet of the infeft, and from the needle, exert- ing a certain upward prefiTure on tlieni. The prelfiirc and the reaiflion are indeed very fmill ; but they would produce a very fenfiblc motion if continued fufliciently long in proper circunill.inccs. Here would be a pro. du^tion of motion, which mnfl perfons would c ill an impulfion — yet there would be no llroke, no contac'l, and therefore no true impulfion. We now beg the reader to attend minutely to New- ton's famous experiment with the objcifl glalles of long telefcopes, which wc have mentioned circumftaniially in the article Optics, Encycl. n" 63 — 68. When the upper glaf ii very thin and light, no co- lour appears at the point of conta>i) : but by prelf- ing it down with fuflicient force, we (hall have a black or unrellefling fpot in the middle, furrounJcd hy a fil- Impulfion. very ring, and then by a ferics of lings of various co- ^■^'^'*-' lours, according to the dillance between the parts of the glafles where the colours appear. Newton has counted 50 of thefe rings. He lliews, by a careful computation from the known fij-iire of the glalfes, that the differences between the tlillances which exhibit thefe colours are all precifely equal, and that each is about -j-jV^ of an inch. Therefore, fuppofing that ihs glades are in mathematical contaifl where the iinrelleil- ing fpnt appears, making one continuous mafs of glafs, their diftance at the outermoll ring muft not be lefs than -j^l^ of an inch, or -rj o o* an i"ch. Therefore, when one glafs carries the other, wllliout any appear- ance of colour at the middle, we mull conclude that there is a repullion exerted between the nearell parts, at a diftance not lefs than i-J-j- of an inch, fufficient for fupporting the upper glafs. It req'iires an incicafi; of prelfure to produce the tirft appearance of colour ; and when the preiFure is ftiU more increafed, new en. lours appear in the middle, and the colour formerly there is now feen in a furrounding ring; thefe multi- ply continually, by new ones fpreading from a central fpot. A great prelfure at laft produces the unrcflecl- ing fpot in the centre, which, unhke to all tlie colour- ed fpo:s wliich had emerged in fucccllion, is (liirply defined, and never rour.d, but ragged, and it is imme- diately furrounded by a biigiu fijvery reflexion. The fhape of this fpot depends on the figure of the fur- faces ; for, on turning the upper leiu a little round its axis, the inequalities of the eJge of the fpot tuiu, in fome degree, with it. This feeniingly trifling remark will be found important by the meciian cian : A ftiU farther increafe of prelfure enlarges the unreflcifling fpot, and the dimenfions of all the rings — When the prelfure is gradually withdrawn, the rings Ihrink in their dimenfions, the unrefleifling fpot difappears firft, and each ring in fucceflion conlradls into a fp it, and va- nilhcs. Here we have, by the way, an explanation of the brilliancy of dew-drops : they come fo near, p;r- haps, that the neareft point rcfleifls the filvery appear- ance — but they do not touch; the iiiU;in: that they touch a wetted part, making one mat's of tranlpaienc matter, all brilliancy is gone. Here then are incontelkible proofs of a force, be its ^g origin what it may, which keeps the glaflcs afunder. They repel and even caufes them to feparate ; which manifefts it- each other; felf by wiihftanding prelfure ; and therefore is, itfelf, a prelfure, or equivalent to a prelfure — It varies in its in- tenfity by a change of diftance ; but we have 11 H been able to afcertain by what law. It muft nut be mea- fured by the fiinple variation of the txteraal preli'ure ; for fince we fee that, even before any colour appears in the centre, the weight of the upfCr lens is fiipport- ed, we muft conclude that the gl.ilfes are exerting at leaft an equal force all around the circunderence oi the outermoll ring. It is evident, that the computation of the whole force, exerted over all the coloured fur.'ace, muft be ditlicult, even on the limplcft hypithelis con- cerning the law of repullion : wc can only fay that it increales by a diminution of dillance. It is vety i-af/ to conipu;e the increafe of external prelfure, which would liilTice if the repelling force were equal at all diftanccb ; or if it varied according to any fiiigle power of the diftances. We have tried the inverle limplc, G g 2 duplicate. I M r C 236 ] I M P S7 And niiiy im out tuuch ill?, Iir]>iill'io!i. diiplica'e, and triplicate ratio; but the fail deviated ''-''^'''^■^ widely f.om tlicm all. The repullion does nnt change neatly fo much as in the liniple inverfc ratio of the diftaiiccs, it tlie glalles be fuppoled to touch in the whole fuiface ol' ilie iinreflecling fpnt. But we found, tliai if we fuppofc them feparated, though at a diftance equal to forty times the dilFercnce of dllhince at which the colours change, that is, si-v of an inch, the pref- Jures employed ni tlie experiment accoid pretty well with a repullion mveifely as the d;rtance, but Hill with a very confiderable deviatiin iu tho (Jieat prellurcs. In the courfe of a number of cxpejiments with a favour- ite pair of lenfes, we broke the iippcrmoll by too (Ironsj a prefFure. We then cut out ci it, with a la- pidary's hollow drill, a piece of \ of an inch in diame- ter, and peifeiftly round, and we fqucezed it on the other by a meafured prelfure, till we produced a colour- leff fpot of nearly -Jth of an inch in diameter, with a iilvery margin. Computnig from this, we thought ouifelvcb warranted to lay, that not lefs than 800 pounds are necellary for producing a black fpot of cue inch fquare! Now, what Is the confequence of all this in the doc- trine oi' impullion ? Sutely this: — If a lump cf this pclwitli- gijjj-j (\rike another lump, and put it in motion, and if ' '"'" " the mutual prcifuie iu the adt of coUifion do nc't ex- ceed 700 pounds on the fquare inch, the motion has been produced without matliematical contaft, and the produ(ftion can no more be called impulfe than the motion of the magnet in our tirll experiment. The chan"e-i of motion have been the operation ot moving force's, fimilar to the force of magueiifm ; and it a ilream of truly impelling i3uid be necelfary for pro- ducing the motion of the magnet, it is equally necei- firy for producuig the motion of the piece of glaf=. It may be faii here, that we cannot compare impulfe and preliure. A flight blow will fplit a diamond wliich could fupport a houle. A flight blow may therefore be enouj-Ji for exciting all the prcflure necelfary for pro- ducing maihematicil contaft. We mull here appeal to what every man feels en this occalion. We doulit ex- ceedingly whether any perfon will tliink th.'.t, when one piece of glifs gives another a gentle blow, and puts it into motion, witli the velocity of a few inches per I'econd, a blow which he diftiniflly hears, there has been exerted a prelfure at all approaching to 800 pounds per fquare inch. — We have lulpended a pair of Itnfes, by an apparatus fo (leady and firm, that they could touch only at the centres of each iurtace ; and, havirg placed ourfelves properly, we could fee, with fullicient diltiniSnefs, the moineniary appearance of the coloured fp'>t at the inllant of coUilion. We faw this, with the lulk-ll confidence that it was of no confidsr- able breadth in a moderate llioke, and that it was very fenlibly broader when the llroke was more violent. W^e did not truft our own eye alone, but (liewed it to per- fons ignorant of philofophy, and even to children, of^en without telling them what to look for, but alking them what they faw. From all the information that we could gather, none of the prell'ures came near to what mud have been neceflary for producing the black fpot. This could net be millaken : for although the outer rings are but faint, there ate five or fix near the centre which are abundantly vivid for affeifting the eye by the monientaiy fl.illi. Befides, the diinenQonsof the lenfts, and the welglit of the metal cells in which they were ImpnlCou. fixed, were Inch as rnult have caufed them to fplit be- ^'^~^'~'*^ iore the black fpot could be produced in the centre. Thefe things being maturely confidered, we imagine AnJ cer- that few pcrlons will now doubt the jullice <>{ our af- tainly do fertion, that in all tliefe examples, the motions have been ^°> <^vcn ia produced without mathematicnl (or rathergeometrical) n't"' contact. — And we inidgine alio, that few will reful'c granting th.U this is not peculiar to glafs, but obtains alio in the coUifion of other bodies. We have not thougi)t ot any method lor putting this bcvond doubt ; but we have better reafons than mere likelihood for being of this opinion. Every one acquainied \Mth the Newtonian dilcoveries in optics, km.'.vs that this cu- rious appearance of the coloured rings is the confe- quence of the a<flion of traufparent bodies on the rays of light, by which thefe are bent afidi from their rec- tilineal courfe, and that this deflexion takes phce at a dillance from the diaphanous body ; a diftance which the fjgacity of the great philofopher has enabled us to meafure. Now, it is known that metals and other opake bodies produce the very fame dtfle^ftions cf the rays, bending them toward themfelvcs at one diftance, and from them at other dillances ; in (hort, attraifliug or repelling them as the dillance varies. Nntliing liut prepnlfcllion can liinder a perfon from afcribing fimi- lar elTtifls to fimil.ir caufes ; and, therefore, thinking it alnioll certain, that this mutual repulfion is not pecu- liar to glafs, but common to allf(ilid bodies. To all this we may furely add the celebrated expe- riment of Mr Huyghens ; in which it is evident, that a fmooth plate of metal attraifls another, even altlmugh there be a filk fibre interpofed between them. {See Phil. Tranf. n° 86). Is it not highly probable, that at a fniuller dillance the bodies repel each other ? For we obfcrve, thjt metals, as well as tranl'parent bodies, attraft the rays at one dillance and repel them at another. Surely cur readers will now grant, that the produc- jg tlon ot niotiin by impulilon, as ditlinguilhed from the Impulfion production by aiflion e djlunri, is not to familiar a phe- isnotfofa- nomeuon as was ima-.'ined, and that it mav even be faid , ,.'^' " '* . ^ , r 1 ■ 1 ' c ] believed, to be raie in conipanhni : tor the inilances ot mode- rate inipulfes are riumberlefs. The claim of this mode of explaining difilcult phenomena by impulfion, has therefore lolt much of its force : and we tec much lefs reafon for calling in the aid of invifible fluids, in order to explain theadlion of gravity, magnetifm, and eleiffri- city. But we have flill more important information from 59 the optical difcovery ot Newt^.n. Let the reader turn Stillgreater again to Optics, Encycl. n" 65, and read the account doubts, of the phenomena exhibited by the foap-bubble. I'j^g Obfcrvati- bubble is thinner and thinner as we approach the very r 11 uppermoft point of it. It alio exhibits luminous rings, \,\^_ wliich vary in their colour, in the fame order as in the fpace between the lenfes. Thefe rings come to view in the fame manner. Full, a coloured fpot appears in the lummit of the bubble; this becomes a ring, and is fucceeded by another fpot, as the bubble grows thin- ner in that part, by the gradual fubliding of the wa- tery film. At lall a bl.ick fpot appears at top, well defined, but of irregular tliape, furrounded by a filvery ring. This fpot, when viewed very narrowly, is ob- ferved to rcflift a very mlnuie portion of light, with otil IMP [ 237 ] IMP Impulfion. o\xx feparaUng the differently colorific rays of which it Therefore we iliink ourfclves well entitled to conclude, Impulfion. coniilts ; but it contains them all, as may be proved by that tlie difappearaiice of the black fpot was not owing ^•^~"'~^'^ viewing it through a pril'in. After fonie little time, to a i'eparation ot the glaifes, which admits the water the bubble burfls. into the empty ^ace ; and we affirm, that before the Surely we mull infer from this, thit there is a certain entry of the water, there was room for it in the place thicknefs of the tranlparent plate which renders it unfit which reflefled no hght ; that is, that although tiie glaf. for the vivid reflection of light. Does it not le^iti- fes were prefFed together vviih a very great force, they niately follow from this, that the unrefle(fting fpot be- were not in contact. tween the lenfes ceafes to entitle us to fay, that they It deferves remark, that in endeavouring to produce Rcmixk- are in contact in that place ? All that we can conclude the black fpot, when water is between the glalTes, we from its appearance is, that the dillance Hill between found great and unaccountable anotrialies. Sometimes the glalTes is too fmall to fit the place for the vi»id re- a moderate increafe of preffure produced it, and fome- flexion ot light. This conclufion is indifputable. Were times we were not able to produce it by any preflute. it refu'cd, we are turnidied with an inconttltible proof Several lenfes were broken in the trial. We arc led to by the fame bountiful hand. Newton afcribid the co- think that the thicknefs which gives the filvery rcflec- lours to the refledicn of the plate of air between the tion is much greater than the 8900th part of an inch, glalFes, and expedled the cclfation of them when the air and that it is not the fame in all glalFes. But we were is removed. His friend Mr Boyle had lately invented interrupted in thefe experiments, and indeed in all aiflive a commodious air pump. The trial was made, and purfuits, by bad health, which has never permitted their young Newton found himfelf millaken ; for the colours renewal. The fubjecl is of great importance to the cu- llill appeared, and he even thought them more biilliant. lious mechanicians, and we earnellly rtconimend it to He then tried the effeifl of water, cxpeding that this their attention. There is fomething very remaikable would diminiih their luftre. So it did ; and he found in the abrupt celfation of the coloured rcfleflion. At that the dimenfions of the rings were diminiflied in the a certain thicknels all cohuirs are refiecflcd, without fe- proportion of 4 to 3 ; namely, the proportion of the paration, producing the whitenefs of filver. The fmall- refrac^ions of glafs and water. By this time Newton eft diminution of it hinders the i\v\d refle(5lion oi all had difcovered the curious mech.inical relation between colou.'s, and then there feems to fuccecd a thicknels bodies and the rays of light ; and his mind was wholly which equally reflects a fmall proporiiv n of all without abforbed by the difcovcty, and by the revolution he feparaiion. The fined polilh that can be given to glafs was about to make in the mathematical doiflrines of in the tool of the artift, leaves irregularities wliich oc- cptics. Unfortunately for us, he did not, at that lime, cafion the irregular ragged figure of the fpot. It is attend to the mighty influence which the difcovery worth trying, whether fmoothing the farlaces (both) by would have on the whole of mechanical philofophy, and a foftening heat will remove this rugijednefs. If it therefore occupied himfelf only with fuch phenomena does, without deftroying the fliarp termination, it will as fuited his prefent purpofe. A moft important phe- prove the abrupt pallage from ejj< to nonejjl:. romenon paifed unnoticed. In repeating Sir Ifaac The lad remark to be made on this important expe- Newton'i experiments, we found that the diai^ters of riment in optics is, that the dillance between the glalfes the rings decreafed in the proportion of 4 to 3 only in which is unfit for vivid reflcclion, cannot be determined certain circumftances. When the upper lenfe was by means of the other meafurable intervals. It may be prelFed on the other by a heavy metal ring, fo as to equal to many of tliem taken together. The fame mud produce three or four coloured rings, we fvund, that be granted with refpcdl to the ihicknefa of the black v.-htn water got between them, fometimes no colours fpot on the top of the foap bubble. We attempted to whatever appeared ; fometimes there was a ring or two, meafure tiiis thicknefs by letting a drop (of a known and the diameters were diminillied in a much greater weight) of Ipirit of turpeatine fpread on the furface of proportion than Newton had affigned. Well affared water. As it llowly enlarged in furface, it decreafed of the extreme nicety of all his proceedings, we were in thicknefs, and produced, in regular order, fcveral of much puzzled with this dlfcrepancy, and mentioned the more compounded colours ot the Newtonian ftries. it to a mod rcfpeaable and intelligent friend, the late But before it came to the zoth ring from the centre, it Dr Reid of the univerfity of Glafgow, a mathematician became very irregular and tp otty. and naturaliil of the fird rank. He thought it not ini- The inference to be drawn from this combination of probable that the glalfes feparated from each other, the two optical fads is remarkable and inrpoiiant. It lifting up the weight, by attracting the water into the is, that we have no authority fjr ailirming that the intcrftice, in the fame manner that we obferve wood to changes of motion by the collifion of bodies is brought fwell with moifture. We immcdi.itcly got an apparatus aSout by ablblute contaci in any inftance whatever, which comprcffcd the gl.ilfes by means of four fcrews ; The glaffes are not in contad where there is vivid re- and now we law Newton's prt portion mod rtrii^ly ob- fleiflion ; and we have no proof thatthcv arc in contadl ferved. But in profecuting the expirimenr, we found in t!ae black fpot, however great the compreflion may that the introduflion of the water alxi-nys efficed a be. v;ry fmall fpot. This happened after precautions had It is harJly nccelTiry now to fay, that all attempts been taken to prevent all fcparation of the glatTes. to explain gravitation, or magnetilm, or elcdricity, or As the proportion of 4 to 3 has a relation to tefraflive any fuch apparent aflion .it a dulance by tlie impullions power, although we have not been able to deduce it as of an ui.feen fluid, are lutile in the grcitcll degree. a necetfary conlequence, we ncverthelefs confidered it Impulfion, by abiululc contJifl, is fo far fiom being a as a fufncient proof, that the didar.ce of the glalfcs hnj familiar phenomenon, that it may juftly be queftioned not changed by introducing the water bawccn them, whether we have ever obferved a tingle ir.d.ince of it. Tha 60 ContaiS is nut proved in coUilioa. ^r Therefore iinpullion cannot ex- plain gravi- t.tioD ; Impnldon. 6a But impul- fioii may be cxphincd by conti- iiue<l prcf- furc. 63 Phyfical tiontat^ ex- plained. I M P TliS fiippofuion of an invifible impelling fluid is not more gratuitous than it is ufelefs ; bccaul'e we have no proof that a partible of this fluid does or can come into ccnta<5l with the body which we fuppofe impelled by it, and therefore it can give no explanation of an ai51ion that is apparently e dijlanti. The general inference fr<im the whole feems to be, that, inllead of explaining preilurc by impulfe, we mull not only derive all impulfe from preflure, but mull alio afcribe all prellare to aiflion from a dilLince ; tliat is, to properties of matter by which its particles are moved without geometrical contaifl. This coUeflion of faftsconfpires, with many appear- ances of fluid and folid bodies, to prove that even tlie particles of folid, or fenfibly continuous bodies, are not in coutaft, but are held in their refpeftive iituations by the balance of forces which we are accullonicd to call attraflions and repulfions. The fluidity of water under very ftrong compreffioiis (which have been known to comprefs it ^'^ of its bulk), is as inconfillent with the fuppofition of contaifl as the fluidity of air is. The Ihrinking of a body in all its dimeiifions by cold, nay, even the bending of any body, cannot be conceived with- out allowing lUztJome of its ultimate unalterable atoms cliange their diflances from each other. The pheno- mena of capillary atlraiflion are alfo inexplicable, with- out admitting that particles ail on others at a dillance from them. The tormation of water into drops, the coalefccnce of oil under water into fpherical drops, or into circular fpots when on the furface, llicw the fame thing, and are inexplicable by mere adhefion. In fliort, all the appearances and mutual adlions of tangible mat- ter concur in ihewing, that the atoms of matter are en- dowed with inherent forces, which caufe them to ap- proach or to avoid each otlier. The opinion of Bof- covich feems to be well founded ; namely, that at all fenfible diflances, the atoms ot matter tend toward eacli otlier with forces inverfely as the fquares of the dillances, and that, in the nearell approach, they avoid each other with tnfii^arahle force ; and, in the intermediate dillan- ces, they approach or avoid each other with forces varying and alternating by every change of dillance. See the article Boscovich, Suppl. From all that has been faid, we learn that phyfical or fenlible contact differs from geometrical contaO, in the fame manner as phyfical folidity difl'ers from that of the mathematician. Euclid fpeaks of cones and cylin- ders flanding on the fame bale, and between the fame parallels. Thefe ate not material folids, one of which would prefs the other out of its place. Phyfical con- taifl is indicated, immediately and dirciftly, by our fenfe of touch ; that is, by exciting a preifure on our organ of touch when it is brought fulHciently near. It is alfo indicated by impulfion ; which is the immediate effefl of the preifure occafioned by a fufficient approximation of the body impelling to the body impelled. The impul- fion is the completion of the fame procefs that we de- fcribed in the example of the magnet:; ; but the extent of fpace and ot time in which it is completed is fo fmall that it efcapes our obfervation, and we imagine it to be by contadl and in an inftant. We now fee that it is finiilar to all other operations of accelerating or re- tarding forces, and that no change of velocity is inftan- taneous; but, as a body, in paffing from one point of libfurditio- [ 238 ] 1 M P fpace t<i another, pafTes through the intermediate fpace ; Impulfion. fo, in changing from one velocity to another, it palfes ^■^^'"^^^ through all the intermediate degrees without the fmall- ell /(/////. And, in this way, is the whole doflrine of impulfion Wc tliu'i brought within the pale of dynamics, without the ad- 3^o"l"i^»T million of any new principle of motion. It is merely the application of the general dodlrines of dynamics to cafes where every accelerating or retarding force is op- pofed by anollier that is equal .ind contiary. We have found, that the opinion, that there is inherent in a mov- ing body a peculiar force, by which it perfeveres in motion, and puts another in motion by lliifting into it, is as ufelefs as it is inconnileni with our notions of mo- tion and of moving forces. The impelled body is mov- ed by the infupcrable repulfion exerted by all atoms of matter when brought fufficicntly near. The retarda- tion of the impelling body does not arife from an inerlla, or refilling fluggilhnefi of the body impelled, but be- caufe this body alfo repels any thing that is brought fuf- ficicntly near to it. Wc can have no doubt of the ex- igence of fuch caufes of motion. Springs, expanfive fluids, cohering fibres, exhibit fuch adlive powers, with- out our being able to give them any other origin than the FIAT ot the Almighty, or to comprehend, in any manner whatever, how they refide in the material atom. But if once we admit their exillence and agency, every thing elfe is deduced in the moll fimple manner ima- ginable, without involving us in any thing incompre- henlible, or having any confcquence that is inconfillent with the appearances. Whereas both of thefe obftruc- tions to knowledge come in our way, when we fuppofe any tiling analogous to force inherent in a moving body folely becanfe it is in motion. It forces us to ufe the un- meaning language ot torce and motion palfing out of one body into another ; and to fpeak of force and velocity as things capable of divifion and aftual feparation into parts. The force of inertia is one of the bitter fruits of this mifconception of things. It is amufing to fee how metaphyliciaiis of eminence, fuch as D'Alembert, endeavour to make its operations tally with acknow- ledged principles. In his celebrated work on dyna- mics, the moll elaborate of all his performances, he ex- plains how a body, whofe mafs is i, moving with the velocity 2, mud flop another body whofe mafs is 2, moving with the velocity i, in the following manner: He fuppofes the velocity 2 to confifl of two parts, and that, in theinflant of coliifion, one of thefe parts dellroys the motion of one half of the othe.r body, and then the other part dellroys the motion of the other half. Thefe are words ; but in vain fliall we attempt to accompany them by clear conceptions. His diltincflion between the force of inertia and what he calls the active forces of bodies, fuch as the torce of bodies which flrike each other in oppofite direiflions, is equally unfufcep- tible of clear conceptions. Adive f rces (fays he) abforb a part of the motion ; but when inertia lakes part of the motion trom the flriking body, this motion palfes wholly into the body that i« Uric ken, none of it being abforbed or really dellroyed. He demonflrates this by the equation A X a — a- = B X v — b, which is a mere narration of fads, but no deduiflion from the nature of inertia, nor even any eftablifliment of that nature by philofophical argument. And in attempting to give ftill clearer notions (being fenfible that fome great Impulfion. 64 Strcngcft argument for inertia is the com- pofitioii of force with a previous motion. IMP C 339 ] IMP great obfcurity ftill hangs about it), he fays, " Inertia ledge that we have of the aflual pre/Tures and other ImpuUion. therefore, and properly fpeaking, is the mean of com- moving forces that we know. The fole reafcn why ^■^"'■^''^^ inunicating motion from one body to another. Every the previous motion is equivalent with a force is, ihat body refills motion ; and it is by reliftlnjf that it receives the only mark or knowledge that wc have of a moving it; and it receives prccifely as much as it deftroys in force is the motion which it is conceived to produce, the body which afts on it." Surely almoft every word The force is equivalent with the previous motion, be- ef this fentencc is doing violence to the common nfe of canfe we know nothing of it but that motion ; and the language. What can be more incompreh^nfible than name that we give it, only marks fome external thing to that a body refifts motion only when it receives it! which it has anobferved relatim. We call it m.ignetifm Should a man be thought to relirt being pulhed out of or electricity, becaule we obferve that a magnet or an his place when he aflually allows another to dllplace eleflrified body gives occajion to its appearance. We him, and not to refill when he firmly keeps his place? never obferve the refiflance of ineriia, except in cafes All thefe difBculties and puzzling quellions vanilh when where we know, from other circumllances, that moving we give over fpeaking of inertia as fomething diflin- forces inherent in bodies are really brought into action, guilhable from the active forces or caufcs of motion The inertia of the ball which has been moved by a which we find in bodies, and dillinguilh by the names ffroke of another, is inferred from the diminution of of elafticity, cohefion, magnetifm, eledlricity, weight, that other's motion. Eut this is occafioned precifel/ &c. and which philofophers have clalfed under one in the fame way as the diminution of the motion of the name, accelerating or retarding force, according as its magnet A in the firil example; an event which every diieflion chances to be the fame, ortheoppofite to that unprepoflellcd perfon afcrJbes to the repulfion of B in of the motion under confideratioii. To fuppofe it a the oppolite direction, and not to its inertia. /ffu/;ar faculty by which a body maintains its condition We truft that our readers are not difpleafed with of motion or reft, is contrary to every conception that this detail of the procedure of Nature in the phenome- we can annex to the words faculty, pov.'er, force. It na of impulfion. It has been prcli.\ ; becaufe we ap- is frivolous in the extreme to fay, that fnow has the fa- prehend, that the too fynoptical manner in which the culty of continuing while or cold ; or that it refills be- laws of coUifion have always been delivered, leaves the ing melted becaule it melts, or becaufe heat muft be mind in great obfcuiity concerning the connexion of employed to melt it. the events. General fads have been taken for philofo- The only argument that we know for giving the phical principles and elementary truths ; whereas they name force to the perfeverance of matter in its Rate of were dedu(!tionf from the fum total of our knowledge, motion (or rather fur afciibing this perfeverance to the They were very proper logical principles for a fvnthe- exertion of a peculiar faculty), which appears to de- tical difcuffion ; but their previous eftablifhment as ge- • ferve any attention, is one that we do not recollefl the neral fafls was neceffary. We have eftabliflied the t«o exprefs emplcyment of for this puipofe, namely, the moft general fads frum which the refult of every colli- conipoGtionot a previous m.olion with the motion which fion may be deduced with the utmofl. eaje. The tirft a known force would produce in the body at reft. We is, that in the inftant of greatell comprellion, the com- know, that if a body be moving eaftward at the rate of ^^^ velocity is = four feet per fecond, and a force aifl on it which would A« V>b and we have (liewn. A-f- B impel it from a ftate of reft at the rate of three feet per that this is applicable to the coUifion cf unelaftic bo- fecond to the fouth, the body will move at the rate of five feet per fecond in the direflion E. 36" 52' S. We know alfo, that if a force aift on this body at reft, fo as to give it a motion e.iftward at the rate of four feet per fecond, and if another force adl on it at the fame inftant, fo as to give it a motion to the fouth at the rate cf three feet per feccnd, the body will move at the rate of five feet per fecond in the direftion E. 36' 52' S. In this inftance, the body previoufly in motion feems to polfcfs fomething equivalent to what is allow. Aiifwcrcil. dies. The fecond is, that tl^e ch.inge in perfedly elaftlc bodies is double of the change in unelaftic bodies. The confervatio momctitormn, and the confervjiio •virium vi- varum, are alfo general fads ; or rather they are the fame mentioned with thofe above, confidered in another afpefV. They may all be ufcd as the principles of a fynihetic treatife of impulfion; and they have been d^ employed. Each has its own advantages. Mr Maupertuis gives a treatife on the Communici- (,<; tion of Motion, that is, of impulfion or coUifion, which Principle ed to be a moving force. Why tliercfore refufe it the has the appearance of being deduced frc m a new prio- of fm»lleft name? The anfv.er is eafy. The term foice has been ciple, which he chUs the pkinciple of smallest AC- * '"* applied, by all parties, to whatever produces a change tion. He fuppofes, that perfed wifdoni will accom- of motion, and is meafured by the c/.'ans;e w hich accom- pli(h every thing by the fmalleil expenditure of adlion ; panics its exertion. There is fome difference between and he chanced to obferve, in the equations employed the parties about the way of eftimating this meafure ; in the common dodilne cf impullion, a quantity which but all agree in making, not the mttion, but the cliange is always a minimum. He choofes to confider this as of motion, the bafis of the nieafiirement. Now we the expreftion of the adion. (liewed, at great length, in the article Dynamics, that His principle or axiom, deduced from the perfcdt tlie change of motion, in every cafe, is that motion wifdom of God, is thus cxprclfed: " When any change which, when compounded with the former motion, happens in nature, the qu.mlity of adion necelfarjr for conftitutes the new motion. Did we take the new it is the fmallefl poifible." And then he adds, ' motion itielf as the charafteriftic and meafure of the " In mechanical changes, the quantity cfaflion is the clianging force, it would be difTcrent in every different produd of the quantity ol matter in the body by the previous ftate of the body, and would neither agree fpace paffed over, and by tlic velocity of the motion." with cur general notion of force, nor wiili the kuow- This is evidently the meafure adopted lorg before by Lcibniix IMP C 240 ] IMP ImpMlfion. Leibni:/. (fee Phil. Tranf. vol. xliii. p. 423, &c.), and diredlion on one point, it will proceed in tliat dite<flion, frnpulfion ^'''^^^■^ it \\ equivalent to m v" ; becriufe the I'pace multiplied by or in what direction it will proceed. Experience Ihewi ^■^^"''"^ the vel'icity is as the fquare of either. We refer to us, tliat this depends on circuiiillances not yet confidcr- Dr Juiin's remark*; on this palFige for proof tliat this ed. Tlie billiard player knows, that by a ftroke in one is by no means a jull nie.U'ure ot action; and only ob- direflion he can n;ake his aiUagonill's ball move in a lerve here, that we can t'orni no other notion of vcloci- dircftion extremely different. ty than that of a certain fpace d fcribed in a given time. • Thefc are qucllions of great intricacy and difficulty. The change produced is not the aiflnal dcfcription of and would employ volumes to treat them proptrly. a line, but the deiermination to that motion. It is in We have already enlarged this article till we fear that this refpeift alone that the condition of the body is we have exhaulled the reader's patience, and deviated changed ; and therefore the prodinft mv, and not m j i;, from the proportion cf room jullly allc)wable to rMPUL- is the proper meafure of the ^.flion. On the authority sion. We mull therefore limit our attention to fuch of this maxim of divine CMiduel, Maupcrtiiis invelli- things only as feeni elementary, and indifpenfably ne- gates the refulis whicli will make this quantity a mini- ccd'.iry for a ufeful application of the doftrine of im- mum, and allitts tliat thefe mtiji be the laws of col- pul!ir,n. lifion. Luckily this invelligation is extremely fimple, With refpefl to the d'lrc^l'ion of the motion produced and very neat and perfpicuous ; and it gives very eafy by impulfion, the very enamplc juft now borrowed from folution?. For example, the unelallic body A, moving billiard playing, (hews that it is important, and by no witli the velocity a, overtakes the unelaUic body B, means obvious. We are forry to fay, thnt we liave no- moving wish the velocity b. Both move atter the col- thing to olLr in folution of this quelllon that will be lifion with the velocity .r. This velocity is required, received by all as demonllration. It is comprehended To determine this, we mull make A -^Ca—x- -f B X '" ''i« following propofition, which we bring forward 7, ••_„„.. a > , A „ 1 a I I T* s merely as a matter oi faift. .■c — i," aminimum : or Afl — zAo.v + Aa- -f B.\' rp, ^ ■• „• f ,u n i rr . il ' . . • I he direition ot the llroke or prellure exerted by — 2 Bi.v -{- BZ-' IS a minimum. Iherelore— 2 A «« j„,„ ^^^^^^ ;„ phyfical contad, is always perpendicular + 2 A x x -{- 2 B .V .V — 2 B /■ .V = o, or 2 A a -}- 2 B i to the toucliing furfaces. Of this truth we have a very A fl -|- B /' ^^ j^^^,^ dilliiifl and pretty example and proof by the billiard table. If two balls A and B (fig. 2.) are laid on th= table in contaifl, and A is fmartly flruck by a third ball C in any diredion Q,c, fo that the line a A, which joins the point of conta.fl a with the centre A, may make an obtufe angle with tlie line A B, joining the centres of the two balls, the ball B will always fly off 67 Afllon of bodies hy contscS is perpendi- cular to the touching furface. 66 Enquiry into the di ilribution of inipulfe from the point that is ftruck. 4fc = 2 A X + 2 B .V, and .v _ A. -^ \j already (hewn it to be. The amiable and worthy author grev/ more fend of his theory, when he faw what he imagined to be its in- fluence extended to an immenfe variety of the opera- tions of nature. Euler demonftrated, that the quan- tity called a^ionhy Manpertuis was a minimum in the in the direction ABF. The prelfure on B, which jiro planetary motions, and indeed in all ciirvilineal mo- duces the impulfion, is evidently exerted at the point b tions in free fpace. Cut all the while, this principle of of contaft, and the direiftion BF is perpendicular to the lead aflion is a mere whim, and the formula which plane Gb H, touching both balls in the point 1^. The is fo gcnerallv found a minimum has no perceptible primary ftroke is at a, and ails in the direilion a A, connexion with the quantity of adlion. In many although C moved in the dire(5lion Cc. Had A been cafes to which Maupertuis has applied it, the conclu- alone, it would have gone off in the diredlion a A pro- Tions are in direft oppofition to any notion that we can duced. But the force aifting in the direcflion a A is form of the economy of aftion. Nay, it is very difpu- equivalent to the two forces ad and d A, of which table whether it does not, on the contrary, exprefs the d A prelTes the ball on B at b, and produces the mo- greatell want of economy ; namely, a minimum cf ef- tion. In like manner, another ball E, fo laid that i Bi? fedl from a given expenditure of power. In the cafe is obtufe, will fly off in tlie direflion ED, which may of impulfion, this minimum is the mathematical refult even be oppofne to C c Thefe are matters of fafl ; of the equality and oppofition of aiftion and reaiflion. not indeed preclfely fo, becaufe billiard balls are not Maupertuis might have pleafed his fancy by faying, perfeftly elaftic, reftorlng their figure with a prompti- that it became the infinite wifdom of God to make tude equal to that of their compreffion ; and alfo be- every primary atom of matter alike; and this would caufe there is a little friflion, by which the point a of the have anfwered all his puipofe. ball A is dragged a little in tlie direction of C's mo- There ftill remdns to be confidered a very material tion. This may both give a twirl to A, and diminilh circumftance in the doiflrine of impulfion, which pro- its preffure on B. The general refult, however, is " duces certain modifications of the motions that are of abundantly agreeable to the doiflrines now delivered, mighty praiftical importance. We have contented our- But we wilh to ihew on what properties of tangible felves with merely dating the moving force that is matter this depends; and although we dare not hope brought into aftion in the points of phyfical contad ; for implicit belief, we expect fome credit in what we but have not explained how this produces the progref- ihall offer. five motion of every particle of the impelled body, and We have evident proof, that at a diftance whicli is jj^^„„, what motion it really does produce in the remote par- not unmeafurable by its minutenefs, and certainly far ftration. tides. A body, betides the general progreCGve motion exceeds the 900th part of an inch, bodies repel each which it receives from the blow, is commonly obferved other with very great force. This diftance alfo far ex- to acquire alfo a motion of rotation, by which it whirls ceeds the diftance between the particles, it thefe are dif- round an axis. It has not been fnewn, that when a crete. Let w« (fig. 3.) be the diftance at which a bodv has received an impulfe by a blow in a particular particle repels another, and let P be a particle fituated at IMP [2 inipulfion. at a lefs diftance than wnfrom the furface A C of ?. '^■^^""^^ folid body. With a radius PA, equal to vi n, defcribe a fegment of a fphere ABC, and draw PB perpendi- cular to AC. It is plain, that every p irticle of mat- ter in the fegment A13C repels the particle P, and that it is not affefled by any more. Let D be any fuch particle. It repels P in the direcflion DP. But there is another particle d fimilarly Ctuated on the other fide of PB. This will repel P with equal force in the di- reflion dT. Therefore the two particles D and d will produce a joint repulfion in the diredlion BP. The like may be faid ot every particle and its correfponding one on the other fide of PB. Therefore the joint re- pulfion of all the matter in the fegment will have the diredion BP. It is plain, that the radius of curvature of every lenfible ligure may be coniidered as immenlely great in comparifon ot mn; and therefore the propofi- tion is manitelh This is a proportion of very great importance to the artift and the engineer, as well as to the philofopher. In all the connexions of engines and machines, the mu- tual adion is regulated by this faift. The mutual pref- fure at the contains of the teeth of wheels and pinions depend fo much on it, tliat it is eafy to make tliem of fuch a fliipe that they fli:dl produce no force whatever that is of any fervice ; and it requires a (killed attention to their forms to obtain the iervice we want. This will be confidered with fomc care in the article Ma- chine. Having thus difcovered the direBion of the real Im- puK'.nn, and that it may be very different from that of the force exerted, we proceed to confider what will be the direction and velocity of the motion, and whether it will be accompanied with any rotation. Our readers are acquainted with the elementary me- chanical property of tlie centre of gravity. If a body be fupported at this point by a force afling vertically upwards, and equal to tlie united weight of every par- ticle of matter in it, it will not only lemain at reft, but will have no tendency to incline to eitl.cr fide ; that ii, the upward force bal.mces the weight of tlie whole body, and the mechanical momenta of all the heavy ■ particles balance each o'.her, like the weights in the fcales of a lleelyard. That this may be tlic cafe, we know that if the weight of every particle be multiplied into the horizontal lever by which it hangs (which i-, a line drawn from the panicle perpendicular to a vertical plane palling through the centre of gravity), the fum of all the producls on one fide mud bt. equal to t!ie fum of all tlie produv.ts on the other fide. Therefore, if we fuppofe the particles all equal, and reprefcnt each by unity, the fums of all the perpendiculars tliemfelves mull be equal. How is this balancing ciFcifled ? Every particle tends downwards with a cert.iin force. It mull theitforc be kept up by a torce prccifily equal and op- pofite. This mull be pi'ipagatid to the particle by means of the conncJling corpufcul.ir forces. The force propagated to any particle is equal and oppofite to the force a(fling on ihat particle, whicli it balanced ; and if not balanced, it would produce a motion equal and op- pofue to that produced by the other force. Gravity would caufe every particle to defcend equally; therclore the force whicli, by acling on one point, excites lliofe balancing forces on eacli particle, would caufc them to move equally upwards. And fincc this is iiuc in any SupPL. Vol. II. 41 ] I M P 63 A ftroke, whole ac- tion pafles throujcii the centre of a pofiti- OB of felid body, im- pels it with- out rota- tion. attitude of the body, it follows, thit a force, afling !ii laipulfion, any direcTion through the centre of gravity, will caiife '"-'^^^~' all the particles to move in that diredion equally ; thjt is, without rotation. Hence we learn, that when the diredion of the ftroke given to any body palfes through the centre of gravity, the body will move in that diredion without any rota- tion. If the quantity of matter, or number of equal particles in the body, be ?ii, the moving power P will impreis on each particle an accelerating force/, equal p to the rath part of P. Tiierefore/ = -— , and P = mf. 7/1 An acceleiating force is eftimated by the velocity v, which it generates by ading uniformly during fime time t, or v =ft, and/= —, and P = m —, and P , 11 = — t. Ihe fymbol / may be omitted, if we reck- m on every force by the velocity which it can produce in a fecond. Thus may all forces be compared with gravity, by taking 32 feet for the meafure of gravity. Then m v will exprefs the number of pounds which cive a prelfure equal to the force under confideration. Thus if the force can generate the velocity 4S feet per fecond in ico pounds of matter, by ading on it unilormiy during a fecond, its prelfure is equal to the weight of I JO pounds. When a body A, moving with the velocity a, over- -j-jji^ ;, /•_ takes or meets a body B, moving with the velocity i, rrS l.Mrui.- and the line perpendicular to their touching furfaces sign. pafles through the centres of both in the diiedion of their motion, all the circuniftances of the collifnn are determined by the rules already laid down. This is called DIRECT impulse; audit is this which admits the application of the fimple dndrines of impiilfion, de- duced, as we have done it, Irom the adion of accelera- ting forces. All that was laid of the changes of mo- tion produced in the magnets obtain here without ai-y farther moditicaiion. We may jtill be allowed to take notice of a curicus obfervation of Mr Iluyghens on the collifion ol peifed- ly elaftic bodies. Inllead of impelling the elallic ball C by the ilroke of the elallic ball A, we may caufc A to ftrike an intermediate ball B (.iifo perfcetly elallic), which is lying in contad with C. In many c.ifcs, the ball B will not (lir fenfibly from its place, and C alone will fly off. Nay, if a long row of equal billiard balls lie in contad, and one of the extreme balls be hit by another ball in tlie diredion of, the row, only the re- mote ball of the row will fly off. All this is calily feen and underllood, by confideiing them as bodies mutually repelling, and pi. iced at tlie limits of their mutual ac- tion. Or even fuppofing them elalhc balls, at a veiy fniall diftanre from each other : The ball employed t<» (liike t!ie firll comes to rcll, and the thicken b.ill m )ves off with its velocity : It ftrikes the fecond ball of the row, and is brought to reft: The fecond ftrikes the third, .ind is brouv;ht to rell : And this goes on in fuccedion to the laft, which is the only one that can lly off. The curious obfervation of Mr Huyglicns is, that a greater velocity will be communicated by a large ball to a fm.iU one, if we employ the intermedium of another ball of a i\ic between the two ; and that tlic velocity will be the grcateft poJible when the interme- U h diaie I M P [ 242 ] I M P 69 6hliijuc Im lULSION. Impulfion. diate ball is a mean proportional (geometrical) between and GI parallel to FP. Let C, in the line PG, be •■npulfio"* ^'^'"''"^"^ the two. This is alio eafily deduced from the fimilar the fpontaneous centre of converfion (Rotation, En- ^■^""''^^^ attention to tlie aiftion of the accelerating forces, or cycl. n" 77, &c.), correfponding to the point of per- from the fuppofition of fiicceiTivc impulfes. From this culTion F. Join CF. Let the diredioii cut the tan- it alfo follows, that a greater velocity will be produced gent i)lane in H, and PF in A ; and let AH reprefent by the intervention of two, three, or mure, mean pro- the velocity V. portionals. The impulfe is made at the point F, in the direflion But the direction of the ftroke may not be the fame AF or FP, and the centre of polition of the body B with that of the motion. Tiiis is called oblique im- will advance in the direflion GI parallel to FP, the di- ruLSE. The cafes of oblique collilions are extremely redlon of the etFeilive impulfe. But, becaufe thi.i does ditferent, accoidiiig tt) the directions of the motions; not pafs through the centie G, the b(>dy will advance, and the refults are, in many of them, far from being and will alio turn round an aiis palling through G, obvious. But we liave not room for a particular treat- perpendicular to the plane of the lines GP, PF, and nient ol ihcm. We flinll therttore av.ul ourfelvei of the fpont.iiicous axis of converfion will pafs through fome of the general fa^fls mentioned above, by means fome point C of the line PG, and will alio be perpen- of which we niiy reduce all the varieties to fome eafy dicular to the fame plane. All this has been demouilra- cafes. The moll ferviceablc general faifls are : i.That ted in the article Rotation, n'^ 94, &c. Complete the adions of bodies on each other depend on their re- tlie parallel igram AFHE. It is philn, that the mo- lative motions ; and, 2. Tiiat the motion of the com- tion AH is equivalent to AE and AF. By the mo- mon centre is not changed by the collifion. Thefe en- tion AE, A only Aides along the furface of B, without able us to reduce all to the cafe of a body in motion prcffing it, or caufiiig any tendency to motion in that llriking another at relJ. We have only to determine direi5lion, except perhaps a liule ariling from fri<ftion. their relative motion by the propofition i:i Dynamics, It is by the motion AF alone that the impulfe is made. n" 67. and then to Aiperadd the common motion, which changes the relative ir.to the true motions. Thus, if two bodies A and B (tig. 4.) meet in D, delciibing the lines AD, BD, the collifion is the fame as if B had remained at reft, and A had come againft it with the motion AB. In the mean time, the common centre of pofition hasdefcribed CD- If the bodies are unelaftic, , . -, . . - ^ they remain united, and proceed in the line CD produc- '''* '"'\^"^ °^ '^"^ greatell compreffion and common me- ed toward E, and their common velocity will be rcpre- ^'^^'^ f "'^ touching points ot A and B, elt.mr.ed in fented by DE equal to CD, if AD and BD repre.ent- ^^^ d"e«'"n FP. Ph e effeai ve momentum loll by A ed their initial velocities. If the bodies are elaltic, they mud therefore be AXf — x : but the fame mud be I'eparate again, and. tliey fcparate from tlie common gained by B, and its centie G mull move in the dircc- ccntie in the oppofue direftion, and with the fame ve- tion GI, parallel to FP, with this momentum; and AF Therefore let f be = V x -T~r-, ; and then A X « may „„ /* AH Efficient be called the efficient impulfe of the body A in the pre- "'°"'''' fent circumflances, and v the ffflcient -velocity. This will be diminiflied by the collifion. Let x be the unkn^iwn velocity remaining in A after the collifion, or rather in locities with which they approached it. Theiefore Axf — B That this diav/ a Eb parallel to ACB, and make E a, E i equal therefore with the velocity — ' to C A and CB, and then D a and D i are tlie paths , ^ , . r rr -.^ n , , and velocities of the bodies. All this is abundantly ""^V ^^ ^^^ "'^'> '^'« po'»t "f percuffion F muft yield plain, and is a necelfary deduftion from the general "''^'^ '^e velocity *•, becaule the bodies are in contaft. principle, that the motion of the centre is not aflFeifled ^"^ ^^""'^ ^ is the Spontaneous axis ot converfion, by any equal and oppofite forces which conneft the every particle is ^,^^i««/«i; to deferibe an .arch ot a circle bodies of a fyftem Often ac- companied by rota- tion. But this great fimplicity is not fufficient for afcer- taining the refults of collifion which occur in many of the moll important cafes. It not only fuppofes that AD and ED are exaclly proportional to the velocities of A and B, but alfo that they meet, fi) that the plane 01 mutual contaft is perpendicular to the line AB, and that the ftroke on each is dneded to its centie. Thefe ciicumllances will not always be combined, even in the cafe of fpherical bodies. The confequence will be, f„.e F^ will exprefs .v. Let P/.be the fpace defcribed in the fame time that F^ is del'ciibed. Drawee, cutting round this axis. Therefore F is beginning to move in the direflion F^, perpendicular to the momentary ra- dius veiflor CF. Let F^ be a very minute arch, de- fcribed in a moment of time. Draw^y perpendicular to FP. Then ¥/ is the motion F g 1 educed tn the di- reflion FP, and wi'.l expref. the yielding cf B in the direiSion of the impulfe, while G defcribes a fpace equal to -^^ '^ " , and A defcribes a fpace .v. There- that although the motion of the centre remains the fame, that of the bodies may fometimes be d'iferent. We muft therefore give a general propofition, which will, with a little trouble, enable the reader to deter- mine all the motions which can take place, whether pro- gredive or rotative. GKin the point I. GI ib the yielding of the body B to Axv — X. the impulfe, and muft therefore be equal to - B 71 General liicoicm. The triangles F /g and CPF are fimilar ; for the Let the body A (fig. 5.), moving wih the velocity angieCFPi^ the complement ify"F_f to arigiit angle: V, ill thedireiflion AD, Itrike the body B at reft. Let It is alfi the complement of PCF to a ri^ht .Tngle. F be the point of mutual contad, and f> FH a pUne Therefore F^ : F/= FC : CP. But F^ : P /> = touching both bodies in F. Draw ziFP perpiudicu- FC : CP ; becaofe the lifle arches F^, P/> have the lar to this tangent plane, and through G, the centre fime angle at C. Theretore P p— F/, = *. It is cf pofition of B, draw PGC perpendicular to FP, plain, thai CG :CP = GI iP/, Therefore CG : CP c,\ ii.i,.')-n\E. Pl.ATK \XI\.: Ki2-.l. 'i'S.2. ■ iMini.SlON. liS.2. A B Fio. ,'i. I M ImpulSoii. A X t' AxCP *•, and X = AxCP A X — v X CP 13xCG ' — f X ;. "" ■- — * X :■ " T ■ i wherefore BxCG BxCG X x BxCG+a:xAxC P='i> X a X Cr, and A X CP, and 73 Unchllic bodies may fcparate. « X B X CG + A A X x=:v X X CP = CP V X , =the velocity remain- 243 J IMP veral of the preparatory fleps, it is evidsnt that the ta/k Imputfion « mull be almoll impraaicabh. But the prefiure and i:s ^-'''^'">- direflion are generally determined by experiment, with- out the trouble of compulation ; and we are fcldpm f;- licitous about the fubfequent motion of the wind or water. There is another qucdion in impulfion which is of ?« the firft praftlcal importance— njmely, when the im- '"^P""!"" pulfe is exerted on the parts of a machine, where the "" )^'^V body ftnick is not at liberty to yield freely to ihe '""a"^ llroke, but muft Hide along fome folid path, or turn lu fuh round fnme axis, or take fomc other conllrained mo- tion. The operations of mod engines depend on thi'.. The operation of wedges, aie?, and many cutting ar.d piercing inllrunients, and the penetration of piles, ini- pelled by a rammer, are all afcertained by the f.mie doiSrines. But the particulir applications can fcarce:y be elucidated by any dafflhcation that occurs to B X CG -<- A X CP ing in A, elUmated in the direiftion FP. And u, the velocity with which G will advance, is CO X ~; for CP : CG = P/ : GI, = .v : u. It is evident that A will change its direflion by the coUifion : For in the intlant of greatefl ccmpreflion it was reap- ed on by a force = A x ■" — •■« in the direiSion FA. This muft be compounded with A x V, in the direflion AH, in order to obtain the new motion of A ; or it ,1,^ _■ ^„_,iu„.' r'.u r i- r 1 i-,t ' , r J , J- 1 • u • , -..^A k,, '"^ circumltances of the cafe makin? fuch !:reat dilTcr- may be lound by compounduig X, which IS retauied by „„^„ • ,,,„ ,^, 1. u 1 • i- j 5 1 ^ "^^ "=■ A • u T-Lj I- u u r a- A 1 u. ►!,.. -w^l ^"" ■" "''^ relult, both m kind and degree. For ei A, with FH, which has fuftered no change by the col- ,„ :_ .u r 1 a ,■ 1 b • •■^' thi. lifion. The bodies will therefore feparate, although they be unelaftic : If they are elallic, we mull double thcfe changes on each. If B was alfo in motion beiore the coUifion, the motion of A mull be refolved into two, one of which is equal and paiallel to the motion of B : the other mufl be employed as we have employ- ed the motion AH. ExprelHons Hill more general may be obtained for x and u ; namely, by taking the formulas for the centres of converfion and percudion (Rotation, n" 96, 99.) CG = Jf and CP = y>r' + BxCP' ample, in the finiplell cale that occurs, the driving ci piles, the penetration of the pile depends, in the rirll place, on tlie momentum of the rammer. If the irafj of the pile be iiegkaed, the penetration through a uniformly refifting fubftance will be as the fquare of the velocity of the rammer, (Dynamics, Su/f/. n" 95), and its abfolute quantity may be determined from a knowledge of the proportion of the weight f f the ram- mer to the refillance of the earth. But when we con- fider that we have to put in motion the whole matter of the pile, we learn that a great diminution of the effeifl mull take place. \Ve lli,l can crmpute what tliis mull be, becaufe we have the fame momentum, with a velo- city diminillied in a certain proportion of the fum of tlie matter in the rammer and pile, to that in the ram- mer alone. — Another defalcation arifes from friftlon, which continually increafes as the pile goes deeper; — and a ftill greater defalcation proceeds from the na- ^ -T ^'J pi" + A-]i-(jP* grained tir, it is very elallic, and acquires almoll a It is plain, from this propofition, that the progrelFive double velocity from the llroke of a rammer of call Chingc of motion of the body depends, net only en the inomen- iron. If it is moill and foft, efpecially if it is oak, or pniprclTivc turn of the impelling body, but alfo on the place where other timber of an undulated fibre, it docs not acquire fa motion the other ftroke is : Foreven although the original mo- great velocity, and the pcnetrationisvcrymuch dlminilh- grcateft mentum of A be the fame, and the obliquity of the dircitioirof ^^'^^^ making v the fame, and the body (and confe- the cflcc- qiiently //• r') alfo remain the fame, we fee that x and Vive llroke -' r^r. /-./-i^i^ paneithro' " depend on the ratio of CP to CG. Now C and P BxGP ' °" BxGP where /> ftands for a particle of matter, and r for its diftance from an axis palling through G perpendicular- ly to the plane of the lines GP and PF. In this way A- Ar' -f AB-GP' we obtain .V = 1) i:;^ ed. It is probable that a pile, headed with moill cork, could not be diiven at all. The writer of this article found a remarkable elTcifl of the elafticity in the procefs of boring limellone. When the boring bit was made entirely of Heel, and tempered thiough its whole length the centres, are always on oppolite fidci of G: Confcquently, by to a hard fpring temper, tlie workman bored three inche-, removing the diiedion FP of the impulfion farther in the lame time tint another bored two inches wiih a bit from G, we diminilh CG and increale CP ; and there- made of foft iron ; and he would never ule any but llsel bits, if they could be hindered Ircm chipping by theh.im- mer (which mull alio be of tempered ftcel throughout). This has iiitherto b.ililcd many attempts. A pretty large round head, like a m.irlin Iplk^, has fiiccced^d bell : but even this cracks alter fome days ull-. The improvement le richly wortli attention; for the work- man is delighted by feeling the hammer rife in his fore incrcafe the value of .\- = 'j A-CP B-CG + A-CP and confcquently diminifh the value of A x v — .v, to which T>X" is ecjual. The greatell momcniiim ot' b is pro- duced when the direflion of the impulfe p.iiles through G, and no rotation is produced. Indeed we are led, by .1 fort of common fonfe, to expeft this. 75 This invcftigation is by no means a piece of mere hand after every llroke, and fays that the work is not Importance fpeculative curiolity. It is the filution tpf the greatell of this the- problem in practical mechanics. It is in this way that ory to fcj- we mull proceed in computing the anions of the wind manlhip, gnd water on the fails and hull of a Ihip. Were it not that many circumftanccs concur in deterniiuing fe- fo hard by half. A'. B. The Hone cutt:rs at Llfbon and Oporto ufc iron mallets. The cafe of impuliion made on part of a machine 77 moveable round an axis has be«n ct^nlidered in the ar- Irrpulfioa tide Rotation, Lncycl. n" 72; where .v is fliewn to "^ "^l" H h 2 - be ''"""■ Impiilfion. be = 1' X I M P A. CP' C 244- ] I M P 78 Great lofs of power by the yicliling and bend- ing of the material. /' But, in this formula, r de- Ip ,■•■ + A. CP^ notes the'jiftance of /> from the point C, and not from G. //> r'- in this formula, is B. CG. CP ; whereas, in the tormula for a free body, where r is the diftancc of a particle from G, /) r' is = B. CG. GP. In the praflical confideration of this queftion, the reader will do well to confider the whole of that ar- tide with attention. Many ciicumllances occur, wliich make a proper choice of the point of impiih'e, and the direftion rf" the tangent plane, of tlie grcateft confe- quence to the good peitormance of tiie machine ; and there is nothing in which the fcientific knowledge of the engineer is of more eliential Icrvice to him. An engineer of great pradfice, and a fagacious combining mind, collects his general obi'ervations, and (lores them lip as rules of future practice. But it is feldnm that he pod'elfes them with that dlfliniflnefs and confidence tliat can enable him to communicate his knowledge to others, or even fecure himfelf againft all miftakes ; whereas a moderate acquaintance with ihefe e'emenis of real mechanics, may be applied with fafety on all occa- fions, becaufe arithmetical computation?, when rightly maJe, afford the moll certain of all relults. There is acircumllance which greatly alfefls the per- formance of machines which are ailuated by impulfes, namely, the yielding and bending of ihe parts. When tlic moving power aiits by repeated Ihiall impulfions, it may fometimes be entirely confumeJ, without produ- cing any efFeft whatever at the remote woiking point of the machine ; and the engineer, who founds his con- ftruflions on the elementary theories to be had in moll treatifes of mechanics, will often be miferably difjp- pointed. In the ufual theories, even as delivered by writers of eminence, it is afferted, that the fmallell im- pulle will Hart the greatefl weight. But ilnce impulfe is only a continued |)rel]'ure, and requires time for the tranfmiffion of its cfl;cl tiirough the parts of a yielding Jolid, it is plain that the motion ot the impelling body may be e.xtinguifhed befoie it has produced compref- Jion enough tor exciting the torces which are to raife the remote parts of a heavy body from the ground. What blow with a hammer could Hart a feather bed ? Much oftener may we e.\pei51, that a blow, given to one arm of a long lever, will be confumed in bending the whole ot its length, fo as to bring the remote end into a<5tion. Theretore great fliffnefs, and periecl ela- flicity, both in the moving parts and in the points of fupport, are neceflary for tranfmitting the full, or even a confiderabh part, of the power of the impelling body. Perhaps not the half of the blow given by the wipers of a great forge or tilting mill to the (hank of the ham- mer is tranl'mitted in the proper inllant of time to tiie hammer-head. The hammer, while it is tolfed up by the blow, is quivering as it flies. Should it reach the fpring above it in the time of its downward vibration, it will not be returned with fuch force as if it had hit the fpring a moment before or after. A quarter of an inch will produce a great effefl in fuch cales. It is found, that the minute impulfes given to the pallets of a clock or watch lofe much of their force by the im- pertefl elafticity of the pendulum or balance. We mull therefore make all the parts which tranfmit the blow to tlie regulating mafs of matter as continuons, Impulfion. hard, eladic, and lliff, as polllble. The performance of '*^^''^^*^ ruby pallets is very fenlibly weakened by putting oil on the lace of them, efpecially in the detached fcapements, which 'A&. partly by impulfe. A wheel of hard tern- pered ftcel, working on a dry ruby pallet, e.tcels all otliers. The intelligent engineer, feeing that, after all his care, much impulfion is unavoidably loft, will avoid employing a lirft mover which aifls in a fubfultory man- ner, and will fubllitute one of continued preflure when it is in his power. This is one chief caufe of the great fuperiority of overfliot water-wheels above the under- fliot. We can now undcrftand how it liappens that Ga- lileo, Merlennus, and others, could compare the impulle given by a falling b<idy w^iih the |ireliure of a weight in the oppolite fcale of a balance, and can fee the rea- foti ol the imnienfe differences, yet accompanied by a fort of regularity, in the refults of the experiments. Ga- lileo, Merlennus, and Riccioli, found them to be proofs that the lorces of moving bodies are as their velocities ; becaufe the heights from which the body fell were as the fquares of the weights flarted from the ground. Grave- fande found the fame thing as long as he held the fame opinion ; but when he adopted the Lelbnitzian meafare, he found many faults in the apparatus empli yed in his former illurtrations, and altered it, till he obtained re- fults agreeable to his new creed. But any one who ex- amines wltli attention all that paffes in the bending of the apparatus, and takes into account the mafs of mat- ter which mull be dilplaced belore the oppofite arm rlfes fo far as to detach the Ipring which gives indica- tion of the magnitude ot the llroke, mull lee that the agreement is purely accidental, and may be procured for any theory we pleafe (fee Gravef<incle's Nat. Phil. tranflated by Defiguiliers, vol. i. p. 241. &c.). The propofuion, n" 95, Dynaiviics, fufHces for explaining every thing that can happen in fuch experiments. And it will fhew us, that although the motion of impulfion is produced by prelfure alone, yet impulfe is incompa- rable with mere preffure : It is not infinitely greater, but difparatc. A weight (which is a pielfure) bends a Ipring to a certain degree, and will derange to a cer- tain degree the fibres ot a body on which it prelTes, be- fore it be balanced. The fame weight, tailing on this fpring from ihcy/Ha/Z^y? height, will bend it farther, and may crulh or fiuver to pieces the body wliicli would have carried it for ever. We Ihall make fome further remarks on this fubjeet, of great praflical importance, under the word Percussion. The method which we have purfued in cnnfidering 79 the doftrines cif impulfion, differs confiderably from that Conclu- which has generally been ff llowed ; but we trull that '""*■ it will not be found the lefs inftrudlive. Although the reader Ihould not adopt our decided opinion, that we have no proof of pure impulfion ever being ob- ierved, and that all the phenomena which go by that name are really the effefts of prelhires, analogous to gravity, he perceives that our ojjinion does not lead to any general laws of impulfion that are different from thole which are acknowledged by all. We differ only, by exhibiting the internal procedure by which they are unquejlionalily produced in a vail number of cafes, and winch takes place in all that we have feen, Our method has undoubtedly this ad- vantage, in fome degree I N A ImpulCon, I Inagu.i. C 245 ] I N D vantage, that it requires no principle but one, namely, that accelerating forces are to be eftimated by the ac- / celeration wliich they produce. Even this may be confidered, not as a principle, but merely as a defini- tion — We get rid ol all the oblcurity and perplexity that relult from the introdiiftion of inertia, conlidered as a power — a power of doing nothing — and we are freed from the unphilolbphical tiiffion (adopted by all the abettors ot that doflrinc, and even by many others) of conceiving the fpace, in which motions are pertornied," and bodies acf, to be carried along with the bodies in it. — This furnifhes, indeed, in fome cafes, a familiar way of conceiving the thing, by fuppoling the experi- ments to be made in a fhip under fail, and by appeal- ing to the fafl, that all our experiments are made on the furface of a globe thiit is moving with a very great velocity. But it is an abfurdity in philofophy, and, when minutely or argumentatively ufe^i, it does not free us from one complication of aiftion ; for, before we can make ufe of this fubllitution, we muft demonllrate, that tlic aftlons depend on the relative motions only : And this, when dcmonftrated, obliget us to meafure fbrces by the velocity which they produce. As no part of mechanical pliilofophy has been fo much debated about as imptilfion, it will furely be a- greeable to our readers to have a notice of the different treatifcs which have been publifhed on tlie fubjeift : Galilei Opera, T. I. 957. II. 479, S:c. Jo. Wallilii Traiflalus de Percuffione. Oxon. 1669. Chr. Ilugenius de Motu Corporum ex Percufllone. Op. li. 73- Traite de la PercufTion des Corps, par Mariottc, Op. I. I. Hypothefis Phyfica Nova, qua phenomenorum cau- fae ab unico quodam univerfali motu in noftro globo fuppofito repetuntur. Auft. G. G. Leibnitzio. Mo- guntiiE 1671. — Leibn. Op. T. II. p. II. 3. Ejufdem Theoria Motus Abftracli. Ibid. 35. Hermanni Phoronomia. Amft. 1716. Difcours fur les Loix de la Communication deMouve- ment, par Jean Bernoulli, Paris, 1727. Jo. Bern. Oper. III. Dynaniique de D'Alembert. Euleri Tlieoria Corporum folidorum feu rigidorum, 1765. Borelli (Alphons) de Percuffione. Sec alfo M'Laurin's Fluxions, and his Account of Newton's Philofophy, for his Diliertation crowned by the Acad, des Sciences at Paris. — .Mfo Dr Jurin's ela- borate dillertations in tlie Phil. Tranf N" 479. — Alfo Gravefande's Nat. Philofophy, wlicre there is a moll laborious collecfiion of cxpeiimcnts and rcafonings; all of which receive a complete cxi^lanation by the 39th Prop. Princip.Newtoni I. cr our n" 95. Dynamtcs. There are alfo many very acute philofophical obfervations in Lam- lert's CiilimkiH iiier die Grundlehnn des Gleichgewichls, uitd dtr Bewegung. in the lecond part of his Gcbrauch dcr Mathcmatik. — Alfo, in the works if Kaeftncr, Hamberger, and Bufch. Mufchenbroeck alfo treats the lubjccft at great length, but not very judicioully. We do not know any work wliicli treats it with fuch per- fpicuous brevity as M'Laurin's Account of Newton's I'hilofophy. INAGUA, Gr(at and Little, two fmall ifluads in the Windward Paffage, N. W. of the ifland of St Do. Inattendue, inint;o, and N. E. of the ifland of Cuba. — Morse. II . INATTENDUE IjLnd, (the Gower Ifland of Car. '"'j;'"™"" teret) fo named by .Surville, lies on the north fide of \,,^-v->^/ the iflands of Arlacides, 2" 4' eail of Port Prallin.— »"i. INCAl, a fouthern branch of Amazon river, in S. America. — ib. INCREMENT, is the fmall increafe of a variable quantity. Newton, in his Treatife on Fluxions, calls thefe by the name Moments ; and obferves, that they are proportional to the velocity or rate of increafe of the flowing or variable quantities in an indefinitely fmall time. He denotes them by fubj^ining a cypher o to the flowing quantity whole moment or increment it is; thus, .\o the moment cf .r. In the doftrine of In- crements, by Dr Brooke Taylor and Mr Emerfon, they are denoted by points belov.' the variable quanti- ties ; as X. Some have alfo denoted them by accents underneath the letter, as x ; but it is now more ufual / / to exprefs them by accents over the fame letter ; as .v. MtTHOD OF INCREMENTS, a branch of Analy- tics, in which a calculus is founded on the properties of the fucceffive values of variable quantities, and their differences or increments. Tlie inventor of the method of increments was the learned Dr Taylor, who, in the year 1715, publilhed a treatife upon it ; and afterwards gave ibme farther account and explication of it in tlie Philof. Tranf. as applied to the finding of the fums of feries. And another ingenious and eaiy treatife on the ftme, was publilhed by Mr Emerfon, in the year 1763. Tiie method is nearly allied to Newton's Doifliine of Fluxions, and ariies out ot it. Alfo the Differential method of Mr Stirling, which he applies to the furnmation and inter- polation of feries, is of the fame nature as the method of increments, but not fo general and extenfive. INDEPENDENCE, MOUNT, is fituated on the flrait through which the waters of Lake George and Eall Bay flow into Lake Champlain, in the N. W. part of the town of Orwell in Rutland county, \\r- mont, and oppofite to Ticonderoga. — Morse, INDETERMINATE Problem. See Algibr.v, Part I. Chap. VI. Encycl. Diophantus was the firft writer on indeterminate problems, which, after the publicdticn of his work in 1 62 1 by B.ichet, employed much of the time of the moll celebrated iiiathema;icians in Europe. At- terw.irds fuch problems were neglccTed as ufelefs, till the public attention was again drawn to them by Euler and la Grange. The example of fuch men was followed by Mr John Lsflie, a very eminent and felf- taiiglit mathematician; wlio, in the fccond vol. of the 'IVanfaclions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, has publilhed an ingenious paper on indeterminate problems, rcfolving them by a new and general principle. " The doclrine of indeterminate equations (fays Mr Lcflic) has been feldom treated in a form equally fyftcmatic witii the other parts of algebra. The folutiuns common- ly given arc devoid of uniformity, and often require a variety ol alFumptions. The obje«5l of this paper is to refolve the complicated cxprcffions which we obtain in the folution of indeterminate problems, into fimple equations, and to do fo, wiihi ut framing a number cf allumptions, by help of a finglc principle, which, though extremely I N D [ 246 ] I N D Iiid'fcrmi- natc, II Indians. cxtremeljT fimpk, admits of a very extenfive applica- ton. " Let A X B be any compound quantity equal to another, C X D. a"d httn beany rational number af- liimed at plcafure ; it is. manifeft (hat, taking equimul- tiples, A X w B = C X '« D. If, therefore, we fup- pofe thit A = r/iD, it mull follow that wnB = C, or Br: — . Thus two equations of a lower dimenfion m are obtained. If thefe be capable of farther decompo- fition, we may afiume the multiples « and p, and form four equatii)ns flill mote fimple. By the repeated ap- plication of this principle, an higher equation, admitting of divifors, will be refolved into thole of the tiril order, the number of which will be one greater than that of the multiples alTumed." For example, rcfuming the problem at firft given, viz. to find two rational numbers, the diflFerence ot the fquares of which fliall be a given number. Let the given number be the product ot" a and l> ; then by hy- pothefis, -v' — v"- = 'il' ; but thefe c ompoun d quiniit ies admit of an eafy refolution, for x +y X x — j = a X i- If> therefore, we fuppofe k -[- y = ma, ve fliall obtain .•< — _)■ = — ; where m is aibitrary, and if m rational, x and y muft. alfo be rationil. Hence the refolution of thele two equations gives the values c{ x and J, the numbers fought, in terms of ?« ; viz. m'a + i , m'-a — b X = : — , and y = . 2m 2m INDIAN OLD TOWN, a town in Lincoln eounty, in the Diftrifl of Maine, fituated on an ifland in Penobfcot river, jull above the Great Falls, and about 60 below the Forks. Here are about 100 fami- lies, who are Roman Catholics, the remains of the Penobfcot tiibe, and the only Indians who refide in the Dillriift of Maine. They live together in a regular fociety, and aic increafing in numlicr ; the Sachems having laid an injunction on the young people to mar- ry eaily. In a former war, this tribe had their lands taken from them; but at tl:e commencement of the American revolution, the Provincial Congrefs grant- ed them a traifl of laiw), 12 miles wide, interfected in the middle by the rivtr. They have a right, in pre- ference to any other tribe, to hunt and filh us lar as the mouth of the bay of Penobfcot extends. In their town is a decent church with a bell ; and a priell lefides among them to adminilter the ordinances. — Morse. Indian Orchard, a tra^t of laud in Northampton county, Pennfylvania, on the W. fide of Delaware river, on the river Lexawacfein. — ib. Indiana, a territory in Virginia, lying between Ohio river and the Laurel Mountain, containing about 34 millions of acres. It is nearly of a triangular form, and extends in length from the Pennfylvania line to the waters of the Little Kanhaway. It was granted to Samuel Wharton, William Tient, and George Morgan, efquires, and a few other perfons, in the year 176S, by the Shawanefe, Delaware and Huron tribes of Indians, as a compenf.ition for lolfes to the amount of ^85,916 : 10 : 8 currency, which thefe people had fullained by the depredations of the Indians, in tiie year 1763. It is a valuable trafl; of land ; but the title of the proprie- tors, thouglj pronounced good by a Committee of Congrtfs in 17S2, is at prefent embarralTed in confe. fndlini. quence of the revolution. — tl. v^-v--<« Indian River, or Cyprefs S'wanip, lies partly in the States of Maryland and Delaware. This morafs ex- tends 6 miles from call to weft, and nearly 12 from north to fouth, including an area of nearly 50,000 acres of land. The whole of this fwamp is a high and level bafon, very wet, though undoubtedly the higheft land on that part of the coaft. Falfe Cape, at the mouth of Indian river, and the N. E. part of Cedar Neck is in 38'' 35' 15" NTlat and ill miles fouth of the light- houfe at Cape Henlopen. Cedar Swamp contains a great variety of plants, trees, wild bealis, birds, and reptiles. — ib. Indian River, on the eaft coaft of the peninfula of E. Florida, lifes a Ihor: difl.ince from the fea-coa(l, and runs irom north to fouth, forming a kind of inland paifage for many miles along the coall. It is alfo call- ed Rio Ays, and has on the north fide of its mouth the point El Palmar, on the fouth that of the Leech. N. lat. 27° 30', W. long. 80° 40' ib. Indians. The amount of Indian population, in Americi, can only be guelfed at. The new difcover- ediflandsin the South Sea, and part of the N. W. coaft are probably the moft populous. The beft in- formed have conjeflured the number of aboriginal in- habitants, or Indians, in America, to be under two millions and a half. The decreafe fince the difcovery of America, has been am.izing : At that period, the ifland of Hifpaniola alone contained at kail a million of inhabitants; Bartholomew de las Cafas eftimated the number at three millions. Millions were buried in the mines or hunted to death by the Spaniards, both on the iflands and continent. In the northern parts of America, numbers were doubtlefs deftroyed in forming the EngliOi, Dutch, and French colonies ; but not- withftanding the ruptures between the cohmifts and the Indians, very few comparatively perilhed by war. Famine, and its companion the peftilenee, frequently deftroy whole tribes. The difeafes alfo introduced by the Europeans, have made great havock ; the fpiritii- ous liquors in the ufe of wliich they have been initialed by the whites, prove perhaps moft of all repugnant to population. They waiie as the Europeans advance ; tliey moulder away, and difappear. The moft numer- ous tribes are at the grealeft diftancc from the fettle- ments of the whites, and it is very certain that in pro- portion to their dlftance they are unacquainted with the ufe of fire-arms. All the nations north of lake Supe- rior, and thofe beyond the Mifilffippi, ufe only bows and arrows, fo that when their fcattered fituation is confidered, the various cuftoms and fuperllitions which it would be ncceflary to reconcile, in order to produce unity of aflion, and what a fmall proportion of them have the apparatus, or underftand the ufe of mufque- try, or polfefs refources to enable them to carry on Lifting hollilities again ft the power of the United States, it muft be obvious that even p.irtial defeats of the fe- deral troops will haften their ruin, notwlthftanding the wonderful dexterity and intrepidity which they exhi- bited in feveral adions with the rec:ular troops in the late war. But this neither is nor ought to be the wilh of the inhabitants of the United States ; they ought to teach them the bleflings of peace, and curb the exorbi- tant lufl of farther extent of territory. A I N D C 247 ] I N D lodiani. A lift of Indian tribes, in Imlay's Hitlory of Ken- '^~"'~*'^ tuclcy, makes the aggregate number lels than 60,000 who inhabit the country trom tlie gulr' of Mexico on both fuies of the Miliillippi, to the gulf of 8t Law- rence, and as far well a^ the country has been gene- rally explored, that is, to the head water of the Miffif- fippi, and from thence a good way up the Miifouri, and between that river and Santa Fe. To give any account of ihe nations farther fuuth, far lefs in S. America, would be a tafk l)eyor;d all bounds; the chief of ihcfe are noticed under their refpeflive names. The population of the Indian nations in the foulhern parts of the United States, fomewliat different from Imlay, is, according to Mr Purcell, who refided among them in 1780, as follows : Mui'cogees, commonly- Gun-men. Total. ly called Creeks 5,860 17,280 Chiflaws - 4.13' '3'423 Chickafaws 575 2,290 Cherokees 2,800 8,550 Catabaws 150 490 I 13,516 42.033 The above red nations have increafed in a fmall degree fince the general peace ellablilhed among them in 1777. The whites incorporated among them are few in num- ber, and lead a vagabond life, going trom tribe to tribe as their reftlefs difpofition leads them. The in- creafe of population is confiderably checked by the quantities of adulterated and poifonous fpitituous li- quors, and the venereal dillemper introduced among them by the whites. Major Gen. ^Vnthony Wayne put an end to the de- ftruftive war with the Indian^by a lieaty of peace and friendihip concluded at Greenville Aug. 3, 1795, which was ratified by the Prelidcnt of the Uintcd Slates, Dec. 22, 1795. The Indian tribes iigned the treaty in the following order : IVjanJols, Dalaivjres, Ska-wanoes, Oltawas, Chipawas, Ottatva, Pala<watames of the river cf St Ji feph, Pataivatamei of Huron, Mi- ami t, Alianiis und Ed River, Eel River \.T he , Miamis, Kickapoos and Kiijhujkid!, Dela-ivares ot Sandufky, and fome of the Six Nations living at Sandufky. Tlicfe In- dians ceded to the United States various \\\\&% of land from 2 to 12 miles fqu.ire, near the diflerent poits in the N. W. Territory. The United States delivered to the Indian tribes above named in goods to the value of 20,000 dollars ; and agreed to deliver in goods to the value of 9,500 dollars annunUy, forever. Tlie port^m whicli e ich tribe is to receive will be feen in tlie account of the particular nation or tribe. Little is yet known of the Indians in the ii tcrior parts of North-America. In 1792, Mr Stewart, faid 10 be in the employ of the Brliilh court, returned from four years travels through the hiherto unexplor- ed rcgif'ns to the weftward. Takiny liis c urie weft- fouthwellerly from the polls on the l.ikcs, he penetra- ted to the I, cad of the Miifouri, and Ironi thence due W. to within 5C0 niiles ot the (liores of the Pacific ocean. He joined the interior Indiana in f:vcral battles againft the (hore Indian-;, all which coming (li irt -^f his ob- ject, the procuring a peace, fo ih it he mitrht explore the continent from fea to fea ; after fonie ftay, he re- turned nearly by the fame route lie had purfued in go- ing cut. Beyond the Miliburi, Mr Stewart met with many powerful nations, in general hofpitable and cour- Irdiae, teous. The Indian nations he vifited weftward, ap- B peated to be a polifhed and civilized people, having l^^^li^l^ towns regularly built, and being in a ftate of fociety not far rerrjoved from that of the European?, and only wanting the ufe of iron and fteel to be perfeif>ly to. They are alway? clad in fkins, cut in an elegant man- ner, and in many reipccts preferable to the garments in ufe among tlie whites. Adjacent to thefe nations is a vaft ridge of mountains, which may be called the Alleghany of the weftein parts of America, and ferves as a bariier againft the two frequent incurficns cf the coaft Indians, who entertain a mortal antipathy to the nations and tribes inhabiting the country eaftward of the mountains. — ib. Indian-Town, in Maryland, a village fituated on Indian Creek, on the S. E. bank of Choptank river, and in Dorchefter county, 3 miles S. W. of New- Mat ket. — ib. Indian-Town, a fmall poft- town of N. Carolina, 10 miles trom Sawyer's Ferry, and 52 from Edenton. — ib. INDUCTION, in logic, is that procefs of the un- derllaiiding by which, from .1 number of^ai/ira/artruths perceived by limple apprehenlion, and diligently compa- red together, we infer another truth which is always general A.VL<i fometimes univerfal. It is perhaps needlefs to obferve, that in the procefs of indiidion the truths to be compared muft be of the fame kind, or relate to objeiSs liaving a liniilar nature ; for the nicreft tyro in fcience knnwt, that phyfical truths cannot be con. pared with moral truths, nor the truths of pure mathematics with either. I'hat llie method of indutlion is a juft logic, has been lufficiently evinced clfewheie (fee Logic, Part III. chap. v. and Philosophy, n° 73 — 78. Er.cycl.)^ and is now Indeed generally admitted. It is even ad- mitted by Briillli plnhf phers to b: the only method of reafoning by which a ly progrifs can be made in the phyllcal fciences ; for the laws ot Nature can he dilcover- ed only by accurate experiments, and by carefully noting the agreements and the differences, however minute, which are thus found among the phenomena apparently liniilar. It is not, however, commonly faid that induc- tion is the method of re^fonmg employed by the mathe- maticians ; and the writer of this aiticle long thought, with others, that in pure geometry the reafoning is ftnctly fyUogiJlical. Mature rcfle>ftion, however, has led liim to djiibt, with Dodor Reid,* the truth of the *Apncni;x generally received opinion, to iloubt even whether by to Vdl. III. categorical fylloglfms any thing whatever can be proved, "f Shitht, To the idolaters of Arlllolle we arc perfectly aware 'f'^' ^ifi'- tliat this win appear an extravagint paradox ; but to the '^ '■' "' votaries ot truth, we do not dcfpair of making it very evident, that for fuch doubts there is I'ome loundation. We are led into this difquilition to counteraiS, in feme degree, what we think the pernicious tendency of the philofophy ot Kant, which attempts h.ivc been Litcly made to introduce into this country. Of lliis philofo- phy we lliall endeavour to give lomethlng like a diftirft view in the proper place. It is lulHcicnt to obferve lieic, that it rcfts up.-n the hypothefis, that " we are in polfefTion ot certain nations a priori, which are ahfo- lutely iriilepenilent of ail e%fcrien:e, alihouch the ohjtdt of txperi.nce correfpond w-th ihein ; and wli ch arc diilin- guKhed by necejfity and ilrift univtrfality ." Thefc innate aud I N D [ 248 3 I N D InJiKlion. and uuivcif.il notions, Kant confiders as a fet of rrt<f- ^-'"^^^*-' ^or;V/, from whitli is 10 be deduced all fuch knowledge as deferves the name of fcience ; and he talk?, of courlc, or at leall his Englilli tranfl.itors rcprei'ent him talking, with great contempt, of iiiduftive reafoiiing, and fub- (liiuting fyllogillic demonliraiion in its (lead. As his catcgoiics are not familiar to our readers, we fliall, in this place, eicaniine fyllogifms connedled with tlie categories of Aritlorlc, which are at Icaft more in- telligible than thofc of Kant, and which, being likewife general notio-ns, muft, in argument, be managed in the lame way. Now the fundamental axiom upon which every categorical iVUogiim rells, is the well known pro- pofition, which affirms, that " whatever may be predi- cated of a whole ^f;.Hj, may be predicated of every ^f- cies and of every inJividucil comprehended under that genus." This is indeed an undoubted truth ; but it cannot conftitutc a foundation for reafoning from the genus to yheft'iCics or the individual ; becaufe we cannot poflibly know what can be predicated of the genus till we know what can be predicated of all the individuii/s ranged under it. Indeed it is only by afcertaining, through the medium of inducflion, what can be predi- cated, and what not, of a number of individuals, that we come to foim fuch notions as thofe of genera and //>.'cies ; and therefore, in a fyllogifm Ihidly categorical, "the propofitions, which conftitute the premifes, and are taken for granted, are thole alone which are capable of proof ; whilft the conclufion, which the logician pre- tends to demonllratc, mull be evident to intuition or experience, otherwife the premifes could not be known to be true. The analyfis of a few fyllogifms will make this apparent to every reader. Dr Wallis, who, to an intimate acqnaintance with the Ariftotelian logic, added much mathematical and phyfical knowledge, gives the following fyllogifm as a perfect example of this mode of reafoning in the firft tigare, to which it is known that all the other figures may be reduced : — Omne animal t^ fcnfu pradilum. Socrates ell animal. Socrates t& fenfu pmdilus Here the propofition to be demonRrated i', that So- crates is endowed with fenfe ; and the propolitions af- fumed as fslf-evident truths, upon which the demonllra- tion is to be built, are, that " every animal is endowed with fenfe;" and that " Socrates is an animal." But how comes the demonftrator to know that " every ani- mal is endowed with fenfe .'" To this queftion we are not aware cf any anfwer which can be given, except this, that mankind have agreed to call every being, which they perceive to be endowed with fenfe, an ani- mal. Let this, then, be fuppofed the true anfwer: the next quellion to be put to the demonftrator is, How he comes to know that Socrates is an animal .^ If we have anfwered the former quellion properly, or, in other words, if it be elfential to this genus of beings to be endowed with fenfe, it is obvious that he can knov/ that Socrates is an aniwal only by perceiving him to be cn- doiued iL'ilh fcnfc ; and therefore, in this fyllogifm, the propofition to be proved Is the very firrt of the three of which the truth is perceived ; and it is jjercelved intui- tively, and not inferred from others by a procsfs of rea- Jbning. * Ergo Though there are ten categories and five prcdi- Inclusion, cables, there are but two kinds cf ca'egorical propofi- '^•^''•'^^^^ tions, y'vi. Thofe in which the properly or accident is predicated of the fubltance to which it belongs, and thofe in which the gmui is predicated ot the fpccics or individual. Of the firmer kind is the propofition pre- tended to be proved by the fyllogifm wliich we have confidered ; of the latter, is that which is proved by the following : Quicquid fenfu praiditum, eft animal, Socrates ell ferfu prxditus. Ergo Socrates eft animal. That this is a categorical fyllogifm, legitimate in mode and figure, will be denied by no man who is not an abfolute llranger to the very firft principles of the Ariftotelian logic ; but it requires little attention indeed to perceive that it proves nothing. The Impofition of names is a thing fo pcrfeftly aibitrary, that the being, or clafs of beings, which in Latin and Englilli is called animal, is with equal propriety in Greek called fwty, and in Hebrew tt'£ij. To a native of Greece, ihcrelbie, and to an ancient Hebrew, the major propofition of this fyllogifm would have been wliolly unintelligible; but had either of thofe perfons been told by a man of known veracity, and acquainted with the Latin tongue, that every thing endowed with fenfe was, by the Romans, called animal, he would then have nnderftood the pro. pofition, admitted its truth without hefitation, and have henceforth known that Socrates and Mofes, and every thing elfe which he perceived to be endowed wit!) fenfe, would at Rome be called animal. This knowledge, however, would not have relied upon demonftrative rea- foning of any kind, but upon the credibility of his in- former, and the intuitive evidence of his own fenfes. It will perhaps be laid, that the two fyllcigifms which we have examined are improper examples, becaufe the truth to be proved by the former is felf-evident, whilll that which is meant to be eftablilhed by the latter is merely verbal, and therefore arbitrary. But the follow- ing is liable to neither of thcfe objeflions : ytll animals are mortal. Man is an animal; therefore Man is mortal. Here it would be proper to afk the demonftrator, up- on what grounds he fo confidently pronounces all ani- mals to be mortal ? The propofition is fo far ixom ex- prefflng a felf-evident truth, that, previous to the en- trance of fin and death into the world, the firft man had furely no conception of mortnlity. He acquired the notion, however, by experience, when he fuw the animals die in fucceffion around him ; and when he ob- ferved that no animal with which he was acquainted, not even his own fon, efcaped death, he would conclude that all animals, without exception, are mortal. This conclufion, however, could not be built upon fyllogiftic reafoning, nor yet upon intuition, but partly upon ex- perience and partly on analogy. As far as his expe- rience went, the proof, by induftion, of the mortality of all animals was complete; but there are many ani- mals in the ocean, and perhaps on the earth, which he never faw, and of whofe mortality therefore he could aflirm nothing but from analogy, ;. e. from concluding, as the conllituiion of the human mind compels us to conclude, 1 N D [ 249 ] I N D InduSion. conclude, that Nature is uniform throughout the uni- which may be compared with it, till through a feries '||^^^.;™' ^■^~^'"^~' verfe, uiid that fimilar caufes, whether known or un- of well known intermediate relation?, a comp.irifon is known, will, in finiilar circumflances, produce, at all made between the terms of the original propofition, ol times, fimilar efFe(fls. It is tn he cbferved of this fyllo- which the triitli or falfchood is then perceived, gifm, as of the firll which we have confidered, that the Thus in the 47ih propofition of the fird book of jiropofition, which it pretends to demonftraie, is one of Euclid's Elemcnti, tlie author prnpofes to demonllrate thofe tiulhs known by experience, from which, by the the equality between the fquare of the hypotlicni.fe of procefs of indudion, we infer the major of the premifes a right angled triangle, and the fum of the fquaies dc- to be Hue ; and that therefore the reafoning, if reafon- fcribed en the o'.her two (ides ; but he does not [irocecd inR it can be called, runs in a circle. in the way of categoiical fyllogifms, by raifing his dc- Yet by a concatenation of fyllogifms liave logicians monftration on fome univerfal truth relating to the ge- pretended that a long feries of important truths may nus of fjuaiss. On the contrary, he proceeds to mea- be difcovered and demondrated ; and even Wallis him- f'ire the three fquares of which he lias affirmed a certain felf feems to think, that this is the inftrument by which relation ; but as they cannot be immediaiely compared the mathematicians have deduced, fiom a few pol\u- together, he dire<5ls the l.irgeft of them to be divided in- lates, accurate definitions, and undeniable axioms, all to two parallelograms, accoiding to a rule which he had the truths of their demonllrarive fcience. Let us try formerly afcertained to be juft ; and as thefe parallelo- the truth of this opinion by analyfing fome of Euclid's grams can, as little as the fquare of which they are the demonftrations. conftituent parts, be compared with the fquares of tl.e In the fliort article Principle (EncycL), it has been other two fides of the triangle, he thinks of fome inter- fhewn, that all our Jirji truths are particular, and that it mediate figure which may be applied as a common mea- ls by applying to them the rules of induiflion that we fure to the fquares and the parallelograms. According- form general truths or axioms — even the axioms of pure ly, having before found that a parallelogram, or Iquare, geometry. As this fcience treats not of real external is eiaflly double of a triangle ftanding on the fame bale things, but merely of iUas or conceptions, the creatures and between the fame parallels with it, he conftrucis of our minds, it is obvious, that its definitions may be triangles upon the fame bafe, and between the fame pa- perfeftly accurate, the induif^ion by which its axioms rallels witli his parallelograms, and the fquares of the are formed complete, and therefore the axioms them- fides containing the right angle of the original triangle ; felves aK/irr/i/ propoiitions. The ufe of thefe axioms and finding, by a procefs formerly Ihewn to be juft, is merely to Ihorten the different procefTes of geometri- that the triangles on the bafes of the parallehogranis are cal reafor.ing, and not, as has fomeiimes been abfurdly precifely equal to the triangles on the bafes of the fuppofed, to l>e made the parents or ciufes of parti- Iquares, he perceives at once that the two pa'ailelo- cular truths. No truth, whether general or particular, grams, of which the largell fquare is compofcd, mull can, in any fenfe of the word, be the caufe of another be equal to the fum of the two IcHer fquares ; and the truth. If it were not true that all individual figures, truth of the propofition is demonllrated. of whatever form, comprehending a portion of fpace In the courfe of this demonllration, there is not (o equal to a portion comprehended by any other indivi- much as one truth inferred from another by fyllogijm, dual figure, whether of the fame form with fome of but all are perceived in fuccelhon by a feries of fimple them, or of a form diffeient from them all, are equal to apprehenfions. Euclid, indeed, alter finding the triangle one another, it would not be true that " things in ge- conllruifted on the bafe of one of the parallelograms to iieral, which are equal to the fame thing, or that mag- be equal to the triangle conliruftcd on llie b.ife of one iiitudes which coincide, or exactly fill the fame fpace," of the fquares, introduces an axiom, and fays, " but are refpeiftively equal to one another ; and theicftre the the doubles of equals are equal to one another ; ibcre- firft and eighth of Euclid's axioms would be fjife. So fjre the par.illelogram is equal to the fquare." But far are thefe axioms, or general truths, from being the if tVom this mode of exprefion any man conceive the parents of particular truths,that, as conceived by us, they axiom or univerfal truth to he the caiifi o{ the truth may, with greater propriety, be termed their cff.'pring. more particul.ir, cr fuppofe that the latter could not They are indeed nothing more than general exprefl^ons, be apprehended without a previous knowledge of the comprehending all particular trutlis of the fame kind, former, he is a (Iranger to the nature oi evidence, and When a mathematical propofition tlicrcfore is enounced, to the procefs cl gfm-ra.izaticii, by which axicros are if the terms, of which it is compofed, or the figures of formed. which a certain relation is predicated, can be brought to- If we examine tlie pioblems of this anci;nt gcomc- gcther and immediately compared, no dcinonllratlon is trician, we fliall find that the irutli ot them is proved iiecelfary to point out its truth or falfeliood. It is indeed by the very fame means which he makes ufe of 10 intuitively perceivtd to be ciiher comprehended under, point out the truth of his theorems. Thus, the firll or contr.iry to fome known axiom ol the fcience ; but it problem of liis immortal woik is, " to delcribe an equi- has the evidence of truth or falfeliood in ilfilf and not lateral triangle on a given finite llraiirlit line;" and net in conferjiie/tce of that axiom. When the figures or fym- only is this to be done, but the meihod by which it is bols cannot be immediately compared together, it is done mud be fuch as can be Ihown lobe incuntrovcni- then, and only then, that recourfe is had to demon- blyjull. The fides of a tri.mgle, however, cannot Ix- aps ftration ; whicii proceeds, not in a feiies of fyllogifms plied to each other fo as to be immediately conipareil ; but by a procefs of ideal menluralion or indudlion. A for they are conceived to be immoveable among thcm- figure or fymbol is conceived, which may be compared felves. A common mcalure, therefore, or fomelhing with each of tiie principal figures or f)mbols, or, if equivalent to a common mcafurc, mull be found, by that cannot be, with one of tlieni, and tlien another, which tlic triangle may be condrufled, and tlie cqna- SurPL. Vol. II. I i lity 1 N D Iii(lu(3ion. lity of its three fides afterwards evinced ( and this equi- *"^^'~*~' viilent Euclid finds in the circle. By contemplaling the properties of the circle, it was eafy to perceive that all its radii miiil be equal to one anotlier. He therefore direiJh two circles to be de- fcribed from the oppofite extremities of the given fi- [ 250 ] INF dence, not inferior to that with which he admits a mathe- tnduflion, matic.il demonflration, that any corporeal phenomenon, II which he has obferved in certain circumftsnces, will be '"":""'"»- always obferved in circumftances exaflly fimilar; but \,^^^^^-^ the misfortune is, that he can very feldom be afcertain- ed of this Jimilarity. He dees not know any one piece r.ite ftr.iight hne, fo as that it may be the radius of ot' mMter us it ij in it/e/f ; he cannot fepnrate its various eacli of them ; and from the point in which the circles interfect one another, lie orders lines to be drawn to the extreme points of the given line, affirming that thefe three lines conflitutc an equilateral triangle. To convince his reader of the trutJi of this affirmation, he has only to put him in mind, that from the properties of the circle, (he lines which he has drawn muft be each equal to the given line, and of courfe all the three ecjual to one another ; and this mutual equality is per- ceived by fimple ;ippreljenfion, and not inferred by fyl properties ; and of courfe cannot attribute to any one jiroperty the effefts or apparent effeiits which proceed exclullvely from it. Indeed, the properties of bodies are fo clofely interwoven, ihat by human means they cannot be completely feparatcd ; and hence the mofl cautious inveftigator is apt to attribute to fome one or two properties, an event which in reality refults per- haps from many. (See Philosophy and Physics, Eiicycl.). Tills the geometrician never does. He knows perfeftly that the relation of equality which logidic reafoning. Euclid, indeed, by introducing in- fubfilts between the three angles of a plain triangle to the demonftration his firll axiom, gives to it the and two right angles, depends not upon the fize of the form ot a lyllogifm : but that fyllogifm proves nothing ; triangles, the matter of which they arc conceived to be for if the equality of the three fides of the triangle were made, the particular place which they occupy in die not intuitively perceived In their pofition and the pro- univeife, or upon any one circumllance whatever be- perties of the circle, the firft axiom would itfelf be a fides their triangularity, and the angles of their corro- tall'ehood. So true It is tiiat categorical fyllogifms lets being exactly right angles ; and it is upon this have no place in geometrical reafoning ; which is as power of difcrimlnation which wc have in the concep- ftridlly experimental and indiK^ive as the reafoning em- ployed in the various branches of pliyfics. But if this be fo, how come the truths of pure geo- metry to be necelfary, fo that the contrary of any one of them is clearly perceived to be ImpoiTible; whllft phyfical truths are all contingent, fo that there is not one of tliem of which the dlredt contrary may not eafily be conceived I That there is not one phyfical truth, of which the contrary may not be conceived, is not perhaps fo cer- tain as has generally been imagined ; but admitting the faft to be as it has commonly been ftated, the appa- rent difference between this clafs of truths and thofe of pure geometry, may be eafily accounted for, without fuppofing that the former refis upon a kind of evi- dence totally different from that which fupporls the fa- bric of the latter. The objeifVs of pure geometry, as we have already ob- ferved, are the creatures of our own minds, which con- tain in them nothing concealed from our view. As the mathematician treats them merely as meafurable quantities, he knows, with the utmoft precifion, upon what particular properties the relation affirmed to fub- fill between any two or more of them muft abfolutely depend ; and he cannot poflibly entertain a doubt but it will be found to have place among all quantities h<iving the fame properties, bccaufe it depends upon them, and upon them alone. His proecfs of induction, iheretore, by a ferles of ideal tneafurements, is always complete, and exhaulls the fubjei5t ; but in phyfical en- (juiries the cafe is widely different. The fubje(5ts which employ the phyfical enquirer are not his own ideas, and their various relations, but the properties, powers, and relations of the bodies which compofe the univerfe ; and ot thcfe bodies he knows neither the fublfance, in- ternal ftrufture, nor all the qualities : fo that he can very feldom dilcover with certainty upon what parti- cular property or properties the phenomena of the cor- poreal world, or the relations which fiibfift among dif- ferent bodies, depend. He expedts, indeed, with confi- tions ot pure geometry, and have not in the objedls of phyfics, iliat the truths of the one fcience are perceiv- ed to be necelfary, while thofe of the other appear to be contingent ; though the mode of demonftration is the fame in both, or at leaf! equally removed from cate- gorical fyllogifms. INERTIA. See Dynamics and Impulsion in this Supplement. INFLAMiVIATION has been fufficiently explain- ed in the Encyclopadia, and in the article Chemistry in this Supplement ; but it cannot be improper, in this place, to give an account of fome remarkable Spontaneous Inflammations, which, as different fub- ftances are liable to them, have been, and may again be, the caufe of many and great misfortunes. The fpontaneous Inflammation of clfential oils, and that of fome fat oils, when mixed with nitious acid, are well known to phllofophers : fo alfo is that of pow- dered charcoal with the fame acid (lately difcovered by M. Proull), and thofe of phofphorus, of pyrophorus, and of fulminating gold. Thele fubllances are general- ly to be lound only in the laboratories of chemills, who are perfe<3ly well acquainted with the precautions which it is necelfary to take to prevent the unhappy accidents which may be occafioned by them. The burning of a ftore-houfe of falls, which happen- ed at Breft in the year i757> was caufed by the fpon- taneous inflammation of fome oiled cloths, which, after having been painted on one fide, and dried in the fun, were flowed away while yet waiTn ; as was fhewn by fubfequent experiments.* • Sec Jli>- Vegetables boiled In oil or f.it, and left to them- iin/r« a> felves, after having been preffed, inflame in the open ''-^'^'"''™'« air. This inflammation always takes place when the "'' ^'""'■'' vegetables retain a certain degree of humidity ; if they ' are firft thoroughly dried, they are reduced to afhes, without the appearance of flame. We owe the obfer- vation of thefc fads to MM. Saladin and Carette.f f joumalde The heaps of linen rags which are thrown tDgcther Pbyftjuc, in paper xnanufaftories, the preparation of which is i?^^- haftcned I N I- C 251 ] INF hadened by means of fermentation, often take lire, if the floors of ftone, and the rafters and corering cf iron ; Infiair.m*- not carefully attended to. it Rands alone on an ifland in the Neva, on which, as """• Tlie fpoataneous inflammation of hay has been known well as on board the (hips lying in the Neva, no fire is ^■''"''"^^ for many centuries; by its means houfes, barns, &c. permitted. In St Petciiburgh, in the fame yeai, a fire have been often reduced to allies. When the hay is was difcovered in the vaulted (hop of a furiicr. In laid up damp, the inllammation often happens ; for the thefe fliops, which are all vaults, neither fire nor candle fermentation is then very great. This accident very is allowed, and the doors of them are all of iron. Ac feldom occurs to the firll hay (according to the obfer- length the probable caufe was found to be, that the vaiion of M. de Bomare), but is much more common to furrier, the evening before the fire, had got a roll of ihefecondj and If, through inattention, a piece of iron new cere-cloth (much in ufe here for covering tables, Ihould be left in a flack ot hay in fermentation, the in- counters, &c. being eafily wiped and kept clean), and flammationof that ftack is almoft a certain confeqiience. Corn heaped up has alf) I'ometimes produced inflamma- tions of this nature. Vanieri, in his Pradium Rujiicum, feys, ^t£ vera fgrami/jaj nonJtim fatis injolata recondent JmpruJcns, fub'itis par'iunt inandia fiammis . Dung alfo, under certain circumftances, inflames fpon- taneoufly. had left it in his vault, where it was found almoil con- fumed. In the night between the 20th and 21ft of April 1 78 1, a fire was feen on bourd the frigate Maria, wiiich lay at anchor, with feveral other lliips, in the road oflf the ifland ot Cronftadt ; the fire was, however, foon ex- tinguilhed ; and, by the fevereft examination, little or nothing could be extorted concerning the manner in which it had arifen. The garrifon was threatened with I A pood conrilts of 40 puuiuU Kuls, or 36 £nglifti. In a paper, publirtied in the Repertory of Arts and a fcrutiny that fiiould coft tliem dear ; and while thef Manu/aSurts, by the Rev. William Tooke, F. R. S. were in this cruel (late of fufpcnce, an order came from &c. we have the following remarkable inftances otfpon- the fovereign, which quieted their minds, and gave rife taneous inflammation. " A petfon of the name of to fome very fatistaclory experiments. Riide, an apothecary at Bautzen, had prepared a py- It having been found, upon juridical examination, as rophorus from rye-bran and alum. Not long after he well as private inquiry, that in the lliip's cabin, when had made the difcovery, there broke out, in the next the fmoke appeared, there lay a bundle of matting, village of Nauflitz, a great fire, which did mucli mif- containing Ruflian lair)p black prepared Ironi fir-foot, chief, and was faid to have been occ.ifioned by the treat- moidened with hemp-oil varnilli, which was perceived ing of a fick cow in the cow-houfe. Mr Riide knew, to have fparks of fire in it at the time of the extinifticn, that the countrymen were ufed to lay an application of the Ruflian admiralty gave orders to make various ex- paiclied rye-bran to their cattle for curing the thick periments, in order to fee whether a mixture of hemp- neck ; he knew alfo, that alum and rye-bran, by a pro- oil varniih and the forementioned Ruflian black, folded per procefs, yielded a pyrophorus ; and now he wiflied up in a mat and bound together, would kindle of to try whether parched rye-bran alone would have the itfelh fame eil'efl. Accordingly, he roafted a quantity of rye- They fhook 40 pounds of fir-wood foot into a tub, bran by the fire, till it had acquired the colour of roafl- and poured about 35 pounds of hemp-oil varniih upon ed coffee. This roafted bran he wrapped up In a linen it ; this they let Itand for an hour, after wliich they cloth; in the fpace ofafew minutes therearofe a flrong poured off the oil. Tiie remaining mixture they now fmoke through the cloth, accompanied by a fmell of wrapped up in a mat, and the bundle was laid clofe to burning. Not long afterwards the rag grew as black the cabin, where the midlhipmen had their birth. To as tinder, and the bran, now become hut, fell through avoid all fufpicion of treachery, two cllkers leaUd bjih it nn the ground in little balls. Mr Riide repeated the mat and the door with their own feals, and ftation- the experiment at various times, and always with the ed a watch of four fea olhceis, to tjke notice of all fame refult. Who now will any longer doubt, that the that pafled the whole night through; and as foon as frequency of fires in cow-houfes, which in ihofe parts any fmoke fhould appear, immediately to give informa- are moftly wooden buildings, may not be occafioned by tion to die commandant ot the port, this common pra<!llce, of binding roafted bran about The experiment was made the 26th of April, about the necks of the cattle? The fire, after confuming 11 o'clocic A. M. in prcfcnce of all the othcers named the cattle and the Ihed, communicates itfelf to the ad- in the comniifllon. E.irly on the following day, about joining buildings ; great damage enfucs ; and the Ig- fix o'clock A. M. a fmoke appe.ired, cf wliich the cliief norant look for the cnnfe in wilful and malicious firing, commandmt was immediately informed by an oflicer: confcquently in a capital crime." became with ail poftible fpeed, and tiirough a fmall The fame author informs us, that in the fpring of hole in the door law the mat fnioking. Wiihout open- thc year i 780, a fire was difcovered on board a Ruliian ing the door, he difpacched a mciren^er to the members frigate lying in tlie road of Cionft.idt ; which, if it had ot the cnmmlflion ; but as the (m^ke became ftronger, not been timely extlnguilhed, would have endangered and fire began 10 appear, the chief commandant foonJ the wliole fleet. After the fevereft fcrutiny, no caufe it neceli'ary, without waiting for the inLrobers ot the of the fire was to be found ; and the ni.uter was forced commiflion, to break the fcals and open the door. No to remain without explanation, but with flrong furmlfes fooncr was the air thus admitted, than the mat bej:uu of if)me wicked incendi iry being at the bottom of it. to burn with greater force, and prefently it burft into In the month of Auguft, in the fame year, a fire broke a flame. out at the hemp-magazine at St Peterlljurgh, by which The Ruflian admir.ilty, being now fully convinced feveral hundred thoufand poods J of hemp and flax were of the fclf-enkindling property of this oompofilion, confumed. The walls of tlie magazine arc of brick, tranfmittcd their experiment to the Imperial Ac.idcrof I i 2 of I N F [ 25 Inflamma- of Sciences ; wlio appointed Mr Georgi, a very learned "If":,^ and ableadjunifl of the academy, to make farther eiperi- ments on the fubjeft. Previous to the relation of thefe cxperin)cnts, it is necefTary to obferve, that the Ruflian Hr.black is three or four limes more heavy, thick, and unctuous, than that kind of painters black which the Germans call liin-nihm. The furmer is gathered at Ochta, near St Peieilbargh, a: Mofco, at Archangel, and oilier places, in little wooden luits, trom relliious tir-wood, and the un^ftiious bark of birch, by means of an apparatus unoninionly I'lmplc, cdnfilling of pots without bonoms let one upon the other ; and is (old very cheap. Tlie famous line German Licn-rahm is cal- led in Ruilia HoHdniVs black. In wliat follows, wlien raw oil is fpoken of, it is to be undcrftood of linleed- cil or hemp-oil ; but moil commonly the latter. The varnilh is made of five p^>und■i of hemp-oil boiled with two ounces and a halt of muiium. For wrapping up the compofition, Mr Georgi made ufe of coarfe hemp- linen, and always fingle, never double. The impregna- tions and commlxtuies were made in a large wooden bowl, in which they Ifood open till they were wrapped up in linen. Three pounds nf Ruffian fir-black were flowly im- pregnated with five pounds ot hempoil varnilh ; and when the mixture had Hood open five hours, it was bound up in linen. By this piocefs it became clotted ; but fome of the black remained dry. When the bundle Ivad lain fixteen hours in a chelf, it was obferved to emit a very naufeous, and rather putrid, fniell, not quite unlike that of boiling cil. Some parts of it became warm, and lleamed much ; this (learn was watery, and Iiy no means inflammable. Eighteen hours after the mixture was wrapped up, one place became brown, e- niitted fmokc, and diredly afterwards glowing fire ap- peared. The fame thing happened in a fecond and a third place, though other places were fcarccly warm. The fire crept flowly around, and gave a thick, grey, ilinking fraoke. Mr Georgi took the bundle out of liie chefl, and laid it on a ftonc pavement ; when, on being expofed to the tree air, there arofe a (low burn- ing riame, a fpan high, with a ftrong body of fmoke. Not long afterwards tliere appeared, here and there, Jeveral chaps or clefts, as from a little volcano, the va- pour ilfuing fiom which burlf into flame. On his break- ing the lump, it burft into a very violent flame, full three feet high, which foon grew lefs, and then went out. The fnicking and glowing fire lafled for the fpace of fix hours ; and afterwards the remainder continued to glow without fmoke for two hours longer. The grey earthy allies, when cold, weighed five ounces and a half. In another experiment, perfedly fimilar to the fore- going, as far as relates to the compofition and qu.inti- lies, the enkindling did not enfue till 41 hours alter the i.mpregnation : the heat kept increafing for three hours, and then the acceniion followed. It is worthy of re- mark, that thefe c-iperiments fucceeded belter on bright days than on fuch as were rainy ; and the accenfion came en more rapidly. In another experiment, three pounds of Ruffian fir- black were flowly impregnated with three pounds of raw hemp-oil ; and the accenfion enfued after nine hours. Three quarters of a pound of German rahm were flowly impregnated with a pound and a half of hemp- 2 ] INF oil varnifh. The mixture remained 70 hours before it Inflamma- became hot and reeking ; it then gradually became hot- •'""• ter, and emitted a llrong exhalation ; the effluvia were moill, and not inflammable. The reaiftion lafted 36 hours, during which the heat was one while ftronger, and then weaker, and at length quite ceafed. Stove or chimney foot, mofily formed from birch- wood fmoke, w.is mingled witli the above-mentioned lubllances and tied up ; the compound remained cold and quiet. Ruffian fir-black, mixed wiih equal parts of oil of tur- pentine, and bound up, exhibited not the leaft rea(ftion or warmth. Birch oil, mixed with equal parts of RufTian fir- black, and bound up, began to grow warm and to emit a volatile fmeil ; but the warmth foon went oflF again. From the experiments of ihe admiralty and of Mr Georgi, we learn, not only the decifive certainty of the felf-accenfion of foot and oil, when the two fubftances are mixed under certain circumftance.', but alfo the fol- lowing particulars : Ot the various kinds of foot, or lamp-black, the ex- periments fucceeded more frequently and furely witli the coarier, more undtuous and heavier, like Ruflian painters black, than with fine light German rahm, or with coarfe chimney loot. In regard to oils, only thofe experiments fucceeded which were made with drying oil?, either raw or boiled. The proportions of the foots to the oils were, in the fuccef^ful experiments, very vari- ous ; the mixture kindled with a tenth, a fifth, a third, with an equal, and likewife with a double, proportion of oil. In general, however, much more depends on the mode of mixture, and the manipulation, and, as Mr Georgi often obferved, on the weather; for in moill v/eather the bundles, after becoming warm, would frequently grow cold again. The inllances of fpontaneous inflammation hitherto mentioned have been only cf vegetable fubllances; but we have examples of the finie thing in the animal king- dom. Pieces of woollen clcth, which had not been Icoured, took fit e in a warehoufe. The fame thing hap- pened to fome heaps of woollen yarn ; and fome pieces of cloth took fire in the road, as they were going to the fuller. Thefe inflammations always take place where the matters heaped up prelcrve a certain degree of hu- midity, which is necelfary to excite a fermentation ; the heat refulting from which, by drying the oil, leads them infenfibly to a (late of ignition ; and the quality of the oil, being more or lefs deficcative, very much contri- butes thereto. The woollen ftuflF prepared at Sevennes, which bears the name of Emperor's fluff, has kindled of itfelf, and burnt to a coal. It is not unulual for this to happen to woollen Ifufl's, when in hot fiimniers they are laid in a heap in a room but little aired. In June 1781, the fame tiling happened at a wnol- cnniber's in a manufaifluring town in Germany, where a heap of wool-combings, pfled up in a clofe warehoufe feldi.m aired, tof^k fire of itfelf". This wool had been by little and little brought into the warehoufe ; and, for want of room, piled np very high, and trodden down, that more might be added to it. That this combed wool, to which, as is well known, rape oil mixed with butter is ufed in the combing, burnt ot it- felf, was fwcin by feveral witnetres. One of them af- fiiiried I N F C 2^3 ] I N K Inflamma- firmed that, ten years before, a fimilar fire happened tion. among the flocks of wool at a clothier's, who had put ^'^'^"'^''^ them into a cafk, where they were rammed hard, for their e:i(ier conveyance. This wool burnt from within outwards, and became quite a coal ; it was very certain that neither fire nor light had been uftd at the packing, confequently the abovi fires arofe from limilar caufes. In like manner, very credible cloth-workers have certi- fied, that, after they have bought wncl that was be- come wet, and packed it clofe in tlieir warchoufe, this wool has burnt of itfelf; and very fcrinus c; nte(iuences might have followed, if it had not been difcovered in time. Nay, there are Inflances, though they be but rare, of human bodies beini^ confumed by fpontaneous in- flammation. In the Philofophical Tranf.iflioiis, and in the Memoirs of the Academies of Paris and Copenha- gen, it is related that an Italian lady (the Cuuntefs Cornelia Dandi) was entirely reduced to afhes, except her legs ; that an Englifh woman, called Grace Pitt, was almofl entirely confumed by a fpontaneous inflam- mation of her vifcera ; and, lallly, that a pried of Ber- gamo was confumed in the fame manner. Thefe fpon- taneous inflammations have been attributed to the abufe of fpirituous liquors ; but though the viiftims ot intem- perance are indeed very numerous, thtfc certainly do not belong to that number. The mineral kingdom alfo often affords inftances of fpontaneous inflammation. Pyrites heaped up, if wet- ted and expofed to the air, take fire. Pitcoal alfo, laid in heaps, under certain circumftances, inflames fponta- neoufly. M. Duhamel has defcribed two inflammations of this nature, which happened in the magazines of Brcft, in the years 1741 and 1757. Cuttings of iron, which had been left in water, and were afterwards expofed to the open air, gave fparks, and fet fire to the neighbouring bodies. For this obfervation we are ob- liged to M. de Charpentier. The caufes of thefe phenomena the chemift will afCgn ; but they are here recorded z'^ a warning to tradeimen and others. It is evident, from the faifts wliicli have been related, that fpontaneous inflammations being very frequent, and their caufes very various, too much at- tention and vigilance cannot be ufed to prevent their dreadful etfefts. And conft-quenily it is impoflible to be too careful in watching over public magazines and ftorehoufes, particularly thofe belonging to the ord- nance, cr thole in which are kept hemp, cordage, lamp- black, pitch, tar, oiled cloths, &c. whicn fubftances ought never to be left heapi-'d up, particularly if they have any moiflure in them. In < rder to prevent any ac- cident from them, it would be proper to exaniin." them pften, to take notice if any heat is to be obfcrved in iheni, and, in that cafe, to apply a renieJy immediately. Thcie cxanjnalions Iboiild he made by d.iy, it not be- ing advilable to carry a light into the magazines ; for when the tirmer.tatirn is fufficienlly advanced, the va- pours which are difcngaged by it are in an inflamma- ble Hate, and the approach rf a light mii'lit, by their means, fct fiie to the fubflances whence tf.ey proceed. Ignorance of the fore-nientioned clrcuniilai ce-, and a culpable negligence of thole precautions which ought lo be taken, have often caufcd more mistoi tunes and lofs than the moft contriving malice: it is tiierefore of great importance that tbele fatfls Ihould be univcrfally known, that public utility may reap from them evtry infoniKd, pofllble advantage. II INFOP.MED Stars, or Informes Stella, are ,^J^!^ fuch ftars as have not been reduced into any conltella- tion ; otherwife called Sporadcs. — There was a great number ol this kind lelt by the ancient aflronomers ; but Hcvellus, and fomc others of the moderns, have provided for the greater part of them, by making new conflellalions. INGRAHAM, Port, on the weftern fide of WaOi- ington Ifland, on the N. W. coaft of N. America, is divided into two parts by Young Viederick's Ifland. It is a fine harbour for wintering in, being near the fca, and having deep water. N. lat. 53° 37', W. long. 133'' \ii'.— Morse. iNGiiAHAM ///«, in the South Pacific ocean, lie N. N. W. of the Marquefas lOands, from 35 to 50 leagues diltanr, and are 7 in number, viz. Oohoona, or Warti- ington ; li^oo/ipoo, or Adams ; Lincoln ; Nooheeva, or Federal ; Tuioo-e-li(, or Franklin ; Hancock, and Knox. 'J'I.e names in Italic are thofe by which they are known to the natives. The others were given ihem by Captain Jofeph Ingraham, of Boflon in MafTachu- feltr, commander of the brigantine Hope of Bollon, who difcovered them on the 19th of April, 1791, a day remarkable in the annals of America, the revolu- tionary war having commenced on that day in 1775, and the firft difcoveries made under the flag cf the United States marked its t6th anniverfary. Tiiefe ifland*, lying between 8" 3' and 9" 24' S. lat. and be- tween 140'^ 19' and 141" 18' W. long, from Green- wich, are molUy inliabited, and appear to be generally variegated with hills and vallies, abounding with tim- ber, and very pleafiiu. Noohefvu, or Federal ifl.ind, is reprefented by the natives to be the largefl, molt populous and produdive of the whole ; which, they fay, are 10 in number. The people rtfemble thofe of the Marquefas Iflands ; as do their canoes, which are carved at each end. Cotton of a fupcrior quality grows here. Tlie natives were friendly. Before In- graham's difcovcry was known, Captain Jofiah Ro- berts, of Bollon, failed in the ihip Jellerf )n for the N. W. Coafl, and likewiie difcovered thefe iflands. As thefe iflands lie in tliat part of the P.icific Oce.in, ihrouph which veffels from Europe or America, bound to the N. W. Coall, mull pals, and are not fir out cf their ufual track, they may be vifited for refrelhment in cafe of need. — ib. INIRCHIA RIVER, or Cnguehi, the name of Orinoco river, at its fource in the mountains, wed. ward, lietween New Granada and Peru, not far from the South Sea. — ib. SvMfATHETic INK IS an rlJ Invention. Among the methods by which Oi'id teaihts young women to deceive their guardians, when they write to llieir lovers, he mentions tliat of writing with new milk, and of making the writing legible by coal-dull or foot. Tula quoqut ejl, falitqiu oculos, e la£lt rcccnti l.ittra : Ciirbon'u fukitre langc, Itg's- It is obvious, that any oih;r colourlefs and glutinous juice, which will hold fall thcblick powder llrewcd over it, will anfwer the purpole as well as milk; and therefore Pliny reccmnicnds the milky juice of certain plants to be ufed. There I N K C 254 ] I N S IiA. There arc fcveral metallic Iblulions perfciflly colour- '"^''^"^ lefi, or, at kaft, without any ftrong tint, which being wrote with, the letters will not appear until the paper be w;iflicJ over with another colnurlcis folulion, or ex- pofed to the vapour of it ; but among all thefe there is none which excites more ailonillimeiU, or from which n.ituralills can Jraw more conclufions, than that whicli confilli of a folution of lead in vegetable aciJ, and which by the vapour of aifenical liver of fiilphur becomes black, even at a confiderable dillance. This ink, which may be ufed by conjurors, proves t)ie fubtlety of va- pour, and the porofity of bodies; as the cliange or co- louring talces place even when the writing is placed on the other fide of a tliin wall. ■\Ve knew belt re, that a fulutlon oi lead, treated in this manner, would anfwer the pui pofe ol a fympathetic ink (fee that article E/scycL); but we did not know, nor do we yet believe, that the fulphuric vapours will 3ifl upon the writing through a luail. Such, however, is the affirmation of ProfeH'or Deckmanu, who gives an account of a ftill more wonderful ink from Peter Borel, This author, in a book c;illed Hijionarum ct cbferva- iionum medko-phyfic. ccnturia quatucr, printed at Paris, iirll in 1653, and afterwards in 1657, gives a receipt for making this ink, wliich he calls magnetic •waters which aH at a d'tjtance. The receipt is as follows : " Let quick-lime be quenched in common water, and ■while quenching, let fome orpiment be added to it (this, however, ouglit to be done by placing warm afhes un- der it for a whole day), and let the liquor be filtered, and preferved in a glafa bottle well corked. Then boil litharge of gold, well pounded, for half an hour witli vi- negar, in a brafs velfel, and filter the whole through paper, and preferve it alfo in a bottle clofely corked. If you v.-rite any tiling with this lad water, with a clean pen, the writing will be invifible when dry; but if it be wafhed over with the firll water it will become in- ilantly black. In this, however, there is nothing afto- nilhiag ; but this is wondertul, that though fheets of paper without number, and even a board, be placed be- tween the invifible writing and the fecond liquid, it will have the fame effeft, and turn the writing black, pene- trating the wood and paper without leaving any traces of its adtion, which is ceitainly furprifmg ; but a tetid fmell, occafioned by the mutual a<Sion of the liquids, deters many from making the experiment. I am, how- ever of opinion, that I could improve this fecret by a more refined chemical preparation, fo as that it Ihould perform its eifedl through a wall. This fecret (fays Borel) I received, in exchange for others, from J. Brof- fon, a learned and ingenious apothecary of Montpe- lier." For making a fympathetic ink of the fifth clafs men- tioned in the Encyclopedia, the following procefs by M. Meyer may be worthy of the reader's notice. It was entered upon in confequence of a receipt for rofe- coloured fympathetic ink Ihewn to him by a traveller. In that receipt cobalt was the principal ingi^edient, and therefore the firfl obje<5t was to procure cobalt; but M. Meyer, being unwilling to faciifice pure pieces of cobalt cf any confiderable fize, made choice of one, which was vifibly mixed with bifmuih, iron, and quartz. He endea- voured to feparate the bifmuth as much as pofiTible, and alfo the arfenic, if it ihould contain any, by bringing it ilowly to a red heat; aad he fucceeded pretty well, as tlie bifmuth flowed from it in abundance ; and the ar- fenic, tlie quantity of wliich was fmall, was volatilifed ; many globules ol bifmuth Hill adhered to it. By bring- ing it repeatedly to a red heat, and tlien quenching it in water, it was reduced to fuch a ftate as to be eafily pulverifcd. Having poured nitrous acid upon the pow- der, he obtained by digelUon a beautiful rofe-red folu- tion ; tlie filiceous earth was feparated in tlie form of a white llime, and by diluting it with water there was depofitcd a white powder, which was oxyd of bilmuth. The folution lieing filtered, he added to it a folution of potalh, and obtained a precipitate inclining more to a yellow than to a red colour. He again poured over it a little of the nitrous acid, by whicli a pai t of the oxyd was re-dHlolvcd of a red colour: the remaining part, whicli had a dark brown colour, was oxyd of iron. From tlie folution, by the addition of potalh, a preci- pitate was formed, v^hich was now rcddilh. Having by this procefs obtained it pure, that he might now prepare from it the wilhed for red ink, he dillolved tlie walhen pure oxyd of cobalt in different acids. That dilTolved in the nitrous acid with a mixture of nitre, gave a green ink like the common : that diilblved in the fulphurous acid, without the addition of falts, gave a reddifti ink, which remained after it was expofed to heat, and would not again difappear, even when a folu- tion of nitre was applied ; and that ditfolved in the mu- riatic acid, gave a green ink, darker and more beautiful than the common. By dilTolving it, however, in the acetous acid, and adding a little nitre, he obtained what he had in view ; for it gave, on the application of heat, an ink of a red colour, like that of the rofa ctnlife/ia, which again dilappeared when the paper became cold. INNA-QUITO, one of the fpacious plains upon the N. fide of C^ito, in Peru. — Morse. INORDINATE Proportion, is where the order of the terms compared is difturbed or irregular. As, for example, in two ranks of numbers, three in each rank, viz. in one rank, - - - 2, 3, 9, and in the other rank, - - - 8, 24, 36, which are proportional, the former to the latter, but in a different order, viz. • - 2 : 3 : : 24 : 36, and - -3:9:: 8 : 24. then, calling out the mean terms in each rank, it is con- cluded that - - - - 2 : 9 : : 8 : 36, that is, the firll is to the 3d in the firll rank, as the firll is to the 3d in the 2d rank. INSCUA RIVER, is laid down in fome maps as the north-wedern and main branch of St Croix river, an eaftern water of the MiffilTippi, rifing in the 48th degree of north latitude. — Morse. INSECTS (See Encycl.). A number of non-de- fcript little animals was difcovered by La Martinierc the naturaliil when accompanying Peroufe on his cele- brated voyage of difcovery. Thefe animals he called infeds, and to many of them he gave particular names. Of thefe we fliall give his defcription in this place, leav- ing our readers, as he has left his, to arrange them properly according to tiie Linnxan clafTification. " The infeft, which is figured N" i. inhabits a fmall prifmatic triangular cell, pointed at the two extremities, of the confillence and colour of clear brittle ice; the body of the inleifl is of a green colour, fpotted with fmall bluilh points, among which are fome of a golden tinge ; it is fiied by a ligament to the lower part of its fmall INS c TnftiSs, fmall habitation: its neck is terminated by a fmall ""'"■"^'^ blackilh head compofed of three converging fcales, in the form of a hat, and enclofed between three fins, two of them large and channelled in the upper part (A) and one fmall, femicircular (B). When it is difturbed, it immediately withdraws its fins and its head into its cell, and gradually finks into the water by its own fpe- cific gravity. Fig. 2. reprefents the under fide of the priim, Ihewing in what manner it is channelled, in order to allow free paff<)ge to the animal when it wifhes to fliut itfelf up in it. Fig. 3. reprefents the profile of the fame. The movement carried on by the two larger fins, which are of a foftifh cartilaginous fubftance, may be compared to that which would be produced by the two handi joined together in the rtate of pronation, and forming, alternately, two inclined planes and one hori- zontal plane : it is by means of this motion that it fupports itfelf on the top of the water, where it proba- bly feeds on fat and oily fubftances on the furface of the fea." Our author found it near Nuotka, on the north-weft coall of America, during a calm. Fig. 4. reprefents a colleflion of infefts, as our au- thor calls them, confiding only of oval bodies, fimilar to a foap bubble, arranged in parties of three, five, fix, and nine: among them are alio fome folitary ones. Thele colleiMons of globules, being put into a glafs filled with fea-water, defcribed a rapid circle round the glafs by a common movement, to which each individual contribu- ted by fimple comprelllon of the fides of its body, pro- bably the efFeft of the re-aSion of the air with which they were filled. It is not, however, eafy to conceive how thefe diftinifl animals (for they may be readily fe- paratcd without deranging their economy) are capable of concurring in a common motion. " Thefe confidera- tions (fays our author), togather with the form of the animal, recalled to my mind, with much fatisfaflion, the ingenious fyflcm of M. de BufFon ; and I endea- voured to perfuade myfelf, that I was about to be wit- nefs to one of the molt wonderful phenomena of Na- ture, fuppofing that thefe molecules, vrhich were now employed in increafing or diminilhing their number, or performing their revoliuicns in the glafs, would foon affume the form cit a new animal of which they weie the living materials. My impatience led me to detach two from the mod numerous group, imagining that this number might perhaps be more favorable to the ex- pededmetamorphofis. I was, however, miftaken. Thefe I examined with more atceniiun than the red ; and the following account is of their proceedings alone. Like two drong and adive wrelllers, they immediately rulhed together, and attacked each other on every fide : fome- times one would dive, Ic.iving it^ adverfiry at the fur- face of the water; one would liefcribc a circular move- ment, while the other remained at relt in the centre ; their motion? at length became fo rapid as no longer to allow me to didiuguifh one from the other. Having quitted them for a Ihort time, on my return I found them reunited as before, and amicably moving rotind the edge of the glafs by their common exertions." Fig. 5. reprefents a fingular animal, which has a con- fidcrable rcfcmbl.ince to a little lizard ; its body is of a firm, gelatinous confidence ; its head is iurriilhcd on each (idc with two fmall gelatinous horns, of which the two hinJeimod are fituate the furthcd inward : its body is provided with four open fan-like paws, and fome ap- 55 :\ INS pendages near the infertion of the tail, and terminates tnfi;tut«. like that of a lizard : the ridge of the back is divided — '">^"— the whole way down by a band of a deep blue ; the reft of the body, as well as the infide of its paws, is of a bright filvery white. It appears to be very fluggifh in its motions ; and when difturbed by the finger, merely turned itfelf belly upwards, foon afterwards refuming its former pofition. Fig. 6. reprefents it reverfed. Mar- tiniere caught it during a calm at the landing place on the Bafhee-Iflands. INSTITUTE is a name which has lately been fub- dituted ioT fckoot or academy. Formerly injlitulion, in the propriety of the Eng'ilh langu.nge, was fometimes ufed as a word of the fame import with wjlruaion ; and now injlitute is employed, efpecially by the admirers cf French innovations, to denote what had hitherto been called an academy. When royalty was abolidied in France, it would have been abfurd to continue the titles Royal Academy of Sciences, Royal Academy of In- fcriptions, &c. ; but indead of merely abolilhing the word nyal, and fubftituting national in its (lead, it oc- curred to the fertile brain of Condorcct, to abolidi the feven academies themfclves, or rather to melt them all down into one great academy ; to which was given the appellation of the National jnstui-th, or A'lW Academy of Arts and Sciences. This academy, founded on a decree of the new conftitution, was opened on the yth of December 1795, when Benezech, the then miniller for the home de[)artment, attended, and die decree of foundation was read ; which was to the following purport : *' The Academy of Arts and Sciences belongs to the whole republic, and Paris is its place of rcfidence. Its employment is to aim at biinging all arts and fciences to the utmod perfedion of which they are capable. It is to notice every new attempt, and all new difcoveiies, and to keep up a correfpondence with all foreign li- terary focieties. And by the particular orders of the Executive Direcftory, its fird dudies are to be dire£led to thefe fubjecfts which more immediately tend to the reputation and advantage of the French republic." The academy is to confift of 288 members, half of whom are to refide in Paris, the other half in the de- partments ; and to them is to be added a certain num- ber of foreigners, as honorary members, confined at pre- fcnt to twenty-four. Tlic academy is divided into three clafTos, each dafs into fcfllons, each fc(flion to contain twelve members. \J clafs. Mithematics and natural philofophy. Thij cl.ifs is divided into ten feSions. i. Matliematics. 2. Mechinical aits. 3. Adronomy. 4. Experimental philofophy. 5. Chemidry. (1. Natural hidcry. 7. Bo- tany. 8. Anatomy and animal hifloiy. 9. Medicine and furgery. 10. Animal cccononiy, and the veterinary fcience. 2d chifs. Morality and politics. This clafs confids of fix feflion^ 1. Analyfis of fenfations and ideas. 2. Morals. 3. Ecglfl.iture. 4. Political economy. 5. Hi- dory. 6. Geography. 3.7 clafi. Literature and the fine arts. This clafs conlids of eight fe^ions. i. Univerf.il grammar. 2. Ancient languages. 3. Poeiiy. 4. Antiiiuitics. 5. Painting. 6. Sculpture. 7. ArchitciHure. 8. Mufic. For each clafs a particular room in the Louvre is ap- propriated. No one can be a member cf two dades at the I N S C 256 ] I N S Inftltute. the fame lime, but a meinhcr of one cliifs may be pre- '— '"^'"■"^ Cent at the meetings of any other. Each cl.ifs h to print, yearly, an account of its tranfaflions. Four times a-ycar there are to be pubhc meetings. On thcfe occafions, the three clalfes meet together. At the end of e.ich ycjr, they are to give a circumftantial account to the kgiflative body of the progrcfs made in th:it year in the arts and fciences. The piizes given yearly by each clafs are to be publicly notified at certain times. The fums requil'ite for the fupport of the infti- lution are to be decreed yearly by the legiflalive body, upon a requifitiou made by the li.xecutive Diredory. Tlie firll forty-eight members were chofen by the Executive Diteflory, to whom the choice of the remain- ing members was confided. To the members, refiden- tiary in Paris, is relerved the choice both of the depart- ment and the foreign members. On a vacancy in any clafs, tliree candidates are named by the clafs for the choice of tlie body at large. Each clafs is to h.ave, at its place of meeting, a col- lecftion of the produfls, both of nature and art, and a library, according to its particular wants. The regulations of the inftitution, with refped to the times of meeting, and its employments, are to be drawn up by the body at large, and laid before the legiflative alfembly. The hall in which the body at large holds its meet- ings, forms pirt of th; welf wing of the Old Louvre, at prefent called the Mufcum. It formerly went by the appellation of the Hall of Antiques (Salle Jet Antiques); and as long as the kings inhabited this part of the pa- lace, was occupied by their guards, from which circum- flance it obtained the name of the Hall dcs Cent SuiJJh. It was likewife appropriated to banquets and entenain- inents, given by the court on gala days ; and it was to this place that Henry IV. was conveyed, on his alfalli- nation by Ravaillac, in the Rue Je la Ftrroimerie. It was built at the fame time with the reft of this part of the Louvre, about the year 1528, after the de- figns of Pierre Lcfcot, abbot of Clagny. It i> 144 feet in length, and 40 in breadth, and holds frum 1000 to 1200 perfons. In order to adapt it to its new deflination, the Hoor has been funk, which gives a greater air of lightncfs to the roof In the centre ftands a double tal)le, in the form of a horfe-tlioe, iupported by fphinses, at which the members of the inftitutc take their feats. This table is furrounded by two tiers of benches, which are lalfed for the accommodation ot fpeflators, who have likewife feats provided for them in the vaft embrafures of the windows, and at each extre- mity of the hall. Whether fcience will be advanced by the feven royal academies having been melted into one, time mull de- termine ; but candour compels us to acknowledge, that the proceedings of the national inllitute have hitherto bsen abundantly interefting. Intimately conneifted with the national inllitute is the French fyftem of National Instruction, which is likewife novel, and therefore fufficiently curious to deferve notice in a Work of this kind. When the Chriftian religlcn was liiftittitt. abolilhed in Fiance, it was impollible to continue the '^'^ "~' univeri'ities and other fiminaries which were lounded by Chrillians, and obliged by their conllitution to teach, whciher pure or not, the dodrines of Chrillianity. They were accordingly all fwept away, and a new fyl- tem of education planned, which was to be carried on iu what they call The Primary Schools. The Centra! Schools. The School of Health. The School of Oriental Languages. The Polytechnic School. The National inllitute. The Jury of Public InftruiStion. The Commillion of Public Inllrudion. The Legillative Committee of Inftruflion. Andva- rlous other national eftablifliments for the improvement of particular fciences. The tirft degree of public inftruiHion is to be met with in the Ecoles Primaries, eltablilhed by a decree of the convention of the fecond Plnv'wfe, in the fccond year of the republic (a). Every dillridl is furniftied with one of thefe fchools ; the profeifors or mailers in wiiich are paid from the national treafury ; and to which every head of a family, without exception, is compelled by law to fend its children for inllrudlion. The fubjeils taught in thefe primary or elementary fchools are divided into nine clalfes : \Ji, Inllrudions conneiled with the phyfical and mo- ral luuation of children, prior to their entering into thefe fchools. zd, Similar inflruiflions as a guide to teachers in the national fchools. jJ, The arts of read- ing and writing. Aih, The elements of French gram- mar. 5//.', Elements of arithmetic and geometry, with the theory of the new menfuration. dih. The elements of geography, ^th. Explanations of the principal phe- nomena and produi5lions of nature, iih. Elements of agricultuie. 9//), Elements of republican morals. Next to the primary fchools in rank and conlequence are the Ecoles Centrales, which were ellablifhed by a decree of the Convention of the fevenlh Venicfe in the third year. They are fituated in the capital of every department, bearing the proportion of one central fchool to 300,000 inhabitants. In thefe fchools the republican youths are taught the fciences, and their ap- plication in real life. In each of them are profeifors for the following branches : I. For mathematics. 2. Experimental philofophy and chemiftry. 3. Natural hil^ory. 4. Agriculture and commerce. 5. Logic and metaphyfics. 6. Political economy and legillation. 7. The philofopliical hillory of nations. 8. The art of healing. 9. Arts and ma- nufaiflures. 10. Univerfal grammar. 1 1 . The belles lettres. 12. The ancient languages. 13. The modern languages. 14. The fine arts. Each central fchool is furnifhed with an extenfive public library — a botanic garden — 1 cabinet of natural hiftory an apparatus for experimental philofophy — and (a) We would tranflate this chronological jargon into the language of Chnftian Europe, were we not per- fuaded that the French calendar, the French conaitution, and the French inlliiutes, will have the fame duration : we truft in God not a long duration. For Pluvhfe, and the other iantaftical names of months mtroduce-d mlo this article, fee Revolution, Encycl. n? 184. I N S fnflitute. and a colieflion of m.ic'ainesand models connc<Sed with *""^~''"''~' ihi; art! and nianufadtures. The profefTors of ejch fchool hold, every ir.onth, a piiUllc r.itlni', in uliich conferences arc held relative to fubjeds coniicifted with the improvciiu-nt of ktters, the faiences, and the arts, v.'hich are the moll beneficial to focicty. The objefl in the eflablifhment of the primary and central fchools was, the general inRruifion of all clallcs of the citizens ; and it being incompatible with the per- fefl completion of that important purpofe, to cxpe(ft from them the propagation of particular branches of fcience, it became neccirary to ellablilh oth^r literary and Icientific academies. Accordingly, the French government have founded, I/?, Schools of health (Us ecoles dejantc), in Paiis, Str.if- buri h, and Moiitpelier, where medicine and fiirgery are fludied ; whicli fchools are affirmed, liy ihofc who find nothing wrong in France, to be the moll perfect of their kind, as. well as new and unparalleled models for fucii inllitutions. 2.7, Two fchools for Oriental languages, in the na- tional library, and in the college of France. 3i/, 'J'he Polytechnic Ichool in Paris, i r central fchool for tiie diieilion of public works. This cftabliihmcnt is very generally admiied and conlidcred ab a model for imitation. It contains more than 4C0 young perfbns, previouOy educated in the mathematics, and the majo- rity of them intended foi engineers in various lines ; and they labour under the immediate direflion of theii tutors ripe hours every day. It occupies the principal pait of the Palais de Bourbon in Paris, and is turnilhed with a large colleiftion (if inllrument-. and models. The jour- nal of the Polytechnic fchool, which is pubhlhcd by the bookfi.llers Regent and Bertrand at Pa: is, is a perfccTly origiiKtl work, and admirably calculated to convey ufe- ful mformation. Of the national inftitiite a fufiicient account has be5n given in the preceding aiticle. We proceed therefore to the jury of public inftru<flion (Le "Jury Central d' In- Jlrndion), of which the principal l)u(inefs is to iiiperin- tend the primary and central fchools. It appoints the proieilois in thete fchools, and examines into tlicir con- duct. I>ike the legiflative body it is renewed by a third every half year. When they have chofen a profelFor for a central fchool, they fubmit their choice to the de- j)artnient; and, in cale of difapprobation, they make another appointment. To this jury of publ-c inllrnc- tion the prnfell'ors in the central fi:hools are amenable for all mifconducl conneftod with their oflices ; it may expel them, but all its decilions mull be fhbmitted for confirmation to t!ie tribunal < f the department. There is alfo eft iblilhed at Paris a fnpreme council, called The ccmmillion ol Public Inllruition, to which is entrufted the whole cxecu'iive department. The pre- fervationof the national moi-uments, ol public libraries, muleums, cabinets, and valuable ci'llcTlions ; the fupcr- intendance of all the fchools and the modes of inflruc- tion ; all new inventions and Icientific difcoverie^ ; the regulat'on of weights and mcalures ; national llatiflics and political economy, are all placed under the autho- rity of t! i-. fupieme commiQion. For the commodious and regular execution of to many complicated hr.inchcs of bufincf^', there is a large rfEce, called Le Sccretarhl, which i divided into three departments. ^ui-pi.. Vol. II. C 257 J 1 N S I. For il.e regulation of the different kinds of inflruc- Inf^itutc tion ; cf the modes of education in the fchools ; and for ^-'^•■^»-^ the choice of elementary books. 2. For weights and meafures ; inventions and dilcovcrics ; libraiies and bib- liography ; mufeums, woric> of art, and literary rewards and encouragements. 3. For tlieatres, national feaPis, republican inlHtuiions and the erciflinn of monuments. As all public cftabliniments require the fuperintend- ance and occafional correftion of the Icgiflaiure, in ad- dition to that of their own immediate executive autho- rity, it has been deemed neceliary to appoint a perma- nent committee of intlruiTtion in the legillative b >dv, to provide fuch fums as may be neceffuy for the prefcrva- tion and improvement of this fyftem of intlruflion. This legiflative committee are invelled with due autho- rity for thefe purpofes. Their obje(fls are precifely the fame as thofe of the commiillon of public inflructioii above defcribed, only wiih this diiFerence, that the lat- ter fupcrintends the execution of exilling lawj, whiHl the former receives and improves them, or ptopotes new- ones. Tills committee is divided into three depart- ments, as is the commilTion, with exatftly the fame ar- rangement of their refpeflive labours. The committee being charged with the cnjiHion of all new laws, its mem- bers, with a view to obt.iin accurately all the req'iillte information relative to the numerous branches of the arts, have procured from the legiflative body the ap- l)ointment of a comm'ijf\on letnporairt dts arts to be an- nexed to them, and to meet in tjie lame houfe with them ; which teinpnrary commifhoii is divided into fix- teen clalfes : viz. i. For Zoology ; 2. Botany; 3. Mi- neralogy; 4. Phyfics; j.Chemillry; 6. Anatomy ; 7. Machinery; 8. Geography ; o. Aitdlery and Fortifica- tion ; 10. Medals and Antiqu. tics ; 1 1 . Bibhography ; 12. Painting; 1 3. Architedluie ; 14. Sculpture ; 15. Bridges and Caufeways ; and, 16. Mudcal Inllrumenis. The improvements of the national 1 terary and fcien- tific cftablifhnients are nnmeious and imprrtant. \Jl, By a decree of the convention of the nth Prai- rial, in the fecond year, it was enaclcd, that means fliould be adopted by which every pollible advantage might be derived frcm the botanic gardens of the re- public, in Turkey and other foreign countries. Tliis politic ilecree clearly tended to lender France, in the language of the reporter, L'abrcgi de tous Its c/imatt, ft I't-nlrepot de V Europe. " The epitome of every cli- mate, and the magazine of F-Uiope." Thofe plants which thrive between the tropics may be cultivated in the Ibnth <if France; and th'fe which are the produce of nnrlhcrn climates, may be cullivated in the northern departments; by which me.ms, France v»ill be in pof- feQljn of all foreign plants and drugs, without the ei- ptritation of fpecie. 2d, The National Bibliography was decreed in the fitting of 22d Gerrniniil, in the fcciul ye.ir. It confilts of a complete catalogue of bo.iks of all delcriptions, the property of the nation; it was then afccrtained, that the republic prirclled more than ten mdlions of boi ks. The titles (if them were to be ai'julled by aftual coni- parlfons ; the m;<nufcrip:s to be rcgillcred leparately ; anonymous pri>du^i.'ns were to be arranged according to their f'ubjofls ; and thofe i^f kn^wn authors in the »1- phabrtical order of the name>. The feveial editions to be clilfed according to tlieir d.U:s : and what miy be deemed tnorc inn^ortim:, ^hls French National Bibli.i- K It graplif I N S C ^-58 ] I N S lurtiiHte. qraphy will contain a didionarjr of anonymons^books, '"'"^^^^^ as well as thofe publillieJ under fiaitious lumes, a deJ'i- dcratum in the republic of Iclters. 31/, Ths annihilation of all patois, or dialefls, de- creed in the fitting of ilie i6th Prairia!, in the iocond ;ear. Notwith(lanJin;j; the iiniveif.ility of the French language, and that it was exclufively fpoken in the ma- jority of the inland departments, yet there exilkd thirty various dialeds in France. It is more allonilhing that Rozier had remaikeJ, that between one neighbouring village and another, there was fo ci>nfideraW*-ii differ- ence in the dialed, that the inhabitants could not un- derfland each oilier; and tlic viiiellocl; had thirty dif- ferent names. The naturalift, V'ilhrs, has ftatcd, that in the nomenclature of vegetables, in the departments, he had only met with an hundred which had a common appellation. /^h, The eftablilhmcnt cf the Confervatoire des Arts ct MciUrs, was dccr.-ed in the fitting cf the 8th of VauL'mialre, in the third year. This confifts of a fpa- tious hall, in the form of an amphitheatre, and contains llie iiidruinents and the models of machinery connected with the prts, and a defcription of their ufes, with every book relating to them. Annexed to this ellablilhment are three expolitors and a draughifman, who exphin to the lludents the ufe of each inllrument, and who re- giller every new difcoveiy, wliich is prcfented to the Bureau dc Ccnfuluiiion, to the lyceum of arts, the ci- divan! academy of fciences, or to the board of com- ir«;rce. ^th. The eRablidiment of the board of longitude was decreed in the fitting of the 7th of JlTcJ/idor, third year. It was certainly a dilgrace under the nionarcliy, that an allronomical and nautical eRablifliment, which had al- leady proved fo beneficial to Gieat Britain, fhould not have been adopted in France. In confequence of this ilecrce, the French board is now as complete as the lilnglilh. It confiils often members, and has under its jiirildidion the national obfervatory at Paris, and all the allronomical inftrunients belonging to the republic. i: correfponds with foreign aftronomers; delivers public lecture; on allronomy and navigation ; and its proceed- iiigs are annually recited in a public fitting. 6i/'j, The general fchool cl the Oriental languages was ellabliflied by a decree of the loth of Girmi/iul, in the fourth year. This fchcol adjoins to the national library, and all the books and mannfcripts relative to O.iental literature are depofitcd in it. 7//', The national muleum of antiquities was decreed in the fitting of 20l!i of Prairial, fourth year. A fchool of this defcription was iuccefsfully eftablilhed at Vienna, by Eckel ; at Gottingen, by Heyne ; at Leip- WcV, by Erneft ; and even at Straiburgb, by the cele- brated Obeilin : Palis was, however, without one. This national archeology, or fcience of antiquity, is divided into nine different clafi'es : infcriptions, characters, lla- lues, bas reliefs, fculptures, paintings, roofaicj, medals, civil, leligious, and military inftrunients. This exten- five eftablifhment is under the direflion of two princi- pal profefibrb ; le Conjirvatcur Prof,Jfeur, et Is Confer- •uiit'.ur BiWwlhecatie. The province of the former is to deliver public kdtnres on the feveral branches of anti- quitie^■, to teach the theory of medals and engravings, ihehiftory cf the arts among the ancients, fee. The du- ties of the latter arc merely of a bibliographical nature. %th. The new modelling of the Grand National Lib- inftitute. rary, was decreed in the fitting of 25th Vcndnma'ire, in ^•^"^"^^^ the fourth year. By virtue of this decree, the place of librarian in chief was fupprelTed, and the whole ella- biifhmcnt placed under a confirvatoire of eight mem- bers ; of wimm two were appointed for the f'uperin- tendancc of printed books ; two for mannfcripts ; two for antiquities ; and two tor engravings. From thefe a temporary direiflor is annually chofen, who fupeiin- lends the whole, aifts occafionally as prefident of this af- fembly, and maintains a regular correfpondence with tlie conltituted authorities relative to the concerns of tlie library. f)ih. The augmentation of the Mufeum of Natural Hillory, formerly called Lc Jard'm Royal d:s PLnles. This tllablilliment was decreed the 15th Brumr.ire, tlilrd year, upon a report of Thibadeau, in the name of the committee of Public InilrucTion. Bclides the addition of large rooms, and vaiious other buildings, there are new colleflions of natural curiofities and pro- dudtions; and the library is much increafed. It is open to the public three times a week. At ftated periods all the natiiralills in Paiis deliver courfes of Iciflures in the various branches of natural hillory. The mufeum is faid to have received greater improvements from this augmentation than from all tlie labours of BufTon, or fiom its foundation, fince the time of Tournefort. xcth. The Ecole dcs Mines was eftabllfhed in the Iictd dcs J\Ia/,naies, and has (or its dircflion the nalu- ralill I^e Sage. This inftitution is unrivalled in Europe; and the collecflion of mineralogical curiofities furpalFes whatever cm be conceived. 11//), The fociety of natural hillory in Paris, defer- vcdly clalfes among thofe which have rendered the greatcft fervices to the caufe of fcience fince the revolu- tion. A lefture of public inflruclion is held every ten days, which is generally given by one of the members, and which is open to all the lovers of natural hiftory. Premiums are propofed for dilfeitatioiis ;.one of which, by the late C. Herman, jun. (whofe early deceafe was a great lofs to the repuiilic of letters) on the apterous clafs of infecfls, may be laid to coniiitute an epocha in the annals ci natur.il hiftory. The fociety has publifh- cd a volume of memoirs, in folio, entitled, " Trai^fic- tions cf the Society of Natural Hifiory." It has likewife erected a ftatue to the great IJni sens, in the national garden of plants ; and, at the peiicd when every public inllruiflion was fuipenJed, gave Icflurcs on the ditferent branches of fcience belonging to its department. Se- veral intelligent and fiiilful navigatois, among others thofe fent in learch of the unfortunate La Pcronfe, as well as thofe which accompanied Buonaparte on his ro- mantic expedition to Egypt, were membeis of this fo- ciety. This ftatement of fafls relative to the prefent flaie of public inftrufflon, the fciences, the arts, and the pro- grefo of national literature in France, has been taken from a mifcellany, of which the principal writers are well acquainted with wliat is doing in that diftrafted country. They call it a fullime fyftem ; and feem to confider the incieafe of the national library, the im- provement of the botanic gardens, and the difcoveries that have been made by the dilTerent fchools or inlli- tutes, as furnifhing a demonllration that the republican government is more favourable to the advancement of fcienca I N S [ 259 ] I N S Iiillitutc. fcicnce, than the monarchical, whether abfi>lute or li- II mitcd. But it (hould not be forcrotten, that tliis fyRem Inlurancc. - . . . ^ i 1 • r ■ ^^_^,_,,^^ IS yet in its iniancy ; anJ tlut in prolecuting new fchemes, p.ll men, aiiJ more efpecially I'Venchmen, are a>flu«tei.l by an cntliuliarm wliich grwdiKilly cools as their puriuits become familiar. We ihall therefore venture to predift, that the different fchools will not dil'play fuch ardour twenty years hence as they do at prufent ; and that if the republican government continue thirty years in France, the progrefs of fcicnce in that country will not be more rapid than it was under the monarchy. We rrmft remember, too, that the French libraries, mu- feums, and picture pjalleries, have been improved by means which the morals of other governments do not employ — by rapine and robbery. That fomething may be learned from this fyftem to improve the modes of education in other countries, we admit ; and it is lor that reafon that we have uiferted an account of it. But if it contains fomethinj; worthy of imitation, it contains likewife much to be (liunned. We do not think it confiflcnt with the ry/;.'/ of wan to compA parents to fend their chddren to be educated in piiriUulur fchools ; efpecially in fchools where not only religious inflruiTioB is omitted, but where, there is rea- fon to believe, that the profellbrs are at pains to ra/.e all religious imprelUons from the youthful mind. In a ration denying the truth of Chriilianiiy, it is net to be fuppofeJ that the Chnllian religion will be publicly taught ; but in a nation of philolophers, as the French call themfelve?, it niig-ht have been expefted that the l.iws ot religious toleration would have been ib far re- garded, that Chriftian parents would not have been com- pelled to fend their children to antkhrijiuin fchools ! But it is not Chrillianity alone that is nej;lE(5ted in this fub',i.:,e fyftem ot education. Though the legiilative body has fume time ago decreed that there is a God, there is not in any one of thofe fchools the fmallefl care taken to iuftitiifl the republican youth in the piinciples even of natural religion ! We might indeed have look- ed for it under the title Mttaphyftcs, had not the conlti- tution of the National Inllitute taught us, that French metaphyfics attend to nothing but the analylis of fenfa- tions and ideas. Yet the legillators might have lillen- ed on this fubjeift to a republican as found as them- fclves, and who was likewife no friend to fuperftiiion. " Nam et Majorum inl\itnt^,tueri facris, ceremoniifcjue retinendis fapientis ell. Non folum ad religionem per- tine:, fed etiam ad civllalis (latum, ut Cine iis, qui facris publice pra;funt, religioni privatx fatisfacere non pof- iint." Cici-ro de Nat. Dorum. INSURANCE, in law and commerce, tliough an excellent inllitution, is not of high antiquity. The oldeft laws and regulations concerning infurance, with which the indefatigable Beckmann is acquainted, are the following : On the 28'h of January 1523, five perfons appoint- ed for that purpofc drew up at Florence fome article's which are IliU employed on the exchange at Leghorn. Thefe important regulations, together with the pre- fcribed form ol policies, which may be coiifidcred as the olded, have been inferted, in Italian and German, by Magens, in liis Treatife on Infurance, average, and bottomry, publilhed at Hamburgh in 1753. There is ftill prtfcrved a Ihort regulation of the 25th Mny 1537, by tlie Emperor CharUs V. rcfpeifling bills of exchange and infurance, in which the lliiair lnfurnr--r. fulfilling only oi an agreement of infurance is com'- '-^'''^-' manded. In the year 1556, Philip H. king of Spain, gave to the Spanilh merchants certain regulations rcfpeaing in- furance, wliich are inferted by Magcn;, with a German tranfl.uion, in his work before-mentioned. 'Ihey con- tain (ome forms of policies on (hips goinp to the Indies. In the year 1598, the Kamer mn .tjhramii, cham- ber of infurance, was cRablilhcd at Amftcrdam. An account of the firll regulations of this infurance office may be fcen in Pontanus's Hiftcry of the city of Arn- fterdam, and in otlicr work?. In the year 1600, regulations refpefling infurance were formed by the city of Middelburg in Zealand. It appears that the fird regulations refpcclliig iiifur- ances in England, which may be feen in ytndeifcn't H'lflory of Comrncrcc, were made in the year l6ci. W<: find by them, tliat inlurers hid before that period con- duifted ihemfelves in fuch a manner, that the utniolt confidence was repofed in their honefty, and that on this account few or no difputcs had aritcn. Of the various policies for infurance in England, a pretty accurate account will be found in the Encyclope- dia ; but there is one of them, of which our account miUt be acknowledged to be now de-'"e>ftive. This is, Insurance en lives; which is a policy that has greatly increafed, in confequence ot its iitlli'y being more generally underflood. Of the tsvo offices tor life- affurances, noticed in that article, the former, entitkd the Amicable Society, has extended the number of its fhares to 4000 ; but, as we have already oblerved, the nature of the inllitution is too limited to become of ge- neral importance. The latter, entitled, the Society for Equitable AJfiiranees on Eivrs and Survi-oorfljip, is un- doubtedly one of the moll impnrt.int iiuiitutinns of the kind, as will appear by tiie folLiwing account, with which we have been favoured by an obliging correfpon- dent, and upon the accurasy ot which our readers may depend : The members of the equitable fociety, finding, in June 1777, that their alTairs were in a flouiilhing fitu- ation, refolved to reduce their annual premiums one tenth; and in I7'S2, adopted new tables agreeable to the probabilities of life at Northampton, in lieu of thole they had hitherto ufed, formed from the London bills of mortality. But though it v/as evident, that the new tables were much better ad.ipted for afiuring promil- cuoufly perfons retiding in the country, or in large towns, it was thought proper, for greater fecurity, 10 make an addition of ij per cent, to the real value of the afTurances, as computed from the table of mortality at Northampton ; and v ilh the view of making an ade- quate compenfation to the alfurcd for tluir former payments, which had been f > much higher than would be required by the new rates, an addition was made to their claims of L.i : los. per cent, for eveiy pre- mium they had pa'd. The confequence of thefe mea- fures proved highly favourable to the fociety ; for it* bufinel's increaled lb fall, that in 1785 it was nearly doubled ; the I'ums allured amounting to upwards of L..7 20,000. At this period, the favourdble rcfult of a minute and very laborious inveflig.ition of the llate of the fociety, induced them to take oil' the 15 per cent, charged uf on the premiums in i78i, :ind make.a K k 2 furtlicr i N [ 260 ] I N T li.furancc. further addition to tlie claims of L.i per cent, for every ^•^"^'^^^'^ payment made i)rior to the ill January 1786. A IHII greater increafi; of ficcefiful Lulinefs deterinnicd them, in 1791. to ma!-ce anoihcr addition of L.i per cent, to tlie claims; and in tlie following year, a further addition of L.2 per cent. ; by which tiie claims upon alfurances of the year 1770 were more than doubled; and thofe of an earlier d.ite increafed in a llill higher proportion. By thcfe ad'/autages to its members, and the lionour- •able and truly e<iuitable manner in which the cnncerns ot the fociety arc iranfaolcd, the augmenration cf their bufuiefs has been fo great, that on the 3 ill December 1792, the fuins aifured (without including the addi- tions made to them) amounted to upwards ot L.3,ooo,cco; and on the 3 tit December 1795, to about L. 4, 000,000. The rates of allurance, as reduced to their real values in 17556, and according to which the fociety now tran- i'.\&. bufmcfs, arc as follows: Sum y-lfurej ;^.I00. Arf' One Tear, Seven Tejrj. J^^Lole Life. 15 £-° '7 II C-^ 2 »' £-^ '8 7 20 17.? '95 237 25 1107 1121 281 30 1 13 3 I 14 •' 2 '3 4 5; 1164 11810 21 9 10 241 3 7 »i 3 '7 I' 40 2 8 45 2 6 8 50 2 .5 I 55 3 5 60 3 •« I 6t 4 15 2 2 10 10 3 o 8 4 10 10 3 12 o 564 4 7' 674 5 10 JO 7 16 9 The other offices in London for the aflurance of lives are, the Royal Exchange /IJfurance, the Wejlminjler, Society, and the Pelican Life Ojfic:. The corporation of the Royal Exchange yljfurance was empoweied to alTure lives by its fecond cliarter, dated 29th April 1721 ; but the original objeO of tlie company being fea alfurances, and the true principles of alluring on lives being at that lime little underftood, this branch of their bulinefs was at firft comparatively fmall : they generally required a premium of live or (ix guineas per cent, without any regard to the age ; and tne allurance, which was ufually for a fmall fum, was feldom for a greater term than one year. In this man- ner they continued to allure upon lives till the end of the year 17S3, when the increafing importance of this part of their bufinefs, which they had fome years felt, induced them to adopt a regular table of rates of alTur- ance, according to the Northampton regifters of mor- tality, but with a greater addition to the real values than had been made by the " Society for Equitable At furances on Lives and Survivorlhip." This was thought proper, from the conlidcration that the alfurers with the Royal Exchange company are not in any cafe liable to a call upon them beyond the premium they engage to pay, and have llie fecurity cf the capital and funds of the company arifing trom the other branches of their bufinefs ; however, the company, finding them- ftlves fucceftful in their life allurances, determined, in 1790, to reduce their premiums; and in 1797 made a ftill greater reduiftion, by which they are brought very aear to thofs above Hated. This company have agents in all the principal towns of Great Britain, and are impovvered to allure lives in all parts of the world. The W,jlm\nj]!r Society was eltablilhed in 1792, for alTuring lives, and granting annuities. Their terms are nearly the fame as thofe of the Royal Exchangft Af- furaiice ; but not being a corporate body, every perfon alluring ligns a declaration, that lie accepts the joint ftock of the fociety as his Iccurity. The Pelican Life Office was inllilnted in 1797, by fome of the piincipal proprietors of the Phoenix Fire Office, 'i'iic rates which they have publithed vary con- liderably from thofe of the other offices ; but whether they arc founded on more julf principles, time and ex- pericncs muft determine. This fociety alio makes a new fpecies of allurance, by way of endowment for daughters, or for children generally, when they fhall attain the age of twenty-one years. INTEGRAL Calculus, in the newanalyfis, isihe reverie ol the dilFerential calculus, and is the finding cf the integral from a given difierential ; being fimilar to the inverfe method of fluxions, or the finding the fluent to a given fluxion. See Fluxions, Encycl. INTERES r, is the allowance given for the ufe of money by the borrower to the lender, and is either Jimph or compound. The method of computing both interefts is explained in the article Algebra, {E/irycl.) page 427, &c.; and the fubjefl of limple intereft is again refumed in Arithmetic, [Encvcl.) n° 30. The application ot the canons for the computation of com- pound inierell, to the value of annuities, the only cafe in which that intereft is allowed by the laws of this country, may be feen in the articles Anmuity and Survivorship, {Encycl.) ; where various tables are given to facilitate the different computations. Some of our readers, however, have exprelfed a willi to have the rule for computing compound intered fo Hated, as to be underftood by thofe who are unacqu.;'nt -d with algebraic fymbols. Their wilh may be ealily giati- fied. The general formula &=:p)\* anfwers for the a- mount of any fum, whether the intereft be payable yearly, half-yearly, quarterly, or daily. Let R de- note the amount of one pound for the firft payment, and / the number of payments, the unit being from tlie commencement till the firft payment is due ; alfo, let / denote the logarithm of any quantity before which it is wrote; then, from the known property of logarithms, the theorem may be exprelfed thus, /. S = /./> -}- A R X t. Required the amount of L.250 at 5 per cent, com- pound intereft, fiT 12 years, reckoning the intereft pay- able yearly, half-yearly, quarterly, and daily ? Yearly . p ■=. 2^0, R= foj, /= 12. 0'02ii893 = /. R •2542716 = /. R X '. 2-3979400 = /./. /. S= 2-6^22116 — L.448 : ig : 3J = Amount. 250 I c)8 : 19 : 3^ — Comp. intereft. Half I N T Intereft, Half yearly , p =. 250, R= I 025, / = 24. ylliitcrpola- 0-0107239 = /. R. tioii. 24 [ 261 3 I N V 428956 214478 2-3979400 = /./. /.S = 3-6553 136- ■L.452 ; 250 3 : 75:= Amount. 202 : 3 : 7^3 Intereft. ^lartcrly. p — 2^0, R 111-0125, / = 48. 0-0053950 = /. R. 48 4316C0 2158CO •2589600 = /. R X '. 2-3979400 = /./.. /. S = 2-6569000 — L.453 : i6 : 8^ = Amount. 250 203 : 16 : 8} = Intereft. 7?«i/y, /= 250, R = 1 + JEl^ l^°i-, / = 365 X 12. 2-5623524 2-5622929 •0000595 =^- R- 4380 47600 1785 23«o •2606100 = /. R X '. 2-3979400 = /./. /. S = 2-6585500- -L.455 250 II : 3 i = Amount. 205 : II : 3i = Intereft. INTERPOLATION, in the modern algebra, is ufed tor landing an intermediate term of a fcries, its place in the i'tna being given. ij;e Alckbra and StRiKs, En:yd. The method of interpolation was firft invented by- Mr Briggs, and applied by him to the calculation of log.iriihms, &c. in his Aiithmetica Logarithmica, and his Trigonomttria Britannica ; where he explains, and fully jpplics, tlie metlind of interpolation by diflerences. His piaiciples were followed by Reginal and Moiiton in France, and by Cotes and olliers in I'Ingland. Wal- lis made ufe of ihs method of interpolation in various parts of his works ; r.s his arithmetic of infinite?, and Imerfcerd. his algebra, for quadratures, &c. The fame was aUb ""> happily applied by Newton in various ways : by it he ," inveftigated his binomial theorem, and quadratures of y^^-^-l^ tha circle, ellipfc, and hyperbola. See Wallis's Algebra, chap. 85. &c. Newton alio, in lemma 5. lib. 3. Prin- cip. gave a moll elegant folution of the problem for drawing a curve lin.- through the extremities of any number of given ordinates ; and in the fubl'equent pro- pofition, applied the folution of this problem to that of finding, from certain obferved places of a comet, its place at any given intermediate time, ."^nd Dr Wa- ring, who adds, that a folution ftill more elegant, on fome accounts, has been (ince difcovered by Mell'. Nichol and Stirling, has alfo refolved the fame pro- blem, and rendered it more general, without having re- courfe to finding the fucceffive differences. Phihf Tranf. vol. 69. p^rt I. art. 7. INTERSCENDENT, in algebra, is applied to quantities, when the exponents of their powers are ra- dical quantities. Thus .v'*'^^, x^", &c. are intcrlcen- dent quantiiics. INTERSTELLAR, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs thole parts of the univerfe ih.it are without and beyond the limits of our folar fyftem. JNTRAUOS, the interior and lower fide, or curve, of the arch of a bridge, 5cc. In contradillinftion from the extrados, or exterior curve, or line on the upper fide of the arch. See Arch in tliis Suppl. INVERNESS, NEW, a town on the river Al.m, malui, in Georgia, built by a company of emigrants from the Highlands of Scotland, 130 of whom were brought over by Gen. Oglethotpe in 1734. It is about 20 miles from Erederica. Thefe fettlers prefented a moft pathetic and prophetic remonftrance to Gen. Oglethorpe in January, 173S, agalnft the inlrodudion of flaves into the colony. — Morse. INVOLUTION and Evolution, are terms intro- duced into geometry by tlie celebrated Mr Huyghens, to exprefs a particular manner of defcribing curvilineal fpaces which occurred to him when occupied in the im- provement of his noble invention of pendulum clocks. Although he was even allonilhed at the accuracy of their motion, and they foon fuperfeded all balance clocks, he knew that the wide vibrations wtrc fome- what flower than the narrow ones, and that a circle was not fufficiently incurvated at the fides to render all the vibrations ifochronous. The proper curve for this pur- pofe became an interefting object. By a moft accurate inveftigation of the motions of heavy bodies in curved paths, he difcovered that the cycloid was the line re- quired. Lord Brounckcr had difcovered the fame thing, as alfo Dr Wallis. But we do not imagine that Huy- ghens knew of this ; at any rate, he has the full claim to the dilcovery of the way of making a pendulum of- cillate in a cycloidal arcli. It eallly occurred to him, that if the thread by which the pendulum hangs be fuf- pcndcd between t»o curved checks, it would alternate- ly lap on each ot them in its vibrations, and would thus be raifed out of the circle «hich it dcfctibes when fufpended from a point. But the difficulty was to find the proper f.)rm of thole checks. Mr Huyghens was a moll cicellcnt geometer, and was pjlTclfed of methods uakaown to others, by which he got over almoft every difficulty. I N V [ 262 ] I N V Involution. d^jTuiiIty. In tlie prefent cafo tlicre was fortunately no """^~*' ~ dllVi;uhy, the means of folution oflering themfelvcs al- moll without t4:ought. He almoft immedintely d:fi.o- vered iluit ths tunc in <lucliion was ll.e fame cycloid. 'J'hat i?, he found, that wliilc a thread unwinds from an arch of A cycloid, beginning at the vertex, its extremity defcribes the complementary arch of an equal cycloid. Thus he added to this curve, already fo renurkalj'.e for its get metrical properties, another no Icfs curious, and infinitely exceeding all the others in importance. The Heps by which this property was difcovired are fuch dircc'l emanations from general principles, that they immediately excited the mind of Mr HuygheuG, which delighted in geometry, to profecute this method < f defcribing or transfoiming cuive lines by evolution. It is furprifing that it had not ere this time occurred to the ancient geometers of the laft century, and particular- ly to Dr Barrow, who fecins to have racked his fancy for almoll evei y kind of motion by which curve lines can be generated. Evolution of a thread from a curve is a mucli more obvious and conceivable gencfis than that of the c>clrid invented by Merfennus, or that of the conchoid by Nicomedes, or thofe of the conic iic- tions by Vieta. But except fome vague exprclhons by Ptolemy and Gaffendus, about defcribing (pirah by a thiead unlapped from a cylinder, we do not re- colled any thing of the kind among the writings of the mathematicians; and it isto Huyghens alone tliat we are indebted for this very beautiful and important branch of geometry. It well deferves both of thefe epi- thets. The theorems which conftitute the doftrines of evolution are remaikable for their perfpicuity and neat- nefs. Nothing has fo much contributed to give us clear notions of a very delicate fubjecl of mathematical dif- cuffion, namely curvature, and the meafure and varia- tions of curvature. It had become the fubjeft of very keen debate ; and the notions entertained of it were by no means diftind. But nothing can give fuch a pre- cife conception of the difference of curvature, in the difierent parts of a cycloid or other curve, as the behold- ing its defcription by a radius continually varying in length. This doiflrine is peculiarly valuable to the fpe- culator in the higher mechanics. The intenfity of a de- fleffing force is eftimated by the curvature which it in- duces on any reffilineal motion ; and the variations of tiiis intenfity, which is the charaderillic of the force, or what we call its nature, is inferred from the varia- tions of this curvature. The evolution and involution of curve lines have therefore great claim to our atten- tion. But a Work like ours can only propofe to exhi- bit an outline of the fubjcft ; and we mull refer our rea- ders to thofe eminent authors who have treated it in detail. Varignon, in the Memoirs of the French Aca- demy for 1706, has been atimmenfe pains to prefent it in every form ; James Bernoulli has alfo treated the fubjeifl in a very general and fylfematic manner. Some account is given of it in every treatife of fluxions. We recommend the original work of Mr Huyghens in par. ticular ; and do not hefitate to fay, that it is the fiueft fpecimen (of its extent) of phyfico-mathematical dif- cufTion that ever has appeared. Huyghens was the moft elegant of all modern geometers ; and both in the geo- metrical and phyfical part of this work, De Hore/ogio Of- nllatono, he has prefcrvf J the utmofl rigour of demon- flration, wi'.liout taking one flep in which Euclid or Involutlort. Apnllonius would not have followed him. >— -v—"^ - juvat ii::e^ros acccJcrc f.n'.it yitque kaitrire. Such authors form the tafte of the young roathemi- tician, and help to preferve him from the almolf mecha- nical procedure of the expert I'ymbolical anal) If, who arrives at his conclufion »vithoiit knowing how he gets tliiihcr, or having any notions at all d the magnitudes of which he is treating. 'I'hcre are two principal problems in this dcflrine. I. To afcei tain the n.tture of the figure generated by the evolution of a given curve. II. To determine the nature of the curve by whofe evolution a given curve may be generated. — We fliall confider each of thcfe in order, and then take the op- portonity which this fubjedt gives of explaining a little the abllrufe nature of cuivature, and its meafures and variations, and take notice of the opinions of mathema- ticians about the precife nature of the angle of contait. The curve line ABCDEF (fig. i ) may be confider- i>iatc xni-. ed as the edge of a crooked ruler or mould ; a tliread may be fuppofed attached to it at F, and then lapped along it from F to A. If the thread be now led away from. A, keeping it always tight, it is plain that the ex- tremity A mufl defcribe a curve line Abcdef, and that the iletached parts ol the thread will always be tangents to the curve ABCDEF. In like manner will the curve line F d' c b' A' be defcribed by keeping the thread I'afl at A, and unlapping it from the other end of the mould. This procefs was called by Mr Huyghens the Evo- lution of the cuite ADF. ADF is called the Evo- LUTi£. A dfvr^i named by him the Curve by Evo- lution. It has been fince more briefly termed the EvoLUTRii, or unlapper. It has alio been called the Involute ; becaufe, by performing the procefs in the oppofite direiTtion /"(/ A, the thread is lapped up on the mould, and the whole ipace ADF/ (/A is folded up like a tan. The detached parts C 4 , D </, or C c', T)d', Sec. of the thread, are called Radii of the Evo- LUTE ; perhaps with fome impropriety, becaufe they ra- ther rcfemble the momentary radii of the evolutrix. We may name them the evolved radii. The beginning A of evolution may be confidered as the vertex of the curves, and the ends F and/may be called the terms. There is another way in which this defcription of curve lines may be conceived. Inllead of a thread ¥/ gradually lapped up on the mould, we may conceive Fy to be a llraight edged ruler applied to the mould, and gradually rolled along it without Aiding, fo as to touch it in fucceffion in all its points. It is evident, that by this procefs the pointy" will defcribe the curve fd.\, while the point F defcribes the other curve Y d' a'. This way of conceiving it gives a great extenfion to the doiflrine, and homologates it with that genefis of curve lines by which cycloids of all kinds are defcribed, and which we may diftinguifh by the name of Provolu- TiON. For it is plain, that the relative motions of the points A and h are the fame, wh«lher the ruler bh b' roll on the mould ABF, or the mould roll on the ruler: but there will be a great difference in the ferm of the line traced by the defcribing point, if we fuppofe the plane I N V [ ^63 ] I N V Involution, plane en wliich it is traced to be attached to the rol- ^''^''"^^ ling figure. Thus, when a circle rolls on a ftraight line, a point in its circumference traces a cycloid on the plane attached to the llraight line, while the point of the Uraight line which quitted the circle defcribes on the plane attached to the circle another line; namelv, the involute ot the circle. This mode of defcription al- lows us to employ a curved ruler in place o-f the llraight one mil'; and thus gives a vaft extenfion to the the- ory. But at prefent we (hall confine ourfelves to the employment of the rtraight line i B i', only keeping in mind, that there is an intimate connedion between the lines of evolution and of provolution. liy the defcription now given of this prccefs cf evo- lution and involution, it is plain, 1. That the evolution is always made from the con- vex fide of the evolute. 2. Tliat the evolved radii R b, C c, D 1/, Sec. are re- fpeflively equal to the arches BA, CA, DA, &c. of the evolute which they h.ive quitted ; and that bBl/', cC c', (I'D (/, iic. are always equal to the whole arch AUF. 3. That any point li of the lapped up thread de- fcribes during its evolution a curve line B > (ft <j pa- rallel to be dcf ; becaufe thefe curves are always equi- dillant from e.icli other. 4. That if the threid extend beyond the mould as a tangent to it, the extremity a will defcribe a parallel or equidillant curve u ^ y S i ^p, lying without A b c J cf. From this it appears that B > <f s <)> is the complete cvo- lutrix of I'EDCB, while bdccfi% the ev' lutrix of that arch, and the added tangent Lb. In like manner, the lappsd up thread ADF, with the added part F 9', de- fcribes the evclutriA 9' t' i' y i' A'. 5. If from any point C of the evolute there be drawn lines C /', C f , C (/, C c , &c. to the evolutrix, thofe which are more remote from tlie vertex are greater than thofe which are nearer. Draw B ^, f C, ilY), eE, touching the evolute. C i is !efs than GB -f B i ; that is (2), tiian C c . Again, DC -j- C c is equal to D J, which is lefs than DC -f- C </. Therefore C <: is lefs than C J. Now let Ce cut D «/ in r. Then e r + r DE is greater th;in «• E. But f E is equal to J r -\-rT>E. Therefore fr is greater than (//■; and^^r-l- r C is greater than tJ r -{- r C^ which is greater than c C. 'I herefore c C is greater than c C. 6. Hence it follows, that a circle defcribed round any point oi the evolute, with a radius reaching to any point of the evolutrix, will cut the evolutrix in thit point, and be wholly within it on the lide remote from the vertex, and without it on the fide next the vertex. 7. The evolved radius cuts every arch cf the evolu- trix perpendiculaily, or a right line drawn througli the inteifeiftion at right angles touclics the evolutrix in that point. Through any point J draw the line m tl t at right angles to /i D. The part of it m il next to the vertex is wholly without the cuive, becaufe it is with- out the circle defcribed round tlie centre D ; and this circle is without the evolutrix on that fide ot d which is next the vertex (C). Any point / on the other lide of {J is alfo without the curve. For let / <f E be another evolved radius, cutting D Jin 11: then «i is l;f; than fit, becaufe ndl is a right angle by conflrudlon ; and therefore n t d is acute. Bui becaufe E n -f ;; D are greater than ED, Rii + nd are greater than ED -f- y^d, that is, than Er, and nJis greu'.cr than nc. Tlurc- fore, fince it is lefs than nl, it follows that ne is much Involuti. lefs than n 1, and t lies without the curve. Therefore ^^^'~^ tile whole line mdt is without the curve, except in the point d. It therefore touches the curve in d, and the radius D J cuts it at right angles in that point. By the fame reafoning, it is demonltrated, that all the curves Abdf, "^if^, A'b'd'f, t'^'J'<f', are cut perpendicu- larly by the tangents to the evolute. Alfo all thefe curves interfeel the evolute «t right angles in their vertexes. It follows from this propofition, that from every point, fuch as /, or /', or 0, &:c. in the fpace AOF com- prehended by the evolute and its extreme tangents AO, FO, two perpendiculars may be drawn to the evolu- trix A df; and that from any point in the fpace with- in the angle A ofcnly one perpendicular can be drawn; and that no perpendicular can be drawn from any point on the other fide of ADF. Apollonius had obfervcd thefe circumdances in the conic fcflion';, but had not thought of marking the boundary formed by the evo- lute ADE. Had he noticed this, he would certainly have difcovered the whole theory of evolution, and its impcitance in ipeculative geometry. It alii) fellows from this propofition, that if a curve Abcdef is cut by the tangents of ABCDEF at right angles in every point, it will be defcribed by the evolution of that curve: For if the evolutrix, whofe vertex is A, be really defcribed, it will coincide with Abed in A, and have the fame tangent; it therefore does not deviate from it, otherwifi their tangents would feparate, and would not both be at right angles with the lines touching the evolute. They mull therefore coincide throughout. 8. The arclies bed and ^ y f, intercepted by the fame radii B b and D d, may be called concentrk ; and the angles contained between the tangents drawn through their extremities are equal. Thus the angle A TT is equal to // : but although equiditUnt, paral- lel, and containing the fame angle between their tan- gents and between their radii, they are not fimiiar. Thus, the arch a j8 has a curvature at « that is the fime with that of any circle whofe radius is equal to A a; but the curvature at A is incomparable with it, and unmcafurable. The ixcne. may be faid of the cur- vature cf at p and at B. 9. If a circle u </« be defcribed round the centre D wiih the radius D d, it both touches and cuts the evo- lutrix in the point d, and no circle can be defcribed touching the curve in that point, and palung between it and tue circle i/./i ; For fince it touches the curve ia d, its centre mull be fomewhere in the line iD per- pendicular to mil. It c.innot be in any point n more remote from d than D is ; for it would pafs without the arch du, and be more remote than du from the arch dc of the evolutrix. On the other fide, it would indeed pafs without the arch d^, which lies within the arch de of the evolutrix: but it would alfo pafs without ih^ curve. For it has been already dcmonftraied (7) that nd is greater than r.e; and the curve would lie between it and the circle iz. Tiius it appears, that a circle defcribed with the e- volved radius approaches nearer to tlie curve, or touchci it more dofely, than any ether circle ; all other circle* either intcrfefl it in meafurable angles, or ate witliia or without the curve on botii fides of the point of con- taO. This circle udz, has therefore llic laiiie curva- I N V [ 264 ] 1 N V Involution, ture witli ihe cui ve in the point of contaft :ind coslef- '''■'~"''~^*^ cence. It is the EiiyicuRVE circle, the circle of equal curvature, ilie osculating circlk (;i m me given it by Leibnif/.). Tlie evolved railuis of the evolu:e is the RADIUS OF CURVATURE of the evolutiij:, ami the point of the cvolute is tiie ckntre of curvature at the point of contaft with the evolutrix. The evolute is the geonietricul locus of all the centres of curvature of the evolutrix. This is the inoft important circumdance of the whole iloftrine of the involution and evolution of curve lines. It is allumcd as a fcU-eviJeiit tru:h by the precipitant writers of elenienti. It is indeed very like truth : For the extremity of the thread is a monjentary radius during theprocelsof evcUition; and any minute arch ol tlie evo- lute nearer the vertex mull be conceived as more incui va- ted than the arch at the point of contai5t, becaule defcri- bed with Ihortcr radii : tor the fame leafon, all beyond the contaft mud be lofs inciuvated, by reafon cf the greater radii. The curvature at the contaift mull be neither greater nor lefs than that of the circle. But v.-e thought it better to follow the example of Huy- ghens, and to eftablifli this leading propnfition on the Ihifteft geometrical reafoning, acknowledging the fin- gular obligation which machemaiicians are under to him tor giving them i'o palpable a metliod of fixing their no- tions on this fubjet't. When the evolute of a curve is given, we have not only a clear view of the gtnefis of the curve, with a neat and accurate mecjianical metliod of defcribing it, but alfo a dillinfl comprehendon of the whole cuivalure, and a connefled view of its gradual variati.ms. We fpeak of curvature that is greater and leifer ; and every peifon has a general knowledge or conception of the difference, and will fay, that an ellipfis is moie curve at the extremities cf the tranfverfe axis than any where elfe. 13ut before we can inllitute a comparifon between them «ith a precifion that leads to any thing, we niuft agree about a meafure ot curvature, and lay what it is we mean by a double or a triple curvature. Now there are two vvayj in which we may confider curvature, or a want of recflitude,.: We may call that a double curvature which, in a given fpace, carries us twice as far from the llraight line ; or we may call that a double curvature by which we deviate twice as much from the fame d'rciftion. Both of thefe mealures have been adopted ; and if we would rigidly adhere to them, there would be no room for complaint : but mathemati- cians have not been fteady in this refpe(51:, and by mixing and confounding tfefe mealures, have freqnentlv puzzled their readers. All agree, hmvever, in their fir 11 and llmple mealures of curvature, and fay, that the curva- ture of an arch of a circle is as the arch direft'y, and as the radius inverfely. This is plainly meafuring cur- vature by the deflexion from tlie firll direiSion. In an arch of an inch long, there is twice as much defieiflii)n from the firft direilion when the radius of the circle is of half the length. If the radius is about 575th inches, an arch of one inch in length produces a firuil direftiou one degree different from the firll. Il the radius is 1 14-^ inches, the deviation is but half cf a degree. The linear defieflion from the ll;r;iight path is alio one-half. In the cafe of circles, therefore, both meafures a^ree : but in by iar the greatell number of cafes they may differ exceedingly, and the change of direiftion may be g'^^'it- eft when the linear deviation is lead. Flexure, or Involution, change of direiflion, i.«, in peiieral, the mod i'enlibk" and ^-^^^'^•»-' the mod important character of cuivature, and is un- derllood to be its criterion in all cafes. But our pro- celTes for difcoveriug its qu«)Uity are generally by firll difcovering the linear deviation ; and, in many cafes, particulaily in our f>hil<ifophic:al inquiries, this linear deviation is our principal objedl. Hence it has hap- pened, that the mathematician has frequently llnpped fhort at this refult, and has adapted his theorems chief- ly to this determination. Thefe differences of objeft h.ive caufed great confufion in tlis nie'.h<.ds of confiJer- ing curvature, and led to many difputes about its na- ture, and about the an^le of contail •, to which dif- putes there v/ill be no end, till mathematicians have agreed in their manner of expreffing the meafures of curvature. At prefent we abide by the meafure al- ready given, and we mean to exprefs by curvature or flexure the change of direction. This being premifed, we obferve, that the curvature of all thefe curves of evolution where they fei)arate from their evolutes, is incomparable with the curvature in any other place. In this point the radius has no magnitude; and therefore the curvature is faid to be infinitely great. On the otlier hand, if the evolved curve has an alfymptote, the curvature of the evolutrix of the adjacent branch is faid to be infinitely fmall. Tliefe exprcflions becoming familiar, have occafioned fome very intricate quellicns aid erroneous notions. There can be little duubt of their iir.propriety : For when we fay, that the curvatuie at A is infinitely great- er than at a, we do not recolleifl that the flexure of the whok arch AZ is equal to that of the whole aich « B, and the flexure at A mull either make a part cf the whole flexure, or it mult be fomething difparate. The evolutrix Kh c df (fig. 2. J of the common equi- lateral hyperbol.i exhibits every poffible magnitude of curvature in a very fmall fpace. At the vertex A of the hyperbola it is perpendicular to the curve ; and there- fore has the tranfverfe axis A <? A" for its langent. The curvature of the evolutrix at A is called infinitely great. As the thread unlaps from the branch ABC, its extre- mity defcribes Abe. It is plain, that the evolutrijc mull cut the alfymptote <|> H at right angles in fome point G, where the curvature will be what is called in- finitely fmall ; bccaiife the centie of curvature has re- moved to an infinite diftance along the branch AF of the hypeibola. This evolutrix may be continueil to the vertex of the hyperbola on the other fide of the af- fymptote, by caufing the thread to lap upon it, in the fame way that Mr Huyghcns completed his cycloida! ofcillation. Or we may form another evolutrix a ^ > <^<? v' i' jB' A", by lengthening the thread from G to <?, the centre of the hyperbola, and fuppoling that, as foon as the curve A. ^ i^ is completed, by unlapping the thread from the branch ABC, another thread laps upon the hyperbola A" F". Thi: lad is confidered as a more ge- ometrical evolution than the other : For the mathema- ticians, extending the doi5lrine cf evolution beyond Mr Huyghens's redriflion to curves which had their con- vexity turned one v.'ay, have agreed to confider as one continued evolution whatever will complete the curve expreffed by one equation. Now the fame equation expreifes both the curves AF and A'F'', which oc- cupy the fame axis AA". The cycloid employed by Hoyghens I N V C ^(^5 ] 1 N V Involution. Hayghens is, in like manner, but one continuous curve, ^•^"'^^'^ defcribed by the continued provnlution ot the circli; along the (Iruight line, although it appears as two brandies of a rrfieali-ti curve. We lli.iU meet with many indances of tljis I'eemingly compounded evolution wlien treating of the fecond quellion. Since the arch AiilG contains every magnitude of cuivature, it appears that every kind of curvature may be produced by evolution. We can have no conception of a flexure that is gre.iter than what we fee at A, or lefs than what we fee at G ; yet there are cafes which fecm to fhew the contrary, and are familiarly faid, by the greatcft mathematicians, to exhibit curvatures Inti- nitely fmaller Hill, 'i'hus, let ABC (tig. 3.) be a co- nical parabola, wliofe parameter is AF. l^et AEF be a cubical parabola, whufe parameter is AQ. If we make AQ^to AD as the cube of AP to tiie cube of AC^ the two parabolas will interf;;it each other in the ordinate DB. For, making AJ? =z />, and AQ = y, and calling the ordinate of the conic parabola ^y, tiiat of the cubic parabola z, and the indeterminate abfcilik AD X, we have p^ : q^ = q : x, = y' : 2', and p : ij = g : z; but q ; p = q : p ; therefore, by compofition, p' : q'=:q' :px = q^ :y', znd p : q = q : y; therefore z=zy, and the parabolas inicrfeift in B. Now, becaufe in all parabolas the ordinates drawn at the extremity of the parameters are equal to the para- meters, tlie intcrfeilions y and/) will be in a line A qp, which makes half a right angle with the axis AP. Therefore, when AQJs greater than AP, the point q is without the conical parabola, and the whole arch of t!^c cubical parabola cut olf by the ordinate DB is alfo williout it: but when AQ_is lefs than AP, q is within the conical par.ibola, as is alfo the arch q B. There- fore the remaining arch BEA is without it, and is therefore lefs incurvated at A. An endlefs number of conical parabolas of fmaller curvature may be drawn by enlarging AP ; yet there will ftill be an arch iVEB of the cubical parabol.i which is without it, and therefore lefs incurvated. Therefore tb.e curvature of a cubical parabola is lefs than that of any conical parabola : It is faid to be infinitely lefs, becaufe an infinity of cubical parabolas oi fmaller curvature than AEB may be drawn by enlarging AQ_^ lo may be dcmonftrated in the fiime manner, that a paraboloid, whofe ordinates are in the fubbiquadratc ra- tio of the ablcilfie, has an infinitely fmaller curvature at the vertex than the cubical parabola. And the curva- ture of the paraboloid of the next degree is infinitely lefs than this : and fo on continually. Nay, Sir Ifaac Newton, who firft took notice of this remarkable cir- cumftance, demonllrates the fame tiling of an endlefs fuccedion of paraboloids intcrpofcd between any two de- grees of this feries. Neque noiit (fays he) luUiiru limi- tem. If this be the cafe, all curves cannot be defcribed by evolution ; lor we have no conception of a radius of curvature that is gre.iter than a line « ithout limit. The theory of curvilineal motions delivered in the article Dynamics mull be imperleifl, or there mull be curve lines which bodies cannot defcribe by any powers of nature. The theory there dtlivcrtd prcfell'es to leach how a body can be made to defcribe the cubical para- bola, and many other curves which h.ive thelc infinitc- St;rPL. Vol. II. fimal curvatures ; and yet its demonilrations employ Inrolution. the radius of curvatuie, and cannot proceed without it. '-^"^"^'^ We profefs ourfelvcs obliged to an attentive re.ider (who has not favoured us with his name) for making this obfervation. It merits attention. There mult be fonie paralo^fm or mifconception in all tliis language of the mathematicians. It does not neceffarily follow from the arch AEB lying without the arch AIB, that it is lefs incurvated at A ; it may be more incurvated between A and B. Accordingly we Tee, that the tangent BT of the conical parabola is lels inclined to the common tangent AV than the tan- gent B / of the cubiol para!>ola is; and therefore the flexure of the whole arch AEB is greater than that of the whole arch AIB ; and we (liall fee afterwards, that there is a part of ^VEB that is nioie incurvated thaii any part ol AIB. There is nothing correlpnnding to this unmeaning and inconceivable fucceffion of feriefes of magnitudes of one kind, each of which contains an end- lefs variety of individuals, and the greatell of one feries infinitely lefo than t!ie I'mallcft of the next, &c. ; there i j nothing like this demonilrated by all our arguments. In none of thefe do we ever treat of the curvature ac A, But of a curvature which is not at A. At A we have none of the lines which are indifpcnfably necelfary for the demonftraticn. Befides, in the very fame man- ner that wc can defcribe a cubical paiabola, and prove that it has an arch lying without the conical parabola, we can defcribe a circle, and demonllrate that it has al- fo an arch lying without the parabola. Thefe infinite- limal curvatures, therefore, are not warranted by our arguments, nor does it yet appear that there are curves which cannot be defcribed by evolution. We are al- ways puzzled when we fpeak cf infinites and infinitefi- mals as of fomething precife and determinate ; whereas the very denomination precludes all determination. We take the diftinguiihing circumftance of thofe different orders for a thing clearly underllood ; for we build much on the diftinflion. We conceive the curvature of the cubical parabola as verging on that of the com- mon parabola, and the one feries of curvatures as be- ginning where the other end?. But Nswton has f]i;wn, that between thefe two feriefes an endlefs number of \\- milar feriefes may be interpofcd. The very names gi- ven to the curvature at the extremities of the hyperbo- lic evdlutrix have no conceptions annexed to them. At the vertex of the hyperbola there is no line, and at tlio interfccTion with the alfymptote there is no curvature. Thefe unguarded exprefllons, therefore, (liould not make us douljt whether all curves may be defcribed by evolution. If a line be incurvated, it is not llraight. If fo, two perpendiculars to it mull diverge on one iide, and mull converge and meet on the other In fome p^'int. This point will lie between two other points, in which the two perpendiculars toucli th it curve bv the evolu- tion, ol v'hich the given arch of the curve may be de- fcribed. Einally (which Ihnuld decide the queilion), we Ihall fee by and bye, that the cubic, and all hif;hcr orders of paraboloids, may be lb defcribed by evolution from curves having aliymptofc branches of detei mi. nalile forms. Such are the general alTofllons of lines generated by evolution. They are not, properly fpe.iking, peculiar properties ; for the cvolutiixes may be any curve lines whatever. They only ferve to matk the mutual iclati.ms L 1 of I N V [ 266 ] involution, ci'ib: cvolutcs with their evolutrixci, and ennble us to ■-'*'^^''^'^ coniivuS. the one, and to difcover its properties by means of our knowledge of the other. We proceed to ihew how the properties of the evolutrix may be deter- TiiineJ by our knowledge of the evolute. This problem will not long occupy intention, being jiiuch limited by the conditions. One of the firfl is, that the length of the thread evtlved mult be known in every pofition : Therefore the length of the evolved arch muft, in like manner, be known ; and this, not only in lota, but every portion of it. Now thii is not univerf,illy, or even generally the cafe. The length of a circular, parabolic, hyperbolic, arcli Ins not yet been determined by any tinile equation, or geometrical con- ftruc"li3n. Tlierefore their evolutrixes cannot bj deter- mined oiherwifc than by approximation, or by com]n- jifon with other magnitude^ ojually iinJeterrained. Yet it fometimcs happens, that a curve is difcovered to e- volve into another of known properties, although we have not previoufiy difcovered the length of the evolved arch. Such a difcovery evidently brings along with it the reftitication f f the evolute. Of this we have an in- ilance in the very evolution which gave occafion to the whole of this doclrine; namely, that of the cycloid; which we Ihall therelcre take as our firft example. Let ABC (Fig. 5.) be a cycloid, of which AD is the axio, and AHL) the generating circle, and AG a tangent n the cycloid at A, and equal to DC. Let BKE touch the cycloid in B, and cut AG in K. It is re(|uiied to find the fituation of that point of the line BE which had untolded from A ? Draw BH parallel to the bafe DC of the cycloid, cutting the generating circle in H, and join HA. De- Tcribe a circle KEM equal to the generating circle AHD, touching AG in K, and cutting BK in fome point E. It is known, by the properties of the cycloid, that BK is equal and parallel to HA, and that BH is equal to the arch A /; H. Becaufe the circles AHD and REM are equal, and the angles HAK and iiKE are equal, the chords AH and KE cut off equil arches, and are tliemfelves equal. Becaufe BHAK is a paral- lelogram, AK is equal to HB ; that is, to the arch A h H, that ii, to the arch K m E. But if the circle KEM had been placed on A, and h-id rolled from A to K, the arch difengaged would have been equal to AK, and the point which was in contaifl with A would now be in E, in the circuml'erence of a cycloid AEF, equal to CB A, having the line AG, equal and parallel to DC, for its bafe, and GF, equal and parallel to DA, for its axi?. And if the diameter KM be drawn, and EM be joined, EM touclies the cycloid AEF. dr. The arch BA of tlie cycloid is equal to twice the parallel chord HA of the generating circle : For this arch is equal to the evolved line BKE ; and it has been Ihewn, that EK is equal to KB, and BE is there- fore equal to twice BK, or to twice HA. This pro- perty had indeed been dcmonftrated before by Sir Chri- Uopher Wren, quite independent of the doiflrine of evo- lution ; but it is given here as a legitimate refult of this do(51rine, and an example of the ufe which may be made of it. Whenever a curve can be evolved in- to another which is fufceptible of accurate determina- tion, the arch of the evolved curve is determined in length ; f^r it always makes a part of the thread whofe extremity dsfcribes llie evolutrix, and its length is I N V found, by taking from the whole length of the thread Involution that part which only touches the curve at its vertex. s-^'^''^-' Tiiis genefis of the cycloid AEF, by evolution of the cycloid ABC, aifo gives the mofl palpable and fa- tibfaiflory determination of the area ot the cychid. For fnice BE is always parallel to AH, AH will fweep over the wliole furface of the'femiritde AHD, while BE fweeps over the whole fpace CBAEF; and lince BE is always double of the (imultaneous AH, the fpace CBAEF is quadruple of the femicircle AHD. But the fpace dcfcribed in any moment by Blv is alfo one fourth paitofthat defcribed by BE. 'I'herefore the area GAEF is three times tiie femicircle AHD ; iuid the (pace DHABC is double of it; and the fpace CiiAG is equal to it. Kir Ifaac Newton has extended this remarkable pro- perty of evolving into another curve of the fame kind to the whole clafs of epicycloids, that is, cycloids form- ed by a point in the circumference of a circle, while the circle rolls on the circumtcrence of another circle, either on the convex or concave fide ; and he has de- monllrated, that they alfo may all be reiftified, and a fpace alhgned v.-hich is equal to their area {See Princi- pia, B. I. prop. 48. &c.). He demonftrates, that the whole arch is to four times the diameter of the gene- rating circle as the radius of the bafe is to the funi or difltrcnce of thofe of the bafe and the generating circle. We recommend thcfe propofitions to the attention of the young leader who vvilhes to form a good tafte in mathematical refearches ; he will there fee the geome- trical principles of evolution elegantly exemplified. We may jud obfcrve, before quitting this clafs of curves, that many writers, even of fome eminence, in their compilations ot elements, give a very faulty proof of the pofition of the tangent of a curve defer ibed by rolling. They fay, for example, that the tangent of the cycloid at E is perpendicular to KE ; becai:fe the line KE h, at the moment of dcfcription, turnir.g round K as a momentary centre. This, to be Aire, greatly fhortens inveftigation ; and the inference is a truth, not only when the rolling Hgurc is a circle roll- ing on a flraight line, but even wlien any one figure rolls on another. Every point of the rolling figure really begins to move perpendiculaily to the line joining it with the point of contac't. But this gentfis of the arch E e, by the evolution of the arch B b, ihews th.it K is by no means the centre of motion, nor HK the radius of curvature. Nor is it, in the cafe of epicy- cloids, trochoids, and many curves of this kind, a very eafy matter to find the momentary centre. The circle KEM is both advancing and turning round its centre ; and thefe two motions are equal, becaufe the circle does not Hide but roll, the detached arch being always equal to the portion of the bafe which it quits. Tlierefore, drawing the tangents 'Eg, M^, and completing the pa- rallelogram E7" M^, E/ will reprefent the progref- five motion of the centre, and E^ the motion of rota- tion. EM, the motion compounded of thefe, muft be perpendicular to the chord EK. The inveftigation that we have given of the evolutrix of the cycloid has been fomewhat peculiar, being that which offered itfelf to Mr Huyghens at the time when he and many other eminent mathematicians were much occupied with thefingular properties of this curve. It does not ferve, however, fo well for exemplifying the general I N V C 267 ] I N V Involution, general procefs. For this purpofe, it is proper to avail ^^'~'^'^~' ourfelves of all that we know of the cycloid, and parti, cularly the equality of its arch BA to tlie double of the parallel chord HA. This being known, nothing can be mure fimple than the determination of the evolutrix, either by availing ourfelves of every property of the cy- cloid, or by adhering to the general procefs of referring every point to an abibifia by means of perpendicular or- dinates. In the firft method, knowing that BE is double of BK, and therefore KE etjual to HA, and KA = BH, = H -6 A, = K w E, we find E to be the defcribing point of the circle, which has rolled from A to K. In the other method, we mud draw EN per- pendicular to AG; then, becaufe the point E moves, during evolution, at right angles to BE, EK is the normal to the curve defcribed, andNK the fubnormal, and is equal to the correfponding ordinate H' 1' of the generating circle of the cycloid ABC. This being a chara(fteriftic property of a cycloid, E is a point in the circumference of a cycloid equal to the cycloid ABC. Or, lalUy, in accommodation to cales where we are fuppofed to know tew of the properties of the evolute, or, at lead, not to attend to them, we may make ufe of the lluxionary equation of the evolute to obtain the fluxionary equation of the evolutrix. For this purpofe, take a point c very near to E, and draw tlie evolving radius be, cutting E/"(drawn parallel to the bafe DC) in ; draw en parallel to the axis of the evolute, cut- ting E 9 in V ; alfo draw b h i paialkl to the bafe, and B J perpendicular to it. If both curves be now refer- red to llie fame a.\is CGF, it is plain that Bi, B d', and d b arc ultimately as the fluxions of the arch, ab- fclfs, and ordinate of the evolute, and that E f, cf, and V E, are ultimately as tlie fluxions of the arcli, abfcilfa, and ordinate of the evolutrix. Alfo die two fluxionary triangles are fimilar, llie fides of the one being perpen- d'cular, refpciflively, to thofe of the other. It both are relcrred to one axis, or to parallel axes, the fluxion of the abfcifla of the evolute is to that of its ordinate, as the fluxion of the ordinate of the evolutiix is to that of its abfcifla. Thus, from the fluxionary equation rf the one, that of the other may be obtained. In the prefent cafe, they may be referred to AD and FG, making CG equal to the cycloidal arch CBA. Call this^; AI, .\- ; IB,^; and AB, or EB, z. In like manner, let F / be ^ a, / E = V, and FE :zi -w ; then, becaul'e DH' = DA= — AHS and DA and AH are the halves of CF and BE, we hare DH' = ^——. Al- fo DI = DH' F/. DA 4 X ■ a Therefore F /, or a, = -— . BliC DI =: Alfo w ^ -, by what was faid above, that is, 'm — v: a u Therefore we have •u' : u (= <» : v' - "^ ") = Vxd : t/ n =: v'GF : '/F f, which is the analogy competent to a cycloid wliofe axis is GF = DA, It is not neceflaty to infill longer on this in this place ; becaufe all tbcl'e things will come more naturally bclore us when wc aic employed in deducing the evolute from its evolut:i.\. When the orJinates of a curve converge to a centre, inTolutton- in which cafe it is called a radiated curve, it is moft con- ^■^^'^•^ venlent to confider its evolutrix in the fame wav, ton- ceiving the ordinates of both as infilling on the ci.'cuni- ference of a circle defcribed round the fame centre. Spirals evolve into other fplral?, and exhibit feveral pro- perties which afford agreeable occupation to the curious geometer. The equiangular, logarithmic, or loxodro- niic fpiral, is a very remarkable examj'h. Like the cy- cloid, it evolves into another equal and fimilar equian- gular fpiral, and is itfelf the evolutrix of a third. This is evident on the flightefl iufpcflion. Let Crqp (fig, 6.) be an equiangular fpiral, of which S is the centre ; it a radius SC be drawn to any point C, and another radius SP be drawn at riglit angles to it, the intercept- ed tangent CP is known to be equal to tlie whole length of the interior revolutions of the fpiral, though infinite in number. If the thread CP be now uniapped from the arch Cry, it is p'.ain that the firll mo- tion of tlie point P is in n diredlion PT, which is perpendicular to PC, and therefore cuts the radius PS in an angle SP !', equal to the angle SCP ; and, fiiice this is the cafe in every polition of the point, it is maniteft that it, path mull be a fpiral PQR, cut- ting the radii in the fame angle as the fpiral Crqp. James Bernoulli firll dilcovered this remarkable proper- ty. He alfo remarked, that if a line PH be drawn from every point of the fpiral, miking an angle with the tangent equal to that made by the radius (like an angle ot reflexion correfponding with the incident ray SP j, thofe refle<5led rays would all be tangents to another limilar and equal fpiral I vll: fo that PH = PS. S and H are conjugate foci of an infinitely ll;nder pencil ; and therefore the fpiral 1 11 H is the caullic by r£li;fc- tlon of RQ^ for rays flowing from S. If another equal and fimilar f['iral .%■ v y roll on I v H, its centre a will defcribe the fame fpiral in another puiitlon lu u s. All thefe things flow from the principles of evriluiioii alom- : and Mr Bernoulli traces, with great ingenuity, the cn- iiection and dependence of cauiUcs, botli by reflection and retraiHon, of cycloidal, and all curves of provolu- tion, and their origin in evolution or involution. A variety of uich repetitions of this curve (and many other fingiilar properties), made him call it the spir.\ mir.\- niLis. He dellred that it lliould be engraved on his tomb- llone, with the infcription eadem mut.\t.v resvrco, as exprelllveot the refurreflionol the dead. See his two ex- cellent diflcrtations in ..AV. Erudit. 1692, March and May. Another remarkable property of this fpiral is, tiiat if, inllead of the thread evolving from the fpiral, tlie fpiral evolve from the flraighi line PC, the centre S will defcribe the llraiglit line PS. Of this we have a;i example in the apparatus exhibited in courfes of expe- rimental philofi^phy, in which a double cone defcend', by rolling along two rulers inclined in an angle to each other (Ac GraveprJc's Nat. Phil. I. § Jioj. It i^ pretty remarkable, ih.it a roUii^g n,oii -n, fccmingly rour.d C, as a momentary centre, Ihould produce a nin. lien in the ftra:ght line SP; and it Ihcws ihi ii c.'ndu- fivenefs of the reafciiMig, by wlncii many conipilcts ri elements of geometry profcis to demonllrate, t!iat tie motion of the defcribing point S is perpendicular to ih; momentary radium. For licrc, although tills llemirii; momcutary radiui may be flinitcr than any line that can 1. 1 2 ' be I N V [ 268 ] I N V Involution, be namcJ, the real radius of curvature is longer than F, E, &c. and feparatc from it a little internally. By Involution. ^•^"""^^•^ any line that can be named. diminilhing the portions of the b.ife, and increafing the But it is not niertly an obj.-ft of fpeculative geonne- number of the triangular ehmtnts of the r( Umg figure trie ciiriofity to mark the intimate relation between the without end, it is evident that the fi_L;ure becomes ulli- cenclis of curves by evolution and provolution ; it may mately curvilineal inllead of polygonal, and the point be applied to important purpofes both in Icience and in E continues in the parabola, and accurately defcribcs art. Mr M'L'.mrin has given a very inviting example it. It is now a curvilineal figure, having its elementary of this in his account ot the Newtonian philofophy ; arches equal to the portions of the bafe to which they where he exhibits tlie moon's path in abfolute fpace, apply in fucccffion, and tlie radii converging to E equal and from this propofes to invelligate the defiefting to the perpendiculars intercepted between the curve forces, and vice vcij'a. We have examples of it in the ABCD and the bafe. It may therefore be accurately arts, in the formation of the pallets of pendulums, the conftiucled. teeth of wheels, and a remarkable one in Melfrs Watt It is clear, that prafllcal mechanics may derive great and Boiilton's ingenious contrivance for producing the advantage from a careful lludy of this fubjc^^. We now rciftilineal motion of a pillon rod by tlie combination of fee motions executed by nuicl.incry which imitate almoll circular motions. M. de la Hire, of the Academy of every animal motion. But thefe have been the refult Sciences at Paris, his been at great pains to (hew how of many random trials oi zinpiii, fnail-fiiecci, &c. ofva- all motions of evolution may be converted into motions rious kinds, repeatedly corrccled, till the defired motion V of provoUitiun, in amemoir in 1706. But he would have is at laft accomplilhed. But it is, as we fee, a fcienti- ' doiiea real fervice, ii', inllead of this ingenious whim, he fie problem, to conftruifl a figure v.'hich (hall certainly Lad fliewn how all motions of provolution may be tra- produce the propofed motion ; nor is the procefs by ced up to the evolution which is equivalent to ihcm. For any means difficult. But how fimple, in comparifon, there is no organic genefis of a cuivilincal motion fo fim- is the produiflion of this motion by evolution. We pie as the evolution of a thread irom a curve. It is the have only to find the curve line which is touched by j)rimitive genefis of a circle ; and it is in evolution alone all the perpendiculars B i, C c, D //, &c. This natu- that any curvilineal motion is comparable with circu- rally leads us to the fecond problem in this dodrine, lar motion. A given curve line is an individual, and namely, to determine the evolute by our knowledge of therefore its primitive organical genefis mult alio be in- the involute: a problem of greater difficulty and of dividual. Tliis is rtri>5lly true ot evolution. A para- greater importance, as it implies, and indeed teaches, bola has but one evolute. But there are infinite mo- the curvature of lines, its meafure, and the law of its tions of provolution wliich will defcribe a parabola, or variation in all pai ticular cafes. The evolute of a curve any curve line whatever ; therefore thefe are not primi- is the geometrical expreffion, and exhibition to the eye, live organical modes of defcription. That this, how- of both thefe affeiflions of curve lines. ever, is the cafe, may be very eafily fhewn. Thus let Since the evolved thread is always at right angles to ABCD (fig. 7.) be a parabola, or any curve ; and let the evolutrix and iis tangent, and is itfelf always a tan- a i c (/ be any other curve whatever. A figure ILmlkli i gent of the evolute, it follows, that all lines drawn per- may be found fuch, that while it rolls along the curve pendicular to the arch of any curve, touch the curve abed, a point in it fhall defcribe the parabola. The line which will generate the given curve by evolution, procefs is as follows : Let B i, C c, D d. Sec. be a Were this evolved curve previoufly known to us, we number of perpendiculars to the parabola, cutting the could tell the precife point where every perpendicular curve (lie <•/ in I'o many points. Tlie perpendiculars may would touch it; but this being unknown, we muft de- be lb difpofed that the points a, h, c, &c. (hall be eqiii- teniiine the points of centad by fome other method, dillant. Now we can coullruifl a triangle }L c /.< fo, that and by this determination we alcertain fo many points the three fides E e, ch, and /■ E, fhall be relpeflively equal of the evolute. The method purtued is this : When to the three lines Ef, ej\ Ff. In like manner may the two perpendiculars to the propofed curve are not pa- whole figure be conlfrufled, having the little bales of rallel (which we know from the known pofition of the the triangles refpeflively equal to the fucceffive portions tangents of our curve), they muft interfcct each other of the bafe Abed, and the radii equal to the perpen- f'omewhere on that fide of the tangents where they con- diculars B b, C c, D d, &e. Let this figure roll on this tain an angle lefs tlian 1 80°. But when they thus in- bafe c. While the little iide ei moves from its prefent terfefl, one of them has already touched the evolute^ pofition, and applies itfelf to ef, the point E defcribes and the other has not yet reached it. Thus let b s, e s an arch E s of a circle'round the centre c, and, falling (fig. i.) be the tvpo perpendiculars : being tangents to within the parabola, is fomcwhere between E and F. the evolute, the point/ of their interfeilion muft be on Then continuing the provolution, while the next fide its convex fide, and the unknown points of contafl B Ii i turns round / till i applies to g, the paint E de- and E muft be on different fides of s. Thefe are cle- fcribes anotlier arch t F round /, hrft riling up and mentary truths. reaching the parabola in F, when the line b E coincides Let e E approach toward b B, and now cut it in x. with/F, and then falling within the parabola till the The contacl has Ihif'ted from E to D, and x is ftill be- point b begin to rife again fromyby the turning of the tween the contains. When the fliifting perpendicular rolling figure round the point ^^ Reverfing the motion, comes to the pofition r C, the interfedion is at /', be- the fides //;, be, e i; &c. apply ihenifelves in fuccefllon tween the contacts B and C. And thus we fee, that to the portions ^/, /f, e d, Sec. of the bafe, and the asthe perpendiculars to the involute gradually approach, point E defcribes an undulating line, confifting of arches their contacts with the evolute alfo approach, and their of circles round the fucceffive centres ^,y; f, &c. Thefe interfeftion is always between them. Hence it legiti- circular arches all touch the parabola in the points G, mately follows, that the ultimate pofition of the inter- fedlion I N V C 269 ] I N V Involution. fcLlion (which alone is fufceptible of determination by = VG', we have 8VP X VK' = 27VK X VK', and ' ^-^'~'''''*-' tlie properties of the invohite) is the pofition of the 8 VP = 27VK ; or VK : VP ; that is, AV : VP n ' uvolation. 8 : 27 ; or VP = y AV, or ]} of the parameter of the parabola ABC. Tlie evolute of the conical para- bola is the curve called the femicubical parabola, and its par^imeter is ]} of the conical parabola. This inveiligation ii> nearly the fame with thit given point of contact, and therefore determines a point of the evolute. The problem is therefore reduced to the inveftigation of this ultimate interfedtio 5 of two perpen- diculars to the propofed curve, when they coalefce after gradually approaching. This will be bell illuftrated by an example : Therefore let ABC (fig. 8.) be a parabila, by Huy^hens, which we prefer at prefent to thif me. of which A is the vertex, AH t!ie axis, and AV one- thod generally employed, becaufe it keeps the principle half of the parameter ; let BE and CK iie two perpen- of inference mere clcfely in view. diculars to the curve, cutting the axis in E and K, and Mr Huyghenshas deduced a beautiful corollary from interi'eifting each other in r; draw the orJinates BD, it. Since the parabola ABC is dcfcribed by the evo- CV, and the tangent BT, and draw BFpaiallcl to the lution of the paraboloid VNR, the line RC is equal to axis, cutting CK in F, and CN in O. the whole evolved arch RNV, together with the redan- Becaufe the perpendiculars mterfec'l in r, we have dant tangent line A V. If therefore we take from CR. r E : EB = EK : 13F. If therefore we can difcover a part C x equal to the redundant AV, the remainder the ratio of EK to BF, we determine the interleftion * R is equal to the ardi RNV of the paraboloid. We r. But the ratio of EK to BF is compounded of the may do this for every pofition of the evolved radius, and ratio of EK to BO, and the ratio of BO to BF. The thus obtain a feries of points V, ;3, x, /, (, of the evo- tirft of thel'c is the ratio of equality ; for DE and VK lutrix of the paraboloid. We have even an eafier me- are, each of them, equal to A\^ or half the parameter, thod for obtai«ing the length of any part cf the arch Take away the common part VE, and the remainders o^ tlie paraboloid, without the previous defcription of EK and DV are equ.il, and DV is equal to BO ; there- the parabola ABC. Suppofe P y the arch of the para- fore EK : BF = BO : BF; therefore rE:r B= boloid, and j z the tangent ; m/ke Pz = A of the pa- BO : BF, and (by divifion) BE : E r = FO : OB. rameter, and dcfcribe the arch Puu of a circle; then Now let the point C contiaually .approach to B, and at draw from every tangent j's a p.irallel line xv, cutting laft unite with it. The interfecliun r will unite with a the circle in u. The length of the arch_y P is equal to point of c mtaft N on the evolute. The ultimate ra'io .v » -f « -v. The celebrated aulhnr congratulates him- of FO to OB, or of /o : B, is evidently that of ED fell, with great jullice, on this neat exh.iijition of a ri'.;ht to DT, or ED to 2DA : therefore BE : EN = ED l''">e equal to the arch of a curve, without the empby- : 2D A, or as h.ilf the parameter to twice the abicilia. ment of any line higher than the circle. It is the fe- Thus have we determined a point of the evolute ; and corid curve that has been fo reditied, the cycloid alone we niay, in like manner, determine as many as we havmg been reditied by phin geometry a very few pleafe. years before by Sir Chriilopher Wren. It is very true. But we wiQi to give a general charader of this evo- and he candidly admits it, that this very curve had been lute, by referring it to an axis by perpendicular crdi- rectified before by Mr William Neill, a your.g gentle- nates. It is plain that V is one point of it, becaufe "'an cf Oxford, and favourite pupil of Dr Wallis ; as the point E is always diftant from its ordinate DB by a'fo by Mr Van Heuraet, a Dutch gentleman of rank, a line equal to AV ; and therefore, when B is in A, E and an eminent mathematician. But both of thefe gen- will be in V, and r will coincide with it. Now draw tlenien had done it by means of the quadrature of a VP and NQ__perpendicular to AH, and NM perpcndi- curve, conltruifled from the paraboloid after the manner '^'^ "" ■ ' - - -- of Dr Barrov.', Led. Gfom. X\. Nor was this a foli- tary dilcovery in the hands of Mr Huyghens, as the rec- tification (if the cycl(>id had been in thofe of Sir Chri- flopher Wren ; for the method of inveiligation furnifh- ed Mr Huyghens with a general rule, by which he could evolve every fpecies of paraboloid and hyperbo- loid, two clalFes of curves which come in the wav in al- cular to VP ; kt EB cut PV in / : then, becaufe AV and DE are equal, AD is equal to VE, and VE is equal to one iialf of DT. Moreover, becaufe BD and NQ^are parallel, DE : EQj= BE : EN = DE : DT ; therefore DT = EQ^ and VE ■=■ {EQ, and therefore = jVQj therefore V / is | of M t, and iMV. This is a charafterillic property of tlie evolute. The fub- tangent is \ of the abfciU'a ; in like manner, as in the molt every dilcuffion in the higher geometry. He ob- common parabola, it is double of the abfcilla. W'c ferves, that the ratio of B/to Y.:, being always crvm- know therefore that the evolulc is a paraboloid, whofe pounded of tlie ratios of By"to B 0, and of B 0, or D</, equation is ax' =_y' ; that i^', the cube of any ordinate toEf; and the ultimate ratio of B/to B 9 being tliaC MN is equal to the parailclopiped whole bale i:, the of TE to TD, which is given by the nature of the pa- fquare of the abfcilla VM, and altitude a certain line raboluid, we cin always find the ratio of BE to DN, if VP, called the parameter. To find VP, let CR be the we know that f'i D J lo Er. In all curves, the ratio perpendicular to the parabola in the point where it is of D</to E <• (taken indefinitely near), is that of the cut by the ordin.ite at V ; draw the ordinate RS of the fubtangent to the lum of the fubtangent and ordinate paraboloid, and RG pcrpendicul.ir to AH. 'I'hen it is of a curve conilruifled on the famj abfciifa, having its evident, from what has been already dcmonllrated, that ordinates equal to the fubn rmals DE, d e, VK, &c. VK is 4 of KG, and | of VG ; therefore KG' = 4VK', and (in the parnbolal VC = 2 VK'. Alfo. becaufe KV : VC = KG : GR, we have GR' = 2 KG' = 8VK' ; therefore VP x RG' = 8VP X VK'. But VG3 = 27VK^ = 27VK X VK' : theiefore. becaufe in the paraboloid VP x VS', = SR^ or V? x KG' In the conic (cdions the ratio is conftant, becaufe the line fo conltniifted is a Ur.iight line ; and, in the para- bola, it is parallel to the axis. See farther properties^ of it in Barrow's L(8. Geom. XI. From this inveiligation, Mr Huyghens has deduced the following beautiful theorem i Let I N V [ 270 ] 1 N V fnvfilution. Let a be the parameter of the paraboloiJ, .v its ab- *-'"^^^*~' fcilla, and y its ordinate ; and let the equ.'.tion hi d'" x" =:y'" *' " ; let the radius of the evclute meet the tangent through the vertex A in Z. We Ihall al- " BE +'1±-BZ. correc fily Rated = l±iL, inllead of 1 + '^^\ ?. V a 2 '/a Involution. The ways have BN = — ' m a'x =/| a x^ = y^ '( a .v' = y* I a^ X z= y* ) &.C. then BN = Thus, m f BE + 2 BZ U- BE + i BZ J 2 BE + 3 BZ I 3 BE + 4BZ LIBE + jBZ. &c. theorem alfo from which it is deduced (■■=^) This is an extremely fimple and perfpicuous method of determining the radius of the evolutc, or radius of curvature j and it, at the fame time, gives us the reftifi- cation of many curves. It is plain that every geometrical curve may be thus examined, becauie the fubnormals DE, VK are determined ; and therefore their differences are determined. Thefe differences are the fame with the differences of D </ and E^; and therefore the ratio ot D (/ to E c is determined ; that is, the fubfidiary curve now mentioned can always be coiillrufled. There is a Angular refult from this rule, which would hardly have been noticed, if the common method for de- termining BN had alone been employed. The equation of the paraboloid is fo fimple, that the increafe of the ordinates and diminution of curvature i'ecm to keep pace together ; yet we have feen that, in the vertex of the cubical parabola, the curvature is lefs than any cir- cular curvature that can be named. In the legs, the curvature certainly diminirties as they extend farther; there n)u(l theiefcie be fome intermediate point vihere the curvature is tlic greateft poffible. This is diftinflly pointed out by Mr Huyghens's theorem. The evolute of this paraboloid (having <j'.\-=:_y' ) is a curve ONRNQ__ (fig. 9.) confiding of two branches RO, and RQ_, which have a common tangent in R ; the branch RQJi is the axis AE for its aflymptote. The thread unfolding from OR, its extremity, defcribcs the arch BC, and then, unfolding from RQ^ it defcnbes tlie fmall arch CB'A. When B' is extremely near A, the thread has a pofuion B'N'E, in whicn B'N is very nearly -IBE. At C, if CE be bifeifled in G, GR is | of CZ. Here CR the radius of curvature is the Ihortelt poflible. The evolu'es of all paraboloids confiU of two fuch branches, if m -J- ?; exceeds 2. Such is the theory of evolution and involution as de- livered by Mr Huyghens about the year 1672. It was cultivated by the geometers with fuccefs. Newton prized it highly, and gave a beautiful I'pecimen of its application to the defcription, re£titication, and quadra- ture of epicycloids, trochoids, and epicycles of all kinds. But it was eclipfed by the fluxionary geometry of New- ton, which included this whole theory in one propofi- tion, virtually the fame with Mr Huyghens's, but more comprehenfive in its expreffion, and much more fimple in its application. Adopting the unquettionable prin- ciple ot Mr Huyghens, that the evolved thread is the radius of a circle which has the fame llexures with the curve, the point of the evolutc will be obtained by finding the length of the radius of the equicurve circle. The formula for tliis purpofe is given in the article FLUXIONS c.f the Encyclofadia ; but is in- is incoreiHly printed, and is given without any demon- llration, thereby becoming ci very little fervice to the reader. For which reafon, it is neceifary to fupply the defefl in tliis place. Therefore let A.bcd'E.f (fig. 10.) be a circle, of which C is the centre, and ACE a diameter; let the points b, c, d, of the circumference be referred to this diameter by the cquidillant perpendicular ordinates hi, eg-, d l ; draw the chords be, c d, producing dc till it meet the ordinate ^; in a, produce eg to the circle in/, and join bf, df; draw b h, c m, perpendicular to the or- dinates ; then bh, cm, h c, md,b c, c d, are ultimately proportional to the firft fluxions of the abfcilfa AE, the ordinate c ^, and the arch A c ; alfo a b, the differ- ence between dm and c h \i ultimately as the fecond fluxion of the ordinate. The triangle a b c \^ fimilar to b df ; tor the angle a b c \i equal to the alternate angle bcf, which is equal to bdf, (landing on the fame feg- nient. The angle a c b \i equal to bfd, (landing on the iegmtrxl b c d ; therefore the remaining angles i!' ^r t and d bfate equal ; therefore a b : b c — b d : df = ' (J 1/ : i df Now let the ordinates bi and dk connnually ap- proach the ordinate eg, and at Inft unite with itj we 111 ill then have be ultimately equil to \ b d, and eg ul- timately equal to -r df. Therefore, ultimately, ab-.bc br z=bc: eg, zn^egzz ~^. Let ti, V, iu, reprefent the variable abfciifa, ordinate, and arch. Wc have, for the fluicionary expreffion of the ordinate of the equicurve circle, v = r: (iimuft. have the negative fign, becaufe, as the arcli increafes, V diminiflies). Tn the next place, it is evident that, ul- g X b timately, b h : b c ■=. c g : c C, and c C ; bh If r be the radius of the equicurve circle, we have u : tu zzv:r, and r := — -. — . But we had s — ~. oub- flituce this in the prefent equation, and we obtain r = —r—. Lallly, obferve that w' =u' -f -uS and — u V w = ^ii'-+-v- = a '-j--> ||. Therefore w' = a' -f-i' I i and we have r = — -^.-r, as the mod general flux- — u V ionary expreffion of the radius of a circle, in terms of the fine, cofine, and arch. When a curve and a circle have the fame curvature, it is not enough that the firft fluxions of their abfcifls, ordinates, and arches, are the fame. This would only indicate the pclition of their common tangent. They mud have the fame defleiflion from that tangent. This is always equal to half of the fecond fluxion of the or- dinate. Therefore the circle and curve mud have the fame I N V E s; Iiivolutioa. fame fccond fluxion of their ordioatcs, Tlierefore let ^'^~^''^^^ D i ciJT hi any curve coinciding with, or ofcul.ited by, llie circle A ^ i: i/. Let its axis be DG, parallel to the diameter AE; and ktc n be its ordinate. Let D n be ~x, c n — y, and ii-rizc. We have x, y, z, re/pec- tively equal to u, v, iv. Therefore the radius of the of- culaling circle is r = ^^ or r = ... , for all — K y — X y curves whatever. (We recommend the careful perufal of the celebrated 2d corollary of the icth propofition of the 2d book of Newton's Principia, where the tirft principles cf this dodlrine are laid down with great acuteiiefs.) Indcad of fuppofing the ordinates equldiftant, and confequently .v invariable, we might have fuppofed the ordinates to increafe by equal Iteps. In this cafe y would have had no fecond flu.\ion. The radius would ] I N V Let us take the example of the common parabola, Involution. that we may compare the two methods. The cqua- ^-^"'■'^^^ I I tion of this is a jc =^', or a^ .v^ =: v. This gives J = i "' •>■■■«' — > = — %■, and (making .t conftant) y = — 1 X ^^r^le^efo^e (=^/x'+y curvature =: -') = ^y±,-. +" ■, and the radiasof At the then be = y s Or, laftly, we might fuppofe (and this is very ufual) the arcii z to increafe uniformly. In this cafe r = — ~ : For becaufe .%•' +>' = s', by .V taking the fluxion of it, 2 .-c .v ^ 2 j' _>' ;= 0, and y := x' X 3' z' — ~ ; and therefore r = — .'.. ^-r;-, = .-^; : — — y yx — xy y x + .-^ '- .v. vertex, where .%■ = o, the formula becomes = 4 a. Again, D / ( = .V -j -'' .''.. ) becomes {: a + 3 x ; V — *J/ and therefore V j) = 3 x, = the abfcifTa of our evo- lute. Likewife c />, its ordinate, [ =r y 4 .v' 1 n ^- if) x' = - — ; and C p- = (=:T-) and Cj>' X a = 16 J.'. y s y'^x^Xx " Having tiius obtained the radius of curvature, and confequently a point of the evclute, we determine its form by reference to an ablcifs, withoiu much faitl.er trouble: It only requires the drawing C/r perpendicu- lar to the axis of the propofed curve, and giving the va- lues of C/> and D/>. If we fuppofe *• conftant, then, c C being = — ~; .., we have D/> {= D n -{- g c, = — xy But V^^ = 3 X, and V/.3 — z-j x^. Therefore C/.' x Vyth « = x\ = ^Vth V/3, and 45th5 a x C/.' = V pK Therefore the evolute VC is a feniicubical parabola, whofe parameter is \^ a, as was ihewn by Mr Huy. ! ghens. The arch VC is = " + ^"^^ — -\- a. 2 n/ a We fhall give one other example, which compre- hends the whole clafs of paraboloids. Their general This gives us ^ = n a .X " - ' x, x' ; therefore z ( = equation is _y = a .v" and J = 7; X n — I X a .\- I -f «' a' .\"- D « -f 4- X ^ C) = * + — ^- "... ; and /. C (= eg 'y ■ n X 1 — 1 X a .V .V -f n' ,1' x' ' ■en, = -■- X cC — c 11) = — ^, y. But if we z —y fuppofe y conftant ; then, c C being = .".. , we have y X T 4. 2 >; — I X ""' .v' ""' — n — I X ^a .\ "-' ; andDV=- D /> = X 4- - r, and /> C = V conftant, then, c C being := ■' ..""■, wc fhall have D/> ■■< + nd / C = -^ —y. Thcfe f irmula: are fo many general expreftions for determining botli the curvature of the propnfed curve and the form of its evolute. They alfo give us the reflificalion of the evolute ; becaufe c C is equal to the evolved aich, or to that arch, together with a conftant part, which was a tangent to the evolute at its vertex, in thofe cafes where the involute has a finite curvature at its vertex; as in the common parabola. Tliis laft formula exprelfes the radius of curvature at the vertex D, or the redundant part of the thread, by y. And if 2 be which it exceeds the arch VC of the evolute. If/;r:4» the lormula becomes — ; but if n be greater than this, VC will be = ; and if it be lefs, VC will be infinite. Hence it appears, that the radius of curvature at the vertex of a curve is a finite quantity only in the cafes where the firft or n.ifcent ordinates are in the fubdupli- caie ratio of thtir abfcilfr. In all otlier cafes, the cur- vature is incomparable with lliat of any circle, being citlier wh.it is called infinite (wheo <i is greater than 4) or nothing (when It Is Icfs). We fcruple not to fay, that the method of Mr Huy- ghens is more luminrus, more plcafing to the Imagina- tion of a geometer, than this; and in all the cafet which occurred to us in our employment of it, it fug- gtftei I N V [ 27 Tuvolution. geftcJ more ready con.lrudions, with the addition^il '~'~'''*' iatisf.nflion of exhibiting, in a continuous Iniin, what the fymbolical method, proceeding by the (luxioiuiry calcu- his, onlv indicates by points. We mull alio obferve, that the fubVidiary curve employed by Huygbens, having its ordinates equal to the iiilinormals of the involute under examination, is the geometrical exprclllon of that; funaion of the involute which gives the feccnd fluxions y and x of the ordinate and abfcilTa. The young ma- thematician will find no difficulty in conlhuaing this curve in every cofe ; whereas we imagine that he will not find it a light matter to conftrudl the final equa- tions of the fymbolic method almoj} in any cafe. Ax. the fame time, the all comprehending extent of the latter me- thod, and the numberlefs general theorems which it fug- gcfts to the expert analyll, give it a moft defervcd pre- ference, and make it almoft an indilpenfable inllrument for all who would extend our phylico-mathematical fciences. In the employment of the geometry of curve lines, efpecially in the doflrine of centripetal forces, it is ufual to confider the ordinates, not as infilling on a reaili- neal abfciffa, but as diverging from a centre. This is alfo the ufual way of conceiving all fpirals and evolu- trixes of curves which include fpace : in Ihort, all ra- dial curves. The procefs for finding their evolute, or their radius of curvature, is fomewhat different from that hitherto exhibited; but it is more fimple. Thus, let GPM (fig. 10.) be the elliptical path of a planet, of which S is the focus. We require PC, the radius of curvature in the point P. Let P/> be a very fmall arch. Draw the radii SP, S/>, the tangents P P, p t ; and draw ST perpendicular to PP, cutting p t \n t ; and Po perpendicular to S/>. Let the arch GP be = s, the radius SP=_)', and the perpendicular ST = />. Then, it is plain, that P/i, op, T t, are ultimate- ly proportional to a, y, p. The triangles PC/, and T// or TP/ are alfo ultimately fimilar ; as alfo the triangles PST and /> P. Therefore, ultimately, T; : P/.= PT : PC alfo P/.:/.»=PS:PT . . therefore T < : / = PS : PC, or, p : y = y : r, and r — =^-4-; an expreffion of the radius of curvature, ex- / . . tremely fimple, and of eafy application. The logarithmic or equi.ingular fpiral PQR (fig. 6.) affords an eafy example of the ufe of this fornjul.i. The angle SPT, which the ordinate makes with tiie curve, is everywhere the fame. Therefore let a be our tabu- lar radius, and b the fine of the angle SPT. We have ST = '-^ , and therefore PC (= ^) = ^ = "-f . a ' \ p ) by '' This is to SP or y in the conftant ratio of a to b, or of SP to ST : that is, ST : 8P = SP : PC, the tri- angles SPT and PCS are fimilar, the angles at P and C equal, and C is a point of an equiangular fpiral /j r round the centre S. It is not meant that the conftruflion pointed out by this theory of involution, expreffed in its moft general and fimple form, is always the bell for finding the centre of the equicurve circle. Our knowledge of, or attention to, many other properties of the curve under confideration, befides thofe which fimply mark its re- 2 ] I N V l.ition to an ahfcifs and ordinate, muft frequently give Involution. us better conftruflions. But evolution is the natural '-""^''"^^ genefisof a lincof varying curvature. Moreover, in the moll importantcmploymentof mathematical knowledge, namely, mechanical philofop hy, it is well known, that the moll certain and comprelienfive method of folving all intricate problems is by reference of all forces and motions to three co-ordinates perpendicular to each other. Thus, without any intentional fearch, we have already in our iiands the very fiuxionary quantities em- ployed in this doiflrine ; and the expreffion which it gives of the radius of curvature requires only a change of terms to make it a mechanical theorem. Thus have \vc c^nfiJered the two chief queftions of evolution and involution. We have done it with as clofe attention to geometry as poffible, that the reader's mind may become familiar with the ipfa corpora while acquiring the elementary knowledge, which is to be employed more expeditioufly afterwards by the help of the fymbolical analyfis. Without fuch ideas in the mind, the occupation is oftentimes as much divefted of thought as that of an expert accountant engaged in complex calculations ; the attention is wholly turned to the rules ot his ait. It novi- remains to confider a little the nature of this curvature ot which fo much has been faid, and about which fo many obfcure opinions have been entertained. We mentioned, in an early part of this article, the un- warranted ufe of the terms of infinite and infinitefimal magnitude as applicable to curvature, and fhewed its im- propriety by the inconfillences into which it leads ma- thematicians. Nothing threw fo much light on this fubjeifl as Mr Huyghens's Geometry of Evolution ; and we (hould have expected that all difputes would have been ended by it. But this has not b;en the cafe ; and even the molt eminent geometers and metaphyficians, fuch as the Bernoullis and Leibnitz, have given expla- nations of orders of curvature that can liave no exift- ence, and explanations of that coalefcence which ob- tains between a curve line and its equicurve circle, which are not warranted by jufl principles. Thefe errors (for fuch we prefume to think them) arofe from the method employed by the geometers of lafl century for obtaining a knowledge of the magni- tude and variation of curvature. The fcrupulous geo- meters of antiquity defpaired of ever being able to com- pare a curve wuh a right line. The modernt, although taught by Des Cartes to define the nature of a curve by its equation, allowed that this only enabled them to exhibit a feries of points through which it palled, and to draw the polygon which connects thefe points, but gave no information concerning the continuous incurva- ted arches, of which the fides of the polygon are the chords. They could not generally draw a tangent to any point, or from any point ; but they could draw a chord thiougli any two points. Des Cartes was the firft who could draw a tangent. He contrived it fo, that the equation which exprelTes the interfedions of the curve with a circle defcribed round a given centre fliould have two equal roots. This indicates the coa- lefcence of two interfeiflions of the common chord of the circle and the curve. Therefore a perpendicu- lar to the radius fo determined muft touch the curve in the point of their union. This was undoubtedly a great I N V [ 273 ] I K V JnToiutlon. great difcovery, and worthy of his genius. It naturally ^■^'^^^^ led the way to a much greater dil'covery. A circle may cut a curve in more points than two; It may cut a conic fciftion in four points ; all expreffed by one equation, having four roots or folutions. What ii three of thefe roots Ihould be equal ? This not only indicates a clofer union than a mere contafl, but alfo gives indi- cation of the flexure of the intervening arch. For, be- fore the union, the interfcdicns were in the arch both of the curve and of the circle; and therefore the dif- tindion between the union of two and of three inter- fcdions muft be of the fiine iiind with that between a ilraight line and an arch of this circle. The flexure of a circle being the fame in every pai t, it becomes a pro- per index ; and therefore the circle, which is determin- ed by the coalefcence ot three interfeaions, was taken as the meafure of the curvature in that point of the curve, and was called the circle of curvature, the EQUicuRVE CIRCLE. There IS u Certain progrefs to this coalefcence which muft be noticed. Let ABD (fig. 4.) be a common parabola, liBF a line touching it in 13, and BO a line perpendicular to EBF. Taking fome point O in the other fide ot the axis for a centre, a circle may be defcribed which cuts the curve in four points a, b, c, and d. By enlarging the radius, it is plain that tlie points a and b muft feparate, as alfo the pcHHts c and d. Thus, tiie points b and c approach each oihcr, and at laft coalefce in a point of contacft B, with the parabola, and with its tangent. In the mean time, a and d have retired to A and D. If we now bring the centre O nearer to B, the new circle will fall wholly within the laft circle ABD ; and therefore both A and D will again approach to each other, and to B, which ftill continues a point of contad. It is plain that A will approach fafter to B than D will do. At length, the centre being in 0, the point A coalefces with B, and we obtaui a circle i B /, touching the curve in B, and cutting it in J: Confequently the arch B t /' is wholly within, and B <f </ is wholly without the parabo- la ; and the circle both touches and cuts the parabola in B. Here is certainly a clofer union, at leaft on the lide of «. But perhaps a farther diminution of the circle may bring it clofer on the fide of D. Join B S: Let a fmaller circle be defcribed, touching the parabola in B, and cutting it in <f. Draw if c parallel to i B. It may be demonftrated that the new circle cuts the para- bola in c. Now the arch between c and 9 being willi- ouc the parabola, the arch B C muft be within it ; and therefore this circle is within the parabola on both fides of B, and is more incurvated than the parabola. We fiave feen, that a circle greater than 1 IW is without the parabola on both fides of B ; and therefore is Icfs incurvated than the parabola. Therefore the individual circle 1 B <f' is neither more nor lefs curve than the para- bola in the point B. Therefore the circle indicated by the coalefcence of three interfeflions is properly named tlie equiturve ciiclc ; and, fince we meafure all curva- luies by that of a circle, it is properly the circle of cur- vature, and its radius is the radius of curvature. Had B been the vertex of the axis, every interfec- tion en one fide of B would have been liniilar to an in- terfciflion on the other, and there would alw.iyb have been two pairs of roots tl)at are equal j and thcreffjrc when three interfcdicns coalefce, a fourth alfo coalefces, and the contad is faid to be ftill clofer. SuppL, Vol. II. What has now been (hewn with refpecl to a conic Involuti.i.n. feiftixn is true of every curve. When two interfeifrions coalefce, there is a common tangent ; when three co- alefce, there is an equ.il curv.iture, and no other circle can p.ifs between this circle and the curve. There c.i;;- not be a eoakfcencc of four intcrfedirns, except when the diameter is perpendicular to the ordinatcs, and thofe are bileded by the diameter. Mr Leibnitz, who valued himf.lf for metaphyfical refinement, and never fails to claim fuperiority in ihii particular, notices the important diftihdion between a fimple contad and this clofer union in a very well writ- ten dilFertation, publilhed in ihe AHa Erulitorum, July 1686. He calls the conlad of equal curvatures an os- culation, and the circle of equal curvature the oscu- lating CIRCLE, and delivers leveral very judicious re- marks with the tone of a matter and inftrudnr. He alfo fpeaks of diilerent degiees or orders of ofculation, each of which is infinitely clofer than the other, as a thing not remarked by geometers. But Sir Ifaac New- ton had done all this befoie. The fiift twelve pr.'po- fitions of the Piinapia had been read to the Ro)al So- ciety feveral years before, and were in the Regifters. The Principia had received the imprimatur of the So- ciety in July 16S6 ; but was almoft printed before that lime. In tiie Scholium to the nth Lemma, is con- tained the whole di.drine of contad and ofculation ; and in the lem.Tia and its corollailes, is crowded a body of dodrine, which has afforded themes for volume;. The author glances with an cagleN eye ovcr.ihe whole profped, and points cut the prominent parts with the moft compreffed brevity ; but witli fufiicient precllion for marking out the more important olvjcds, and par- ticularly the ditlcrcnt orders of curvature. This kmma and its corollaries are continually employed in the twelve propofitions already mentioned. In 1671 he had written the firft draught of his method of fluxions, where this dodrine is f) fiematically treated; and Mr Collins had a copy of it ever fince 1676. It is well known that Leibnitz, when in London, had the free perufal of the Society's records, and information at all limes by his correfpcndence with the fccretary Olden- burgh and Mr Collins. His condud rcfpcdlng ilie theorems concerning the elliptical motion of tlie planets, and the rciiftaiice of fluids, leave little room to doubt of his having availed himlclf in like manner of his op- portunity of information on ihis fubjed. He gives .1 much better account of the Newtonian doi3rine on this fubjed than in thofe other inftances, it being more fuit- ed to his refining and paradoxical dil'pofiiion. In this and anotherdilfeilation, heconfiders more par- ticularly the nature of evolution, and of that ofculation which obtains between the evolutrix and the circle de- fcribed by the evolved radius. He fays, that it is equi- valent to two fimple contads, each of which is equiva- lent to two interfedions. An ofculation produced in the evolution ot a curve is therefore equivalent to lour in:erl"edions. And he advilcs, with an air oi authori- ty, the mathcmaiicians to attend to ihcle remarks, as leading them into the rccclFes of fcience. He is mil", taken, however ; and the liftening to him would pre- vent us from forming a juft notion of ollulalion, and from conceiving with diflindnets the lingular fad of a circle both toui-hing and cutting a curve in the lame point. James Bernoulli loft his friendlhip, bccaule he M ra picfamcd I N V C 274 ] I N V Involution, prefumed to f.iy that the prefence of four interreftions ^-^~''^^^^ in an ofculaiion is not warranted by the equation ex- preiriii_;; thofe interfedions. Mr Leibnitz was milled by the way in which he had conddercd the ol'cu'.ation in the evolution of curves. It merits attention. From any point wiililn the fpace ADFO.V (fig. 1.), two perpendiculars may be drawn to the evolutrix A b df; and therefore two circles may be defcribed round that point, each touching the curve. Each contaA is the union of two interfei-lion?. There- fore, as the centre approaches the evolute, the contafts approach each other, and they unite when the centre reaches the evolute. Therefore the ofculaiion of evo- lution is equivalent to four interfcClions. But when two fuch circles are defcribed round a point 1, fo as that both may touch the evolutrix A af, the point s is in the intcrfcdion of one evolved radius with the prolongation of another. The contaift at the extremity b cf the prolonged radius i B is an exterior conrafl, and the arch of the circle crolfes the evolutrix, from without inwards, in fome point more remote from A. The contacT; at the extremity.? of the radius e E is an interior contadl ; and if ^y be greater than the llraight line EA, the arch of this circle crolfes the curve, from within outwards, in fome point nearer to A. Thus each contact is accompanied by an inierfec- tion on the f.de next the other contafl, fometimes be- yond it, and fometimes between the contafls. As the contaas approach, the interftifHons alfo approach, ftill retaining their characters as interfeclions, as the contacts flill continue contacts. Alfo the circle next to A crolfes from without inwards, and that next to 7" crolfes from within outwards. They retain this charaifler to the laft ; and when the contaits coalefce, the two circles coalefce over their whole circumference. Hill, however, croffing the curve in the fame diredlion as before ; that is, with- out the curve on the fide of A, and within it on the fide of/". The contads unite as contads, and the in- terfedions as inteifeftions. Thus it is that the ofcu- lating circle both touches and interfeifts the curve in the fame point. At /the ofculation is indeed clofer than anywhere clfe. The variation of curvature is lefs there than any- where elfe, becaufe ike radius changes more (lowly. It is this circumilance that dcteiniines the clofenefs of contaft. If a circle ofculates a curve, it has the fame curvature. If this curvature does not change in the vicinity of the contafl, the curve and circle mufl coin- cide; and the deviation of the circle (the curv.ature of which is everywhere the fame) from the cuive mull proceed entirely from the variation of its curvattue. This, therefore, is the important circuniftancc, and is indeed the charaaerillic of the figure as u curve line ; and its other properties, by which the pofition of its different parts are determined, may be afcertained by means of the variation of its curvature, as well as by its relation to co-ordinates. Of this we have a remark.ible inflance at this very time. The orbit of the newly difcovered planet has been afcertained with tolerable precifion by means uf obfervaiions made on its motions for three years. In this time it had not defcribed the 20th part of its orbit ; yet the figure of this orbit, the pofition of its tranfverl'e axis, the place and time of its perihelion, were all determined within icodth part of the truth by the ohfirvcd I'arijti'.n of its curvature. It therefore merits our attention in the clofe of this ar- Involution, tick. We know of no author who has treated the ^■^""''"^^ fubjccl in fo inftrudive a manner as Mr M'Laurin has done, by exhibiting the theorem whi;h conflitutes New- ton's 1 ith lemma in a form which points this out even to the c)e (fee M'Laurin's Fluxicns, Chap. xi. § 363, &c.). We earneftly recommend this work to the young geometer, as containing a fund of inlliuiftion and agree- able exercile to the mathematical eenius, and as greatly fuperior in perfpicuity and in ideas which can be treafured up and recolleifled, when required, to the greatell part of the elaborate performances of the emi- nent analyfts of later times. By exprefling every thing geometrically, the author furnilhes lis with a fort of pidlure, which the imagination readily reviews, and which exhibits in a train what mere fymbols only give us a momentary glimpfe of. " As, of all right lines which can be drawn through a given point in the arch of a curve, that alone is the tan- gent which touches the arch fo clofcly that no right line can pais between them ; fo, of all circles which touch a curve in a given point, that circle alone has the fame curvature which touches it fo clcfely that no circle can pafs between them. It cannot coincide with the arch of the curve ; and therefore the above condition ii fuf- ficient for making it equicurve. As the curve fepa- rates from the tangent by its flexure or curvature, it feparates from the equicurve circle by hs change of cur- vature ; and as its curvature is greater or lefs according as it feparates more or lefs from its tangent, fo the va- riation of its curvature is greater or lefs according as it feparates more or lefs from its equicurve circle. There can be but cue equicurve circle at one point of a cuive, otherwile any other circle defcribed between them through that point will pals between the curve and the equicurve circle. " When two curves touch each other in fuch a man- ner that no circle can pals between them, they mufl have the fjme curvature ; becaufe the arch which touches one of them fo clofely that no circle can pals between them, mufl touch the other in like manner. But circles may touch the curve in this manner, and yet there may be indefinite degrees of more or lefs intimate contad be- tween the curve and its equicurve circle." This is lliewn by the ingenious author in a feries of propofitions, of which a very Ihort abridgment mull fuffice in this place. Let any curve EMH (fig. ii.j, and a circle ERB, touch a ridht line ET on the fame fide at E. Let an/ right line TK, parallel to the ciiord EB of tlie circle, meet the tangent in T, the curve in M, and a curve BKF (which palfes through B) in K. Then, if M'l* xTK be everywhere equal to TE', the curvature of EMH in the point E is the lame as that of the circle ERB ; and the contafl of EM and ER is fo much the clofer the fmaller the angle is which is contained at B between the curve BKF and the equicurve circle BQE. Let TK meet the circle in R and Q^ Tlien, be- caufe RT X TO = TES it mud be RT x TQ_= Ml' X TK; and RT : MT = TK : TQ^ The hue BKF may have any furm. It may crols the circle BQR in B, as in the figure. It may touch it, or touch EB, &c. Let us firfl confider what lituations of the Doint M correfpond with the pofition of K, in that part of the curve BKF which lies without lh« circle BRE. Let I N V Involution. Let TK move toward EB, always keeping parallel to ir, till it coincIJe wilh it, or even pais it. Then, wlnle the point K defcribes KB, it is evident that liiice TK is grciter than TQ^ TM mull be Icfs than TR, and the point M muft always be found between T and R. The arch ME of tlie curve muft bo nearer to the tan- gent than the arch RE of the circle. If any circle be now dercril)ed touching TE in E, and cutting oflFfrom EB a fmaller chord than EB, it is clear that the whole of this fegment muft be within the fegment BRE ; therefore this fmaller circle does not pafs between ERB and the curve EMH. But fnice we fee that the curve lies without the circle, in the vicinity of E, perhaps a greater circle than ERB may pafs between it and the curve. A greater circle, touching at E, mull cut off a chord greater th.in EB. Let E r i be fuch a circle, cutting EB \n I), and TQ^in q. T g is necclfarily greater tlun TQ^ For (incc i is beyond B, and the arch BKF lies in the angle QB t, the circle E r q mull crofs the curve FKB in fome point ; fuppofe F. Then W'hile K is found in the arch FB, the point y muft be beyond K, or 'I' q muft be greater than TK. Now T r X T 7 = TE S = TM X TQ_^ Tlierefore TM : T r = T y : T(^ Therefcre T q being greater than TQ, Tr muft be lefj than TM, and (he point r muft lie without the curve, and the arch E r does not pals be- tween EMH and the circle ERB. In like manner, on tlie other llde of EB, it will appear, that when the curve BK'F falls wuhin the circle which touches EMH in E, and cuts off the chord EB, the arch of the curve correfponding to the arch BK'F', lying within the cir- cle, alfo lies within the ciicle. For T'K' being lefs thin TQ^ TM' is greater than TR', and the curve is within the circle. And, by fimilar reafoning, it is evi- dent that a circle cutting off a greater chord falls with- out both the circle ER'B and the curve, and that a circle lefs than ER'B muft neceffarily leave fome part of the curve BK'F' without it; and therefore TK' will be greater than T r/, and the correfponding point r' muft be without the curve. All circles therefore touchin_ TE in E fall without both ER and EM, or within them both, according a^ they cut oil" from EB a chord greater or lefs than EB, and no circle can pafs between them when the reiftangle MT X TK is always equal to ET', and the focus ot the point K pafi'es through B; that is, ERB is the equicurve circle at E. This corroborates the feveral remarks that we have made on the circumftance of a circle touching and cut- ting a curve in the f ime point. No other circle cm be made to pafa between it and the curve, and it tlierefore lias the fame curvature. This may therefore be taken as a fufficient indication of the equicurve circle ; the cliaraiSer peculiarly alFured to it by the nature of evo- lution. It muft be noted, however, that the curve is fuppoftd to have its concavity in the vicinity of the contail turi:ed all the fanie way. For if the contaiS be in a point ol contrary fluxure, even a ftraight line will both t'lucli and cut it in tlut point. The r«ader cannot but remark, that MK is always the chord of a circle touching TE in E, and palling through M. Let Em be another curve, touching TE in E, fuch, that the conjugate curve / B, which always gives 'I'm X T i — TE', alio paffcs ihiough B. Then, by what has now been dcmonftvated, tlic two curves EM and [ V5 1 I N V Em liavc the fame equicurve circle ERB, and confe- Inrolu;.'., quently the fame curvature in E. Then, becaufe the — ^^''^ rcdangles R T x TQ^ MT x TK.and mT X Ti, arc equal, we have T m : TM = TK : T y(. Therefore if the arch B i pafs betvvcen BK and BQ_. the curve E m muft pafx between the curve EM and the circle ER. Em muft therefore have a clofer contaft with ER than EM has with it; and the fmaller th: an;^le QBK is w^hich is contained between the curve and its equicurve circle, the clofer is the contact of the curve EM and its equicurve circle ER. Thus tlie length of the chord EB determines the via^^nituJi or degree cf curvature at E, when compared wilh another; and tlie angle con- tained between the equicurve circle and the conjugate curve BKF determines the cloftnefs of the crntaft of the curve with its equicurve circle (the angle TEB be- ing fuppofed the fame in both). It appears, from ihe procefs of demonftration, th.it the curve EMH falls without or within the equicurve circle according as its conjugate curve BKF does. Alfo, when BKF cuts BQR, HME alfo cuts it. But if FQB is on the fame iide ci QB on both fides of the interfe<5iion B, the curve HME is alio on the fame fide of it on both lidcs of the contact E. It is alfo very- clear, that the contaft or approach to coalefcence be- tween the curve and its circle of curvature, is (o much the clofer as tlie conjugate curve BKF comes nearer to the adjoining urcli of this circle. It muft be the clofeft of all when KB touches QB, .-ind it muft be the leaft fo when KB touches EB, or has EB tor an aiTymp- tote. The fpace QBK is a fort of magnili;d pieluie of the fpace MER ; and we have a fenfible proportion of TQjo TK as the reprefentation of the proportion of TM to TR, quan-.ities which are frequently eva- nefcent and infenlible. When QBK is a rinite angle, that is, when the tangents of BQjjnd BK do not coin- cide, the angle QBK can be meafured. But no refli- lineal angle can be contained as an unit in the curvili- neal angle MER. They are incommenfurable, or in- g comparable. Let the curve KB touch the circle ()B without cutting i This an_.;le is equally incomparable with the former QBK; yet it has a counterpart in MER. This muft be incomparable with the former in tlie fame manner ; for there is th.e fame proportion be- tween the individuals of both pairs. Thus it appears plainly, that there are curviiineal angles incomparable with each other. Yet arc they magnitudes of one kind ; becaufe the fmalleft rectilineal angle muft certain- ly contain them both ; and one cf ihem contains the other. But, further, there may be indclinite degrees of this coalefcence or clofenefs of conla.51 between :t curve and a circle. The tirll degree is when the lame right line touches both. This is -Afimple con'jd, and may obtain between any curve and any circle. The neit is when F^MH and ERB have the fame curvature, and when the conjugate curve FKB interftifts the circle QB in any aingnable angle. This is an ofcii'.tnin. Tl:e llurd degree I'f contaifl, and leconj of ofciilation, is wlicn the curve KB touches ilic circle QB, biitn<tfoa> to ofoulatc. The I'outth degree of contiv'l, and third of ol'culaiion, is when K D and (^i hive thefame curvature or ofculate in the Krft degree oi ol'cula'ior*. This grad.i- tion of more and more intimate conla<fl, or (more pro- perly fpeaking) of appro.\imation to coalefcence, may- be continued witliout end, " sequt novit natura hmilei'i," M m 2 the 1 N V [ 276 ] I N V r.volution. the coiitaft of EM and ER being always two degrees ■''~'^""^~' clofer than that of BK and BQ_^ Moreover, in each of thofe clalfts of contaifl ihete may be indefinite de- grees. Thus, when EM and ER have the fame cur- vature, the angle Q_bK admits of indefinite varieties, each of which afcei tains a diiforent clofenefs ot contaift at E. Alfo, though the angle QBK fliould be the fame, the ccntaift at E will be fo much the clolcr the greater the chord EB is. For TR:TM = TK:TQ_ Therefore RM : TR = KQj K i" Or RM : KQj= TR : TK ; = TR x TQ^: TK X TQ^= TE' : 'IK X TQ^ Theietoie, when TE is given, RM (which is then the meafure of the angle of contafl ) is proportional to KQjliredlly, and to the reJlangle TK x TQjnverfely ; and when KQjs given, RM is lefs in proportion as KT X TQjb greater. In the very neighbourhood of E and B, it is plain that KT x TQ_is very nearly equal to EB', and therefore ultimately RM : KQ_ = ET' : EB'. It will greatly afllll. our conception of this delicate fubjei.f, if we view the origin of thefe degrees of con- tact as they are generated by the evolution ot lines. A thread evolving from a polygon EDCBA (fig. 13.) defcribes with its extremity a a line edbca, confiding < f luccellive arches of circles united in fimple contads. If it evolve from any continuous curve CBA, after ha- ving evolved from the lines ED, BC, the arch ch will be united with the circular arch d c by ofculation of the lirll degree. If any other curve EC touch this evolute in a fimple cont3(51, and if ihe two curves FCBA and DCBA are both evolved, they will touch each other in a fimple ol'culalion in that point where they have the fame radius. If IC touches DC in a fimple ofcula- tion, the evolved curves will touch in an ofculation of the fecond degree; and, in general, the ol'culation of the two generated curves is a degree clofer than that of their evoluics ; and in each ftate of one cf the ofculi- tions, theie is an indefinite vaiiety of the other, accord- ing to the length of its radius oi curvature. All this is very clear; and Ihcws, that thefe degrees of contaift do not indicate degrees of curvature, one of which in- finitely exceeds another ; for they are all finite. The reader will do well to remark', that the magni- tude, which is the fubjefl of the above proportions, wliich is ieally of the fame kind in them all, and confi- dered as fufceptible of various degrees and orders of in- finitefimals, is not curvature, but lineal extenfion. It is RM, the fubtenfe of the angle of contaift MER. It is the linear feparation from the tangent, or from the equicurve circle. It is, however, ufually confidered as the meafure of curvature, or the proportions of this line are given as the proportions of the curvature. This is inaccurate ; for curvature is unqueftionably a change of dire<^ion only. As this line has generally been the in- terefting object in the refined Iludy of curve lines, efpe- cially in the employment of it in tiie difcuffions of me- chanical philofophy, it has attraifled the whole atten- tion, and the language is now appropriated to this con- fideration. What is called, by the moft eminent ma- thematicians, variation of curvature, is, in faifl, variation of the fubtenfe of the angle of contail. But it is ne- celfary always to diftinguilh them carefully. Variation of curvature is the remaining objefl of our Involution, attention. v^-v-^i^ Curvature is uniform in the circle alone. When the curvjture of the arch EMH (fig. 11) decreafes as we recede from E, the arch, being lefs deflcfted from its primitive diredion ET tlian the arch ER, mull fepa- rate lefs fiom the line ET, or mud fall without the arch ER. The more rapidly its curvature decreafes, the deicribing point muff be leit more witliuul the circle. It mud be the contrary, if its curvature had increafed from E toward M. It may change its cuive equably or uneqiiably. If equably, there mud be a ceitam uni- form rate, which would have produced the fame final change of direiftion in a line of the fame length, bend- ing it into the uniformly incurvated arch cii a circle. It is not fo obvious how to eilimate a rate of variation ot curvature ; and authors of eminence have dilTered in this edimaiion. Sir Ifaac Newton, who was much in- terefted in this difculHon, in his fiudies on univerfal gravitation, feems to liave adopted a meafui e which bed luited his own views ; and has been followed by the greater number. He gives a very clear conception of what he means, by Itating what he thinks a cafe of an invariable late of variation. This is the equiangular fpiral, all the arches of which, comprehended in equal angles from the centre, are perfeflly firailar, although continually varying in curvature. He calls this a curve EQUABLY VARIABLE, and makes its rate of variation (ellimated in that fenfe in which it is uniform) the meafuie of the rate of variation in all other curves. Let us fee in what refpefl its variation of curvature is cnn- ftant. It may be defcribed by the evolution of the fame fpiral in another pofition (fee fig. 6.), and the ra- tio between the radius of the evolute and that of the evolutrix is always the fame; or (which amounts to the fame thing) the arch of the evolutrix bears to the evol- ved arch ot the evolute a condant ratio. The curva- ture of the Ipiral changes more rapidly in the fame pro- portion as the ratio of the evolved arch to tlie arch of the evolutrix generated by it is greater, or as it cuts the radii in a more acute angle. Thefe arches may be infi- fluxion of evolute nitehmal; theretore the traction - . - -,- — .-ex- fluxion ot evolutrix prelTes the rate of the variation of curvature in this fpiral. Now \el a bed (fig. 13.) be any other curve, and ABCD its evolute ; let^ be the centre of curvature at the point B of the evolute, and B the evolved arch ; draw the ra- dii pB, po, Bm, on ; join / 7«, and draw B q perpendi- cular to p m. It is evident that m n and B have the fame ratio with B m and B/> ; and that thefe two fmall arches may be conceived as being portions of the fame equiangular Ipiral (perhaps in another pofition), of which q is the centre; and that/" is in the curve of another of the fame. For q p-. q'B ■= qV, : qM, zz pB -.B m ; therefore the ratio of thefe infinitefimal arches m n and B will exprefs the rate of variation in any curve. This is evidently equivalent to faying, that the variation of curvature is proportional to the fluxion of the radius of curvature direftly, and the fluxion of the curve inverfe- ly. For CT« and B are ultimately as thofe fluxions, -, where % is the arch of the and — IS equivalent to mil fpiral, and r the evolved radius of the other. Accord- ingly* I N V C 277 ] I N V Involution, ingly, this is the enunciation of the index of varia- lines of unequably varying curvature, and becomes a Iiivi.Itiiicii ^"^'''~**^ TiON given by Newton (See Newton's Fluxions, Prob. very good llandard of comparifon. In the paialiola ^-'^"''"^^ VI. § 3.). Therefore, what Newton calls a uniform ABC (fig. 8.) let the parameter be 2 a. The equation variation of curvature, is not an increafe or diminution ;, .hpn 7 /, v ..» • Ti^ _ „. * „, nr /~ — ; — r by equal arithmetical differences, but by equal propor- DQ = <» + 2 .x (by what was formerly demonftra^d ). tions of the curvature m every point. The variation of . Thefe and ry po curvature in (imilar points of fimilar arches is fuppofed to be the fame. It is evident that this ratio is the fame with that of radius to the tangent of the angle p m B, or of i to its tabular tangent. The tangent therefore of this angle correfpnnding to any point of a curve is the me.afure of the variation of curvature in that point. Now it may be (hewn (and it will appear by and bye), that the fluxion of TK in fig. 1 1. or the ultimate value of KQ, a j '_ is always -yds of the fluxion of the radius of curvature, p ' Moreover, DB: BE= DQ.: BN; and BN =z ^l±ii^ ap ■\- 2 xp + 2 px equations give z a x z= 2 y y, z= 2 fp ; = r. Now making x = and reducing the equations, we obtain y = • ap+ 2 xp + 2/>. P = yi^ = With thefe values of y,p, r, we obtain a ntimeric Therefore the tangent of the angle QBK is always yds of that of p m B ; and therefore the angle QBK, which we have feen to be an index of the clofeiici; of contact, value of ^^ moft readily. Thus, in order to obtain is alfo the index of the variation of curvature (See / M'Liiurhi, § 386.). '''* index of variation of curvature in the point where Sir Ifaac Newton has given fpecimens of the ufe of 'he ordinate at the focus cuts the parabola, make a = i . thismeal'ureina variety of geometrical curves, by means 'fhen 2 .v = v' • *■ = ' v (■= a/ 2 x)— 1 ■ of a general expreffion of (fig. 8.), let AB be = ; Thus, in the curve ABC AD = Nn =: »•, and BE = p ; we have = BE = > : />, = B J : B I, =z x : 'z. , DB = y, BN r. Now DB: Therefore ~ =: and r ( = __ (=7) p ( = V^' + y) = ^^ i ; P (= -"j^ V I. (=tt±l^l±±P'^ = ^2x3. There- ^, and -r = — . Now, in every curve which we can exprefs by an equation, we can obtain all thefe quanti- ties/!, _y, r, and 2, and can therefore obtain the meafure of the variation of curvature. It alfo deferves particu- lar notice, that this inveftigation of -7- is equivalent ■with finding the centre and radius of curvature of the evolute, by which the curve under confideration is ge- nerated ; or with finding the centre q (fig. 13.) of an equiangular fpiral, which will touch our curve in t», its evolute in B, and the evolute of the evolute \n p, if put into different pofitions when neceffary. This leads to very curious fpeculalions, for which, however, we have no room. It lias been faid, for indance, that tlie cur- vature at the intcrfec5lion of a cycloid with its bafe is infinitely greater than that of any circle. If the evolu- tion of the cycloid begin from tiiis point, the curvature fore -— = 3, = the index of variation in the point B P when D is the focus of the parabola ; that is to fay, the fluxion of the radius of curvatuie is three times the fluxion of the curve. The index of variation, where the ordinate is equal to the parameter, is had by making k = 2 . This gives y = 2; y={; p= a/ ;; p = y'f, and r = 3 v^ 5. Wherefore — — = 6, which is the index of variation. f M reover, fince p and r are in a conflant ratio, it ap- pears that the index of variation of curvature in the p.i- rabola is proportional to the ordinateji. It is always , ordinate , . . . ... , , = 6 ■; and thus, with very little trouble, we parameter can defcribe the evolute of its evolute, *. e. cf the femi. cubical parabola. In like manner, it may be fbewa, that in all the conic fedlions -r is always proportional to the reftangle of of its evolutrix will be infinitely greater ftiU upon the the ordinate DB and the fubnotmal DE, orioDB x fame principles ; and we Ihall have rne infinitely greater £)£. In the parabola, whofe equation is 2 a .v =_/*» th in this by evolving it. Yet all thefe infinities, multi- • , plied to infinity, are contained in the central point of we have^-=: — =-. In an ellipfe, whofe equation is every equiangular fpiral ! In like manner, there are evolutrixes which coincide with a llraight line, and others of infinitely greater rcifluude, and (\ill they arc curves. Can ihis have any meaning J And can it be reconciled wiih the legitimate reafoning fri>m the f.imc principles, that all thefe curvatures and angles of contaift are producible by evolution ; and that they may l>c, and certainly are every day dcfcribed, by bodits moving in free fpace, and a(fled ou by accelerating forces direifled to different bodies ? r 3 — 3* 2 ax — ^ .v' = v', we have — : = » a X DB X DE, and in the hyperbola, whofe equation is 2 j x ■{. t + if' X DB X DE. This ratio, in all the three feflions, is always as the tangent of the angle contained between the diameter and the nor- mal at the point of contact. By this we may compare The parabola (conicalj is the moft (Iiiiple of all the them with a parabola. In the cycloid at tlie point E Involution, II Joan. J O A (fig. 5.) -r is = tan. -i^ EKM, &c. See. [ 278 • VUlarit Hi/Inn de France^ torn. XV. p. 7i- \ Tafquier Uijloire d!' Orleans J liv. vi. All thefe things may be traceJ in the obfervations made on lig. 11. and 12. When the ai.gle BET is a right angle, the angle KBQ_indicates it dircdlly, its tangent being always = — :-• It is eafy alfo to fee, 3 = that when the curve EMH is a parabola, the line BKFis a llraight line parallel to El'. It is alio pliin, lliat by the f.ims Heps that we proved that no circle can pafs betwe.'n this parabola ar.d its equicurve circle ERB, lb no other parabola can pal's between them. Indeed the fame realoning will j)rove that no cuivc ol' the fame kind can pafs between any curve and its ofciilating circle. In many cafes, it is more cafy to reafon from the curvature of a curve, by comparing it with un equi- curve parabola than with an equicurve circle ; prirticu- larly inticating of the curvi'.ineal motions ot bodies in free i'pace, aifluated by dcfleifling forces. If EMH be an ellipfe or hyperbcila, BKF is another ellipfe or Hyperbola fj'>/'Z.<7Br/V;, j 373 J We have thus endeavoured to introduce cur readers into this curious branch of fpeculative geometry. An introdu<5lion is all that can be e.\pei5ted Irom a worlc of this kind. We have enlarged on particular points, in proportion as we thought that the notions entertained on the fubjcfl were inadequate, or even vague and in- dillii.cl ; and we hope that Ibme may be incited to ac- quire ck-arer conceptions by going to the fountain head. We conclude, by recommending to the young geome- ter the perufal of the Fluxions of Sir Ilaac Newton, after he has read M'Laurin's Chapter with care. He will probably be furprifed and delighted with feeing llie whole compreiied by a mailer's hand into fuch nar- row compafs with fuch beautiful peifpicuity. JOAN d' Arc, the maid of Orleans, has been va- rioully charafterifed ; but all now agree, that (he was worthy of a better fate than the horrid death fhe was doomed to die. (&ee]o.\H d'ylrc, Emycl.). Butdidllie ailually die that death ? An ingenious writer in the Monthly Mjgazinehis proved, we think, that (he did not. The bilhop of Beauvais (fays he) is accufed by all parties of treachery and trick in the condud of the trial : it was his known propeii/ity to gain his ends by ftratagem, craft, manoeuvre, fraud, dexterity. Hefeeks out, and brings forward, fuch teftimony only as relates to ecclefiaftical offences, and then hands over the deci- fion to the fecular judges, v/hofe clemency he invokes. Joan fays to him publicly, " You * promifcd to reftore me to the church, and you deliver me to my enemies." The intention ol thebilhop, then, mull have been, that the fecular judges, for want of evidence, lliould fee no of- fence againll the flate ; as the clerical judges, notwith- ftanding the evidence, had declined to fee any againll the church. A fatal fentence was, however, pro- nounced ; and the fulfilment of it entrufted to the ec- clefiaftical authorities. Immediately after the auto da fc, one ot the executioners ran to two friars, and faid, " that he had never been fo fhocked at any execution, and that the Engllfh had built up f a fcaJfblding of plaller (un echafaud de plalre) fo lofty, that he could not approach the culprit, which muft have caufed her ] J O H fufferlngs to be long and horrid." She was, therefore, by fome H/;(//ia/ contrivance, kept out of the reach and obfervatinn even ot the executioners. Some time after, when public conimifcration had fucceeded to a vindiiftlvc bigotry, a woman appeared at MetzJ:, who declared hetlllf to he Joan of Arc. She was everywhere welcomed with zeal. At Or- j ^,'j7„,v, y^ leans, efpecially, where Joan was well known, (he was h Fuedle received with the honours due to the liberatrefs of the/'jr /' AbbS town. She was acknowledged by both her brothers, Lingkt. Sec Jean and Pierre d'Arc. On their tellimony (he was j"° ^'' married by a gentltman of the houfe of Amboife, in Ikt" Mon. 1436. At their Iblicitation her fentence v.'as annulled /?r,?to; and in 1456. The Paril'ians, indeed, long remained incrc-thc manu- duiou> : they nuill die have punlrtied thofeecdefiallics, fcript au- whole humanity, perhaps, confijired with the bilhoij '*''"'""^*/'- r -r, ■ . ■ u I 1 r 1 . ted by the ol beauvais to withdraw licr liom real execution ^ontinu^.o- down a central chimney of brick and mortar; or, as ^f y(,iiy_ the executioner called it, a fcaffcldlng of plafter. Tlie king, for the woman feems to have Iliunned no confron- tation, is dated to have received her with thcfe words : " Pucelle, m'ami^, Joycz In ties bien revenue, an nom di Dieu." She is then faid to have communicated to hitn, kneeling, the artifice pra(5lifo<l. Can this woman be an impollor ? Our author thinks not, and appeals to A'oltaiie, who, in his profe works, fcems willing to al- low that (he was not, as i» too commonly imagined, one of th"fe half-infane enthufialls, employed as tools to work upon the vulgar ; whom the one party endeavour- ed to cry up as a prophetefs, and the other to cry down as a witch ; but that (he was a real heroine, fu- perior to vulgar prejudice, and no lefs remarkable by force of mind than h. r a courage and ftrength unufual in her fex. This opinion is certainly countenanced by her behaviour in adverfity, and during her trial, which was firm without infolence, and exalted without aifoiflation. JOHN, BAYOUK OF St, a little creek which furnillies a very eafy communication from New- Oi leans to Weft-Florida. It is navigable for vcflels drawing about 4 feet water 6 miles up from the lake Ponchar- train, where there is a landing place, at which velfels load and unload : this is about 2 miles from the town. The entrance of the Bayouk of St John is detended by :i battery of 5 or 6 cannon. There are lomc plantati- ons on the Bayouk, and on the road from thence to New- Orleans. — Alone. John de Frontiera, St, is the chief town of the province of Cuyo in Peru. — ii. John's College, St, in Maryland, is fituated in the city of Annapolis, was inftituted in 1784, to have 24 truftees, with power to keep up the fuccelTion by fupplying vacancies, and to receive an aniiu.il income ol ^9,000. It has a permanent fund of _(^"i,750 a year, out of the monies an ling from marriage licenfes, fines and forfeitures on the Weftern Shore. This college, with Walhington college at Cheftertown, conftitute one univerfity, named " The Univerfity of Mary- land." The convocation of the Univerfity of Mary- land, who are to frame the laws, preferve uniformity of manners and literature in the colleges, confer the higher degrees, determine appeals, &c. — ib. John's Island, in South-Carolina, lies S. W. of ^ Charlcllon harbour, divided from James's Ifland by Stono river, which forms a convenient and fafe harbour. —ib. John's I'l.Al I. \\\ I'i'l -^-s =' ■ .loXKSIA /•'■'/; o ^ . ^ XLVI.K Laiiuizabai-a ,1 4 4 * ♦ ^ i/.,i '•••■"• /■ IWOI.I IION J'l}/^). ' / is % A 1) ■/ X I'l \IK .VWII . /■/</ // J O H C 379 ] J6hay John's, St, one of the chief towns of Newfoundland ifland, fituated on the eall coaft, 6 miles north-weft of Cape Spear, and 18 fouth-eaft ot Cape St Francis. N. lat. 47° 32', W. lonp. 52" 21'. It lies on the bay of the fame name. Its harbour is one of the bell in the ifland, and has from 10 to 17 fathoms water up to King's wharf, which is a little to the north-weft of the Old Fort, at the bottoin of the town, and is a mile from the mouth of the harbour. A mile further is the mouth of Caftor river, in which dillance there is from 14 to 4 fathoms of water. On the fouth fide of this river is King's whart, an hofpital, and a watering place. Near thefe are the hills called the High Lands of St John's. N. lat. 47" 32', W. long. 52" 29'.— i/^. John's, St, a bay and ifland on the weft coaft of Newfoundland ifland, in the gulf of St Lawrence, at the foulh-well end of the ftraits of Bellifle. — il), John's River, St, in Eaft-Florida riles in or near a large fwamp in the heart of Eaft-Florida, and pur- fues a northern courfe, in a broad navigable ftream, which in feveral places fpreads into broad bays or lakes ; of which I^ake George is the chief. Vellcls that draw 9 or 10 feet water, may navigate fately through the weft channel into St Jolin's 1 iver as far as Lake George. The bar at the mouth is liable to fliift. It is io\ leagues north of St Auguftine. — ib. John's River, Liit/e Si, in Weft Florida, falls into Apalache Bay, about 10 miles eaftwarJ of Apalache ri- ver. It isfaid to be the cleareft and pureft of any in Ame- rica, is about 200 yards broad, and about 15 or 20 feet deep at the town of Talahafochete. The fwamp called Ouaquaphenogaw is faid to be itsfource, which is ico miles by land from Talahafochete, and, following its windings, from the fea zoo miles. The Indians and traders fay it has no branches, or tributaries, which fall into It ; but that it ib ted by great fprings which break out through the banks. — ii. John's, St, is the largelt river in (he Britifli province of New. Brum wick. From its mouth on the north fide of the bay of Fundy, to its main fource is computed to be 350 miles. The tide flows 80 or 90 miles up this river. It is navigable for floops of 50 tons 60 miles, and for boats 200. Its general courfe from its Iburce is E. S. E. It furnilhes the grcaleft plenty tif falmon, bafs, and fturgeon ; and is the common route to Q^icbec. About a mile above the city of St John's is the only entrance into this river. It is about 80 or 100 yards wide, and about 4C0 yards in length ; call- ed the falls ol the river. It being narrow, and a ridge of rocks running acrofs the bottom ot the channel, on which are not above 17 feet of water, it is not fuffici- cnlly fpacious to difcharge the frclh waters of the river above. The common tides flowing here about 20 feet, the waters of the river, at low water, are about 1 2 feet higher than the waters of the fea ; at high water, the waters of tlie fea are about five feet higher than thofe of the river ; fo that in every tide there are two falls, one outwards and one inwaids. Tlic only time of pafllng with faicty is at the time when the waters of tlie liver arc level with the waters ot the lea, which is twice in a tide, and continues not more tiian 20 mi- nutes each time. At other times it is cither impaffa- ble or extremely dangerous ; reri.-mliling the paflagc of Hell Gate near New- York. The banks of this ri- ver, enriched by the annual frcQiets, aic excellent land. J O H About 30 miles from its mouth commences a fine le- vel country of rich intervale and meadow land?, v.-ell cloathed wit!i timber and v/ood, fuch as pine, beech, elm, m.)ple, and walnut. It has many tributary ftreims, which fall into it on e.ich fide, among which are the Oromofto river, by which the Indians" have a communication with Pallamaquoddy , the Nafliwach and Madamkifwick, on which are rich intervales that produce all kinds of grain in the higheft perfeftion. This noble river, in its numerous and extenfive branch- es, waters and enriches a large trad of excellent coun- try, a great part of which is fettled and under im- provement. The uplands, in general, are covered with a fine growth of timber, fuch as pine and fprure, hemlock and hardwood, principally beech, birch, maple, and fome alh. The pines on this river are the largefl to be met with in Britilh America, and aflFord a confiderable fupply of marts, fome from 20 to 30 inches in diameter, for the Britilh navy. — ih. John's, St, one of the Virgin Iflands, about 12 le.igues eaft of Porto Rico. It is about 5 miles long and I broad ; and 2 leagues fouth of St Thamas. It is the beft watered of all the Virgin Ifles ; and itsli.ir- bcur, called Crawl Bay, is reckoned better than that of St Thomas, and palfes for the beft to the leeward of Antigua. There is, however, little good land in the ifland and its exportations are trifling. — ii John's, St, an ifland in the gulf of St Lawrence, near the northern coaft of Nova- Scotia, to which go- vernment it is annexed. It is 117 miles in length from N. E. to S. W. The medium bieadth is 20 miles; but between Richmond Bay on the north, and Halif.ix Bay on the fouth, it is not above 3 miles broad- The otlier bays on the north fide are Londnn Haibout, Grand Raflied, and St Peters j tl.o.'is on thcfor.h fide, Eemont, Halifax, and HiUtborough. On the eaft fide, Tliree River Harbour, and Murry Haibour. It has feveral fine rivers, a rich foil, and is plea antlv fituated. Its capital is Charlitte-Town, the icfidence of the lieutenant-governor, who is the chief oflicer on the ifland. The nimiber of inhabitants are eftiniated at about 5,000. Upon the redu<ftion of Cipc Brtir.n in 1745, ''^"^ inhabitants quietly fubmitted to th; Biitilh arms. While the French poflVired this ifland, they im- proved it to fo much advantigc, as that it was called the granary of Canada, which it furniflitd with great plenty of corn, as well as beel and pork. Wh:n taken it had 10,000 head of black cattle upon it, and fevera ot tile farmers railed 12,000 bufbels of corn arnually. Its rivers abound with falmon, trout, and eels, and the furrounding fea aH'ords plenty nf (turgeon, pliice, and nioft kinds of Ihelltilh. Tlic ifland is divided into 3 counties, viz. King's, Queen's, and Prince's coun- ties ; which are fubdivided into 14 pariflies, corfillinj^ of 27 towiilhips, which in all make 1,363,400 acres, the contents of the ifland. The chief town«, befidcs the capital, are Georgetown, Prince's- Town j befides which are Hillfborough-Town, Pownal-Town, M.iry- borough-Town, &c. It lies between 45" 46', and 47* 10 N. lat- and between 44"* 22', and 46" 32' W. long. — it. John's, St, the nrrlh-wellcrnmoft town in Sulfcx county, Delaware, is filuatcd at the head of the mid- dle branch of Nanticoke river, about 27 miles N. E. rf Vienna in Maiyland, and 22 S. by W. of Dover. — il'. John's, St, a town and fort in Lower Canada, fitu- alcd John'j. J O H [ 2S0 ] atcd on the weft bank of Sorel river, at the north end of like Champlain, a few miles fouihward of Ch:ini- blee, 2S miles I'outhward of Montreal. It has been ed.iblilhed as the fole port of entry and clearance i"ur all goods imported from the interior of the United St itei into Canada, by an ordinance publilhed by the executive council of Lower Canada, the yih of July, 1796. It is II) miles noithwavd of TiconJeroga, and was taken by General Montgomery in Nov. 1775. N. lat. 45" 9', W. long. 72° 18'. — ;■*. John, St, a lake in Lower-Canada, which receives rivers from every direftion, and fends its waters through Saguenai river into the St Lawrence, atTadoufac. It is about 25 miles each way. — ':b. John's Berkley, St, a parifti of S. Carolina, in Charlefton dillriifl, containing 5,922 inhabitants; ot whom 692 are whites, and 5,170 are flaves. — ib. Joiin'o, St, a I'mall illand in the Wett-Indics belong. inj; to Denmark, north of St Croix, and fouth of Tor- tola, to wliich hft it is very near. It is noted only for its fine harbour, which is faid to be fufficient to contain in fafety the whole Britilh navy. It has a num- ber of fait ponds, which, however, arc no evidence of its fertility. — ib. John's Colleton, St, a parilli of S. Carolina, in Charlelfon dillrid, containing 5,312 inhabitants; of ■whom 58.5 are whites, and 4,705 llaves. — ib. John's, St, the capital of the iiland of Antigua in the Weft-Indies. It is a legularly built town, with a harbour of the fame name, fituated on the weft ihore, and on the north-eaft fide of LobloUo Bay. The en- trance of the harbour is defended by Fort James, this town is the refidence of the governor general of the leeward Charaibe Illands, and where the aliembly is held, and the port where the greateft trade is carried on. It was fo fiouriftiing as to receive a lofs by a florm, to the value of;^400,ooo fterling. N. lat. 17" 4', W. long. 62" 4'. — ib. John, St, or Juan dc Porto Rico, the capital of the jfland of Porto Rico, in the Welt-Indies. — ib. JOHNSBURY, Sr, a townlhip in Caledonia county, in Vermont, bounded S. W. by Danville, and has 143 inhabitants. — ib. JOHNSON FORT, in S. Carolina, lies on the N. E. fide of James's Illand, and fouth of the city of Charlefton. It ftands at the entrance of the harbour, and by which no vefFel can pafs unlefs the mafter or mate make oath that no malignant diltemper is on board. It is guarded by 10 men. — ib. JOHNSTON FORT, or John/on Fort, in N. Ca- rolina, ftands on the weltern bank of Cape Fe.tr river, oppofite to the ifland on the fea-coaft whofe fouthern point is Cape Fear. — ib. JOHNSONSBOROUGH, a poil-town of New- Jerfey, 10 miles from Sullex court-houfe. — ib. Johnson's Landing-Place, is on O-yongwongyeh Creek, about 4 miles eaftward of Fort Niagara. — ib. Johnson, a county of N. Carolina, in Newbern diftrlift, bounded S. E. by Glafgow, N. by Franklin and Wayne counties, and S. by Sampfon. It contains 5634 inliabitants, of whom 1329 are flaves. — ib. JOHNSTOWN, a poft-town and the capital of Montgomery county. New- York, fituated on the N. bank ot Mohawk river, 24 miles W. of Scheneflady. The compuift part of the town is a little back from the J O K river, and contains about 70 houfes, a Prelbyterian and an Epifcopal church, a court-houfe and gaol. In tiie townlhip 593 of the inhabitants are elcftors. , Caghnawaga is a parifli or diftrift of Johnftown 26 miles above Scheneflady on the river. Settlements have been made here tor about So years. Here ftand the dwelling lioiile, barn, and ou'.-houfcs (allofftone) formerly occupied by Sir William Johnfon. This fettlement was moftly deftroyed by the Britifh in the year 1780, who were joined by a party of Indians and iithers, under the command of Sir William Johnfon. In this aifiion it is alferted, that Sir William evinced a want of feeling which would have difgraced a favagc. The people deftroyed in this expedition were his old neighbours, svith whom he had formerly lived in the habits of friendlhip. His eftate was among them ; and the inhabitants had always confidered him as their iriend. Thefe unfortunate people, after feeing their houfes and property confumed, were hurried, f'uch as could walk, into cruel captivity ; ihofe who could not, fell viiitims to the tomahawk and fcalping knife. — ib. JOHNSTON, a townftiip in Pruvidence county, Rhode-Ifland, wefterly of the town of Providence, having 1320 inhabitants. — :b. Johnston, a townlhip in Franklin county, in Ver- mont ; it contains 93 inhabitants. — :b. jONAS's SOUND, the moft northern inlet on the weflern coaft cf Sir Thomas Smith's Bay, lying near the ariftic circle, in latitude 76°. — ib. JONES (Sir William), who was ftyled by Johnfon the moft enlightened of men, was the fon of William Jones, Efq ; one ot the laft of thole genuine mathema- ticians, admirers, and contemporaries of Newton, who cultivated and improved the fciences in the lafl cen- tury. Our author was born on the 28th of September 1746, and received his education at Harrow fchool, under the care of Dr Robert Sumner, whom he has celebrated in an eulogium which will outlaft brafs or marble. We are told that he was a clafs fel- low with Dr Parr, and at a very early age dil'played talents which gave his tutor the moft promifing expec- tatiop.s, and which have fince been amply juftitied. From Harrow he was fent to Univerfity college, Ox- ford, where the rapidity and elegance of liis literary ac- quifitions excited general admiration ; while a temper, ardently generous, and morals perfectly irreproachable, procured him teftimonies of the molt valuable efteem. The grateful afTedlion which he always cheriltied for that venerable leat of learning, did as much honour to his fenfibility, as Oxford herfelf has received by enroll- ing him among the number of lier fons. In the twenty-third year of his age he travelled through France, and refided feme time at Nice, where he employed himfelf very differently from mofl othei young men who make what is called the tour of Ea , rope. Man, and the influence of various forms of go- virnmcnt, were the principal objects of his inveftigation ; and in applying the refult of his inquiries to the ftate of his own country, he m>ngled the folicitudes of the Patriot with the honeft partialities of an Engliftiman. Mr Jones's firft literary work was a tranllation in- to French of a Perfian manufcript, entitled " Hijloire de Nadir Sl>ah, conmi Jous Ic nom de Thahmas Kuli Khan, Empereur de Perfi," in two vols. 4to ; the hifto- ry of which performance we ihall give in his own words i J O N [ 281 ] J O N Jontf. words : " A great northern monarcli, who vifited ^"""^^ this country a few years ago, under tiie name ot the Prince of Travendal, hrought with hini an ealtern ma- nufcript, containing tlie hfe of N'ldir Shah, the late fo- vereign of Perfia, wliich he was delirous of having tranflated in England. The fecretary of (late, with whom the Danilh minider had converfed upon the fiib- jed, font the volume tome, rcquefting me to give a li- teral tranflation of it in the French language ; but I wholly declined the tailc, alledging for my excufe tiie length of the book, the drynefs of the fubjeifV, the dif- ficulty of the ftyle, and chiefly my want both of Ici- fure and ability to enter upon an undertaking fo fruit- lels and fo 1 d)orious. I mentioned, however, a gentle- man, with whom I had not then the pleafuie ot being acquainted, but who had diltinguiihed himfelf by a tratillation of a Pcrfiati hiftory, and was far abler than myfeU to fatisfy the king of Denmark's expeflations. The learned writer, who had other works upon his hands, excufed himfelf on tlie account of his many engagements ; and the application to nie was renewed. It was hinted, that my compliance would be of no fmall advantage to me at my entrance into life ; that it would procure me fome mark of dillindion which might be pleating to me ; and, above all, that it would be a reflec- tion upon this country, if the king Ihonld be obliged to carry the manulcript into France. Incited by thefe motives, and principally by the lafl of them, unwilling to be thought churlilh or morofe, and eager for the bubble reputation, I undertook the work, and fent a fpecimen of it to his Danilh Majefty ; who returned his approbation of the tlyle and method, but defued that the whole tranflation might be pcrfeflly literal, and the oriental images accurately preferved. The talk would have been tar eal'ier to me, had I been direifled to finifli it in Latin ; for the acqtiifition of a French llyle was infinitely more tedious ; and it was neceffary to have every chapter corrcded by a native of France, before it could be offered to the difcerning eye of the public, fince in every Unguagc there are certain peculiarities ot idiom, and nice tirades of meaning, which a foreigner can never learn to perfedion. But the work, how ar- duous and unpleafing foever, was completed in a year, not without repeated hints from the fecretary's otHce SuppL. Vol. II. that it was eipedcd v/ith great impatience by the Jinsi- Coiirt of Denmark." The tranflation oftheHiilory '-'"^'"'^- ol Nadir Shah was publiflied in the fummer of the ytar 1770, at the expence of the trantlator ; and forty co- pies upon large paper were fent to Copenha;^cn ; me of them bound with uncommon elegance ft r the king himfelf, and the others as prefents to his eour- tieri.* . r. , What marks ot dillinilion our author received, or //., u,jl.„j what fruits he reaped for his Libour, he has not thought "f N^dir proper to difclufe ; but if any dependence it to' be *''^*' '"3- placed on common fame, the reward bellowed upon him for this l.iborious taflc confilted only in tlie thanks of his Danilh Majefty, and the liotiour of being enroll- ed in the Royal Society of Copenhagen. That dif- tiniflion was indeed accompanied with a letter, recom- mending the learned tranflator to the patronage of his own fovereign ; but, in the interim, his friend Lord Dartmouth, who was to have delivered it, had refign- ed his office of fecretary of ftale, and the letter, we are told, was never prcfented. There is reafon to think, that this early and fevere dilappointment made a deep imprefTion on his mind, and induced liini to renounce the mufes for a lime, ai\d to apply himfelf with afilduity to the fltidy of juril- prudence. This we think apparent, from the Hyle in which he writes of his return Irom the continent, and of the death of his beloved preceptor Dr Sumner. " When I left Nice, (fays he) where I had rel'ideil near feven months, and after traverfmg alniolt all France, returned to England, I moll ardently defired to pafs feveral years more in the lludy of polite literature ; as then, I thought, I might enter into public life, to which my ambition had aKvays prompted me, more mature and prepared : but with this fruit of myleilure, either fortune, or rather Providence, the difpofer of all human events, would not indulge my floth ; for on a fudden, I was obliged to quit that very literature to which, from my childhood, I had applied myfelt'; and he who had been the encouragcr and airili.int of my ftudies, who had inftruifled, taught, forrrcd me fuclr as I was-, or if I am any thing at all, Roiifxr SuM.stR, within a year after my return, was fuatchcd away by an untimely death (a)." N n In (a) As a fpecimen of our author's latinity, we fubjoin the epitaph on Dr Sumner, which is alTricd to the wail of the fouth tranfcpt of Harrow church. T_r c p R O B E R T U S SUMNER, S. T. P. CoUcgii Regalis apud Cantab, olim Socius, Scholsc Harrovienfis haud ita pridem Archididatcalus. Fuit hoc pro-'i^antiirimo Viro Ingcnium natur.i peracre, optimarum difciplinls artium fedulo Excultum, ufu diuturno confirmatum, & quodammodo lubaiflum. Nemo cnim atit in reconditis fipientix tludiis illo lubtilior extiiit, Aut humanioribus literis limaiior: nemiisi fere vel felii-ius Contigit judicii acumen, vel uberior eruditiouis copia. Egregiis hilce cum dotibus naturx, turn dudrii-.a- ftiblidiis, Infuper acccdebat in fcriptis mira ac propc perfcda eloquentia. Infermone facctiarum lepor plane Atticus, & gravitate iu.iviter Afpera urbanitas ; in moribus lingularis (juscJam integritas & fides ; Vitsc deniquc ratio conllan fibi, & ad virtutis normanr diligenter feverc<iuf, Exculta. Omnibus qui vel amico cfTent eo, vel niagillro ufi, dodrina-, Ingenii, virtutis trillc rcliquit dcfiderium, fubita, elicu I atque immaiuri Morte coneptus prid. Id. Sept. A. D. t77i, ^t. 41. J O N [ 282 ] JON JoiiM. la 1771 Mr Jones publiflied Dijcrtalion fur la ^"^^"^^ J.luraiure Orienta/e, Svo, and ihis was followed by Lel/>e i Monfcur yl** Du P***, dans hqu.lle ejl compr'is r Exomeii di fa TradjUion des Livres atlribuis a Zorcajlic, 8vo. 'Ihe difTertation offered a favour- able Ipecimen of the authoi's abilities as a lingnill and as a critic; and the letter contained a fpiiited vindi- caiion of the univeriuy of Oxford, from the very fiunilous reproaches, in which its incompetency in Oiienlal literaliire was afTirted by the illiberal tranf- llator of the fuppofed woiks of the Perfian philofo- pher. In the fame year ke gave to the public, " A Gram- mar of the Perfian language," 4to, and at the fame time propofed to rcpublilh Meniniki's Didlionaiy, with improvements from De Lahrojfce's Cazofkylacium Ltn- ^U't Pcrfiuiim, and to add in their proper place an Ap- pendix fuljoined to Gehanaguire's I'erfic Dictionary. The Grammar lias heeu found extremely ufeful, and has been reprinted feveral times ; but the defign of the Diclionary, though an objeil of even national impor- tance, ior want of due encouragement was obliged to be laid al'idc. In 1772 he publifted "Poems; confiRing chiefly of Tranflauons from the Afutic Languages. To which are added two Eifays ; l. On the Poetry of the Eaflern Nations. 2. On the Arts commonly called Imita- tive," Svo, which in 1777 he republilhcd with the ad- dition of tome Latin Poems, every way worthy of their author. On the iBtii June 1773, he took the degree of Mafter of Aits, and the fame year publilhed " The HiUory of the Lite of Nadir Shah, King of Perfia. Extracted from an Eaderu Manulcript, which was tranilatcd ii.to French by order of his Mwjelly the King cifDeimiark. With an Introduction, containing, i./l Defciipiion of Alia according to the Oriental Geogra- phers. 2. A (liort Hiflory cf Perfia frwm the earliell Times to the prefent Century : And an Appendix, confiding of an Eifay on Afiatic Poetry, and the Elif- tory of the Perfian Language. To which are added Pieces rel.nive to ilie French Tranfiation," Svo. Our author having at this period detei mined to ftudy the law as a pnifeflion, and to relinquilli every other purfuir, our readers will net be difpleafed with the loUowing extraft, relating to this refolution, which coccludas the preface to the hiflory now under con- fideraiion : «' To conclude ; if any efTeniial miftakes be detedl- ed in this whole performance, the read:r will excufi ll.em, when he refleifs upon the great variety of dark and intricate points which are difculFed in it ; and it the obfcurity of the fiibjecf be not a fuffkient plea for the errots which may be difcovered in the work, let it be confidered, to ufe the words of Pope in the preface to his juvenile poems, that there are very few things in this colle<ffion which were not written under the age of ttve-and-twenty : mofl of them indeed were compufed in the intervals of my kifuie in the South of France, before I had applied myfelf to a Rudy of a very differ- ent nature, which it is now my refolution i.t make the fole ()bj;i5t of my life. Whatever then be the fate of this produiStion, I fhall never be tempted to vindicate any paitofit which may be thought exceptionable; but fhall gladly refign my own opinions, for the fake of embracing others, which may feem mure probable ; being perfuaded, that nothing is more laudable than the love of truth, nothing more odious than the oblli- *" nacy of perfilling in error. Nor fliall I eallly be in- duced, when I have difburdencd myfelt of two other pieces which aie now in the pret's, to begin any other work of the literary kind ; but fhall confine myfelf wholly to that branch of knowledge in wliich it is my chief ambition to excel. It is a painful conliJeration, that the profeflion of literature, by far tlie moff labo- rious of any, leads to no real benefit or true glory whatfoever. Poetry, fcience, letters, when tiiey are not made the fole bufinets of life, may become its or- naments in profperity, and its moll pleafing confolation in a change of fortune ; but if a man addiifls himl'elf entirely to learning, and hopes by that, either to raife a family, or to acquire, what fo many wifli for, and fo few ever attain, an honourable retirement in his decli- ning age, ho will find, when it is too late, that he lias miflaken his path ; that other labours, other fludies, are neceliary ; and that unlefs he can allert his own inde- pendence in aflive life, it will avail him little to be fa- voured by the learned, efteemed liy the eminent, or re- commended even by kings. It is tiue, on the other h and, that no external advantages can make amends for the lufs of virtue and integrity, which alone give a perfedl comfort to him wlio poffell'es them. Let a man, therefore, who wiflies to enjoy, what no fortune or honour can beflow, the bleffing of felf-approbation, aipire to the glory given to Pericles by a celebrated hiflorian, of being acquainted with all ufeful know- ledge, of expreiring what he knows with copioufnefs and freedom, of loving his friends and country, and of dildaining the mean purfuits of lucre and intereil : this is the only career on whicli an iionel^ man ought to enter, or from which he can hope to gain any fuiid happinefs." The next year he piiblifhed Pocfeos yifiat'tct Com- ment'iriorum Litri Sey, cum Apfendice : fubjieiiur Limon, fii Mifcellaiicontm Liter, Svo ; and purfuing his pur- pofe of applying to the fludy of the law, we hear no more of him from the prefs (except the new editi- on of his Poems), until the year 1779. In this in- terval he was called to the bar, and attended Well- minfter hall and the Oxford circuit, where be ob- tained but little bufinel's. He was however appoint- ed a commifTioner of bankrupts by Lord Bathurfl, who is fuppofed to have intended to exert his in- teiefl; to procure his nomination to the bench in the Eafl Indie?. He pubiifhed in this year, " The fpeeches of Ifeus, in caufes concerning the law of fucceffion to properly at Athens ; with a preparatory difcourfe, notes critical and hiflorical, and a Commentary, 410." In this valu- able work, the talents cf the fcholar, the critic, and the lawyer, combine to elucidate a very important part of jurifprudence ; for, "though deep refearches into the legal antiquities of Greece and Rome (as he obferves in his Commentary) are of greater ufe to fcholars and contemplative perfons, than to lawyers and men of bullnefs ; though Braflon and Lyttleton, Coke and RoUe, are the proper objeifls of our ftudy ; yet the ablell advocates, and wifefl judges, have frequent- ly embelliflied their arguments with learned allu- fions to ancient cafes ; and fuel) allufions, it mufl be allowed> are often ufeful, always ornamental ; and} Jones. JON [2 Jon?». and, when they are introduced without pedantry, ••'"''~**^ never fail to pleai'e." The work was dedicated in u ft)Ie of reipedtful gratitude to his patron I^ord Dathuill. In the year 1780, we find our anthor a candidate to rcprefent in parliament the univerfity of Oxford. He had tor fome time refiJed but little in the univerfity, and therefore lalxiursd under fome dii'advantages ; but he did not meanly court the fupport of any man. In a paper, which was circulated on that occafion, his friends, who were numerous, declare, that they have " neither openly folicited, nor inten-d openly to folicit, votes for Mr Jones within the Univerfity itfelf, becaule he will never beCDnie the inftrument of dillurbinj; the calm feat of the Mufes, by confenting to any fucli fo- licitalion for hinifelf or for any man whatever. His own applications have been, are, and will be, confined to thofe only who have profelfed a regard for him, arJ ivho have no votes themjehts : the Mallets of Arts in a great univerlity, whofe prerogative is cool reafon and impartial judgment, mull never be placed on a level with the voters or' a borough, or the free- holders of a county. Even in proceeding thus far, he does not fet the example, but follows it; and his friends would never have piinted any paper, if they had not thought themfelves juftitied by the conduit of (>thers. «' For the firft and the lull time, they beg leave to fuggell, that no exertions muli be ("pared by thcfe who, either pcrfonally or by reputation, approve thecharader of Mr Jones ; into which, both literary and political, as Well as moral, his fiicnds delire and demand the llriiftell fciuliny. For his univerfity he began early to pro- voke, and poffibly to incur, the difpleafure of great and poucifnl men: For his univerfity he entered the lilh with a foul-mouthed and arrogant Frenchman, who had attacked Oxford in three large volumes if mifreprefcn- tation and fcurrility : For his univeifity he refigncd, for a whole year, his favourite ftudies and purfuits, to fave Oxford the difcrcdit of not having one of her fons ready to tranflate a tedious Perfian nianufcript. To Oxiord, in ihort, he is known to be attached by the ftrongell polhble ties ; and only regrets the necelllty of abfenting himfelf from the place in whicli of all others he mofl delights, until the event of the prefent compe- tition fliall either convince him that he has toiled in vain as a man of letters, or (hall confer on him the great- ell reward to which lie can afpire. The unavoid- able difadvantage of being fo late propofed, and the refperiable fupport with which he is now hon</Urcd, will ftcure him in all events from the leall difgrace." The application was unfuccefsful, chiefly becaufe his own college had fixed upon another candidate, liom a perfuafion that the immediate appointment of Mr Jones to a feat, then vacant on the bench of judges in India, was morally certain. The riots of that year gave occafion to another publication of our author, entitled, " An Inquiry in- to the legal Mode of fuppreQing Kiots ; with a conlli- tulion.al Plan of future Defence," 8vo ; and in 1781 he publilhed " An Elfjy on the Law of Bailments," Uvo, a very maftcrly treatife, which did great honour to his legal abilities. In this lall work he inculcates the ne- ccUity of deeply exploring the grounds of the common law ; and fpcaking of Blackftonc, (he Hiys) " his com- '^3 ] JON iiientaries are the moll correal and beautiful outline Jon«. that ever wa? exhibited of any human fcience ; but ^-''^'^ they alone will no more form a lawyer, than a general map of the world, how accurately and ele- gantly idcver it may be delmeated, \\\\\ make a geo- grapher." In this year he likewife recalled his mufe in an Ode ^n tlie nuptials of Lord Vifcount Althorpe, who had been his pupil, to Mifs Lavinia liingham. This beiutifol little poem is preferved in the European MiL'az ne for January 17B5, and we think in other periodical publi- cations. From many circumflances which might be c-UefleJ together, it would appear that our author at l!.i, junc- ture did not coincide in opinion with thofc who hid \\\'t direction of government, nor did he approve the mei. fures at that period adopted. — "With thcfe fentinients he feems to have been lelet'ied as a proper p.-rfon to be introduced as a member of the Conftiiutlonal S-ci:ty. Could he have (orcfecn the dege.-.cracy of fuch afiocia- tions, there is reafon to believe that he would have de- clined what he condefcended to accept as an honour ; for though aa ardent fiiend to liberty, he wa> an ene- my to theoretical innovation, and declares, in a letter to the fecretary, that by the tcim ccuftitution, he un- derltands " the great fyilem of public, in contradic- tion to private and criminal law, which comprifes all thofe articles which Blackftone arranges, in hi, firft volume, under the rights of perfon^, and of which he gives a perfpicuous analyfis. Wlia:ever then rel itei to tlie rights of perfVms, either a'.lolute tights, as the en- joyment of liberty, fccurity, and property, or relative, that is, in the public relations of magiiirates ar.J people, makes a part of that majellic whole, wliieh we proper- ly call the cnnftitution. This conflitution.il cr public law is partly unwritt.'n, and grounded upon in;';:?nio. rial ufage, and parily written or enae^cd by the ieijif- lative power ; but tlie unwritten, or cimimon 1 iw, con- tains the true fpirit rf our coiirtiiulion : the written has often moll unjuftifiably altered the form of it ; the common law is the colleAed wifJom of many centuries, having been ufed and approved by fucctllive genera- tions ; but the Ilaiutes fieqnently contain the whims cf a few leading men, and iometimes of the mere Indivi- duals employed to draw them." In 1782 he publilhed "The Mahomedan Law cf Succellion to the Property of liuellates, in Aiabic, with a verbal Tranflaiioji and explanatory Notes." 4to. At length the poll of one of the judges in the Eaft Indies, which had been kept vacant five years, was de- termined upon being filled up ; and our author, on the 4th March 178;, was appointed to that llation, and on the 20th received the honour of knighthoi'd. On the Slh (>f April he married Mif» Shipley, eldeft daugh- ter iif the Bilhnp ol St Af.iph, and alinolt immediately embarked for the Indies. He had prcvi'-ully pubhlh- cd " The Moallakat ; cr, Seven Arabian I'oem^, which were fiifpended on the Temple at Mecca, with a Tranf- lation and Arguments." 410. To this it wis intend- ed to add a preliminary dil'couife and notes. — The for- mer to coniprilc oblcrvatirns on the anitqii ty cf the Arabian language and letters ; on the diaUfts and cha- racters of Himyar and Korailh, with accounts of fome Ilimyarick poets; on the manners of the Aiabs in the N n z age Jouc* JON C age immediately preceding that of Mahomed ; en the temple at Mecca, and the MoalUkat, or pieces of poe- try fufpendcd on its walls or gate; hftly, on the lives of the Seven Poets, with a critical hiltory of their works, and the various copies or editions of them pre- ferved in Europe, Afia, and Africa. The latter to contain authorities and reafons for the tranflaiion of controverted palFages ; to elucidate all the obfcurc Couphts, and exhibit or propofe amendments of the text ; to dirca the reader's attention to particular lieauties, or point out remaikable deftifls ; and to tlir-w light on the images, fijjures, and alUifions of the Aia- bian poets, by citations either from writers of their own country, or from fuch of our European travellers as bell illulUatc the ideas and cuftoms of Eatlern na- tions. Thi. .ilfcourfo and the notes have not yet ap- peared. At his departure for the eallern world, he left, in roanul'cript, witli hi^ brotherin-law the Dean of St Af.iph, a litile traa, entitled " The Principle; of Government, in a Dialogue between a Scholar and a Peafant." This celebrated dialogue being alterwards publirtied by the Dean, and widely circulated by the fociety for conlliiutional information, the Dean was • Lutv rf Bailiftentt. 284 ] JON the Spanifh, and Italian, he fpoke and wrote with the greatell fluency and precifion ; and the Germau and Purtuguefe were familiar to him. At an early period of lite his application to Oriental literature com- menced ; he ftudied the Hebrew with eafe and I'uccefi ; and many of the molt learned Afiatics have the can- dour to avow, that his knowledge of Arabic and Per- fian was as accurate and extcnlive as their own ; he was alio convcrfant in tlie Tuikilh idiom, and the Chinefe had even attrailed his notice io far as to induce him to learn the radical charaders of that language, with a view perhaps to farther improvements. It was to be exp(.(ffed, after his arrival in India, that he W(juld eager- ly embrace the opportunity of making hiinlclf matter of the S iiilcrit ; and the mod enlightened profelFors of the doftrincs of Brahma confefs witli piide, delight, and lurprife, that his knowledge of their facred dialcdl was m ll critically correal and profound. The Pan- dits, who were in the habit of attending him, could not, after his death, fupprefs their tears for his lofs, nor find terms to exprefs their admiration at the wonderful progrefs he had made in their fcienccs. Before the expiration of his twenty-fecond year. Jonei. nrofecuted f i r publifliine a libel, and, if our memory he had completed his Commentaries on the Poetry of deceives us not, was found guilty. Sir William Junes now dropt for ever all concern in party politics, and applied himfelf to purfuits more worthy of his talents. During his voyage to India, he conceived the idea of the Af.atic Society, of which an ac- count has been givenunder the title Societies (iJnrj'f/.), and of whofe refearches five volumes, replete with much curious information, are now before the public. But ar- dently as his mind was attached to general literature and fcience, he was by nomean, inattentive to the profeQional duties of his high llation. He had indeed, to ufe his own expreffion, an " undilfenibled fondnefs for the lludy of jurifprudence * ;" and in the charader of a judge, dif- played the profound knowledge and irreproachable inte- grity, which, before his promotion, pervaded his re.afon- ings as a lawyer, and governed his conduit as a man. Ur.foriunuely the intenle ardour of application, which pioduced hi^ frequent conti iliutions to the flock of hu- man knowledge, added to the unfavourable influence of th: climate, greatly impaired his health. On this ac- count, after a relidence of about fifteen years in India, he made preparations for returning to England ; but death interpoffd ; and this illullrious ornament of fcience and virtue was taken from the world on the 27th of April 1794, in the 48th year of his age. " It is to tlie (hanie of fcepticifm (as one of his biographers well obferves), to the encouragement of hope, and to the honour of genius, that this great man was a fincere be- liever in the doflrines of Chrillianity, and that he was found in his clofct in the attitude of addrelTing his prayer to God." We fliall give his character as it was drawn by Sir John Shore, Baronet, (now Lord Teignmouth) in a difcourfe delivered at a meeting of The Afiatic Society, held on the 22d of May 1794. " His capacity for the acqviifition of languages has never been excelled. In Greek and Roman literature, his early proficiency was the fubjeft of admiration and a the Afiatics, although a confiderable time afterwards elapfed before their publication; and this work, if no other monument of his labours exifted, would at once furnifii proofs of his confummate fkill in the Oriental dialefts, of his proficiency in thofe of Rome and Greece, of tatle and erudition far beyond his years, and of ta- lents and application without example. " But the judgment of Sir William Jones was too diC- cetning to confider language in any other light than as the key of fcience, and he would have defpifed the re- putation of a mere linguifl. Knowledge and truth were the objeifls of all his ftudies, and his ambition was to be ufeful to mankind ; ,with thefe views he ex- tended his refearches to all languages, nations, and times. " Such were the motives that induced him to propofe to the government of India, what he juflly denomina- ted a work of national utility and importance, the com- pilation of a copious Digetl of Hindu and Mahomedan Law, from Sanfcrit and Arabic originals, with an of- fer of his fervices to fiiperintend the compilation, and with a promife to tranflate it- He had forefeen, pre- vious to his departure from Europe, that without the aid of fuch a work, the wife and benevolent intentions of the legiflature of Great Britain, in leaving to a cer- tain extent the natives of thefe provinces in poffeffion of their own laws, could not be completely fulfilled ; and his experience, after a fhort refidence in India, con- firmed what his fagacity had anticipated, that without principles to refer to, in a language familiar to the judges of the courts, adjudications amongll the natives mull too often be fubjeff to an uncertain and errone- ous expofition, or wilful mifinterpretation of their laws. " To the fuperintendancc of this work, which was im- mediately undertaken at his fuggeflion, he affiduoufly devoted thofe hours which he could fpare from his pro- fefllonal duties. After tracing the plan of the Digeft, he prefcribed its arrangement and mode of execution, _pplaufe ; and knowledge of whatever nature, once ob- and feleifled from the mod learned Hindus and Maho- lained by him, was ever afterwards progrelTive. The medans fit perfons for the tafk. of compiling it : flatter- more elegant dialefls of modern Europe, tlie French, ed by his attention, and encouraged by his applaufe,, the. J O N [ 285 ] JON JouM. ihe Pandits profccuted their labours with cheerful zeal *""'"""' to a fatist'aiSory conclufion. The Molivees have alio Dearly fini(hed their portion of the work ; but we muft ever regret, that the promifed tranilation, as well as the meditated preliminary dilFcrtation, have been fruftrated by that decree, which fo often intercepts the perform- ance ot human purpofes. " During the courfe of this compilation, and as auxi- liary to it, he was led to ftudy tlie works of Menu, re- puted by the Hindus to be the oldell and hnlieft of le- giflators ; and finding them to comprife a fyftem of re- ligious and civil duties, and of law in all its branches, fo comprehenfive and minutely exiit, that it might be confidered as the inllitutes of Hindu Law, he prefent- ed a tranflation of them to the government of Bengal. During the fame period, deeming no l.ibour exceffive or fupcrfluous that tended in any refpe<5l to promote the welfare or happinefs of mankind, he gave the pub- lic an Englifli verlicn of tlie Arabic Text of tlie Si- rajiyah or Mahomedan Law of Inheritance, with a Commentary. He haii already (as has been obfcrved) publilhed in England a tranllaticnof a trad on the fame fubjeifl by another Mahomedan lav/yer, containing, as his own words exprefs, ' a lively and elegant Epitome of the Law of Inheiitance of Zaid.' " To thefe learned and impc rtant works, fo far out of the road of amulement, nothing could have engaged his application but tliat defire which he ever proieiled, of rendering his knowledge ufeful to his nation, and be- neficial to thi inhabitants ot thele provinces. " I (hould fcarcely (continues Lord Teignmouth) think it of importance to mention, that he did not dif- dain the office of editor of a Sanfcritand Perfian work, if it did not afford me an opportunity of adding, that the latter was publiflied at his own ex pence, and was fold for the benefit of infolvent debtors. A limilar ap- plication was made of the prodtlce of Sirajiyah." But nothing exhibits the large grafp of Sir William Jones's mind in fo ftriking a point of view as a paper in his own liand writing, which came into Lord Teign- mouih's poflenion after fiis death. It was intitled De- siderata, and propofed lor inveftigation the follow- ing fubjeifts relating to the eafletn world. InJia. — I. The ancient gei graphy of India, Sec. from the I'uranas. 2. A botanical defcription of Indian plants, from the Colhas Sec. 3. A grammar of the Sanfcrit language, from Panini, &c. 4. A diflionary of the Sanfciit language, Irom tho 32 original vocabu- laries and Niruifli. 5. On the ancient mufic of tlie In- dians, 6. On the medical fubdances of India, and the Indian art of medicine. 7. On the philof 'phy ot the ancient Indians. 8. A tranflation of the Veda. 9. On ancient Indian geomct'v, allronomy, and algebra. 10. A tranfl.ition of the Piiranas. 11. A tranflation of the Mahabbara and Ramayan. 12. On the Indian theatre, &c. See. 13. On the Indian cor.llcUations, with their mythology, from tlie Piiranas. 14. The hiflory ot India befoie the Mahomedan conqucll, from the Sinfcrit Calhmir Hiftories. jlrabia. — 15. The hiflory of Aralva before Maho- med. 16. A tianflatiim of the Hamafa. 17. Atianf- lation of Hariri. 18. A tranflation of the Facahatul Kliulifa. OftheCaQah. Pcrjia — 19. The hiflory of Perfia, from authorities in Sanfcrit, Arabic, Greek, Turkilh, Perfian ancient and modern, Firdaufi's Khrofrau nama. 20. The five Jouei. poems of Nizami, tranflated in profe. 21. A di6ion- '^^~'^~^^ ary of pure Perlian Jechangire. China. — 22. A tranflition of Shi-cing. 23. The text of Canfii-tfu, verbally tranflated. Tcrtary. — 24. A liillorv of the Tartar nations, chiefly of the Moguls and Othmans, from the Turkilh and Perfian. " We are not authorifed (fays his Lordfhip) to con- clude, that he had himfell formed a determination to complete the works which his genius and knowledge had thus fketched ; the tallc Items to require a peiiod be- yond the probable duration of any human life ; but we, who had the happinefs to know Sir William Jcnes ; who were witncfles of his indefatigable perfeveranc; in the puriuit of knowledge, and of his ardour to acconi- plilh whatever he deemed important ; who faw the ex- tent of hi* intelleftual powers, his wonderful attain- ments in literature and fcience, and the facility with which all his compolitions were made — cannot doubt, if It had plcafed Providence to protraift the date of his cxillence, that he would have ably executed much of what he hud fo extenfively planned." We have already enumerated attainments and works which, from their direrfity and extent, feem far beyond the capacity of the moft enlarged minds; but the ca- talogue may yet be augmented. To a proficiency in the languages of Greece, Rome, and Afia, he added the knowledge of the philofophy of thofe countries, and of every thing curious and valuable that had been taught in them. The doiflrines of the Academy, the Lyceum, or the Portico, were not more familiar to him than the tenets of the VeJas, the myfticifm of the Sufis, or the religion of the ancient Perfians ; and whilft^ with a kindred genius, he perufed with raptuie tl.e he- roic, lyric, or moral compoliticns of the moft renowned poets of Greece, Rome, and Afia, he could turn with equal delight and knowledge to the fublime fpecula- tions or mathematical calculation? of Barrow and New- ton. With them alfo he prot'efled his conviction of the truth of the Chriftian religion ; and he juftly deemed it no inconfiderable advantage, that his rcfearches had corroborated the multiplied evidence of Revelation, by confirming the Mofaic account of the primitive world. In his eighth anniverfary difcourfe to the Afiatic So- ciety, he thus expreifes himfelf : " Theological inquiries are no part of my prcfent fiibjeel ; but I cannot refrain from adding, that the coUeflion of trads which we call, from their excellence, the Scriptures, contain, indepen- dently of a divine origin, more true fublimity, more ex- qnilite beauty, purer mor.ility, more important hiftory, and finer flr^ins both of poetry and eloquence, than could be co!le<51ed within the fame compafs from all other books that were ever compofcd in any age, or any idiom. The two parts, of which the Scripturei confift, are conne<5teJ by a chain of compofitions, which bear no rclcmblance in form or flylc to any that can be produced from the '.lores of Grecian, Indian, Perfian, or even Arabian learning ; the antiquity of thefe com- pofitions no man doubts, jnd the unflrained applica- tion of them to events 1 ng fubfequent to their pub- lication, is a folld ground ot belief that ihcy were ge- nuine predie'tions; and conlcqucntly infpiicj." There were, in truth, lew fcienccs In which he had net acqtaired confiderablc proficiency ; in moft, his. knowltdje J O N C 2«6 ] JON Jrnci. knowledj^e was profound. The theory of mulic w.is "'"'''"'*' f.iniiliar to him ; nor hail he nej-kaed to make himfch" acquainted with ihc interefling dilcoveries lately made inchemiHry ; "and I have heard him (l-iysLoidTcign- mouth) ailert, that his admiration ot' ijic (liiiiflurc tS the human frame had induced him to attend lor a fca- fon to a courfe of anatomical Icflures, delivered by his friend the celebrated Hunter." His lall and favouiite puifuit was the ftudy of bo- tany, which he originally began under the conlinsmeiit of a fevere and lingeiing diforder, which with mull minds would have proved a dil'qiialification from any application. It conllituted the principal amulemtnt of his hifure hours. In the arrangements of Linnaus, he difcovered fyflsm, truth, and fcience, which never tail- ed to captivate and engage his attention ; and tivm the proofs which he ha? exhibited of his progrel's in botany, we may conclude that he would have eitended the dif- coveries in that fcience. It cannot be deemed ufelefs or fupcrlluous to inquire by what arts or method he was enabled to attain to a degree of knowledge alniuft univerfal, and apparently be) • nd the powers of man, during a life little exceed- ing 47 years. The faculties of his mind, by nature vigorous, were improved by conltant e.Ncrcife ; and his memory, by habitual pradice, had acquired a capacity of retaining whatevei had once been imprelfed upon it. To an un- extincuilhed ardour for univeifal knowledge, he jtined a pevfeverance in the purfiiit ot it which fubdued all ob- ftacles ; his Iludies began « iih the dawn, and, during the intermitHons of profeffional duties, were continued throughout the day ; rellection and meditation Itrcngth- ened and conlirmed what induflry and inveftigation had accumulated. It was a fixed principle with him, from which he never voluntarily deviated, not to be deterred by any difficulties that weie furmountable from profe- cuting to a luccefsful termination what he had once de- liberately undertaken. But what appeared more paiticulaily to h.;ve ena- bled him to employ his talents fo much to his own and the public advantage, was the regular allotment of his time, and a fcrupulous adherence to the diltribution which he had tixed ; hence all his ftudies were purlued without interruption or confulion. He coUedled infor- mation, too, from every (juarter; juftly concluding, that fomething might be learned from the illiterate, to whom he liftened with the utmoll candour and complacency. Lord Teignmouth, addrefllng himl'elf to the Afiatic Society, fays, " Of the private and focial virtues of our lamented Prtlident, our hearts are the bell records. To you who knew him, it cannot be necelfary for me to expatiate on the independence ot his integrity, his humanity, probity, or benevolence, which every living creature participated; on the affability of his conver- fation and manners, or his modell, unaffiiming deport- ment : nor need I remark, that he was totally free from pedantry, as well ai from arrogance and felf-fuffi- ciency, which fometimes accompany and difgrace the greatefl .ibilities. His prefence was the delight of every ibciety, which his converfation exhilarated and impro- ved ; and the public have not only to lament the lofs of his talents and abilities, but that of his example. " To him, as the founder of our inllitution, and whilll he lived its firmed fupport, our reverence is more particularly due. Intttufled, animated, and encoura- ged by biin, genius was called forth into exertion, and modill merit was excited to diHinguilh itlclf. Anvious for the reputation of the Society, lie was indefatigable in his own endeavours to promote if, whilft he clieer» lully allilled tliofc of others. In lofing him, we havi not only been deprived of our brightest ornament, but of the guide and patron, en whole inrtmctions, juc";:- ment, and candour, we could implicitly rely.'' Thcugh thel'e aic the fcntiments, not only of Lord Teign- mouth, but, we believe, of every man of letters, w« mill there is flill left in Bengal a fiifhciont love of letters and of fcienre to carry on the plan which was formed by the genius of Sir William Jones. JONES, a county of N. Carolina, in Newbern dif- tii.;t, bounded N. b)- Craven. It cont.iins 3 141 free inhabitants, and 16S1 tlavts. It is well watered by Trent river, and its tributary llreams. Chief town Trenton. — Mora. JONESDOROUGH, a poatown, and chief town of Walhington dillrift in Tennelfce, is the feat of the diftriiil and county courts. It has but few houfes, having been but lately elfablifhed. It is 26 miles from Greenville, loi from Knoxville, 40 from Abingdon in Virginia, and 627 fiom Philadelphii. — ib. JoNESBOROUGH, the chief town of Camden county in Edenton dillriifl, N. Carolina. It contains a court- houfe and a tew dwell ini^-houl'es. — ib. JONES'S PLANFATION, in Lincoln county, Maine, was incorporated by the name of Harlem, in Eebiuary, 1796. It is 19 miles N. E. of Hallowell, 47 iVoni Pownalborough, and 213 N. E. by N. of Bofton. It contains 262 inhabitants. — ib. Jones's Fokd, on Brandywine creek, is 5 or 6 miles above Chad's Ford, in Pennfylvania. — ib. JONESIA, IS a very handfonie middling-fized ra- mous tree, found in gardens about Calcutta. In the San- fcrit it is called Aj' oca, and in the Bengalefe Rnjpick ; but the name Jonefia was given to it by the Aliatic So- ciety, who confecrated it to the memory of their firfl prelident Sir William Jones. It is thus defcrifed by Dr Roxburgh, a member of that fociety : " Calyx, two leaved, corol, one petaled, piftil bearing; bale of the tube impervious ; ftamens long, afcending, inferted into the margin of a glandulous neiffaiial ring, which crowns the mouth of the tube, the uppermoR two of which more dift.tnt ; flyle declining. Legume turgid. Trunk erc<3, though not very flraight. Bark dark brown, pretty fmooth. Branches numerous, fpreading in every direftion, fo as to form a moft ele- gant fhady head. Leaves alternate, abruptly feathered, felTile, generally more than a foot long ; when young pendulous and colour^. Leaflets oppofite, from four to fix pair, the lowermoll broad lanced, the upper lanced ; fmooth, fhining, firm, a little waved, from four to eight inches long. Petiole common, round, and fmooth. Sti- pule axillary, folitary ; in faft a procefs from the bafe of the common petiole, as in many of the grafies and monandrills, &c. Uvilcis terminal and axillary ; be- tween the ftipule and branchlet, globular, crowded, fub- feflile, ereifl. BraHs, a fmall hearted one under each divilion of the umbel. Peduncle and pedicels fmooth, coloured. Flo-wen very numerous, pretty large ; wheo they firft expand they are of a beautiful orange colour, gradually changing to red, forming a variety of lovely fljadss ; J O P I 1 {hades ; fragrant during the night. Calyx perianth, below twolcaved, leaflets fmall, nearly oppoCite, co- loured, hearted, brade-like, marking the termination of the pedicel, or beginning of the tube of the corol. C/j- ro/ one-petalled, tunnel form ; tube flightly incurved, firm, and Helhy, tapering towards the bafe (club funnel- fhapcd) and there impervious ; border four-parted ; di- rifion fpreailing, fuborbicular ; margins moll flightly woolly : one-third the length of the tube. Ne{}ary, a (tameniferous and pillilitecoiis ring crowns the mouth of the tube. Sianu-ns, filaments generally fevcn ; and fe- vcn nitill, I think, be the natural number ; viz. three on c.ich fide, and one below, above a vacancy, as it the place of an eightli filament, and is occupied on its infide by the pillil ; they are equal, diftinfl, afcending, from three to four times longer than the border of the corol. u-Jni/.erj uniform, fmall, incumbent. Pi/lH, germ ob- long, pediccled ; pedicel inferted into the infide of the netJfary, immediately below the vacant fpace already mentioned ; ftylo nearly as long as the ftamens, declin- ing ; Ifigm.i limple. Pericarp, let;ume tcimeter-foimed, turgid, outfiJe reticulated, otlicrwife pretty fmonth ; from I'll to ten inches long, and abnit t\\o broad. SieJs generally from four to eight, fmooth ; grey, lize of a large chefnut." The Joneli.i flowers at the beginning of the hot fea- fon, and its feeds ripen during the rains. The plants and feeds were originally brought to Calcutta from tile interior p.irts of the country, where it is indige- nous. A^. B. Many of the flowers have only the ru- diment of a pillil. In Plate XXX. A is a branchlet of the natural fize. B, A fingle flower a little magni- fied ; a a the calyx. C, A ftifiion of tlie fame, exhibit- ing four of the ftamcns, i i i i the pillil 2, and how far the tube is perforated. D, A fimilar feftion of one cf the abortive flowers ; ^ is the abortive pillil. E, The ripe legume opening r.eur the bafe, natural llze. Note, The fp.ice between the 1/ and c marks the original tube cf the corol. F, One of the feeds, natural I'ue. G, The bafe of tiie commrni petiole, with its flipule ; a a, the petioles of the lower p^'ir of leaflets. JOOTSl-SiMA, a fmall fiat illand, which is fepara- ted from Cape Nota in Japan by a channel about five leagues wide. Its circumference does not exceed two leagues ; it is well wooded, of an agieeal>le alpecl, and well inhabited. Pcroiife, who failed round it, remark- ed from the quarter deck cjf his fhip fome confiderable edifices between the houfes of the inh.ibitants ; and hard by ;i fort of caftle, at the foutli-well point of the tfland, he diflinguiflitd fome gibbets. He does not, however, affirm that thofe gibbers were for the execu- tion ol criniinaU ; i'or, as he obferves, i; would be lin- pulir enough if the J^panefe, whole cuftoms are fo dit'- ferent from curs, were in this point 10 rcfenible us fo nearly. He reprefents the ifland as furrounded with dreadful breakers ; at the dillance of a league and a half from which, he had conft.inily f'O fathoms, with rocky bottom. He places the ifland (differently, ac- cording to the editor of his voyage, from all other geographers) in latitude 37" 51' north, and in Long. 135" 2o'eafl from P.iris. JOl'PA, a fmall town in Harford county, Miryland, 20 miles E. by N. of Baltimore, and 82 S. W. of Phi- ladclpliia. — Morse. 87 ] J o u JORD.'\N's Rivtr paffes through Trenton, in the Dillridl of Maine, 8 miles from Union river. — il. JORE, a village and mountain in the Cherokee country. The muuntain is faid to be the highefl in the Cherokee country, and through which the Ten- nelTee river forces its waters. The Indian v llagc, called Jore, is fituatcd in a beautiful lawn, many thou- fand feet higher tlian the adjacent country. Here is a little grove of the Caflne Yapon, called by the In- dians the beloved tree. They are very careful to keep this tree pruned and cultivated, and drink very ftrong inluflon of the leaves, buds and tender branches of this plant. It is venerated by the Creek?, and all the fouthern maritime nations of Indians. :b. JOSEPH, LAKE St, in N. America, lies E. of Lake S il, and fends its waters by Cat Lake river into Cat Lake, and afterwards forms the S. E. branch of Severn river. The like is 3 j miles long and 15 broad. Ofnaburg Houfc is on the N. E. part of the lake. — il. Joseph, I let a Pi-rrc, a village on the v.eilernmolt coall of 'he ifland ofSt Domingo; about 3 leagues N. W. ol the village of Tiburon. — ib. Josfph's, St, in the province of California, in Mexi- co, N. .America. N. lat. 23" 3'. — ib. Joseph's Bay, St, on the coaft of AVcfl-F!orida, is of the figure of a horfc-flioe, being about 12 miles in length, and 7 acrofs where brodell. The bar is narrow, and immediately within it there is from 4 to (il fathoms foft ground. The hell place to anchor, is jull within the peninfula, oppolite to fome ruins that Hill remain of the village of St Jofeph. The peninfula between St Jofeph's and Cape Blaze is a narrow flip of land, in fome places not above a quarter of a mile broad. A very good ellablifhment might be made here for a fifhcry, as the fettlers might make fait on the fpot to cure the bafs, rock, cod, grouper, red mul- let, &c. which arc here in abundance ib. Joseph, St, a w.uer which runs N. W. into the S. E. part of Lake Michigan. It fpring? from a num- ber of fmall lakes, a little to the N. W. of the Mi- ami village. The Pawtewatainie Indians rtfid.- en this river, oppofite Pert St Jofepli. They ran raife :oo vvarrivirf. At or near the confluence of the rivers Sc Miry's and St Jofeph's where Fort Wayne now Hands, the Indians have ceded to the United States a tra<Jf of 6 miles fiquare. — ib. Joseph, Fori St, is fitnated on the eaftern fide of the above river in N. lat. 42'' 14', W. long. 86" lo'. It is about 1 75 miles S. W. by W. of Detroit, to which place there is a flraight road. — ih. JosFPH, St, a port on the W. fide of the ifland of Trinidad, near the coafl of Terra Firm.i. — ib. JOURNALS, the title of perii'dical publications. See Encyclo[<.t,ii.i. The principal Britifli Journals are : The Hijiory of the IVorLs of the Learned, begun at Lon- drn in 1699. C.enfura Tempcrum, in 1-08. About the fame time there appeared two new ones; the one under the title of Memoirs cf Literature, containing little more than an Englifh tranflaiion of Ibme article;! in t!ie foreign Journal*, by M. dc la Roche ; the other, a colleflion of looft traifls, intitled, Liibtiotheca Curio/a^ or a Mifccllany. Tlicfe, liowever, with fome others, arc now no more, but »re fucceeded by the ^Innii.il R^- S'JIer, which began in 1758; the New Annual Regi- I P s C --SB J I R O Journals,^/-, begun in i7?o; llie Alonth'y Review, vvliich be- 'I. gan in the year 1749, and gives h charailer of all Eng- Jpfwich^ lilh literary publicalions, with the mod coiifiderable of tlie foreign ones : the Critical Reru-jj, which began in I 756, and is nearly on the lame plan : as alio the Lon- Jjn Rci'lc-.u, l)y Dr KenricL, from 1775 to 1780; Jl/afy's Rti'itiv, from Feb. 1782 to Aug. 1786; the J'n^lijh Revie-'i; begun in Jjn. 1783 ; and the Analy- tical Reviciu, begun in May 178S, dropt in 179S, and revived in 17991 under the title of the 'Neiu Ana'ytical Rfviezv ; but again dropt after two or three months trial: the Briii/Ij Critic, begun in 1792, and Hill car- ried on with much fpirit and ability : the Anli-Ja- cabin Revitiu and Magazine, commenced in 1798, lor the meritorious purpofe of counteraiting the pernici- ous tendency of French Principles in politics and rtli- ginn : the Avw London Revievj, January 1799: A journal of Natural Philnfofhy, Chcmijliy, and the Arts, wliich was begun in 1797 by Mr Nichollbn, and has been conduced in fuch a manner, that it is one of the moft valuable works of the kind to be found in any language: the Philofophical Magazine, begun in 1798 by Ml- Tilloch, and carried on upon mucli the fame plan, :ind wiih much the fame fpirit, as Nichohbn's Journal. Betides thefe, we have feveral monthly pamphlets, called Magazines, which, together with a chronologi- cal feries ot occurrences, contain letters Irom correfpon- dcnts, communicating extraordinary difcoveries in na- ture and art, with controverfial pieces on all lubje(5ls. Of thefe, the principal are thofe called the Gentleman's Magazine, which began with the year 1731 ; the Lon- don Magazine, which began a few months after, and has lately been difcontinued ; the Univerfal Magaicine, which is nearly of as old a date ; the Scotch Magazine, vhich began in 1739, and is IliU continued; the £u- ropean Magazine; and the Monthly Magazine, a mif- cellany of much inlbrmation, which began in Janua- ry 1796. IOWA, a river of Louifianna, which runs fouth- eadward into the Miffiffippi, in N. lat. 41" 5', 61 miles above the loiua Rapids, where on the E. fide of the river is the Lois-'er Jo-wa Toivri, which 20 years ago could farnilh 300 warriors. The Upper loiva Town is about 15 miles below the mouth of the river, alio on the E. fide of the MinilTippi, and could formerly fur- nilh 400 warriors. — Morse. JOYiiT or Jeyst, the fecond month of the Bengal year. IPSWICH, the Aga-wam of the Indians, is a poft- town and port of entry on both fides of Ipfwich river, in Effex county, Malfachufetts, 1 2 miles fouth of New- bury port, 10 north-eafi; of Beverly, 32 N. E. by N. of Bofton, and about a mile from the fea. The town- Ihip of Ipfwich is divided into 5 pariftes, and contains 601 houfes, and 4502 inhabitants. There is an ex- cellent ftonc bridge acrofs Ipfwich river, compofed of two arches, with one folid pier in the bed of the river, which conneds the two parts of the town, executed under the direftion of the late Hon. Judge Choate. This was heretofore a place of much more confideration than at prefent. Its decline is attributed to a barred har- bour and flioals in the river. Its natural fituation is pleafant, and on all accounts excellently well calculat- ed to be a large manufafluring town. The fupreme ju- dicial court, the courts of common pleas and feffions Iron. are held here once a year, on the ifk TuefJay ofAprilj Ipfwich, and from its central (ituation, it appears to be the moll convenient place for all the courts and public ofHccs of , the county. The inhabitants are chieHy farmers, ex- cept thofe in the coinpaiS part of the townfliip. A few veliels arc employed in the hihery and a few trade to the Weil Indies. Silk and thread lace, of an elegant texture, are manutaclured here by women and chil- dren, in large quantities, and fold for ufe and expor- tation in Bolton, and other mercantile towns. In 1 790, no le(s than 41,979 yards were made here, and the manufadure is rather increafing. Ipfwich townfliip was incorporated in 1634, and is 378 miles N. E. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 42" 43', W. long. 70° 50'. — Morse. Ipswich, Nkw, a townfhip in Hillfijorough coun- ty, New-Hamplhire, containing 1241 inhabitants, fitu- atcd on the v/ell fide of Souheagan river, and feparafed from Whatohook Mountain by the north line of Maf- fachufetts ; 56 miles N. W. of Bofton, and about 77 weft of Portfmouth. It was incorporated in 1762, and has in it a tlounfliing academy. — ib. IRASBURG, a towndiip in Orleans county, in Vermont, fituated on Black river, 1 7 miles N. of Hazen Block-houfe, and 12 S. of the Canada line. —ib. IREDELL COUNTY, in Salisbury diftria, N. Carolina, is furrounded by Surry, Rowan, and Burke. The climate is agreeable and healthy ; the lands beau- tifuUy variegated with hilh, and the foil is rich. It contains 5435 inhabitants of whom 858 are ilaves. At Iredell court-houfe is a poft-ofEce. It is 25 miles from Salifbury, and 25 from Charlotte courthoufe. —ib. IRELAND, NEW, a long narrow ifland in the Pacific ocean, N. of New Britain, extending fiom tlie N. W. to the S. E. about 270 miles, and in general very narrow ; between 3" and 5° S. lat. and 146" 30', and 151° E. long, from Paris. The inhabitants are negroes. The illand is covered with wood, and abounds with pigeons, parrots, and other birds. Weft and N. W. of New Ireland, lie Sandwich, Portland, New Hanover, and Admiralty Iflands, difcovered and named by Captain Carteret, in 1767. The tracks of Le Maire and Schouten in 1616, of Roggewin in 1722, and of Bouganville in 1768, pals thefe iflands. —ib. IROIS, POINTE DE, or Iri/h Point, a village on the W. end of the ifland of St Domingo. — ib. IRON, is by much the moftufeful of all the metals, as has been fufficiently proved under tlie article Iron, Encycl. and under Chemistry in this Supplem'nt. The word is again introduced here, becaufe it affords us an opportunity of laying before our readers fome valuable obfervations by Chaptal on the ufe of the oxyds of iron in dyeing cotton. " The oxyd of iron has fuch an affinity for cotton thread, that if the latter be plunged in a falurated foln- tion of iron in any acid whatever, it immediately alTumes a chamoy yellow colour, more or lei's dark, according to the ftrength of the liquors. It is both a curious and eafy experiment, that when cotton is made to pafs through a folution of the fulphat of iron, rendered tur- bid by the oxyd which remains fufpended in the liquor, it will be fufficient to dip the cotton in the bath to catch I R O C 289 ] I R O Iton. catch the lad particle of the oxyd, and to »etlore to the ''"^^"^^ liquor the tranfjiarency it has loft. Thefolution, then, which before had a ycllowifli appearance, becomes more or lefb green, according as it is more or lefs charged. " The colour given to cotton by the oxyd of iron be- comes darker, merely by expofure to the air ; and this colour, loft and agreeable when taken irom the bath, becomes harfli and ochry by the progreffive oxydation of the metal. The colour of the oxyd r f iron is very faft : it refills not only the air and w.iter, but alfo al- kaline leys, and foap gives it fplendour without fenfibly diminilhing its intenlity. It is on account of thefe properties th^it the oxyd of iron has been introduced into the art of dyeing, and been made a colouring principle of the utmoll value. " In order that the oxyd of iron may be conveniently applied to the cotton tl;iead, it is necelfary to begin by effefling its fi.lution; and, in this cale, acids are em- ployed as the moll ufeful folvents. Dyers almoft every- where make a myftery of the acid which they employ ; but it is always the acetous, the fulphuric, the nitric, or the muriatic. Some t'f them afcribe great differences to the folution of iron by the one or the other acid ; but, in general, they give the preference to the ace- tous. This prediledion appears to be founded much lefs on the diiFerence of the colours that may be com- municated by the one or the other fait, than on the different degrees of corrofive power which each exercifes on the ftufl". That of the fulphat and muriat is fo great, that if the (luff be not wilhed when it comei from the bath, it will certainly be burnt ; whereas folutions by the acetous, or any other vegetable acid, are not at- tend J with the like inconvenience. " Iron appears to be at the fame degree of oxyda- tion in the different acids, fince it produces the fame fliade of colour when precipitated ; and any acid folvent may be employed indifcriminately, provided the nature of the fait, and the degree of the faturation of the acid, be fufficiently known ; for the fubfequent operations may be then dire(5led according to this knuv/ledge, and the inconveniences which attend the ufe of fome of thefe falls may be prevented. This^ without doubt, is a gre.it advantage which the man of fcience enjoys over the mere workman, who is incapable of varying his procefs according to the nature and Hate of the falts which he employs. " r. If the fulphat of iron, or any other martial fill, be dilfolved in water, and cotton be dipped in the li- quid, the cotton will affume a chamoy colour, more or lefs dark according as the folution is more or lefs char- ged. The affinity of the cotton to the iron is fo great, that it attraifls the metal, and takes it in a great niea- fure from the acid by which it was diffolved. " 2. If the iron of a pretty llrong folution be preci- pitated by an alkaline liquor that Ihews five or fix de- grees (by the areometer of Baumc), the refult will be a greenilh blue magma. The cotton macerated in this precipitate alluiiics at fird an unequal tint of dirty green ; but mere expofure to the air makes it in a little time turn yellow, and the Ihade is very dark. " It is by fuch, or almoll fimilar prDceffcs, that dyers communicate wiiat is called among workmen an oJirc or rujl colour. But thefe colours arc attended with fe- veral inconveniences to the artift : i. Strong lliades burn or injure the cloth : 2. This colour is harlh, dil- SuppL. Vol. II. agreeable to the eye, and cannot be eafily united with Ir«n. the mild colours turniflied by vegetables." \^~^r^ To avoid thefe inconveniences, our author made fe- veral attempts, which led him to the following practice : He treads the cotton cold in a folution of the fulphat of iron, marking three degrees : he wrings it carefully, and immediately plunges it in a ley of potalh at two de- grees, upon which he has previcudy poured to fatu- ration a folution of the fulphat of alumine : the colour is then brightened, and becomes infinitely more deli- cate, foft, and agreeable. The fulphat no lunger at- tacks the tillue of the Huff; and alter the cotton has been left in the bath fur four or five hours, it is taken out to be wrung, wafiien, and dried. In this manner we may obtain every Ihade that can be wifhed, by gra- duating the ftrength of the folutions. Tliis liniple pro- cefs, the theory of which prefcnis itfelf to tlie mind of every chemill, has the advantage if furnifhing a colour very agreeable, exceedingly fixed, and, above all, ex- tremely economical. He emjiloys it with great advan- tage in dyeing nankeens, as it has the property of refift- ing leys. It becomes brown, however, by the aclioa of allringents. M. Chaptal made feveral attempts to combine this yellow with the blue of indigo, in order to obtain a du- rable green ; but as they were all unfuccefslul, he infers that there is not a fuflicient afliiiity between tlie blue of indigo and the oxyds of iron. He found that thefe oxyds, on the other hand, combine very eafily with the red of madder, and produce a briglit violet or plum co- lour, the ufe of which is as extcnfivc as beneficial in the cotton manufaftory. Cut if we (li -uld confine our- felves to apply thefe two colours to cotton, without having employed a mordant cap.it)le of fixin;; the latter, t!ie colour would not only remain dull .nd dif.igreeable by the impoffibility of brighter.ing it, but it would lliil be attended with the great inconvenience of not refill- ing leys. We muft begin, then, by preparing the cot- ton as if to difpofe it for receiving tlie Adrianople red ; and when it has been brought to tlie operation of gal- ling, it is to be palFed through a folution of iron, more or lefs charged, according to the nature of the violet required : it is then to be carefully wallied, twice mad- deied, and brightened in a baiii of foap. When a real velvety rich violet is required, it is not to be palled through tlie folution of iron till it h.is been previoufly galled ; the iron is then precipi'ated in a bluilh oxyd, whicli, combined with the red of m.idder, gives a moll brilliant purple, mere or lefs dark accord- ing to the llrength of the galling and of the ferrugi- nous folution. It is very dilficult to obtain an eq'ial colour by this procefs ; and in manufaifloric;, an equal viulet is conlidered as a maflerpiece of art. It is ge- nerally believed, that it is only by wcUdrev^ed ma- nipulations that it i ■ polhbl? to ref.lve this problem, of fi) much importance m dyeinjf. But I am convinced (fays our author), thattliegie.it cauf- of ihc inequali- ty in this dye is, that the iiun depifred on the cotton receives an oxyditinn ni rely by expofuie to the air, which v.iries in different p irts •■fit. Tlie threads which are on the oulfidc of the hank are ftmn ly ■)x\d.i!ed, while thofc in the in'idr, removed from tlie adion of the ;'.ir, experience no change. It thence foUow';, that the inlidc of the h ink prclcnts a weak Itiadc, while the exterior part exhibits a violet aimed black. The means o to I R O C 290 ] I S A to r;meJy this inconvenience is, to wafh the cotton vhcn it is taken from the folution of iron, anj to ex- pofs it t ) the maJJer moift. The colour will become more equ.1l and velvety. The Iblvents ot iron are al- moft (he farae lor this colour as for the yellow colour already mentioned. The following obf:rvaiicn may ferve to guide the ar- tifl in biighteni:ig the violet on his cotton. The red ot" madder and the oxyd ot' iron d.:pcifi;ed on the IhifF determine the violet colour. This colour becomes red or blui', according as either ot ihe principles piedomi- n:ites. The dyer knows by expeiience how difficult it is to obt.iin .< combination wliich produces the tcne ot C'llour dcliied, el'peciaily when it is required to be very full, lively, and durable. This objeift, however, may be obtained, not only i)y varying the propoi tions of the two colouring principles, but alio by varying the pio- cefs of brightenii'g. Th^- only point is to be acquaint- ed with the two foUowii.g faifts; that the foda djftroys the iron, while the fojp, by llrong ebullition, ieizes in preference 'he red ol the m.idder. Hence it is, that tiie colour may be inclined to red or blue, according as you brighten wiih one or the other (.f thcfe mordants. Thus, c Jtton taken from tlie madder dye, when wafhed and boiled in the brightening liquor with yV's of foap, will give a fupeib violet ; whereas you will obtain only a pluai colour in treating it with f 'da. The oxyd of iron precipitated on any (luiF unites alfo very adv^ntageoully with tlie fawn colour furnifhcd by aftnngenti ; and by varying the Ureiigth of mor- dants, an iafin:ty of (hades may be produced. In this cafe, It is lefs a combination or folution of principles ih.in the furple mixture or juxtapofition of tlie colour, ing b 'diis on the llutF. By means of a boiling heat, we may combine, in ;i more intimate manner, the oxyd of iron with the aflringent principle : and then it is brought to the Itaie of black o.'cyd, as has been obferved by Bcrthollet. It is potTible alio to embrown thefe co- lours, and to give tliem a variety of tints, from the bright grey to the deep black, by merely palling the cottons impregnated with the alhingent principle thro' a folution of iron. The oiyd is tl.cn precipitated itfelf by the principle which is fi.xed on the Huff. An obfervrttion, which may become of the utmnft value for the art of dveing, is, that the moll nfual atfringent vegetables allfuinilha yellow colour, \\h;ch has not much brilliancy, but which has fufficient fixity to be einplnyed witli advantage. This yellow colour is brightened in the fe:i;s of vegetables, in proportion as the .ilUingent principle is diminilhed, and the vivaci- ty of the colour is augmented in the fame proportion. It is difficult, then, to obtain yellow colours which are at the fame time durable and brilliant. Thefe two va- luable qualities are to each other in an inverfe ratio; but it is pjliible to unite the colouring principles in fuc'i a manner as to combine iplendour with fixity. Green oak bark unites perfei511y with yellow weed, and tumach with green citron. It is by this mixture that we may be able to combine with the oxyd of iron ve- get.ible colours, the fplendour of which is equal to their durabiiity. Our author concludes his obfervations with caution- ing the dyer agiinft fubftitiiting fumach and the bark ot the alder tree or oak for gall when dyeing cotton red. " I can fafely aifert (fays be}, that it is impoffi- Ifahcl. ble to employ thefe as fubtlitutes, in whatever dofes Iron banks, they may be ufed. The colour is always much paler, poorer, and lefs fixed. I know that the cafe is not the fame in regard to dyeing wool and filk, in which it may be employed with fuccefs ; and in giving an ac- count of this dilTerence, I think the caule of it may be found in the nature of the g.ill-nut>. 1 . The acid which they cxclulivcly contain, as Berthollet has proved, faci- litates the decompolition of the ibap with which the cottons have been impregnated, and the oil then re- mains fixed in their till'ue, and in a greater quantity, as well as in a more intimate combination. 2. The gall- nuts, which owe their development to animal bodies, retain a chirafler ot animalifation, which they tranfmit to the vegetable (luff, and by thefe meani auginent its affinities with the colouring j rinciple of the madder ; for it is well known of what utility animal fubrtances are to fin ilitate this combination. This animalifation becomes ufelefs in operating upon woollen or filk." IRON BANKS, a traft of land on the E. fide of th* Midiffippi, below the mouth of the Ohio. — Mone. Iro.n-Castle, one of the forts of Porto Bcllo, in S. America, which admiral Vernon took and de- (Iroyed in 1739. The Spaniards call it St Philip de todo Fieira. — //;. I RONDEqUAT, called in fome maps Ge Rundtgut, a gulf or bay on the S. fide of the Lake Ontario, 4 miles E. of Walker's at the mouth of Geneifee liver. —ib. IRON MOUNTAINS, Great, in the State of Tenneffee, extend from the river Tenneffee to that of French Broiid (rom S. \V. to N. E. fartl.er to the N. E. the range has the name of Bald Mountain, and be- yond the Nolachucky, that of Iron Mountains. The Iron Mountains, feems to be the name generally ap- plied to the whole range. It conftitutes the boundary between the State of Tcnneflce, and that of North- Carolina, and extends from near the lead mines, on the Kanhav.ay, through the Cherokee country, to the fouth of Chota, and terminates ncir the fources of the Mobile. The caverns and cafcades in thefe mountains are innumerable. — ib. IRRATIONAL Numbers or ^laniities, are the fame as/unh, tor which fee Algebra, Emjcl. IRREDUCIBLE Case, hi algebra, is ufed for that cafe of cubic equations where the rror, according to Cardan's rule, appears under an impoffible or ima- ginary form, and yet is real. It is remarkable that this cafe always happens, viz.. one root, by Cardan's rule, in an impodible form, whenever the equation has three real roots, and no im- poffible ones, but at no time elfe. If we were polTcffed of a general rule for accurately extrafling the cube root of a binomial radical quanti- ty, it is evident we might relolve the irreducible cale generally, which coniids of two of fiich cubic bino- mial roots. But the labours of tlte algebralfls, from Cardan down to the prefent time, have not been able to remove this difficulty. Dr Wallis thought that he had d:fcovered fuch a rule ; but, like mod others, it is merely tentative, and can only lucceed in certain parti- cular circumftances. IRVTN River is a weftern head water of the Neus, in N. Carolina. — Morse. ISABEL, St, one of the iflands of Solomon, 200 miles I S L [ sgr ] J U A incf. ifabeUs, miles in circumference in the Pacific Ocean, 7° 30' S. lat. about 160 leagues W. of Lima, dilcoveied by , Mendana, 1567, whofe inhabitants are cannibals, and worfhip ferpents, toads, and other animah. Their complexion is bronze, their hair woolly, and they wear no covering but round the waift. The people are di- vided into tribes, and are conftantly at war with each other. Bats were feen here, which from one extremi- ty of their wings to the other, meafured 5 feet. Dam- pier, who has the reputation of exadlnefs, fays that he faw, in the fmall iflind of Sabuda, on the W. coafl of Papua, bats as large as young rabbits, having wings 4 feet in extent from one tip to the otlier. — ib. ISABELLA Point, lies on the N. fide of the ifland of St Domingo, and forms the N. E. fide of the bay of its name. N. lat. kj" 59' 10". This is the port where Colu.Tibua formed th: firll Spanilh fettlement on the ifland, and named both it and the point alter his patronels Queen Ifabella. He entered it in the night, driven by a temped. It is over-looked by a very high mountain flat at the top, and furrounded with rocks, but is a little expofed to the N. \V. wind. The river Ifabella which falls into it, is conflderable. There are 14 fathoms of water to anchor in. The fettlement was begun in 1493. was given up in 1496, when its inha- bitants v/ere carried to the city of St Domingo, which originally was called New Ifabella. Tlie bay is faid to have good anchorage lor (hips of war. It is about 29 leagues eaft by north of Cape Francois, meafuring in a ftralght line. — ib. ISCA, or rather fca, with Pifco and Nafca, three towns from which a jurifdiiflion of Lima in Peru, S. America, has its name. Great quantities of wine arc m:ide here and exported to Calaj. It alfo produces excellent olives, either for eating or for oil. The fields which are watered by trenches, yield an uncommon plenty of wheat, maize, and fruits. This jurifdidlion is remarkable for fpacious woods of carob trees, with the fruit of which the inhabitants feed numbers of affes, for the ufes of agriculture, to this and the neighbour- ing jurifdii.'^ions. The Indians who live near the fea apply themfelves to filhing, and after faking the filh carry them to a good market in the towns among the mountains. — ib. ISLE OF WIGHT, a county of Virginia, on the fouth fide of James's river, weft of Norfolk county, being about 40 miles long and 15 broad, and contains 9,028 inhabitants, including 3,867 flaves. A mineral fpring has been difcovered near the head of the weft branch of Nanfemond river, about 10 miles from Smithfield, and 12 from Suff)lk. It is much refortcd to, and famed for its medicinal qualities ii. ISLE ROYAL, on the north-weft fide of Lake Superior, lies within the territory of the United States north-weft of the Ohio, is about 100 miles long, and in many places about 40 broad. The natives fuppofe that this and the other iflanJs in the lake are the reli- dence of the Grent Spirit. — ib. ISLESBOROUGH, a townflilp in Hancock coun- ty, Maine, formed by Long-Ifland, in the centre of Penobfcot Bay, 15 miles in length, and from 2 to 3 in breadth. It was incorporated in 1789, contains 382 inhabitants, and is 260 miles N. £. by N. of Bofton. — ;•*. ISLES DE MADAME lie at the fouth end of Sydney, or Cape Breton Ifland, on which they af; dependant. The largeft of thefe, with Cape Canfj, ^ the caft point of Nova-ScotIa, foim the entrance ot the Gut of Canfo from the Atlantic ocean. — ib. ISLIP, a towr.ftiip of New- York, fituated in Suffolk county, Long-Ifland, eaft of Huntington, and con- talni 6j9 inhabitants; of thefe 93 are eUcljrs, and 35 flaves. — a. JUAN DE Fuc.4, a celebrated ftrait on the north- weft coaft of America, was furveycd by Captain Van- couver in the Dlfcovery floop of war, with a view to afcertaln whether it leads to any cr mmunication be- tween the North Pacitic and the North Atlantic O- ceans. As they advanced within the opening of the ftrair, their progrefs was greatly retarded by the number of inlets into which the entrance branched in every direftion ; and inoft of ihcfe were examined by ih.e boats, which were frequently abfent from the Ihlps on this fervice for feveral days together. In the midft of their labours, they were furprifed by the figl.t of two Spanilh velfels of war, employed, like themfelves, in furveying this inlet, the examination of which had been begun by them in the preceding year. Meafures of mutual afliilance were concerted b.twecn the captains of the two nations for the prcfecution of the furvey, in which each agreed to communicate to the other their difcoveries. Not one rf the many arms of the inlet, nor of the channels v/hich they explored in this broken part of tlie coaft, was found to extend more than 100 miles to the eaftward of the entrance into the ftrnit. After having furveyed the fouthern coaft, on which fide a termination was difcovered to every opening, by fol- lowing the continued line of the fhore, they were led to the northward, and afterward towards tlic noith-weft, till they came into the open fea through a diflerent chan- nel from the ftrait of Juan de Fuca, by which they had commenced this inland navigation. Thus it appeared, that the land forming the north fide of that ftrait is part of an ifland, or of an archi- pelago, extending nearly i(io leagues in length from S, E. to N. W. ; and on the fide of this land nioft diftant from the continent is fituated Nootka Sound. The nioft peculiar circumftance of this navigation is the ex- treme depth of water, whencontiafted with the narrow, nefs of the channels. The veifels were fometimes drift- ed about by the currents during the whole of a night, clofe to the rocks, without knowing how to help them- felves, on account of the darknefs, and the depth being much too great to afford them anchorage. In the courfe of this furvey, the voyagers had fre- quent communications with the natives, whom they met fometimes in canoes and fometimes at their villages. In their tranfaflions with Europeans, they are del'cribed as " well verfed in the principles of trade, which they carried on in a very fair and honourable manner." In other refpcls ihcy were lefs honeft. At one village 200 fea otter fkins were purchaled of them by the crews of the veffels in the com fe of a day; and they had many more to fell in the fame place, as alfo fkins of bears, deer, and other animals. One party of Indians whom they met had the fkin of a vfimg lionefs ; and thefe fpoke a language ditferent from that uf;d in Nootka Sound. Venifon was fometimes brought for fale ; and a piece of copper, not more than a foot l<iuare, purchafed one w hole deer and part of another. Among O 2 other JaaiT. JUA [292] JUG ]iu«. other articles of tr;iiric, two children, fix or feven years hood, were appropriated to ufeful purpofes ; fuch as Jua"i ■''^ "~ of age, were offered for fale. The commodities mod pointing tlieir arrows, fpears or other weapons." II prized by the natives were fire-arms, copper, and great However honourably thefe people have been repre- J)J!i$i^ coats. Beads and trinkets they would only receive as fsnted in their condiift as traders, it appeared on feve- prefents, and not as articles of exchange. Many of ral occafions that it was unfafe to depend on their good- them were poflelTed of tire-arms. In one part it is re- will alone : and fome inllances occurred, of their mak. l.itcd, that after a chief had received fome prefents, " he, ing every preparation for an attack, from which they with moft of his companions, returned to the Ihorc; defilted only on being doubtful 01 the event ; yet im- and, on landing, fired fcveral mulkets, to fliew, in all mediately on relinquilhing their purpofe, they would probability, with what dexterity they could ufe thefe cnme with the greatell confidence to trade, appearing weaponi, to which they feemed as familiarized as if they perfeflly regardlcfs ot what had before been in agita- had been accuftoroed to fiie-arms from tlieir earlieft in- tion. The boats, as already noticed, were frequently fancy." at a great diftance from the Ihips ; and on fuch occa- The dreflTes of thefe people, befides (kins, are a kind fion'-, when large parties of Indians hare firft fcen them, of woollen gaiments ; the materials compofing which they generally held long conferences among ihemfelves are expl lined in the following extra<fl : before they approjciied the boats; probably for the " The dogs belonging to this tribe of Indians wers purpnfe of deternjinlng the mode of conduit which numerous, and much r::fembled thofe of Pomerania, they jujg»d it moft pruJent to obferve. Captain Van- though, in general, fi>mewhat larger. They were all couver places the entrance of the flrait of Juan de Fu- fhorn as clofe to the fkin js Iheep are in England ; and ca in 48° 20' N. Lat. and 124° W. Long, fo compaifl were their Heeces, that l^rge portions could JUAN. St, tl.e capital of California in N. America, he lifted up bv a corner without caufing any fep^ration. N. lat 26° 25', W. hmg. 1 14^ 9'. — Morse. They weie compofed of a mixture of a coaife kind of Juam, Fort St, ftands in the province of New Leon, wool, with very fine long hair, capable of being fpun into in N. America, on the S. W. fide of the Rio Bravo, yarn. Th's gave C.iptain Vancouver reafon to believe, in the 29th degree of N. latitude and loifl of W. long- that their wuollen cloathint; mig'.it in part be compofed itude. — ib. of this niateri.il mixed with a finer kind of wool from JUDITH, POINT, the fouth-eafternmoft point of fome o:her anim il, as their garments were all too fine Rhode-Ifland State, fituated on the fea-coaft of Wafh- to be manufaiflured from the coarfe coating of the dog ingt^n county, in South- Kingfton lownfliip. — ib. alone." JUDOSA BAY, in Louifianna, lies in the N. W. Of other animals alive, deer only were feen in any corner of the gulf of Mexico. A chain of idands form abundance by our people. a communication between it f uth wellward to St Ber- The number of inliabitants computed to be in the nard's Bay. — ib. largell o{ the villages or towns that were difcovered, JUGGLERS are a kind of people whofe profcllion did not exceed 600. Captain Vancouver conje^ured has not been often deemed either refpeflable or ufeful. the Im ^11 pox to be a dileafe common and very fatal Profeffor Beckmann, however, has undertaken their de- among thcrn. Many were much marked ; and mod fence ; and in a long and learned chapter in the third ot thefe had loll their right eye. Their method of dif- volume of his HiJIory of Invcniiom, pleads the cau!e of podr.g ot their dead is very fiiigular. the praflifers of legerdemain ; rope-dancers ; perfons " Bifkets were found fulpended on high tree?, each who place their boilies in prfitions apparently danger- containing the (keteton of a young child ; in fome of ous ; and of thofe who exhibit feats of uncommon which were alfo fmall I'qtiare boxes tilled with a kind of ftrengtli. All thcle men he clalTes under the general white parte, refembling (lays onr author) fuch as 1 had denomination of y«^^/iTJ ; and taking it for granted leen the natives ear, fuppofed to be made of thefaranne (lurely upon no good grounds) that every ufeful em- root ; tome of thel'e boxes were quite full, others were ployment is full, he contends, that there would not be ii«n'ly empty, eaten probably by the mice, fouirrels, room on the earth for all its prefent inhabitants did not or birds. On the next low point fouth of our encamp- fome of them pradlife the arts of yuggling. mcnt, where the gunners were airing the powder, they " Thefe arts (fays he) are indeed not unprofitable, met with I'evcr.d holes in which human bodies were in- for they atTord a comfortable fubfil-lence to thofe who ten ed, nit;htly covered over, and in different dates of praiSife them ; but their gain is acquired by too little decay, forae appealing to have been very recently de- labour to be hoarded up ; and in general, thefe roving pofited. About halt a mile to the northward of our people Ipend on the fpot the fruits of their ingenuity ; tents, where the land is nearly level with high water which is an additional reafcn why their day in a place mark, a few paces within the ikirliug of the wood, a fhould be encouraged. But farther, it often happens, canoe was found fulpended between two trees, in which that what ignorant perfons firl^ employ, merely as a ■were three human (keletons. fhow, for amufement or deception, is afterwards en- " On each point of the harbour, which, in honour nobled by being applied to a more important purpofe.. of a particular friend, I called /"fn/;'/ Csvir, was a defert- The machine with which a Savoyard, by means of ed village ; in one of which were found feveral fepul- fhadows, amufed children and the populace, was by chres, formed exadly like a centry box. Some of them Libetkvihn converted into a folar microfcope ; and, to vere open, and contained the fkeletons of many young give one example more, the art of making ice in fum- childien tied up in balkets : the fmaller bones of adults mer, or in a heated oven, enables guelis, much to •were likcwil'e noticed, but not one of the limb bones the credit of their hodefs, to cool the molt expenfive could here be found ; which gave rife to an opinion, dithes. The Indian difcovers precious dones, and the that thefe, by the living inhabitants of the neighbour- European, by polifhinij, gives them a luftre. " But, JUG [ 293 ] JUG Jugglers. "But, if the arts of juggling ferved no other end ter. The juggler rolls together fome flax or hemp, fo Juggle's- ^^"^^"^ than to amufe the moft ignorant of our citizens, it is as to form a ball about the fize of a walnut ; fets it on ^•''~'''^*~' proper that they fhouid be encouraged for the fake of fire ; and fufFcrs it to burn till it is nearly confumed ; thofe who cannot enjoy the more expenfive deceptions he then rolls round it, while burning, fome more flax ; of an opera. They anfwer ocher purpofes, however, and by ihefe means the fire may be retained in it for a ion-' than that of merely amufing : they convey inilruclion in the moft acceptable manner, and ferve as an agreea- ble antidote to fuperfkition, and to that popular belief in miracles, exorcifm, conjuration, forcery, and witch- craft, from which our anceftors i'uffered fo feverely." Surely this reafining, as well as the caufe in which it is brought forward, is unworthy of the learning of Beckmann. It is indeed true, thatjug,;lers fpend their money freely, and that their arts .ifiord them the means of fubfiftence ; but it is very feldum, as our aulhnr niufl know, that they fubliil either comfortably or innocently. Is it innocent to entice the ignorant and labouring poor, by ufelefs deceptions, to part with their hard earned pittance to idle vagabonds ? or is the life of thole vaga- bonds comfortable, when it is paffed amid fcenesof the moll grovelling diflipation? Jtigglers fpend indeed their money, for tlie moft part, on the fpot where it is gain- ed ; but iliey fpend it in drunkennefs, and other feducing vices, which corrupt their own morals and the morals of all wi.h whom they alficiate; and therefore their ftay in a place lliould certainly not be encouraged. Could it be proved that the folar microfcope would never have been invented, liad not a Savoyard juggler contrived a fimilar machine to amufe children and the rabble, fome ftrefs might be laid on the fervice which fuch wretches have rendered to fcience : but where is the man that will fupj)ofe the philofophy of Bacon and Newton to reft upon the arts of juggling ? or who confiders the re- finements of fcience as ot equal value with the morals of the people ? There is, at the moment in which this article is drawing up, a fellow exhibiting, before the windows of the writer's chamber, the moft indecent fcenes by means of puppets, and keeping the mob in a conftant roar. Is he mnocently employed ? or will any good man fiy that tliere is not room for him in the ar- mies which on the Continent are fighting in the caufe of God and humanity ? Our author endeavours to ftrengthen his reafoning by proving, which he does very completely, the anti- quity of juggling. " The deception (fays he) of breathing out tlames, which at prelent excites, in a par- ticular manner, theaftoniihment oi the ignorant, is very ancient. When the (laves in Sicily, aljout a century and a half betore our acra, made a formidable infurrec- tion, and avenged themfelves in a cruel manner for the f<;verities which they Iiad fuffered, there was arnongft tliem a Syrian named Eunus, a man oi great cruft and courage, who, having palfed through many fcenes of life, had become acquainted with a variety ot arts. He pretended to have immediate communication with tlie gods; was the oracle and leader ol his fellow flaves ; and, as is ufual on luch occafinns, cnnfirmed his divine miflion by miracles. When, heated by cnthufiafm, he was defirous ol infpiring his followers with courage, he breathed flames or fparks among them fr. m his mouth while he was addrelling 'hem. We arc told by hifto- rians, that for this purpufe he pierced a nut-fliell at both ends, and having filled it with I'ome burning fubftancc, put it into his mouth and breathe' through it. •• This deception, at prcfent, is performed much bet- time. When he wifhes to exhibit, he flips the ball unperceived into his mouth and breathes through it; which again revives the fire, fo that a number of weak fparks proceed from it ; and the performer fuftains no hurt, provided he infpire the air not through the mouth but the noftrils. " For deceptions with fire the ancients employed alfo naphtha, a liquid mineral oil, which kindles when it only approaches a flame. (See Naphtha, Encycl.) Galen informs us that a perf m excited great aftoniflt- ment by extinguilhing a candle and again lighting it, without any other procefs than holding it immediately againft a wall or a ftone. The whole fccret of this ccn- fifted in having previoufly rubbed over the wall or ftone with fulj^hur. But as the author, a few lines before, (peaks ot a mixture of fulphur and naphtha, we have reafon to think that he alludes to the fame here. Plu- tarch relates how Ahxar.dcr the Great was aftonifhed and delighted with the fecret elFefts of nap.'nba, which were exhibited to him at Ecbatana. The fame author, as well as Pliny, Galen, and others, has already remark- ed that the fubftance with which Medea deftioyed Creufi, the daughter of Creon, was nothing elfe than this fine oil. She fent to the unfortunate princef? a drefs bcfmeared with it, which burft into flames as foon as (he approached the fire of the altar. The blcod of Nelfus, in which the drcfs of Hercules, which took fire likewife, had been dipped, was undoubtedly naphtha alfo ; and this oil muft have been always employed when offerings caught fire in an imperceptible manner. "In modern times, perfons who could walk over burning coals or red-hot iron, or who could hold red- hot iron in their hands, have often e.\cited wonder. But laying afide the deception fometimes pra(5iifed oil the fpeflatois, the whole ot this fecret connfts in ren- dering the fkin ot the foles oi the feet and hands io callous and infenfible, that the nerves under them are fecured from .ill hurt, in the iame manner as by liioes and gloves. Such ca'.h'lity will be produced if the (kin is continually comprelfed, tinged, pricked, or injured in any other manner. Thus do the fingers of the induf- trious fcmpftrefs become horny by being frequently pricked ; and the ca(e is the fame witli the hands of fire workers, and the feet of thofe who walk bare footed over fcorching land. " In the monih of September 1765, when I vifited (fays our author) the copper- works at Aweftad, one of the workmen, for a little diink m^ney, took fome of the melted copper in his hand, and alter (licwii'.g it to us, threw it againft a wall. He then fqueezed the fin- gers of his horny hand clofe to each other ; put it a few minutes under his arm-pit, to make it fweat, as he faid ; and, taking it again out, drew it over a ladle filled with melted copper, fome of which be (kimmcd otf, and mov- ed his liand backwards and forwards, very quickly, by way of oltentaiion. While I was viewing this perfor- mance, I rem irked a 'rnell like that of lirgcJ horn or leather, though his har.d was not burnt. It is highly pro- bable, that people who hold in their hands red hot iron, or who walk upon it, as I faw done at Ainfterdam, but K A A C 294 ] K A A Ji/emf/ita Jd^gl-r^. at a diftancf , make tlicir fkin callous before, in the like '*'''~''''^^^ manner. This may be accomiilinied by frequently nioi- lleninf! it with fpirit of vitriol ; acccuding to fome the juice of certain plants will produce the fame effcifl ; and ve are allured by others, that the (kin mull be very fic- quently rubbed, for a long lime, with oil, by which means, indeed, leather alfo will become horny*." Our author then proves, in a very learned manner, that all thcfe tricks were of high antiquity ; that the Hirpi, who lived near Rome, jumped through burning coals ; that women were accullonied to walk over burning coals at Caftabala inCappadocia, near the tem- ple dedicated to Diana ; that the eihibition of balls and cups (fee Lecerdlmain, Encycl.) is often mentioned in the works of the ancients ; that in the third century, one Firmus or Firmius, who endeavoured to make himfelf emperor in Egypt, futTered a fniith to forge iron on an anvil placed on his breall ; that rope-dancers with ba- lancing poles are mentioned by Petronius and others; and that the various feats of horfemanlliip exhibited in our circufes palled, in the thirteenth century, from Egypt to the Byzantine court, and thence over all Europe. JULIAN, St, ahaibour on the coad of Patagonia, in South America, where (hips bound to the Pacific ocean ufually touch for refrelhment. S. lat. 48° 51', W. long. 65" lo' Monc. ^ JUl.IE'l', Mount, iu North-America, lies on the north fide of Illinois river, oppofite the place where that river is formed by the jur.iflion of Theakiki and Plein rivers. 'I'he middle oi Mount Juliet is in N. lat. 42° 5', W. long, m^" 44'.—;*. JUNGLE, in Bengal, waftc land, or land covered witli wood and brambles. JUNIUS, a military townfliip in New-York State, bounded north by Galen, and fouth by Romulus. — Morse. Junius Creek, a northern branch of the Little Kanhaway, which interlocks with the weftern waters of Monongahela river ; and which may one day admit a (liorter palTage from the latter into the Ohio. — \h. IWANEE, a little town near St Jago de Cuba, where a fmall remnant ot the ancient Indians live, who have adopted the manners and language of the Spaniards. — ib. Julian, II IwiHee. K. Kaarta. T7' AARTA, a kingdom in Africa, through which j\. Mr Park palTed in his route from the Gambia to the Niger. He defcribes the country as conlilling either of fandy plains or rocky hills ; but, from his account, the level part feems to be the moll extenfive. The na- tives are negroes, of whom many, though converted to the Mahomedan faith, or rather to the ceremonial part of the Mahomedan religion, retain all their ancient iuperllitions, and even drink llrong liquors. They are called Johers or Jowers, and in Kaarta form a very numerous and powerful tribe. One of thefe men un- dertook to conduift our author to Kemmoo, the capital of the kingdom, and alarmed him not a little by his fuperllitious ceremonies. We had no fooner (fays Mr Park) got into a dark and lonely part of the firll wood, than he made a fign tor us to ftop, and taking hold of a hollow piece of bamboo, tliat hung as an amulet round his neck, whift- led very loud, three times. I confefs I was fomewhat flartleJ, thinking it was a fignal for fome of his compa- nions to come and attack us ; but he alTured me that it was done merely with a view to afcertain what fuccefs we were likely to meet with on our prefent journey. He thendifmounted, laid his fpearacrofs the road, and having faid a number of (hort prayers, concluded with three loud whiftles ; after which he liftened for fome time, as if in expeftation of an anfvver, and receiving none, told us we might proceed without fear, for there was no danger." White men were (Irangersin the kingdom of Kaarta ; and the appearance of our author had on fome of the natives the efl'eft which ignorant people, in this coun- try, attribute to ghofts. " I had wandered (fays he) a little from my people, and being uncertain whether Kaatt. they were before or behind me, I haftened to a rifing Kaarta, ground to look about me. As I was proceeding to- wards this eminence, two negro horfemen, armed with mulkets, came galloping from among the bulhes : on "" feeing them I made a full (lop ; the horfemen did the fame, and all three of us feemed equally furprifed and confounded at this interview. As I approached them their fears increafed, and one of them, after carting up- on me a look of horror, rode off at full fpeed ; the other, in a panic of fear, put his hand over his eyes, and continued muttering prayers until his horfe, feem- ingly without the rider's knowledge, conveyed him flowly after his companion. About a mile to the weft- ward, they fell in with my attendants, to whom they related a frightful (lory : it feems their fears had drclTed me in the flowing robes of a tremendous fpirit ; and one of them affirmed, that when I made my appearance, a cold blaft of wind came pouring down upon him from the (ky like fo much cold water." At Kemmoo our traveller was gracioufly received by the king ; who honeftly told him, however, that he could not protedl him, being then engaged in war with the king of Bambarra (See Sego in this Supplement ) ; but he gave him a guard to Jarra, the frontier town of the neighbouring kingdom of Ludamar. The origin and iifue of this war between Kaarta and Bambarra, of which Mr Park gives a full account, (hews the folly of attempting to liberate the negroes from flavery till civil- ization and Chriftianity be introduced into Africa. Major Rennel places Kemmoo, the capital of Kaarta, in 14° 15' N. Lat. and 7° 20' W. Lon. KAATS' BAAN, in New-York State, lies on the weft bank of Hudfon's river, 7 miles foutherly from Kaats' Kill, and 1 1 N. £. by N. from Efopus. — Morse. Kaats' K A B C 295 ] K A B KAbobi- quas, II Kaits. Kaats' Kill, or Cat/kill, a fmall village of 30 or 40 houfes and (lores, in the State of New- York, fitua- ted on the well lide of Hudfi.n's river, about 100 rods , from its b ink ; 5 miles ibuih of Hudfon city, and 125 north of New York. It has the appearance (jf a thriv- ing place, and it is in contemplation to erefl buildings c;n a marlhy point, on the margin of the river, for the advantage of deeper water. 'Ihe creek on which the (lores now lland being too lliallow. The townlhip of this name contains 1,980 inhabitants, of whom 343 are e!ei51ors, and 305 {laves. — ib. Ka .ts' Kill Muuntains, in the vicinity (>f the above town on the weft bank ot Hiidfon'b river, which make a majeltic appearance. Thefe are the firft part of the chain of mountains called the Allegany, or Appala- chian mnun'airs. — ib. K--\BOBIQUAS, a nation in foiith Africa, who had never fecn a white man till 1785, that they were vifited by M. Vaillant. Intimation had been given of hh approach by fome ot the tiibes through whofe country he had previouily palTed ; and everything that had been laid ot his colour, his tufees, and his equipage, bore the chaiacler ot tlie moll enthui'iailic exaggeration. The curiofity uf the people was wnund up to the high- eft pitch ; .md as foon aa they faw his company at a dif- tance, the whule horde quitted the kraal, and ran with eagernefs to meet him. Not being able to believe their eyes in regrttd to wh.it they faw, they endeavoured to obtain more fatisfaftion by touching him. They felt his hair, h.mds, and almoft every pan of his body. His beard, above all, aftoi ilhed ihem to an inconceivable degree. More than thirty pcrfons came in fuccellion, and half unbuttoned his clothes. They all imagined him to be a hairy animal ; and fuppofed, without doubt, that his body was covered with hair as long as that on his chin ; but finding tliis not to be ilie cafe, tliey were afto- niihed, and cnnfelfed, with the opennels of favages, that they had never feen the like in any man of their coun- try. The little children, teriified at his appearance, hid thcmfclves behind tlicir mothers. Wiien he at- tempted to lay hold of any of them, in order to carefs them, they fcnt forth loud cries, as a child would do in Europe who Ihould fee a negio for the rirlt time. Tile grown up people, however, were foon reconciled to his appearance, and even the children were bribed by fmall bits of fugar candy. Thechief of tlie horde Ihowed him every mark of attachment. He was a man advanced in life, and oi a majeftic figure. He wore a long mantle, which hung from his ftioulders to the ground, and which, formed of four jackal fkins juined together, was bordered at the fides with that of a liyxna. His left hand wanted two joints of the little finger, which he faid, were amputated in his infancy to cure him of a fcvcrc ilhiefs. This ciillom rf fivages, who, to relieve a man from pain, add new fufferliiji,s to his evils, affords a vaft field for refleiflion. Mr Paierfon, another Atiican traveller, tells ns, that he obfcrved inftances of the fame pii'.iSice among a horde at the mouth of Orange-river ; which is nri improbable. However abfurd a cuftom may be, l^ivngc tribes when they are neighbours, ni.iy bor- row it from each other ; but that it Ihould be d mmon among llie ill ini'trs of the Sou.h Sea, wl;o, fiiicc their country w.^s firfl inhab tei^, had never feen fti angers be- fore Cook and Bougainville, is truly altonilhing. Our author was very defirous of interrogating minutely tlie Kibobi- pcople of the horde on this fub^tcl. He wilhed alfo to 1"^'- prop(.fe fome quellions to them refpefting otlicr culloms whicli appeared fingular ; but difficulties increafed the more he advanced into the country. The Kabobiijuas fpoke a particular language ; and this di.ilea, though accom,<anled with the clapping noife of the Hottentots, was underitood only by the Koraquas, who, on account of their vicinity, kept up fome intcrcouife with them. The cafe was ih; fame with th; langu.ige cf the Kora- qu IF, in regard to their neighbours the Nimiquas ; and nothing reached our author's ear till it had pjflcd through four dilFerent mouths. The confequcnce was» that when he afked any thing, the anfwer had frcqr.ent- ly no relation to the queftion ; and for this inconve- niency no remedy could be found. The fame defire for trinkets to crnamcnt their drefs prevailed among the Kabobiquas as am<ing the otlier hordes which Vaillant had vifited ; and in one day he puichafed twenty oxen for things ot that kind oi no vdiue. The chief, however, Ii^d fet Ills affeftlons rn :i razor ; and juft when our author and he were treating about it, a lliot was fired near tl-.em, which was in^lantly followed by the moft lilglitful crie-s. " Rulhing in- ftantly from my tent (f.iys M. Vaillant) to encjuire what was the caufe of this noife, I faw a Kaboblqua flying as fall as he C'itild from one of my hunters, while, at the dlftance of a hundred paces farther, three men were making the moft lamentable cLmour, and near them was a young girl Inng on the ground. I made a fignal to my liuntcr to approach me; but the icport ol the Ihot, and the howling of the three men, had al- ready fpread alaim throughout the hoide. Some cried out treachery ; others ran to their arms ; :>.nd I now imagined that I was about to be malfa-./ed, with my whole company, and that I fhould be obliged to arm them in my defence. My fituation was tlie more cri- tical, as neither I, nor any perfon in the kraal, knew what was the caufe of this confufion ; and if I had known, how could I I;ave explained it ? " Under this embatralfment, I took tho chief by tlie hand, and advanced with him towards the horde. Fear was painted in his countenance; tear.^ began to drop from his eyes ; and he fprke to me » iih great viv.iclty. He imagined, no doubt, that he was betrayed. He compl.iined to me. and accufed my people cf ptifidy ; yet he readily followed me. " As I was withcut arms, and prefcnted myfelf with the chief, I was received with confidence, ard my ap- pearance feemed, in fome meafure, to calm their pertur- bati.n. My people, wh'^ had feen me direft my courfo towards the kraal, hallci'.ed thither after me, to protee't me ; ar.d th:ir number overawed tlie multitude. ,At lengtii the whole myllery was cleared up, and we learn- ed what had occafinned the tumult. " A Kabobicpia having met one of my hunters, who was returning with his fufce, wilhed 10 examine it, and beggea him to ilicw it to h;m. In handling it, how. ever, he accidentally touched the trigger; it inftantly went off; an J thcfavagc, frightened by the unexpected explofion, threw down the fufce, and ran aw.jy as faft as he cnuld. " At that time, three men of the horde and a yoiing girl h.ippened unluckily t^ be llanding, at the diliance uf i hundred paces, in the ditcdion rf tlie piece. The Utter K A B [ 296 ] K A B latter received a Tingle grain of (hot in the cheek ; and the ol)iers a tew grains in the legs and thighs. The author of the mist'oitunc confirmed (his explanation; tranquillity was foon rellored ; the favages dcpofited their arms; and I was furrounded only by friends as before. " Notliing remained but to enquire into the (late of the wounded, and to give them every alTiflance in my power. Without lofs of time, therefore, I repaired, ftill accompanied by the chief, to the place where they were. By the way we met the young girl, who was returning from the kraal, bathed in tears. Tlie caufe of her uneafinefi was a grain of lead, which had, how- ever, penetrated fo little, that 1 forced it out by only pretling the part with my fingers. With regard to the three men, they lay rolling on the ground, howling in a moll frightful manner, and exhibiting every fymptom of defpair. " 1 was aftoninied at their conlternation, and could not conceive how men inured to fufFerings Ihould be fo much affeaed by a few fmall punaures, the pain of whicli could have fcarcely drawn tears from an infant. They at length told me the caufe of their vvailings. Thefe fava.?es, accuftumed to poifon their arrows, ima- gined that I had in like manner poifoned the lead with which they were wounded. They had, therefore, given themfelves up as loll, and expeaed in a few moments to expire." It was with great difficulty that our author could convince them that (hey had nothing to fear. He fliew- ed them in the flelh of his own leg a dozen of Ihots of lead ; but they were not fatisfied till one of the moll in- telligent of his Hottentots, taking from his (hot bag a few grains of lead, and (hewing them to the three men, immediately fwallowcd them. This conclnfive argument produced the delired eSs&. The cries of the wounded men inftanily ce.ifed ; ferenity again appeared in their faces ; and their wounds were no more mentioned. The Kabobiquas have neither the flat nofe nor plump checks of the Hottentots. Their (kin alfo has not that baftard colour, which, being neither black nor white, renders them odious to both 1 aces ; nor do they befmear their bodies with thofe difgufting fat fubftances, on ac- count of which one cannot approach them without be- ing bedaubed with their filth, or acquiring an o(Fenfive fmell. In ftature they are as tall as the Caffres, and their colour is equally black. Their hair, which is ex- ceedingly Ihort, and much curled, is ornamented with fmall copper buttons, arranged with great art and fym- metry. Inllead of that apron made of a jackal's (kin, employed by the Hottentot to cover what modefty bids him conceal, the Kabobiquas ufe a round piece of leather, the edge of which is ornamented with a fmall in- dented circle oV copper, and which is divided into di(Fer- ent compartments by rows of glafs beads of various co- lours, all proceeding from the centre, and diverging to- wards the circumference, like the rays in our images of the fun. This kind of veil is made fad to the groin by means of a girdle ; but as it is only four inches in diameter, as it is deranged by the fmalleft movement, and as they give themlelves little uneafinefs refpeaing fuch acci- dents, it is very ill fuited to the purpofe for which it is applied. During the great heats, this fmall and alnioft ufelefs apron is the only covering on their bodies. Its being fo readily difplaced, enabled our author to afcer- Kabobi- tain that they do not praaife circumcifion ; but it feem- I""' cd to (liow aifo, that, in regard to modelly, their ideas are very dilVcrent from ours. Though tliey go liius almo(l entirely naked, their manners, iurtead of being licentious, are remarkably challe. No females can be more prudent or more re- ferved than their women ; and whether from refinement of coquetry, or the elTccI of prudence, they do not tat- too their faces like their hulhands and fathers. They do not even (oUow their example In ornamenting their hair with copper buttons ; and they always go bare- legged, though moll of them wear fandals. Their drefa confifts of an apron that reaches only half down the thigh ; a krofs which, palling under the arm-pits, is tied on the breafl ; and a long mantle like that ol the men. The mantle is made of Ikins not de- prived ot the hair ; and the krofs of tanned leather, pre- pared like that uled for gloves in Europe. With regard to glafs beads they wear them as brace- lets. They form them aUb into necklaces, which de- fcend in different rows to the pit of the ftomach ; and they fufpend from their girdles feveral ftrings of them, which fall down their thighs below the apron. Thefe ornaments being very durable, the habit of feeing them renders the women almoll indifferent to the pleaiure of polfelling them. Thofe they procured from our author afforded at firft great fatii(aaion, on account of their novelty. But when he (liewed them fcilfars and needles, they gave the preference to thefe articles ; and tliis choice does honour to the good fenfe of the Kabobiqua ladies. Like their chief, they fet a higher value on utility than ornament. Before our author's arrival among them, the Kabo- biquas were acquainted with the ufe of tobacco through the means of fume of the tribes more contiguous to the Cape. It was, however, a luxury which they could feldom enjoy ; and fo indifferent were they about it, that if it were iiot brought to them, they would not go a itep to procure it. This indifference, about an article which is eagerly fought ior by all tlie tribes of Hottentots, fcemcd to (hew that there are traits in the charaaer of the Kabobiquas which dillinguilh them from their fouthern neighbours. The cafe was the fame as to llrong liquors, on which they fet no great value ; and though there were among them fome tew individuals dilpoled to relilh them, the greater number abfolutely relufed them. " If the contents of my flafks (fays Vaillant) gave them little latlbfaaion, ihey were, however, much cap- tivated with the flatks themfelves. Thefe tranfparent bottles excited therr admiration in the highell degree. They called them yff/;V/ nvater ; for, notwithftanding the heat of the climate, thefe favages had feen ice on the fummits ot the mountairvs by which they are furround- ed ; and they entertained no doubt that the glafs of my flalks was water, which I had rendered folid by magic, and which I prevented their fires from melting. As it was impollible for me to explain this matter, I did not attempt to undeceive them : and befides, with what ad- vantage would it have been attended ? I fuffered them, therefore, tu continue In their error, and contented my- felf with conferring on them an obligation, by giving tliem all the empty bottles for which I had no ule. " On their part, they vied with each other in fljew- ,' ing K A B C 297 ] K A J Kabobi- ing tlieir gencrofity towards me ; and I tnuft indeed Jj!^^^!!. allow, that I never fitw a nation fo difinterefted. Every niglit they brought to my camp a confiderable quantity ol milk ; and they never came to fpend the evening with my people, without bringing; feme flieep to regale them. 1 have feen many of them give away gratui- loully, and without receiving any thing in return, part of their herds and their flncks ; and, when I departed, there were many perfons in my caravan wlio poireiled both (heep and oxen, which they had received as a pure With this benevolent difpofition, the Kabobiquas have alfo a martial charai51cn Their weapons are poi- foned arrows, and a lance with a long iron point, but different from the alTagay of the Hottentots. In battle, their defenfive armour confills oi two bucklers ; the one of a fize fufficient to cover the whole body of the com- batant ; the other much fmaller. They are both made of (kins exceedingly thick, and proof againlt arrows. The courage which the Kabobiquas difplay in combat is particularly exercifed in their hunting excur- fions, and, above all, againll carnivorous animals. In- trepid, however, as it may be to aitick the elephant and the rhinoceros, thefe fpecies of animal< are not ob- je<as of their vengeance ; becaufe, living upon grafs and herbs, they liave nothing to apprehend from them, either for themfelves or their cattle. But the tiger, lion, hyaena, andpmthcr, being enemies of a dill'ticnt kind, they declare aganll them implacable war, and purfue them witliout rcmiffioii. Of the fpoih of thefe deftruftive anim.als they form their bucklers, girdles, fandals, krofies, mantles, &c. They confider it as a mark of honour to wear them ; and they fet a much higher value upon them than upon the fkin of the rhinoceros or of the elephant. If they fometimes hunt the latter, it is only as objeds of food ; and they employ to catch them thofe concealed pits, which are the ufual fnares of the Hottentots : but this method, which requires both patience and labour, is very little fuited to a people fo brave and enterpriling as the Kabobiquas. As they p'.ffefs fo bold and refolute a charafter, one might be induced to believe that they are fero- cious and intractable, .'^mong all the African nations, liowever, which our anthor vifited, he never knew one that fo much prailifed obedience and fubordina- tion. The chief here is not, as in other tribes, a principal among his equals ; he is a fovereign in tlie mijll ci' his fubjeias, a mailer furrounded by his llaves. A word, a gcllure, or a look, is fufficient to procure him obe- dience. Whatever be his orders, they are never con- tradicted ; and the cafe is the lame in every particular family. What the chief is to the horde, the father is to his children. His comni tnds Urc abfolutc ; and lie txercifes regal power at liomc, while he obeys elfe- where. Though the tribe was very niimercns, the wifdom with which it was ruled, and the good ordtr that pre- vailed, announced, in the man by whom it was govern- ed, an intelligence fuperior to that of all the favagcs our author had before feen ; for he had not if.cn vilitcJ the lloiizouaiias. The habitation of this chief was fuited to his fupreme di.,'nity. It was, indeed, a hut only, like thofe ^of his fiibjefls, and, like them covered with the Sup'PL. Vol. II. {kins of animah ; but it was much larger, as well as more elevated ; and around it were fix others, occupied by his family, and deftined for them alone. The natural drynefs of the country inhabited by the Kabobiquas obliges them to dig wclh, for their own ufe as well as for their cattle; but as the fame caufc often dries up thefe wells, they are then forced to re- move, and to feek elfewhere a foil more abundant in fprings ; for Tifli-River, though confidciable in the rainy feafon, is often, during the great heats, entirely dcftitute of water. The long journeys which thefe too frequent emigra- tions compel them to undertake, and the intercourfe which they thence have with other nations, mull nccef- farily infpire them with ideas unknown to the fettled tribes ; and it would not be unnatural to fiippofc, th^t to this extenfion of ideas are they indebted for that fu- periority of intelligence which elevates them above their neighbours. Of the religion of the Kabobiquas, our nuthor talks very ineonliftently, and like a true philofophcr of the French fchocl. " Of all the African nations (fays he), they are the only people among whom 1 found any idej,. however confufed a one, of the exillence of a Djity. I do not know whether it be from their own refleiftion, or the communications of other tribes, that they have ac- quired this fublime knowledge, which would alone bring them near to a level with pollfhed nations ; but they believe, as far as I have been able to learn from my people, that beyond the ftars there exifts a Supreme Being, who made and who governs all tliirps. I mud however obferve, that on this fiibjeft their ideas are vague, barren, and unproduflive. They have no con- ception of the future exiftence of the foul, or of rewards and punilliments in another life ; in fliort, they have neither worfhip, f.icrlfices, ceremonies, nor prielts, and are total ftrangers to what we call religion." This is impolTible. A people believing in a Supreme Being, who made and who governs all things, may in- deed be whhoM fjcrijire/, aremomcs, and prrjls ; but fuch a people cannot avoid ij'iPStr.g, that the Being who governs all things may protcd them. Such a willi is a prayer; and furely he-wlio prays is no ftranger to reli- gion. M. Vaillant places the country of the Kabobi- quas between 23° and 25° S. Lat. and 16" 25' and 19" 25' Long, eaft from Paris. KAHNONWOLOHALE, the principal village of the Oneida Indians, in which is Oneida CalUe, abouc 20 miles fouth of weft Irom Whiteitown, and 12 weft of Paris. There is but one framed lioule in thi> vil- lage. Their habititions arc but a fmall improvement upon the ancient iviguiams ; and are fc.ittered fparfely throughout an enclofure of IVveral miles in circum- ference, within which they k<.cp their cattle, lu'ife-, and fwine, and * itiiout, plant their corn and low their grain. — Morse. KAJ.-AAGA, an African kingdom, ciUcd by the FrcuLh Gulhm, is bounded on the louih-eall and I'ou'.h by B imbouk ; on the wrft, by Bondi^u and Foota Tor- ra ; and on the north, by the river Senegal. The air and climate (fays Mr Park) are more pure and falubri- ous than at any of the fcttlements towards (he coaft ; the face of the country i» cveiy wliere inierfpctTcd with a pleafing variety ol hills and valleys; and the wirdings of the Stnegal livcr, which dcfcends from the rocky r p liUli K A I [ 298 hills of the interior, make the fcenery on its banks very piinurefque and beautiful. The inhabitants are called SerawooUies, or (as tlie French write it) Seraco'.ets. Their complexion is a jet black : they are not to be diRinguilhed in this rcfjieift from the Jalcff',. The gcivernment is monarchical ; and the regal au- thority, from what I experienced of it, feems to be fuf- ficiently formidable. The people themftU'cs, however, complain of no opprelEon ; and feemed all very anxious to fupport the king in a ci:ntell he was going to enter into with the foveieign ot K.ifl'on. Tlie SerawooUies are liabitually a trading people ; they foimerly carried on a jrreat commerce with the French in gtild and ilaves, and llill maintain fome traffic in Caves with the Briti(h fac- tories on the Gambia. I'iiey are reckoned toleraLly fair and jull in their dealings, but are indefatigable in llieir exertions to acquire wealth, and they derive con- fiderable profits by the fale of fait and cotton cloth in diilant countries. When a SerawooUi merchant returns home from a trading expedition, the neighbours inmie- diately allemble to congratulate him upon his arrival. On thefe occafions the traveller dlfplays his wealth and liberality, by making a lew prefents tu his friends; but if he has been unfuccefsful, his levee is foon over ; and every one looks upon him as a man ot no underftanding, who could perform a long journey, and (as they exprels it) l/rln^ back notlAng bul the hair upon his head. Their language abounds much in gutturals, and is rot fo harmonious as that fpoken by the Foulahs : it is, however, well worth acquiring by thofe who travel through this part of the African continent; it being very generally uaderftood in the kingdoms of KallVin, Kaarta, Ludamar, and the niithem parts of Bambara. In all thefe countries the SerawooUies are the chief traders, Joag, the frontier town of this kingdom as you enter it Irom Pifania, may be fuppofed, on a grois computa- tion, to contain two thoufand inhabitants. It is fur- rounded by a high wall, in which are a number uf port holet, for mulquetry to fire through in cafe of an at- tack. Every man's polfcllion is likewife furrounded by a wall ; the whole ibrrning fo many dillind citadels ; aad amongll a people unacipaainted with the ul'c ot ar- tillery, thefe walls anfwer all the purpofes of ftronger fortifications. To the weftward of the town is a fmall river, on the banks of which the natives raife gre<t plenty of tobacco and onions. Mr Park was in this town plundered of hall his effeds by order of the king, becaufe forfooth he had negltfled to pay the accuftoni- ed duties before he entered the kingdom ; and it re- ([uired a good deal of addrel's to prevent hinifclf and his attendants tVom being made Haves ; a ilate to which the la w, it was faid, condemned them for the commiffion t.f this unintended crime. He was at laft retcued from Joag by a nephew of tire king of KafFon. Joag is placed by Mrfjt.r Rennel in 14° 25' N. Lat. and 9° 46' W. Long. KAINSI is the name given by the Hottentots to a particular fpecies of antelope, of which, according to Vailiant, no author has yet given a perfect delcription. It is called by the Dutch klipf^rlnger, on account of the ] K A M eafe with which it leaps from rock to rock ; and indeed of all the antelopes there is no one equal to it in agility. It is about the iize of a kid oi a year old, and of a yel- lowifh grey colour ; but its hair has this peculiarity, that, intlead of being round, pliable, and firm, like that of mod other tjuadrupeds, it is fiat, harfh, and fo little adherent to the fkin, that the (lighted friiflion makes it fall olF. Nothing is moreeafy, therefore, than to de- prive this animal of its hair: dead or alive it is the fame; to rub, or even to touch the animal, is fufEcient. Ano- ther peculiarity of this lingular hair is its being extreme- ly fragile ; fo that if you take a tutt of it between your fingers, and twift it with the other hand, it will break like the barbs of a feather. This property, however, belongs not exclitfively to th,- hair of the kainii ; for our author fays he has obferved it in the hair of other quadrupeds, which in the fame manner live among the rocks. This antelope differs from the other fpecies alfo in the fiiape of the foot, which, inllead of being pointed like theirs, is rounded at the end ; and as it is always accuftomed, both in leaping and walking, t ^ tread with the pi)int of the hoof, without refting at all on the heel, it leaves a print dlllinpuilliable from that of any other antelope in Africa. Its fleth is exquilltely flavoured, and much fought at'ter, particularly by the hunters. The chace of the kamfi is very amufing. It is true, it is fcarcely poffible to hunt it down with dogs, as it iosn et'capes them by means of its inconceivable agility, and gets out of their reach on the point of fome de- tached rock, where it will remain whole hours fafe trom all purluir, and fufpjnded, as it were, above the abyfs. But in this Irtuation it is excellently placed for the ar- row or the ball of tlie huntfman ; who is commonly cer- tain of fhooting it at plealbre, though he is not always able to come at it when killed. We fhall give our au- thor's account of a chace of the kainii in liis own words. " I was hunting (fiiys he) one of thefe animals, when, from the nature of tlie pLice, it found itl'ell fo preiTed by my dogs, as to be on the point of being run down and taken. Tticre were apparently no means of efcape ; ftnce before it was a vail perpendicular rock, by which its courle was necelfarily Hopped. In this wall, however, which appeared to me perteftly fmooth, was a little ridge, projecTing at mofl not above tivo Inches, which the kalnfi quicklj- perceived, and, leaping upon it, to my great aftonilltnient kept \lie.\{ Jinn (a). I imagined, that at any rate it inuft foon titmble down ; and my dogs, too, lb fully expefled it, that they ran to tlie bottom of the rock, to be ready to catch it when it fell. To hallen iis fall, I endeavoured to harals it, and make it lofe its equilibrium ; and for this purpofe I p.'lted it with ftones. All at once, as if guelDng my delign, it colleifled its whole ftrength, bounded over my head, and, falling a few paces from me, darted away with the utmoft fpeed. Notwithtlanding the rapidity of its flight, it would Jiave lieen eafy for me to have (hot it ; but its leap had fo furprifed and amufed me, that I gave it its life." This was generous, if the (lory be true. KAMTSCHATKA is inhabited by a people, who are reprefented in the Encyclopadii as pnlfeffiiig almoft every quality that can difgrace human nature. We think K:inD, (a) This we think incredible. K A M C ^99 3 K A M Kamt- fchatka> think it incumbent upon us to acknowledge, in tliis place, that a much more favourable picture ol" them is ' drawn by La Peroufe who vilited Kamtfchatka in Sep- tember 17S7. The Rudlan governor made the com- modore and his officers remark the promifing appear- ance of feveral fmall fields of potatoes, of which the feed had been brought from Irkoutrt: a few years be- fore ; and purpofod to adopt mild, though infallible means, of making farmers of the Ruffians, Colfacks, and Kamtfchadales. I'he fmall-pox in 1769 fwept away three-fouiths of the individuals of the latter nation, which is now reduced to lefs than four thoufand per- fi>n', fcattered over the whole of the peninfula ; and which wi'l fpeedily difippear altogeihor, by means of tlie continual mixture of the Ruffians and Kamtfcha- dales, who frequently intermarry. A mongrel race, mere laboritus tiian the RulHans, who are only fit for foldicrs, and much ftronger, and of a form lels difgrace- ful to the hand of nature, than the Kamifth adales, will fpring from thefe marriages, and fucceed the ancient in- habitants. The natives have already abandoned the yourts, in which they ufed to burrow like badgers dur- ing the whole of the winter, and where they breathed an air fo foul as to occafion a number of diforders. The mort opulent among thcni now build ijbas, or wooden houfe«, in the manner of tlie Ruffians. They are precifeJy of the fame form as the cottages of our peafants ; are di- vided into three little rooms ; and are warmed by a brick flove, that keeps u|i a degree of heat (a) iiifiipportable to perfons unaccull<,rned to it. 'I'he rell paf^ the win- ter, as well as the fununer, in balagans, which are a kind of wooden pige:>n-houfes, covered with thatch, and pi iced upon the top of polls twelve or thiiteen (eet Jiigh, to which the women as well as the men climb by means of ladders that afford a footing very infecure. But thefe latter buildings will foon difappear ; tor the Kamtfchadales are of an imitative genius, and adopt al- moft all the cuftcms ol their conquerors. Already the women wear their hair, and are almoft entirely drclfed, in the manner of the Ruflians, whole language prevails in all the ojirogs ; a fortunate circumliance, lince each Kamtfchadalian village fpoke a different jargon, the in- habitants of one hamlet not nnderllanding that of the next. It may be faid in praife of the Rullian-s that though they have eftablillied a defpotic government in thi; rude climate, it is tempered by a mildnefs and equity that render its inconveniences unfclt. They have no reproaches of atrocity to make themfelves, like the Spaniards in Mexico and Peru. The taxes they levy on the Kamtfchadales are fo light, tiiat they can only be confidered .is a mark of gratitude towards tlie fovereign, the produce of half a day's hunting acquit- ting the impofts of a year. It is fuiprifing to fee in cottages, to all appearance more niifcral)le than thole of the moll wretched hamlets in our mountainous pro- vinces, a quantity of fpecie in circulation, which ap- pears the more confiderablc, hecaufe it exills among fo fmall a number of inhabitants. They confume fo tew commodities of Rullia and China, that the balance of trade is entirely in their favour, and ihat it is abl'oUucIy necelfary to pay them the difference in rubles. Furs at Kamtfchatka are at a much higher price than at Can- ton ; which proves, that aj yet the market of Ki.ttcha Kamt- has not felt the advantageous effeifl of the new channel '■^^^tl'i- opened in China. Our author compares Kamtfchatka, with rcfccft to climate and foil, to the coall c)f Labrador in the vicinity of the Strails of Belle-Ifle ; but the men, like the ani- mals, are there very dilfertnt. The Kamtfchadales ap- peared to him the fame people as thofe of the bay of Cartries, upon the coall of Tartary. Tlieir mildnefs and their probity are the fame, and their perfons are very little diffirent. They ouglit then no more to be compared to the Efquimaui Indians, than llie fables of Kamtfchatka to the martins of Canada. The Greek religion has been ellablillied amrng the Kamttchadales without perfecution or violence, and with extraordinary facility. The vicar of Paratounka is the fon of a Kamtfchadale and of a Ruffian woman. He delivers his prayers and catechifm with a tone of feeling very much to the taftc of th» aborigines, who reward, his cares witli offerings and alms, but pay no tylhes. The canons of the Greek church permitting priells to marry, we may conclude that the morals of the country clergymen are fo much the better. " I believe them, however (lays Peroufe), to be very ignorant; and <i-t not fuppofe, that for a long time to c.ime they will ftand in need of greater knowle.'ge. The daughter, the wife, and the filler of the vicar, were the beil dan- cers of all the \vf>men, and appeared to enjny the bell Riiie of health. The worthy ])riell knew that we were good Catholics, v.Miich procured us an ample afpernou of lioly water ; and he alfo made us kifs the crofs thac was carried by his clerk ; th.-fe ceremonies were per- formed in the midft of the vill.'.ge. His parfonage-houfe was a tent, and his altar in the open air; but his ufiial abode is Paratounka, and Le only came to St Peter anJ St Paul's to pay us a vifit." The people of Kamtfchatka have inured themfelves to the extremes of heat and cold. It is well known, that tlieir cuilom in Europe, as well as in Alia, is to go into vapour baths, come out covered with petfpira- tion, and immediately roll themfelves in the fiic.w. Tho oflroj^ of Sc Peter had two i)f thefe pulilic bath<, into which our author went before tlie fires were lighted. They conliil of a very low room, in the middle of which is anovcnconllruifled ol ftones, without cement, and heated like thofe intendt;d to bake bread. Its arched roof is furrounded by feats one above another, like an amphitheatre, lor thofe who wilh to bathe, f> that the heat is greater or lefs according as the perfon is placed upon a higher or lower bench. Water throwa upon the top of the roo(, when heated red hot by the fire underneath, is converted intlantly into vapour, and excites the moll profufe peiipiration. The Kamtfcha- dales have borrowed tf.is cuilom, as well as miny others, from their conquerors ; and ere hmg the primi- tive charaifltr tiiat dilfingnilhed them fo llrongly from the Ruffians will be eniiiely effaced. Our author dclcril)es the b.«y of Avatlcha as the finefl, the moll convenient, and the fafell, that is to be met with in any pan i.f the world. The entrance is narrow, and Ihips would be forced to pals under the guns of the forts that might be eafily creeled. Tiie P p 2 bottom (a) Not lefs than thirty degrees of Reaumur's thermometer. KAN [ 300 ] KAN Kancm. Kaiiawa, bottom is mud, and excellert lidding ground. Two vaft h-.irbcurr, one on tlie eaftern fide, the other on the weltcrn, are capable of containing all the (hips of the French and Englidj navy. Tlie rivers of Avalfcha and Parat' unka fall into thi:, bay, but they are cho.iked up \vi;h ftnd-banks, and can only be entered at the time of high water. The village ci St Peter and St Paul is fituated upon a tongue cf land, which, like a jetty made by human art, forms behind the village a little port, iluit in like an amphitheatre, in which three or four velfels might lie up for the winter. The entrance of this fi rt of bafon is more than twenty-five toifes wide; and nature can afford nothing more fafe or commodi- ous. On its Ihore tlie governor propoftd to lay down the plan of a city, which fome time or other will be the capital of Kamtfchatka, and perhaps the centre of an extenfive trade with China, Japan, the Pliilllppincs, and America. A vaft pond of irefh water is fituated north- ward of the fite of this prcjefled city ; and at only three hundred toifes dlftince run a number of dream- lets, the eafy union of which would give the ground all the advantages necelfary to a great ellablifhment. Of thefe advantages Mr Kafloff underftood the value ; " but fiilt (faid he a thouland times over) we mud have bread and hands, and our flock of both of them is very fmal!." He had, however, given orders, which announ- ced a fpeedy union of the other oflrugs to that of St Peter and St Paul, where it was his intention immc- diate'y to l>uild a church. By obfervati^n, St Peter and St Paul was found to be in 53° i' N. Lat. and 13-6° 30' E. Long, from P.iris. KANAWA, or Kanhifwj, a large mountainous county on the wellern line of ^'irginia, having the Ohio rivtr on the nortli-welt, and Kentucky weft. The population of this county is included in Green Briar, being 6,015 inhabitants, including 3 19 flaves. About 7 miles from the mcuth of Elk river in this county, is a burning fpring, capacious enough to hold 40 gal- lon'-. A bituminous vapour condantly ilfues from it, which agitating the fand around it, gives it the ap- pearance of a boiling fpring. On prelenting a torch within ifi or 20 inches of the mouth, it il'.mes up in a column, 4 or 5 feet in height, and about 18 inches di- ameter, and wJMch fometimes burns 20 minutes, and at ether times has continued 3 days. General Clarke kindled the vapour, ftaid about an hour, and left it burning. — Morsa. KANAWAGERES, an Indian village on the weft fide of Gen^fFee river, 4 miles well -fouth- well of Hart- ford in the GeneiTee country in New- York. — lb. KANEM, is the name given by Edrifi to the king- dom of Bornou in Africa, of which the reader will find fome account in iJie EncychpaJia. In fome particulars, however, that account is incorreft. The kingdom of Bornou or Kanem mud extend iarther eaft and farther north than it is there faid to do ; for according to the lated and bed accounts, its capital dands in Lat. 24' 32' Long. 22° 57'. The empire is faid to be very ex- tenfive; and if it be true, as we learn from the pro- ceedings of the African AfTociation, that its fovereign is more powerful than the Emperor of Morocco, the people cannot be fuch abfolute brutes, as we have re- prefented them in the article referred to ; for the fove- leign of brutes would have no power. The truth, how- ever is, that very little is yet known in Europe of Bor- Kanhaway, nou or its inhabitants. N KANHAWAV, GREAT, a river of Virginia of ,Ji^!l^ confideiable note for the fertility of its lands, and dill more as leading towards the head waters of James's river. But it is doubtful whether its great and nume- rous rapids V ill admit a navigation, but at an expenfe to which it will require ages to render its inhabitants equal. The great obdacles begin at what are called the Great Falls, t^o miles above the mou'h, below which are only 5 or 6 rapids, and thefe palTable with fome dilTiculty even at low water. From the falls to the mouth of Green Briar is 100 miles. It is 280 yards wide at its mouth. The head waters of this river are in the weftern part of North Carolina, in the mod eaderly ridge of the Alleghany or Appalachian mountains, and (buth of the 36th degree of latitude. Its head branches encircle thofc of the Hcldon, from which they are feparated by the Iron Mountain, through which it paifis 10 miles above th.e lead mines. About 60 miles from Little river it receives Green Briar river from the ead, which is the only confiderable tril^utary dream in all that didance. About 40 miles below the «iouth of Green Briar river, in Virginia, in the Kanhaway, is a re- markable catarafl:. A large rock, a little elevated in the middle, croffes the bed of the river, over which the water (hoots, and falls about 50 feet perpendicularly, except at one lide where the defcent is more gradual. The great Kanhaway is njf) miles below Pittfburg, and is navi- gable mod of the year ; and a waggon road may be made through the mountain, which occafions the falls, and by a portage of a few miles only, a communica- tion may be had between the waters of Great Kanha- way and Ohio, and thofe of James's river in Virginia. Down this river great quantities of goods are convey. eJ up the Kentucky river, others on horfeback or in waggons to the fettled part, and fold on an average, at 100 per cent, advance Morse. Kanhaway, Little, a fmall navigable river of Virginia, which is 150 yards wide at its mouth, and is navigable 10 miles only. Perhaps its northerly branch, called Junius Creek, which interlocks with the wtllern waters of Monongahela, may one day admit a fhorter palfage from the latter into the Ohio. — ib. KANT (Immanuel), Royal Profelfor ot Morals and Metaphyficb in the Univerfity of Konigfberg, is confi- dered by his adniirers as the greated philofopher that Germany ever produced. Were we to (cirm an edi- mate of his merits from the different views that have been given in Englilh of his celebrated fyllem, we cer- tainly fhould not confider him as entitled to that cha- ra(fter; for thofe views are obfcured by new and un- couth terms, and are altogether wrapt up in a dyle which approaches nearer to jargor th;'n to the luminous compofition of a man who thinks with clearnefs and precifion. We readily admit, that it is very difficult to tranflate a novel fydem of mttaphyfics from one lan- guage into another ; for the tranllator, to perform his talk properly, mud be not only a complete mailer of both languages, but alfo a prot^ui:d metaphyfician ; and not one of the tranflators or abridgers of the works of Kant into our language appears to us poffelled of both thefe qualities. Dcfpairing, from our fcanty knowledge of the German language, of performing ouri'elves what KAN C 301 ] K A S Kantuffa. fo many others have failed to perform, wc have applied ''"'"'*"**' for affiftance to an illullrious rrenchman, who h.is re- fided many years in Germany, who is m.ifter of both langu.iges, who is a profound metaphyfician, and whofe name, were we at liberty to pubhlli it, would reflect lullre upon our Work. From him we have reafon to expeft a clear and comprehenlive view of the Critical PmioioPHT, as Kant terms his fyftem ; but fliould we be difappuinted of our expeftation, we fhall, under that tide, lay before cur readers a fpec'imen of the fyftem from the different views of it which have been publilh- ed in our own tongue. KANTUFFA, a fpecies of thorn peculiar to Ahyf- finia, is thus defcribed by Mr Bruce : The brandies ftand two and two upon the flalk ; the leaves are difpo- fed two and tv/o likewife, without any fingle one at the point, whereas the branches bearing the leaves pai t from the ftalk : at the immediate joinins; of them are two thick thorns placed perpendicular and parallel alternate- ly ; but there are alio fingle ones diftributed in all the interftices throughout the branch. The male plant has a one-leaved perianthium, divided into five fegments, and tiiis falls off with the flower. The flower is conipofed of tive petals, in the middle of ■which rife ten ilamina or filaments, the outer row (liorter than thofe of the middle, with long ftigmata, having yellow farina upon them. The flowers grow in a branch, generally between three and four inches long, in a co- nical dilpofition, that is, broader at the bafe than the point. The infiJe of ihe leaves are a vivid green, in the outfide much lighter. It grows in form of a bufli, with a multitude of fmall branches rifing immediately from the ground, and is generally Icveu or eight feet high, Ojr author faw it when in flower only, never when bearing fruit. It \\.\- a very ftrorg fmell, refem- bling that of the fmall fcenied flower called miguionet, fown in vafes and bo.\es in windows, or rooms, where flowers are kept. Our author repreferts tlie kantuffa as fo very trouble- fome, that it renders travelling through fomc places of Abyllinia almoft impoQlble. The foldier fcreenj, him- felf fiom it by a goat's, a leopard's, or a lion's llcin thrown over his lliuulder, of which it has no hold. As his head is bare, he always cuts his hair Ihort before he goes to battle, left his enemy fliould take advantage of it i but tlie women, wearing their hair long, and tlie great men, whether in the aimy or travelling in peace, being always clothed, it never fails to incommode them, whatever fpecies of raiment they wear. If their cloak is fine muliin, the Icaft motion againlt it puts it all in rags ; but if it is a thick, foft ch'th, as thofe are with which men of rank generally travel, it buri^;* its thorns, great and fmall, ib deep in it, that the wearer mull either difmount and appear naked, which to principal people is a great difgrace, or clfe much time will be fpent beloic he can dillneage himfelf from its thorns. In the time when one is tlius employed, it rarely fails to lay hold of you by tie hair, and that again brings on another operaticr, full as laborious, but much mo:e painful, than the otiier. A proclam.iiion is therelore iiFueJ, every year immediaiely before the king com- meiicci a.iy march, in t.'iefe woids; " Cut down the kantuffa in the four quaiteis of the world ; for I do not know where I nm going." The wild animals, both bitds and bcalts, e/pecially the Guinea fowl, know hov/ well it is qualified to protefl them. In tliis flicker, the hunter in vain could endeavour to moleft them, were it not for a hard-haired dog, or terrier of the fmallefl fize, who being defended from tlie thorns by the roughntfs of his coat, goes into the cover, and brings tlicm and the partridges alive one by one to his mafler. KAPPAS, a tribe of Illinois Indians, in Louillana: they lie a little above the Sothouis. Tiiis nation was formerly very numerous bei'ore the difcovcry of the Mifljlllppi. The country they inhabit has good paftu- rape. — Morse. Kappas Old Fori, in Louifiana, (lands on the Mif- fiflippi, at the momh of the river St Francis. It was built by the French principally ior a magazine of (lores and provilions, during the wars with the Chicafaws ; by whom their Illinois convoys were conllantly attack- ed and frequently dellroytd. — ib. KARATUNK, or CiirjUmi, a plantation in IJn- coln county, Diflriifl of Maine, confilling of about 20 families or 103 inhabitants. It is the uppermoft on Kennebeck river, 14 miles north of Brookfi:;ld. — ii. KASK-^SKIAS Fil/a^e lies on the S. W. bank of the river of the fame name, a water of the Mlflillippi, in the N. W. Territory, cppofite Old Fi rt, and 12 miles from the mouth of the river, but not half th it dillance from the MiffilTippi. It contains So hcui'es, many of them well built ; feveral of Hone, with gar- dens, and large lots adjoining. About 20 years ago it contained about 500 whites, and between 4 and 500 negroes. The former have large (locks of black caitle, fwine, &c. — il/. Kaskaskias, an Indian nation near the river of their name in the N. W. Tenitory. They can furnifli 250 warriors. Three miles northerly of Kafkalkias is a vil- lage of Illinois Indians, of the Kalkaikias tribe, con- taining about 210 perlbns, and 60 warriors. They were formerly brave and warlike, but are now dege- nerated and debauched. At the late peace, the Unit- ed States granted them a fum of money in hand, and became bound to pay them 500 dollars a year forerer. —i/>. KvsKASKiAS, a liver of the N. \V. Territiry which is navigable for boats 130 miles. Its courfe is S. S. W. and near its mouth it turns to the S. S. E. and flows into the Miflillippi river 84 miles from the Illinois. It runs through a rich country, abounding in extenlive natural miadows, and numberlcls lierds of buffaloe, deer, Sec. High grounds lie ah)ng the eall fide of the river, the baIlk^ b<.ii.g compoled <>( lime-llone and free- (li^ne, and are from ico to 130 Icet high, divided in many places by deep cavities, through which many fmall rivulets pals before they fall into the Millidlppi. Tlic fides of thife hills, fronting the river, are in many places perpendicular, and appear like foiid pieces of mafonry, of various colours, figures, and fi^e^. — ii. KASK.ASKUNK, a town of the Dclawaie>, be- tween Great Beaver creek and Alleghany river, in Pennfylvania. Here the Moravian mitllonarics had a fettlemcnt. It is 40 miles north of PittTourg. — ii. KASK(NOMPx-\, a ("mall river which runs wefl, into the Miliiilippi t'rom the State of TennelFee, in N. Ut. 36" 2S'. Ontho north fide of its mouth is an iroa mine. — ,i. KA.SSON, a populous kingdom in North Al'rica, of which the capital KacniaLiry is placed by Majir Fv^nnd f/- K A S K.\(run. Rennel in t+° 33' N. L-.U. and S'^ 43' W. L'-ng. The llake ; and a long black roj being brought forth, the KalTon. '^'''"'^^"^ king who rcigi.cJ when Mr P.irk was in the cmintiy executioner, after flourlfhing it round his htad for feme ^"^'^'^^ wai extremely kird to our traveller, though hii fon time, applied it with fuch force and dexterity 10 the plundered him unmercifully, lite other rapacious chiefs Biilhreen's back, as to make him roar until the woods of that r.svaje country. Frcm the top (;f a high hill, refoundcd with his fcieams. The iarrounding multi- at lome diftance from the capital, " I had (fiys Mr tude, by their hooting and laughing, manifelled liow Park) a mnll enchinting profpeft of the country. The much they enjoyed the punifhment of this old gallant ; number of towns and villages, and the cxicnfive cultiva- and it is worthy of remark, that the number ol (bipej tion around them, furpalled every thing I had yet feen was precifely the fame as are enjoined by the Mofaic in Africa. A grofs calculation may be formed of the law, forty, favt om.'' number of inhabitants in this delightful plain, by confi- The method of converting the negro nations to the dering, that the king of KaiFon can raile four thoufand religion of the Arabian Impollor is a very fingiilar one ; fighting nien by the found of h'S war drum." and Mr Park faw the whole people of Tcefee converted At Teefce, a large unwalleJ town, where our author in an inftint. During his refidence in that town an refided for feme days, he had an opportunity of obferv- embaffy of ten people belonging to Almarai Abdulka- ing the culloms of the inhabitant?, who confilfed partly der, king of Foota Torra, a country to the weft of cf Pagans and partly of Buflireens, /'. e. of negroes con- Bondou, arrived at Teefee ; and defiling Tiggity Scgo verted to Mahomedanifm. Though thefe people poil'cfs the governor to call an aHembly cf the inhabitants, an- both cattle and corn in abundance, rats, moles, fquirrels, nounced publicly their king's determination, to this ef- fnake?, loculls, &c. are eaten without fcruple by the feft : " That unlefs all the people of KalFon would em- highell and lowelK Another cuilom, ftdl more extra- brace the Mahomedan religion, and evince their con- ordinary, is, that no woman is allowed to eat an rgg. verfion by faying eleven public prayers, he i the king of This prohibition, whetlier arifing from ancient fuperlti- Foota Torra) could not polllbly Hand neuter in the pre- tion, or from the craftinefi, of feme old Bulhreen who fent conteft, but would certainly join his arms to tiiofe loved eggs hiniftlf, is rigidly adhered to ; and nothing oi Kajaaga." A melfa^e of this nature, from fo pow- will more affroi.t a womin of Teefee th;;n to offer her eifiil a prince, could not fail to create great alarm ; and an egg. The cuilom is the more fingular, as the men the inhabitants of Teefee, alter a long confukation, cat eggs without fcruple in the ptefence of their wives, agreed to coniorm to his good pleafure, humiliating as and Mr Park never obfcrved the fame prohibition in any it was to them. Accordingly, one and all publicly of- otlier of the Mandlngo countries. fered up eleven prayers, which weix confidered a fuf- Our author was prefent at a pilavcr held by the go- ficient tellimony ol their having renounced Paganifm, vernor of Teefce on a very extraordinary occafion ; of and embraced the doftrines of the prophet, which we (liall give his account at lull length, becaufe Our author relates a ftory, which we cannot refufe it (hows how free men are reduced to flavery in North onrfelves the pleafure of inferting, becaufe it exhibits a Africa. " The cafe Was this. A young man, a Kafir, very pleafing picture of the .ifFeflion and gra'itude of of confiderahle aflluence, who had recently married a the Pagan negroes. In his train was a blackfmith, who young and handfome wife, applied to a very devout had lived fome years on the Gambia, and who now re- Bu(hreen, or Mnlfulman prieft, of his acquaintance, to turned to his own country Kaffon. " Soon after we procure him faphies for his proteiftlon during the ap- came in fight of Jumbo, his native town (fays Mr Park), proaching war. The Bufhrcen complied with the re- his brother, who had by f>me mean-, been aj-jiifed of <iucll; and in order, as he pretended, to render the faphies his coming, came out to meet him, accompanied by .a more efficacious, enjoined the young man to av. id any finging man: he brought a hoile for the blackfmith, nuptial intercourfe with his bride for the fpace of lix that he might enter his native town in a dignitied man- weeks. Severe as the injunftion was, the Kafir ftviiflly ner ; and he defired each of us to put a good charge of obeyed j and without telling his wife the real caufe, ab- powder into our guns. The finging man now led the fented himfelf from her company. In the mean time it way, followed by the two brothers ; and we were pre- began to be whifpered at Teefee, that the Bufhreen, fer.tly joined by a number of people from the town, all who always performed his evening devotions at the door of whom demonftrated great joy at feeing their old ac- of the Kafir's hut, was more intimate with the young quaintance the blackfmith, by the molt extravagant wife than he ought to be. At firft, the good hulband jumping and finging. On entering the town, the fing- was unwilling to fufpeifl the honour of his fanflified ing man began an extempore fong in praife of the black- friend, and one whole month elapfed before any jealoufy fmith, extoUing his courage in having overcome fo many rofe in his mind ; but hearing the charge repeated, he difficulties ; and concluding with a (lrl(fl injumSion to at lad interrogated his wife on the fubject, who frankly his friends to drefs him plenty of vii5tH..ls. contelfed that the Buflireen had feduced her. Here- " When we arrived at the blackfmith's place of refr- upon the Kafir put her into confinement, and called a dence, wedifmounted and fired ourmufI;ets. The meet- palaver upon the Bulhreen's condiid. The fatft was ing between him and his relations was very tender ; for clearly proved againft him ; and he was fentenced to be thefe rude children of nature, free from reftraint, dif- fold into flavery, or to find two flaves for his redemp- play their emotions in the ftrongeft and moll; exprefTive tion, according to the pleafure of the complainant. The manner. Amidft thefe tranfports, the blackfmith's aged injured hufband, however, was unwilling to proceed mother was led forth, leaning upon a llafF. Every one againft his friend to fuch extremity, and defired rather made way for her; and Ihe ftretched out her hand to to have him publicly flogged before the governor's gate, bid her fon welcome. Being totally blind, (he ftroked This was agreed to, and the fentence was immediately his hands, arms, and face, wiih great care, and feemeu executed. The culprit was tied by the hands to a ftrong highly delighted that lier latter days were bleffed by his return, KAY C 3 fora. Kaffon, return, and that her ears once more heard the mulic of I his voice. Frdiri this inteiview I was fully convinced, Kayadurof- ^^^^ wh never difference there is between the Negio and European in the conformation of the nofe and the colour of the (kin, there is none in the genuine fympa- thics and charafterillic feelings of our common nature. " Durij g the tumult of thefe congratulations, I had feated niyfelf apart, by the fide of one of tl:e huts, be- ing unwilling to interrupt the flow of tilial and parental tendernefs ; and the attention of the company was (o entirely taken up with the blackfmith, that I believe none of his friends had ubferved me. Whan all the peo- ple prelent had feated themfelves, the blackfmith was defircd by his father to give them fonie account of his adventures; and filence being commanded, he began ; and after repeatedly thanking God for the fuccefs that had attended him, related every material occurrence that had happened to him from his leaving Kalfon to his ar- rival at the Gambia j his employment and fuccefs in thofe parts ; and the dangers he had efcaped in return- ing to his native country. In the latter part of his nar- raticjn, he had fiequeutly occalion ti) mention me ; and after many ftrong expreflloiiS concerning my kindnefs to him, he pointed to the place where I fat, and ex- claimed, q^ille ibij.r'wg, " fee him fitting there." In a moment all eyes were turned upon me ; I appeared like a being dropped from the clouds ; every one was fur- prifed that ihey had not ol)ferved me before ; and a few women and children expreifed great uneafinefs at being fo near a man nl furh an uncommon appearance. By degrees, however, their apprehenlions lubfided ; and when the blacklmith alFurtd them that I was perteftly inoffenlive, and would hurt nobody, Ibnie of them ven- tured fo far as to examine the texuire of my clothes ; but many of them were ftill very fufpicious ; and when by accident I happened to move myfclf, or look at the young children, their mothers would fcampcr off with ihem with the greateft precipitation. In a few hours, liowcvcr, they all became reconciled to me." With thefe worthy people our author fpent the greater part of two days in fjafting and merriment ; the blackfmith accompanied him to the capital ; and declared, that he would not leave him while he refided there. KATERS KILL, a weltern branch of Kaats' Kill, in New-Y( rk State. — Morse. KATHTllTACAMUNCK, an Indian village fituated on the north fide of Wabalh river, at the mouth of Rippacanc c creek, and about 20 miles above the Lower Weau towns. In 1791, before its drftruflion by Generals Scott and Wilkmfon, it contained 120 lioufes, 80 of which were Ihingle roofed. Tlie bed houfes belonged to the French traders. The gardens and improvements around were delightful. There was a tavern with cellars, bar, public and private rooms ; and the whole marked no fmall degree cf order and civilizaiit-ii. — ib. KAWAKUSICA, or Kowfaki, a-UVt in the Dittria cf M '.in-.-, laid down in late m^ps as the head of PafFa- ma<[uoddy river. N. lat. 46" 3'. — ib. KyWADAROSSORA CRELK, in Ncw-York State, about 12 miles well of the confluence of Eifh- creck and Hudfcn's river. The celebrated fpnngs of Saratoga, 8 or 9 in number, are fituated on the mar- gin of a marfli formed by a brauch ot Uii:. creek. Alio 03 ] K E A the name of a trafl of land in Saratoga county. New. York, bounded by the town ot Scheiieffady. — ib. KAY's ISLAND, on the N. V/. coaft of America, lies in north l.u. 59" 49', call long. 2iC>^ 58'. In the neighbourho' d of this idand, Captain Cook difcov^red fcveral other 'flands. — ih. KEATE (George, Efq ; F. R. S.), defcended of an ancient and honourable family, was born about the year 1729 or 1730, and received his education at King- lion fchool, under the Rev. Mr Woodefon. Fiom thence he went to Geneva, where he relided feme years ; and during liis ftay there, became acquainted with Vol- taire, with whom he continued to conefpond many years after he returned to England. After finishing the tour of Europe, he fettled as a ftudent in the In- ner Temple, was called to the bar, and fometimes at- tended Weflminiter Hall ; though he did not n-.cec with eiicourayement enough to induce his perfcvcrance in his profeflion, nor indeed does it fecm probable that he had fufficient application for it. His Hrd literary per- formance was " Ancient and Modern Rome," a poem, written at Rf^me in the year 1755, printed in the year 1760, and received with confiderable applaufe. The next year he publilhed " A Short account of the An- cient Hiltory, Prefent Government, and Laws, of the Republic of Geneva, 8vo." This work was compiled during the author's refidence at Geneva ; is a very ule- f ul one ; and is dedicated to Monlieur de Voltaire ; to whom he fays, " When I refleift, that it was in this Republic, whofe government I have attempted to de- fcribe, that I was iirft introduced to your acquaintance ; when memory renews the hours of foclal mirth and re- fined entertainment which your hofpitality imd convcrfa- tion afforded me — I cannot but rejoice in tliis occaficn of expreffing my gratitude ; proud that, as yourfriendlhip dillinguilhed the author of thefe pages in a f., reign country, your name may at home adoin his labour," It was at one time the intention of Volt lire to tranflite this account into French, though hs afterwards relin- quilhed the defign. The next year, i 762, he produced an " Epiflle from Lady Jane Gray to Lord Guildford Dudley :" and in 1 763, «' The Alps," a poem ; tl:e fiibjefl of which cojiiprchciids all that chain of mountains known under t!ie general name of the Alps, extending from Italy to Germany, and from France to 'I'yrol, by whatever de- nomination they are particularly dillinguilhed. Of all the poetical works of Mr Keate, this is entitled to the highell praife for truth of defcription, elegance of ver- fitication, and vigour of fancy. Continuing to employ the prefs, in 1764116 publifh- ed " Netley Abbey," which he afterwards, in 1769, enlarged and reprinted: and, in 1765, produced " Tlie Temple Student, an Epiftle to a Friend ;'' humour- oully rallying his own want of application to the (ludy of tile law, his preference of the belles lettrcs, and his confequent want of fuccefs in his prolelllon. The de.iih (if Mrs Cibber in 1766, cf whofe merits as an ac- trefs he entertained the highcll opinion, gave occafion for a poem to her memory, wiiich celebrates her excel- lent performances on the llagc, and laments the lofs the theatre would fullain by her death. In February 1769, he married Mifs Hudfon ; and about the fame time pubhibed " Ferney ; an EpilUe to Kay's, II Keate. K E A [ 304 ] K E A Kcate. M. de Vol.airc." In tins poem, after praifing with '^""*"^^' energy the various beauties of his friend's p-)et:cal works, he introduces the following panegyric on Siiakefpeare : Yes ! jealous wits may ftiU for empire drive, iSiill keep the fiames of critic rage alive : Our Sliakci'peare yet fiiall all his rights maintain, And crown the triumphs cf Eliza's reign. Above controul, above each clalFic rule. His tut'iefi Nature, and the world hi » fchool, On foaring pinions borne, to him was given 11;' a;iial range of Fancy's brightcll heav'n ; To bid wrapt thought o'er nobleft heights afpire, And wake each paflion with a mufe of fiie. Kevcie his genius. To the dead be jiilt. And fpare the laurels that o'crlhade the duft. Low flceps the bard, in oh! obJlruS'ion laid. Nor all-.s the chaplet from a rival's head. O'er tlic drear vault. Ambition's utmotl bound, Unheard Ihall F.ime her airy trumpet found ! Unheard alike ; nor grief n ir tranfport raife The blaft of cenfurc, or the note ofpraife; As Raphael's own creation grac'd his hearfe, And lliam'd the pomp of oftentatious verfe. Shall Shakefpearc's honour^ by liimfelf be paid, And Nature perilfi ere his pictures fade. This eulogium on Shakefpearc, in an epiftle to Vol- taire, who had laboured fo lung and fo llrtuuouny to detrafl fiom the merit of our immortal bard, ihcws that Mr Keate had not given up his judgment to the fage of Ferney, How the old and envious fophilier would relifh his friend's c(>nduia, may be eafily conceived. His feelings were certainly very different from thofe cf the mayor and burgelTes of Siratiord, when, in cunfe- quence of tliis panegyric on their townfman, they com- plimented Mr Keate with a fiandilh, mounted with fil- ver, made out of the famous Mulberry tree planted by Shakefpearc. In 1773, he publifhcd " The Monument in Arca- dia," a dramatic poem, built on the piiflure of Pouffin, mentioned by Abbe du Ijos in his " Critical Reflefticns on Poetry and Painting." In 1799, Mr Keate produced one of his moft fuc- cefbful works, inli'led " Sketches from Nature ; taken and coloured in a Journey to Margate," 2 vol?. i2mo. This pel formance, allowing it to be, as it really is, an imitation of Sterne's " Sentimental Journey ;" yet con- tains fo many pleafing delineations cf lite, fo many ftrokes of humour, and fo much elegance of compofi- tion, tl.at few will hefitate to give it the preference to any other ot Sterne's imitators. In 17S1, he collefled his poetical works in two vols. I2mo, and added feveral new pieces not before printed. The principal of thcfe was " The Helvetiad," a frag- ment, written at Geneva in the year 1756. In the prelace to this performance he gives the lollowing ac- count of it : " During a long (lay I many years Unce made at Geneva, I vilited mod of the principal places in Switzerland. Tiie many fublime fcenes with which nature had enriched this romantic country ; the tran- quillity and content with wliich every individual enjoys his property; and, above all, that independence of mind which is ever the refult of liberty — animated me with fuch veneration for the firft authors of that freedom, whofe figures are recorded to pofteriiy either by fculp- ture or painting in the public parts of the towns thro' Keatf. thcfe little Hates, that my enthnfiafm betrayed me in- ^■^~^'^*' to a defign of writing a jioem on this fingular revolu- tion ; the argument of which I had divid-:d into ten cantos, beginning the work with the opprcflions of the Houfe of Aullria, and clofmg it with the battle of Mongarten ; by which thofe injured people finally re- nunccd its ufurpation, and formed among themfelves thofe various contedcracies that en. led in the great union and alliance of ihe prefent ihirtttn i:anlont. When I had fettled the whole plan of this work, I occafionally, as I found a difpofition in myfelf, took up any part of the poem wliich at the moment moll invited my thoughts ; and enjoying at th.is time fuch an intcrcourfe with M. de Voltaire as affirded me a coullant accefs to him, 1 acquainted him with my intention, Ihewing him the ar- gument I had dr.iwn out for the con.1n>S of the whole defign. He kept it a few days; and, in returning it, told me, that he thought the great object of the piece, the epilodes conneiled with the hiftory, together with the fcenery of the country, prefented fubjefl matter whereon to form a fine poem ; " but the time (added lie) which fuch an undertaking will require, I would rather counfel you to employ on fubjedls that might more en- gage the public attention ; for fliould )'ou devote your- felf to the completion of your prefent defign, the Swifs would be much obliged to you, without being able to read you, and the rell of the world care little about the matter." Feeling the force and jullnefs of the remark, Mr Keate laid alide his plan, and probably never re- fumcd it. In the fame year, i 7S1, he publifhed " An Epidle to Angelica Kauffman." A few years after, he became engaged in a long and vexatious law-fuir, in confequence of the negleft (to fay the lead of it) of an archittd who profeffed himfclf to be his friend ; the particulars of which it is of no impor- tance to detail. At the conclufion of the bufinefs, he ifiewed that his good humour had not forfjken him : And in 1787 he gave to the public the principal cir- curnflances of his cafe in a performance, intitled, " The Dil^refTed Poet, a ferio-comic Poem, in three Cantos," 4to, with fome pleafantry, and without any acrimony. His laft wfrk did infinite honour to his head and his heart, as well as to the liberality of the book.f<:ller for whom on the tille-page it was faid to be publifhed. In the year 1782, the Antelope packet vas Ihipwrecked on the Pelew illands, where the commander. Captain Wilfbn, and his crew lived fome time before they could get off. On his return to England, the Captain was, for foine reafon or other, relufed the command i f ano- ther Ihip ; and, as we have been informed, he was re- duced to a date much the reverie of aldueiice. Thefe circumdances being communicated to M; Keate, who was druck with admiration of the manners ci{ the in- habitants of the Pelew iflands (See Pllew Islands, En-ycL), he offered to draw up, kr the benefit cf Cap- tain Wilfon, a narrative of the occurrences which 00k place during that officer's refidence among fo fingjlar a people. Tliis he executed in " An Account of the Pelew Idands, fituatcd in the Weftern Part of the Pa- cific Ocean : compofed from the Journals and Com- munications of Captain Henry Wilfon and fome of his Officers, who in Augult 1783 were there (hip- wrecked, in the Antelope, a Packet belonging to the Honourable the E?.ft India Company," 410 ; a work K E N [ 3' Keate, i Kcnne- bcck. work wiiLtsn with great elegance, compiled with much care, and wliich, il embcllilned (as it has been infinuat- ed) with fads better calculated to have found a place I in a novel than a genuine narrative, mull be alcribed to the mifinfiirniatiiin of thofe wlio were a<2ors in the fccne, and mull fn ft have deceived before they obtained credit. We mention this report as it has come to us, ■without any attempt either to eftablifli or refute it. We fhall only add, tiiat if the charge is well founded, Mr Keate (who undertook the tafk on the moft difinterell- ed principle, and derived no advantage whatever from the work) was loo llurdy a moralill to have had any hand in the impofition. — The m;fnufcript was offered to Mr Dodlley for 300 guineas ; but he hefitatcd to qive for it fo large a price, when another boi>kfel!er un- dertook to pui)lilh the woik for the benefit of Mr Wil- fon ; and, we have reafon to believe, paid to that gen- tleman, within the compafs of a year, triple the fum for wliich tlie manufcript had been ofFored to Dodfley. Sucli condui5l reflets honour on the London trade. Belides the pieces already mentioned, Mr Keate was the author cf many Prologues and Epilogues, fpoken at Mr Newcomb's fchool at Hackney. He adapted his friend Voltaire's " Semiramis" to the ftage ; but this was fuperfeded in 1777 at Drury Lane, by a worthlefs tranllation of as worthlcfs an author, one Captain Ayfcough ; but neither this nor the author are deferving of any further notice. We fliall conclude by obferving, that Mr Keate's life pafled without any vicilFitudes. of fortune ; he in- herited an ample edate, which he did not attempt to increafe otherwife than by thofe attentions which pru- dence didated in the management ot it. He was ho- fpit.iL.1.: and beneficent, and poffeired the good-will of mankind in a very eminent degree. For tlie laft year or two, his health villbly declined ; but on the day he diid, it appeared to be fomewhat mended. His death was fudden, on the aytli of June 1797. He left one daughter, married in j 796 to John Henderfon, Efq ; of the Adelphi. At the time of his death, Mr Keate was a Bencher of the Temple, and a very old member of the Royal and Antiquary Societies, of both of which he had been frequently eleifled one of the council. KEENE, a poft-town of New-Hampfhire, and one of the moft flourilhing in Chelhirc county. It was incor- porated in 1753, ""'^ contained in 1775, 756 and in • 790> 1,314 inhabitants. It is 14 miles from Walpole, 96 weft of I'ortfmouth, and 86 N. W. from Bofton. N. lat. 42° 53'. — Morj,-. KELLYSBURGH, atownfhipln Chittenden comi- ty, Vermont, ai the head cf the north branch of La Moille river. — ili. KENAPACOMAQUA, an Indian village on the north bank of Eel river, a branch of the Wabafh. — il>. KENDRICK's JJJarul forms the weft fide of Nootka Sound, into which you may enter from the weft by Mallachufctts Sound, along the northern fide of the inand.— (7-. KENNEBECK, next to Penobfcot is the fineft ri- ver in the Diftri(5l of Maine. Three miles from the Ciiops, Swan Ifland, 7 miles long, divides the waters of the liver. The waters on both fides of it are navi- gable ; but the channel on the eall fide of it is mcftly ufcd. Thirty-eight miles from the fea is the ilLind Nahunkeag, which fignifics the land where eels arc t.i- SuppL. Vol, II. Dj ] K E N ken. V/itliin 3 miles of this ifland, a fir.kU river com- ing weft from ponds which are in the town of Winlhrop, runs into the Kennebeck, and is ku.nvn by the name of Cobbefsconte, called by the Indians CobbifFccontcag, which in their language lignifies the place where ftur- ' geon are taken. Six miles further up the river we find the head of the navigable waters. This is a bafon 46 miles from the fea, and very commodious for the an- choring of velfels. 0:i ih; eaft bank of the fmall fall which terminates the navigation of the Kennebeck, is Fort Wertern, which was erecled in tlie year 1752. From that fort to Taconnet Fall is 1 1 miles. This is a great fall of water, and on the bank of it, en the eallern fide of the river, is Fort Halifti, ettcljd in 1754, and fituated on the point of land formed by the confluence of the Sebaftacook with the Kennebeck, by vhich the latter is increafed nnj-thivd in iizt:. Tlie Sebaftacook comes from lakes neaily nrrth Ircm its mouth ; and in its windings receives brooks and fmall rivers, for the fpace of 150 miles. Thirty milts ibove Fort Halifax, as the river runs, the ftrcani called San- dy river flows into the Kennebeck, at the point where the ancier.t town of Norridgewock flood ; 40 miles or more furtlier up, the Kennebeck takes a fouth-weftward courfe. The Kennebeck turning again weftwar.i, re- ceives the eaftern branch 50 miles iioui Norridgewock. The main branch of the Kennebeck, winding into the wilJeineff, forms ftveral carrying-places, one of which, called the Great car'j ing-place, is 5 miles acrofs, and the river's courfe gives a dillance of ^^ miles, for that which is gained by 5 on the dry land. At about too miles diftance from the mouth of the eaftern branch, the fource of the main or weftern branch ot tlie Kennebeck is found extended a great diftance along the fide of the Chaudiere, which carries the waters from the high lands into the St Lawrence. There are no lakes, but a few fmall ponds and niorafles at th.e ff-urcc of this branch. The carrying-place from boatable v.'a- ters in it, to boatable waters in ilie river Chaudiere, is only 5 miles over. The eaftern bianch of tlie Kenne- beck, which unites with the other above Norridgewock, ilfues from a body of waters which lie N. about 20 miles from the ciinfiuence of tlie two brandies. Thefe waters are called Moofe Pond or Mocfe Lake. The fides of the lake are fo crooked, that the body of wa- ters has an irregular figure ; but the lake contains three times as much water as is found in Lake George. There arc very liigh mountains to the north and weft of the lake, and from thefe the waters run by many channels to the St Lawrence. The Kennebeck affords great quantities of lumber, and is inhabited at differ, ent fcafons by feveral fpecies of valuable filh. Salmon and fturgeon are taken here in great abundance, »nd fhad and alewives relieve the wants of the neceffitous part of the inhabitants. This livcr forms the nc.ireft fea-port for the people on the upptr part 1 f the river Connefticnt. From ih.e LT|p;r Colios, or Coos, on the latter river to the tide-water in Kennebeck is 90 mea- fured miles. — ili. KENNEBUNK, llie Indian name of the place fince called WJh, Diftrifl of Maine, about 33 miles below Portfnv uth, Ncw-Hampfhirc. — ,/. KF.NNET, a townlhip in Cliefter county, Pennfyl- vania. — ih. KENNICOTT (Dr Benjamin) was a man of fuch Q_q eminence KtBLC- bcck. II Kdiiii- cott. KEN [ 306 ] K E R Keniiicoi:. eminence in the learned world, that every thing relat- ''•^'^'"^^^ ing to liirn mull be generally intereftinj^. In the bio- graph:c;il fketcli of him publilhcd in the Eitcyclof'xtl'ut, we have acknowledged ourl'elves unncquaintcd with the rank and characler of bis parents ; but th'S inf irmaticn has been Imce fupplied by a very candid anil wtllin- foimed writer in the Monthly Magazine; and as it is accompanied witli ciicumdiinces peculiarly hnnouiable to the D-ifhor, and oi'.giit therefore to be prcferved, we Ihall infert it in this phice. " Tl'.e parents of Dr Kcnnicott (fays this writer) weie honell charaLtcrs : His father was the parilh clerk of Totncfs, and once mafter of a charity fthool in that town. At an eaily age young Kennicott fi:c- cceded to the fame employ in the fchool, being recom- mended to it by lis itmaikable fc>briety and prema- ture knowledge. It was in th it fituation he wrote the vcrfes to the Imnourable Mrs Courtney, which recom- mended Iiim to her notice, and that of many neighliour- ing gentlemen. They, with a lau lable generolity, opened a fubfcriptlcn to fend him to Oxford. "Hefoon tlierediilingu flied himfclf, as is well known. As a tellimcny of the truth of the above ftatemcnt, the following is a copy of an infcription written by Dr Kennicott, and engraved on the tcmb of his father and mother. The writer of this article has tranfcribed it from the original in the church yard of Totnefs. The tomb is more elegant than perfons in their fituation are accuftonied to have creJled, and was thought, perhaps, by the envious to be fomewhat oflentatious. A per- fonal knowledge of the Doiftor induces the writer of this article to think, th;it it was rather the tr bute of a good and grateful mind, Eiid of tlie pious reverence and love whith he entertained for the authors of his being. As Virtue fhould be of good report, ficred be this humble Monument to the Memory of Benjamin KEXNicoTr, Parilh Clerk of Totnefs, and Elizabeth his Wile ; The latter an Example of every Chriftian Duty ; The former, animated with the waimeft Zeal, regulated by tl-.e bcrt good fenfe, and buth conQar.tly exerted for the Salvation of himfelf and others. Reader ! Soon flialt thou die alfo; and as a Candidate lor Immortality fliike thy breafc and fay. Let me live the lile of the Righteous, that my lart end may be like his. Trifling are tiie dates of Time where the fu^jedl is Eternity. Ere>51ed by their Son, B. Kennicott, D. D. Canon of Chrill-Chorch, 0.xford. " It is faid, lh.it when Dr Kennicott had taken or- ders, he came to oiticiate in his clerical capacity in his Balive town. When his father as cleik proceeded to place the furplice on his Ihoulders, a ftruggle enfued be- tween the modefly of the fon and the hcneft pride of the parent, who infitled on paying that refpe^ to his fon which he had been accuftonied to (hew to other cler- gymen : to this filial obedience was obliged to fubmit. A circumflance is added, that his mother h.td often de- clared (he fliould never be able to fupport the joy of hearing her fon preach ; and that on her attendance at the church for the firft time, (he was lb overcome as to be taken out in a (lit; of temporary infenfi- bilitv." KENNOMICK, GREAT, a navigable river cf the N. ^V. Teriitory, emptying into the fouth end of Lake Michigan, -about N. lat. 42^ 1 1'. The waters of this river communicate, by a poitage of 30 yards, with Little Kennomick, a fhort river which runs noith- eallerly into the lake. — Morse. KENSINGTON, a townlh'p in Rockingham coun- ty, New-Hampfhire, about 6 miles foutherly of Exeter, and S northerly of Newbury-Port. It was incorporat- ed in 1737. In 1775, it contained 797, and in 1790, 800 inhabitants. — ib. KENT, a county of Maryland on the eaflcrn fliore of Ciief.ipeak Bay, bounded E. by New-Ca(lle, and part of Kent county, Delaware, and W. by Chefapeak Bay. It is about 32 miles long and 13 broad and con- tains 12,836 inhabitants, including 5,433 flaves. Chief town, Chefter. — ib. Kent, a county of Rhode-Iflind, lying S. of Pro- vidence county, on the W. fide of Narraganfet Bay. It is 20 miles in length, and 10 in breadth, and is di- vided into four townlhips. It contains 8,785 inhabit- ants, including 63 flaves — ib. Kent, the middle of the three counties of Delaware. It is 40 miles from north to fouth, and 26 from eaft to well, and contains 18,920 inhabitants, iiicitiuing 2,',oo (laves. The lands in Kent county are edeernej the rivheft in the State. It is well watered by fevcral fmall ftreams that empty into the Delaware. Chief town, Dover. — ib. Kent, an iOand in Queen Ann's county, Maryland, and the largeft in Chefapeak Bay. I: is 12 miles from north to fouth, and 6 in breadth. — ib. Kent, a tott-idhip in Litchfield county, Conneiflicuf, bordering en the State of New- York, and 8 or 10 miles weft; of Litchfield. — ib. KEOWE, anciently a populous town and territory cf tlie Cherokee Indians, on the river of that name, the north eaftcrnmcR branch of Savannah river. Tlie fjil is very fertile, and the ndj icent heights might, with little expenfe, be rendered almoft impregnable. The fruitful vale of Keowe is 7 or 8 miles in extent, when a high ridge of hills terminates the vale, but opens again below the ridge, and continues 10 or 12 miles down to Sinica, and in width i or 2 miles. This was formerly one continued and thickly inhabited fet- tlement, v.-ell cultivated and plmted. It now ex- hibits a very different fpcflacle to the feeble remains of the once potent Cherokees. Fort George former- ly flood near the old fcite of Keowe ib. KEPLERS, a village in Berks county, Pennfylva- nia, on Little Schuylkill river, the N. branch of Schuyl- kill river ; 21 miles N. N. W. of Reading, and 32 W. cf BethUhem. — ib. KERMES (fee Coccus Ilicis, Encycl.) has been proved by Profeffor Beckmann to havebeen uied as a dye from very remote antiquity. " All the ancient Greek and Keniio- mick, II Kcrmcs. K E R ] 307 ] K I N Kentie», and Lniin wilters, he fays, agree, that kermes, called '■^'^''^^ by the latter coccttm, peiljaps alfo corcus, and oftsn_fr«- tium, were f -und upon a low fliru'jby tree, with |)rick- ly leaves, which jiroduccd acorns, and belonged to the genus of the oak j and th^re is no reafon to doubt that they mean coccum ilhis, and that low ever green oak, with the prickly leaves of the holly {aqiiifolium), which is called at prefent in botany quercus ilex. This affer- tion appears more inticled to credit, as the ancients al- fign for t!ie native country of this tree places where it it is ftill indigenous, and produces kermes. " I am inclined (continues our author) to believe, that tlie art of employing kermes to dye a beautiful red colour was difcoverid in tlie Eaft at a very early pe- riod ; that it was foon fo much improved as to excel even the Tyiian purple; and tint it contributed to caufd tlie proper j)uiple to be at lengtli abandoned. From the coftly led dyes extolled fo much by the He- brew writers, and wliich, according to the opinion of learned commentators, were made from kermes, I ihall not venture to adduce any i)roofs, as I am not acquaint- ed with the Oriental languages to examine their ac- counts with accuracy; but I have found a pallage in Vopifcus, which feems to render my conjefture very probable. That author informs uo, that the king of Perfia fent to the Emperor Aurelian, befides other ar- ticles ol great value, ibme woollen cloth, which was of a much coftlier and brighter puiple colour than any that liad been ever feen in the Roman empire, and, in comparifon of which, all the other put pie cloth worn by tlie Emperor and the ladies of the court appeared dull and faded. In my opinion, this cloth, which was ot a bc'utiful purple led colour, was not dyed with the liquor of the murex, but with kermes. This idea was indeed not likely to occur to the Romans, who were acquainted only with the purple of the murex, and who bad lefi experience in the arts in general than in that of robbing and plundering, or who, at any rate, in that refpeft were inferior to tlie X)rientals. The Roman emperors caufed this fuppofed purple to be fought for in India by the nioft experienced dyers ; who, not be- ing able to find it, returned with a vague report that the admired Perfian purple was produced by the plant fandi.^k. I am well aware, that fome commentators have fuppofed that the fandix was our madder. He- fychius, however, fay?, very confidently, that lheyj/«. dix is not a plant, but a kind ol fhrubby tree, which yields a dye like the ioccus. The Roman dyers, per- haps prejudiced in favour of the murex, made tliat only the objeift of their fearch ; and their labour proving fruitlefs, they might have heard fomething of ker- jnes, or the kermes-oak, which ihey did not i'ully un- derftand. Our dyers, even at prefent, believe many falfe accounts refpefling the dye-lluffi which they ufe daily." The ufe of kermes in dyeing feems to liave been con- tinued through every century. In the middle ages, as they, are called, we meet with kermes under the name ot vfrmkii/us or verir.'iculum ; and on that account cloth ciycd with them was called iKr>/:icuLta. Hence the French word vermeil, and its derivative virm'iiioti, as is well known, had their c.xtraaion ; the latter of which originally fignified the red dye of kermes, but it is now ufed for any red paint, and alfo lor fine pounded cin- nabar. Is.ERSH.'WV, a county of Camdin difi: la, S. Caro- lina, on Wateres livcr, which feparates it from Richland county. It is 35 miles in length and 30 in breadth. —Morse. V KH/\S, in Bengal, land; taken into the hands of government, oppofed to the management of Zemindars or farmers. See Zenindar in this Supplement. KHALSA, in Ben;.;al, fometimes with the addition of Shereefah, the department of land and revenues ; the exchequer. KHERAJE, in Bengal, fignifies (Iriifl^y the tribute paid by a conquered country : it is alfo ufed for reve- nue in general. KHIDMUT, oflice, attendance, employment, fer- vlcc. KHIDMUTGAR, a waiting man. KHISMUT, portion ct divifion. KHOMAR, or Comjir, a Zemindir's demefne land. KICKAPOUS, an Indian nation whofe different tribes inhabit near tlie entrance of Lake Sup.'rior, where zo years ago they had 400 warriors; part refidc at Lake Michigan, and between that and the Milli.llppi, near the Outtagomies, &c. and another tribe near the Piankefhawf, and on the Wabafli and its branches. The Kickapous and Kafkjfkias, two Indian nations lately holtile, ceded linds to the United States at the treaty of Greeneville, Auguft 3, 1795. The United States, on the other hand paid them a Aim of momy in hand, and engaged t^ pay them in good?, annually, to the value of 5C0 doll.irs forever.— Mone. KICKEMUIT River is a N. wellern arm of lA-v.r.t Hope Bay. It is about 2 miles lonj, and half u mile broad. The t<5wn of Wanen, inBiillol cou;;ty, in the State of Rhode-Illand, lies N. W. of it.— /*. KILLINGLY, a town in Windham county. Con- neflicut, in tlie north eadern pa^t of the State, border- ing on Rhode-Iiland, and feparated from Pomfrst by Quinebaug river. It lies about 18 mles eaftj/arJ of Windham, and has a Congregation.il church. Ttie original fel'lers wtre from Maii'achufettp. The town was incorporated in May, 1708. In 1728 it was di- vided into two parilhes ; one i>i which io now incorpo- rated hy the name of Thonipfon. — ib. KILLINGTON, a mountainous c^wnfhlp in Rut- land counfy, Vermont, hiving Medway en tlie W. Barnard N. E. and Saltafh on the S. E. and contains 32 inhabitants. Waterquechee river has its fouice in a pond in this towi'. — lb. KILLINGWORTH, a poll town in Middlcfji: county, Conneftlcut, fitu.ited on Long-Jlland S.uinJ, 9 miles E. of Guilford and 27 W. of Ntw-Lcnd n. The Indian name of the townthip was Hamnionaiiet ; and a dream of that name runs on the W. fide of the town and divides it from Gadlord. It was fettled in 1663, by 12 planters tiom Hartford, Guiltord, and Wnidfor. The Englilh name defigned to 1 ave been civen this town v/js Kenmhwrth, but by niillakc ic was recorded KilLti^ii-crlb, It was incorporated in 1703. — ib. KILLISTINOES, Indians who inhabit on Lake Superior ; and cm Inniilli 250 Wrfiriors. — ib. KIMBECK, a pUce on the e.ift bank of Huifon's river ; 17 or 18 mil;s nonh of Poughkeepfic. — ;/■. KINUERIiOOK, a pcli-town in Columbia county, <^q 3 New- Kcrlbaw .. II Kiiidcr- kook. K I N C 3c 1 3 miles .8 ] K I N Kinder- Ncw-Yoik, on the eaft fide of Hudfon's river ; hook, north ct" Hudf)n city, 29 S. by E. of Albany, 145 Knicfb r ^'^^^^'' of New- York, and 25 W. by N. of Stockbridge v^V-w ir> Mairachiifetts. The townfliip contains 4,661 inha- bit inls J of whom 41 1 are ekdors, and 63 S llaves. — i!i. KiNDtRHOOK Landing, in the above townlhip, is fituaicd under the bank of the river, furrounded with an unclejreJ barren country, has about 15 or 20 houfcs, and ntarly as many Itjrcs and other buildings ; 20 milei S. of A'bany. The town, througli wliicli the ft.ige to New-York runs is about 5 miles eafl of the Landing. — ii. KING-PosT, or KisG-Piecf, is a piece of timber fet upright in the middle, between two principal rafteis, and having l\ruts <;r braces going from it to the middle of each rafter. See Roof, EncycL; and Carpentry, Stil>:l. KINGSESS, a townlhip in Philadelphia county, Pennfvlvania. — Mom. KING AND (VUEEN, a county of Virginia, on Mattapany river, wliich fe|)arates it from King Willi- am's county. It is about 25 miles long and 20 broad, and contains 9,377 inhabitants, including 5,143 (laves. —d: KING GEORGE, an ancient fort on the borders of Eall-Fhrida, near St Mary's river. — ib. King George, a county of Virginia, lying between the Patowmac, and Rappahannock rivers. It is 22 miles long, and 14 broad, and contains 7,566 inha- bitants ot whom 4.157 are flavei. — ib. KINGS, a maritime county of New- York, " con- taining all that part of the State, bounded ealkrly by ()_iieen's county ; northerly, by New- York county ; wellerly, partly by Hudfon's river, partly by the ocein; and foutheily by tlie Atlantic Ocean, includ- ing Coney lllinds." This fertile trafl of land, fituat- ed on the W. end of Long-Id ind, and feparated trom Staten-llland by the Narrows, contributes largely to the fupply of the New-York market with vegetables, roots, fruits, butter, &c. It is divided into 6 town- (liips, and contains 4,495 inhabitants, including 1,432 Haves. Chief towns, Brooklyn and Flatbulli. — ib. King's, a county of Nova-Scotia, comprehending tilt lands on tlie S. "^V. and S. fides of the Bafin of JMinas-. Tl)e HabiiRut is navigable for vcifels of 40 tons a little way up. Tlie Canaid for vellels of 160 tons, 4 or 5 ir.iles ; and the Cornwallis is navigable for vclfe's ot 100 tons 5 nrile?, for thofe of 50 tons 10 miles farther. There are eonrider.2ble fetllements on lliefe rivers, and they afford a good pnrtion of fine lands tvir tillage, ai.d for herbage, and fonie excellent meadows. In the rivers are found a great abundance of iliad of an excellent kind ; and in the Bafin of Winas are fine cod-tilh, haddock, bafs, and flat-filh ol different kinds. — ib. King's Bridge, a pod-town of New- York, 15 miles north of New-Yoik city, and 29 fouih-weft of Stam- ford in Conneflicnt. The bridge here connefls New- York ifl.md with the main land. It was flrongly for- tified during the war. The heights about it are com- manding. — ;'/'. KINGSBURY, a tnwnfhip in Wadiington county. New. York, bounded eallerly by the traifl of land called the Provincial Patti^t. It contains 1120 iuhabilanis. ~ib. KING'S, or PEARL ISLAND, a fmall ifland in the Bay of Panama. It belongs to Spain, and is f,i- mous for its pearl fi(hery ; and lies in N. hit. 7° 12', W. long. 81 » 36'.—/*. KINGSTON, or ESOPUS, a poQ-town of New- York, fiiuated in UUler county, on the W. fide of Hudfon's liver, fix miles \V. of Rbinebeck, and on the E. lidc of Efopus Kill, or Creek. It was deftroy- ed on the I5lli of Oiflober, 1777, by order of General \'.iughan, commanding a fleet which failed up the Hudfon, when large quantities of (lores were confum- ed. It is rebuilt on a regular plan, and contains about 150 lioufes, a court-houfe, jail, a Dutch Reformed church, and an academy. It is moll pleafantly fitua- ted upon and furrounded by a fpacious plain. It is 56 miles S. of Albany, and 109 N. of New- York. N. lat. 41° 56', W. long. 73" 56'. The townlhip contains 3929 inhabitants, of whom 556 are eleftors, and 302 llaves. — ib. Kingston, a townlLip in Addifon county, Ver- mont, containing loi inhabitants. — ib. Kingston, a townlhip in Plymouth county, Mafla- chufetts, on the wellern part of Plymouth Bay, bound- ed northerly by Du.xborough, and contains 1004 inha- bitants. There is here a ilitting and rolling mill. The town was incorporated in 1707. It is 38 miles S. E. of Bofton.— //i. Kingston, a townlhip in Rockingham county, New-Hamplliire, lying on the road which leads from Exeter to Haverhill, in Malfachufetts, 6 miles from the former, and 12 from Haverhill. It was incorporated in i6c)4. In 1775 it contained 961 inhabitants; and in 1790, 906. — ib. Kingston, a village in New-Jerfey, three miles N. E. of Piinceton, and 15 S. W. of Brunfwick; an ele- vated and pleafant fpot. — ib. Kingston, the chief town of Lenoir county, Nsw- bern dillridt, N. Carolii;a. It is a pofl-town, fitnated in a beautiful plain on the -N. fide of Neus river, and contains a court-houfe, jaii.'and about 30 houfes. It is 40 miles W. of Newbern, and 24 from Wayneft)0. rough. — ib. Kingston, a townfiiip in Luzerne county, Pcnn- f) Ivania. — il. Kingston, a town of Georgetown di(lri«a, S. Caro- lina. It is fituated on the W. fide of Wakkamau ri- ver, and contains an Epifcopal church, and about 30 houfes. It is 41 miles N. by E. of Georgetown, and 103 N. N. E. of Charlellon. N. lat. 33" 51', W. lone. 79° )'. — ib. Kingston, a village in Talbot county, M.iryland, fituated on the eallern lide of Choptank river, 4 miles below the Forks. — ib. Kingston, formerly called Frontinac, is fituated on the northern part of Lake Ontario, at the mouth of its outlet Iroquois river ; 200 miles fouthward of Mon- treal, and 150 northward of Niagara. Here the King's {lores are kept and guarded by one company of men. Part of Old Fort Froniinac is now tlanding, the bell part of which is the magazine. Kingflon con- tains about ICO houfes. Large velTels go no farther than this place; thence to Niagara, Sec. ftores and merchandize are conveyed in boats. — ib. Kingston, the capital of the ifland of St Vincents, in the Well-Indies, and the feat of government, lies at K I P [ 309 ] K 1 S King, II Kippii. at tlie head of a bay of the fame name, on the fouth- wedern fliore of the id ind, in St George's pariili. — ib. KING WILLIAM, a county of Virginia, between Maltapony and I'jmunky rivers. It is 47 miles long and 15 broad, and contains i;,i28 inhabitants; of whom 5,151 are flaves. — ib. KINGWOOD, a townlhip in Huntingdon county, New-Jerfey, containing 2,446 inhabitants, including 104 flaves. It is about 5 miles below Alexandria, and 1 5 S. W. of Lebanon. iVlfo the name of a fmall river of New-Jerfey. — ib. KINGS ALE, a pcft-town of Virginia, 16 miles from Wertmoreland court-houfe, and 12 trom North- umberland coiirt-hotife. — ib. KIOANON POINT, called in fome maps Kihionec, is the extremity of a l.irge peninlula which projefts tar into the fouth fide of L.ike Superior. — ib. KIONTONA, an Indian town on Conewango river, in Pennfylvania, and 1 1 miles northerly from its mouth in AUegliany river. — ib. KlP'riS (Andrew, D. D. F. R. and A. S.), vas born at Nottingham, Nbrch 28 (O. S.) 1725. His father, a refpeftable tradeiman of that town, was de- fcended from the Rev. Benjamin King of Oakham, Rutlandlhire, an ejeflcd minllter ; and his motlier, Ann Ryther, was the grand daughter of the Kev. Jolin Ry- ther, who was ejeiled from the church of Fernby, in the county of York. In the year 1730, he loll his father, and went lo rcilde with his grandfather, An- drtw Kippis of Seaford in Lincolnfhire. Ho received his clallical education at the grammar fchool in that town; but what contributed mod to his futute emi- nence, was the fiitndf]i:p cf the Rev. Mr Merrival, who wai equalled by few cf his contemporaries in va- rious branches of learning, particulaily in his acquaint- ance with the dallies, his knowledge of ancient and modern hillory, and liis retined tafte in the belles leltres. Dr Kippis frequently fiid, that it was impofllble for him to e.tprei's his obligations to this Iriend of his youth. In 1741 he re.moved to Northampton, and commenced his academical ftudiesunder Dr Doddridge. After a refidence of five years at the academy, he was invited by feveral congregations to become their mini- Iler. Though he was prelfed to fettle at Dorcheftcr, and had been chofen their minifter, he gave the prefe- rence to an invitation from Bofion in Lincolnlhire, where he went to refide in September 1746. Here he continued four years; and in November 1750, accept- ed the paftoral charge of a congregation at Dorking in Surry. The congregation meeting in Princes- (Ireel Wcftminfter, having been without a ininifter about two years, he was chofen, in June 1753, to fucceed the Rev. Dr Obadiah Hughes. On the 21ft of Septem- ber following, he married, at Bollon, MIfs Elizabeth Bott, one of the daughters of Mr Ifaac Bott, a mer- cliant of that place ; and in the month of Oflober fix- ed his refidence in Weilninifter. In June 1 767, he re- ceived the degree of D. D. from the univcrfily of E- dinbnrgh, on the unfolicited recommendation of the late learned Piofelior Robertfon. He was de'ted a member of the Society of Antiquaries on the 19th of March 1778; and on the 17th of June 1779, he was chofen a Fellow of the Royal Society. In both Societies he hat! the honour of being in the council two years. Dr Kifj'is was eminently didingudhed for the vir- tues and accomplifliments which form the cLIjf crna- ments of private life. With a fuavity of tnanners and urbanity of behaviour peculi.irly attradive, he united that knowledge of men and books which rendered his convjrfation uncommonly entertaining and inftrudive to the circle of his acquaintance and friends. As a mi- niiler, he was not lefs eminent for his profound acquaint- ance with every branch of theology than for the happy manner in which he applied it to the improvement of thofe who attended his miiiillry. His fermons were re- markable for perfpicalty, elegance, and energy ; and his elocution was iinifFecfled and very impreffive, parti- cularly at the clofe of his difcourfes. But the fuperior powers and vigour ot mind which he derived from na- ture, and which he had cultivated with unremitting di- ligence and peculiar fuccefs, were not to be confined to the narrow limits cf private life and the duties of the paftoral cliarge, however Important ; they were deficn- ed for more extenfive and Important fervices to his country and to manklid. The interefls ol literature, fcience, and religion, have received from the exertion of his talents as a writer the moil eti'tntial advantages. His firft clforts in literature were made in the Gentle- man's Magazine, a periodical publication called the Li- brary, and the Monthly Review ; to each ot which he contributed many Important articles, cfpecially in the hillorical and philological departments of the laft. He was the author of three important trad?, viz. " A Vin- dication of the Protellant Dilfenting Minillers, &c." " Obfervations on the late Contelh in the Royal So- ciety ;" and " Conuderations on the Treaty with A me- rica, &c." His Improved edition of Dr Doddridge's LcL^ures is a work of great value ; and " the Hitlory of Knowledge, Learning, and Talle, in Great Britain," prefixed to the Nev/ Annual Itcgiller, merits, and lias received, the approbation cf the public. He publiflied. at different times feveral fingle fermons ; among which, that on the death of his friend the Rev. Mr Laugher, is intltled to very high praile. The greater part of thefe he republiihed, with other prai5lic.il dilcour.'es, in the year 1794: but the woik wliich, next to the flu- dies immediately connected with his oSwc as a Chri- llian miiiiller, engaged his principal attention, and by which he has long been diftingul!hed, is, the improved edition of the " Biagrjphia Brilanv.ica." In this gteac i>atlonal publication, the comprehenfivenefs and powers of his mind, the corre^lnefs of his judgment, the vail extent of his information, his indefatigable refearches and unremitting afliduity, his peculiar talent of appre- ciating tliC merits, and analy/.ing the 1 ibours ol the m i(l eminent writers, and hia unlhaken iiitJgiity, unbi- alfed fidelity, and impiiiiil dtcilion on the chaiaders of the phiiofipher, Itatel'man, poet, fcholar, and di- vine, are ftrongly dil'pl.iyetl, and univci tally acknow- ledged. His (tyle, lornied on the models ot Sir Wil- liam Temple and the clallical Addifon, is remarkable for its peripicuity, elegance, and purity ; and gives a peculiar lullrc to the rich (lores ot knowledge treafured in the volumes now publifhcd. This work has given him a high rank among the literati of his country, and will carry dov/n his n.imc with dilllnguilhed reputation to pollcrlty. He di;d en tlic 8th October 1795. KISHTAC, an llland on the N. W. coaft of Norih- America, lies eaftw.ird of Foggy Cape, on the fouth- cad fide uf the peuinfula of Alalka, and on that part of Kiftfiiiaa- itus II Knoxville. K N O [31 of !t oppofiie ths liead of Briftol Day, on ilie N. W. fide of the peninfulii. It is alfo ojipofiie the mouth of Cook's river. — Monc. KISKEMANITiVS River, is a branch of Alle- phiiny river, into which it empties in N. lat. 40° 40', in Wertnioreland county, Pcnnlylvania. Its head wa- ttrs iire Little Concrrangh and Stone creek. After ihcir junftion it is called Cor.emaugli river. It tiien icccive-^ Black Lick from the N. E. and 17 miles from its mouth Loyulliannon Creek enters fioni the S. S. E. after wliich it is called Kilkemanit.is river. It is na- > igable f ^r batteaux 40 or 50 miles, and good portages are found between it and Jui:iatta and Potowin.ic rivers. Coal and fait are difcovcred in the vicinity of ibefe rivers. — ib. KITTANING, a fettkinent in Tcnnfylvania, on the c.ill fide of Alleghany river, 36 miks northward of Pitifburg.— «7'. KITTATINNY Mountains, a ridge of the Alle- ghany Mountains, whiili runs thrt:iK>h the northern paits of New-Jeifey and Pennfylvania. — ii. KITTERY, a townlhip in Yoik county, Diftrift of Maine, incorpoialed in 1653, and eonfills of 3 pirilhes, containing 3,250 inhabitants. It is fituated between Pifcataijua and York livers, 67 miles northerly of Boftnn. In this town is Sturgeon Creek, called fo from the plenty of that fidi, in the moiuh ti' the creek at the fird fettlenient of the country ; but there have been none found for thefe many years pall. This creek is famous in the hillory of the firft fettlers. — ib. KNOB LICK, in Mercer county, Kentucky, lies 15 miles S. E. of Harrodllown, and about 12 foutherly ot Danville. — ib. KNOWLTON, a towndilp in Suifex county, Nsw- Jerfey, containing 1,937 inhabitants, of whom 13 are ilaves. — lb. KNOULTON, a grant in Chittenden county, Ver- mont, lies E. of Smithfield, and W. of Kell) (burgh, and contains io,oco acres of land. — ib. KNOX, a county in the State of TcnnefTee, in Ha- milton dillri(51, contained in 1795, according to the State cenfus, 1 1,573 inhabitants, of whom 2,365 were fldves. — lb. Knox, a county in the N. W. Territory, erefled June 20, 1790. " Beginning at the Standing Stone Porks of the Great Miami river, and down the faid liver to its conlliience with the Ohio river; thence with the Ohio to the fmall rivulet above fort MalFac ; thence with the ciftern boundary line of St Clair county, to the mouth cf the little Michilimackinack ; thence up the Illinois river to the iorks or conHaence of the Theakiki and Chikago ; thence by a line to be drawn due north to the boundary line of the territory of the United States, and fo far eafterly upon faid boundary as that a due fouth line may be drawn to the place cf beginning." Alfo the name of a fort in the fame territory. — ib. Knqx, one of Ingraham's iflands. Capt. Ingraham difcovered two iflands which he called Knox and Han- cock, wli'ch Capt. Roberts fnon after difcovering, called Freeman and Lar.gdon. Thefe iflands had every ap- pearance of fertility. T!i«ir latitude is from S'-" 3', to 8° 5' S. and their longitude very nearly 141*? W. from Greenw-ich. — ib. KNOXVILLE, the metropolis of the State of Ten- ] K C) L nelFcf , is fituated in Kno.t county, on the north fi Je of KoNQ^all. Hollton liver, on a beautiful fpot of ground, 22 miles above the juniflion of Holft'^n liver with the Tennellee, and 4 beliiw tl c mouth of French Broad river. It is in a tiouiifliing fituaiion, and enpys a communication with every part of the United States by poll. It i:s re- gularly laid out, and contains about 130 houfes, a court-houfe, gaol, and barracks large cnougii to con- tain 7C0 men. The fupreme courts of law and equity lor t!ie dillrift ol Hamilton are held here half yearly, and the courts ff ple.is and quarter feill ini for Kno.\ county arc held here. A colltg.; has been ellablilhed heie by government, called Blount College. It is 32 miles N. of Tellico Blockluiifc ; 200 S. E. by S. of Frankfort, in Kentucky ; 485 W. by S. of Richmond, in Virginia J and 728 fouth-wefteily of Philadelphia. —ih. KOLQuALt,, the AbyfTinlan name of a tree, which fonic botanills have fuppoftd to be the Euphorbia Officinarum ot Linnsus. Mr Bruce, who gives the only defcription of the Kol-quall that we have feen, is of a different opinion : for which he afligus two rcafins ; the firlf is, that the flower, which he fays is rofaccous, is compofed of feveral petals, and is not campaniform ; and the fecond, that it produces no fort of gum, either fpontaneoufly or upon incifion. We mult acknow- ledge, that we entertain fome doubts whether our au- thor was at due pains to afcertain this fad ; and thefe doubts are fuggelled by his own hiflory of the tree. His defcription is not very perfjjicuous, and therefore, left we fliould mifreprefent his meaning, we (liall give it in his own words: " The tirlt thing that prefonted itfclf was the firft flioot of this extraordinary tree. It v.as a fing'.e ftalk, about fix inches meafured acrofs, in eight divifions, re- gulaily and beautifully fcolloped and rounded at the top, joining in the centre at three feet and a half liigh. Upon the outfide of thefe fcollops were a fort of eyes or fm.iU knots, out of every one of which came five horns, four on the fides and one in tlie centre, fcarce half an inch long, Iragil, and of no refiltancc, but ex- ceedingly fliarp and pointed. Its next proctfs is to put out a branch from the firft or fecond fcollrp near the top, others fucceed from all diredficns ; and this ftalk, which is foft and fucculcnt, of the confiftence of the aloe, turns by degiees hard and ligneous, and after a lew years, by multiplying its branches, alfumes the fVirm of a tree, the lower part of which is wood, liie upper part, which is fuc- culent, has no leaves ; thefe are fupplied by the fluted, fcolloped, ferrated, thorny fides of its branches. Upon the upper extremity of thefe branches grow its flowers, which are of a golden colour, rofaceous, and formed of five round or almoft oval petala ; this is fiicceeded by a triangular fruit, firft of a light green with a flight caft of red, then turning to a deep crimfon, with ftreaks of white both at top and bottom. In the infide it is di- vided into three cells, with a feed in each of them ; the cells are of a greenilh white, the feed round, and with no degree of humidity or molfture about it; yet iiie green leaves contain a quantity of bluifli watery milk almoft incredible. " Upon cutting two of the fineft branches of a tree in its full vigour, a quantity of this ifTiied out, which I cannot compute to be lefs tlian four Englifh gallons ; and this wasfo exceedingly cauftic, that though I wafh- ed K O R c 311 : K O R Koraqtias. Koona, eJ the fabre that cut it immjiiiately, the flaln has not yet left it. " When the tree grows old, the branches wiiher, ' and, in pl.ice of milk, the infide appears to be lull cF powder, which is io pungent, tliat the i'mall dull which I drew upon ftriking a withered branch, feemed to threaten to make me fneeze to death, and the touchirg ot the milk with my fingers excoriated them as it'fcald- ed with boiling water ; yet I everywhere obferved the woodpecker piercing the rotten branches with its beak, and eating the infefis, without any imprellion upon its olfaftory nerves." If what is milk in a young tree be a dry powder in one that is old, is it not prob.ible that the milk miglit by evaporation be reduced to the conliftcnce of gum, and that the kcl-quall may be at mod but a v.iriety of the euphorbia officir.arum ? From our authoi's obfer- vation, the kol-quall appeared to thrive befl on poor, fandy, (lony earih, at no preat diftance from the fea. The Abyflinians employ the milky juice in tanning to take off the hair from the fltins, and they make no o- iher ufe whatever of th; tree. KOONA, a fpecies of Echites (for whicli fee En- cycl.), very common in the woods of North Africa. It is a fhnib, of which the leaves, when boiled with a fmall tjnantity of water, yield a thick black juice, into which the negroes dip a cotton thread. This thread they fallen round the iron of their arrows, in luch a manner that it Is almod impoiTible to extradt the arrow wlien it has funk beyond the barb?, without leaving the iron and the pt ifoned throd in the wound. The poi- fon of the koona is f.iid to be very deadly. — Park's Travds. KORAQITAS, a tribe of Hottentots inhabiting a dilhiift of So\ith Africa, which M. Vaillant places on the confines of the Nimiqua country (See Nimiquas, Stippl.). When our autl;or vilited them, the wliole tribe was aifembled for the eleflinn of a chief: and not agree- ing among themlelves, fomeblnjd had been fhed, and much more would have been (hed, had they not una- nimoufly m.tde choice of hirn. When he firll joined them, tlie whole horde paid attention to nothing but their quarrel. To fee their warmth, one might have fuppofed that their elei.1on was a matter of importance to the whole world, and diat the fate of mankind w.ns about to depend on their chief. All fpcke at the ferns time ; each endeavoured to drown his neighbour's voice by his own ; ihsir cyci fparkled with fury ; and amidft this contulion, while they threitened each otlier in turns, the noife they made became truly dreadful. Unarmed, and without any precaution, though fur- rounded by this enraged multitude, our author walked c ilmly along in the midlt of them ; and when he reach- ed the kraal, he ordered his tent to b^ immediately form.'d, as if he had been furrounded by friends and re- lations. This appearance, raifed fudd:i:ly, and as if by magic, before the eyes of the horde, with his fufecs, horles, and tent, objeifts which were all new to tiiem, filled them with admiration. Men, women, and chil- dren, moiinn'cfs, and with their mouths wide open, all Hood looking at them with profound filence. Anger, hatred, and every violent palfion, feemed by their coun- tenances to be extinguilhed, and to have givjn place to more tranquil emotions, to ignorant furprifc, and ftu- f id allQnilhnicnt. Infancy is naturally cuiious; it is ftruck with every thing it fees ; and the favage, in this Koraquas. re.'pecl, is only a grown-up child. As the.'c favagej ^— '>'^~' feemed to wilh that he would permit thera to examine more clofely whatever excited tlieir admiration, he rea- dily conJelcended to gratify tiieir dcfire. 'J hey ap- proached, furveyed, and handled every thing. But the principal object of general curir.fity was his perfon. They feemed as if they would never be fatibfied with looking at his drefs. They pulled off his hat, that they might the better examine his hair and his bc.ird, which were long. They even half unbuttoned liis clothes ; and furprifed to fee his fkin v.hite, each felt it, as if defirous to afceitaln that what they faw was real. This comedy continued till the tvening ; and at length, when the moment of feparation arrived, M. Vail, lant caufed to be hinted to the whole crmpiny, that ii, two hours after fun-rife next morning, they fl;ould not be agreed rcfpeding the cht)ice of a chief, he would immediately leave them. He added, however, that if, on the otlier hand, tUey came and prelenred to him a chief, eleiSed by general confent, he would then load them all with prefcnts, and beftow on him a diflinifticn which would laife him above all his equals, and render the horde one of the moft celebrated in the whole coun- try. " But what was my fuiprife (fays he) when I learned the fame evening, that on my head the burden of the crown was depofed !" Ho acquiefced, however ; afiuring them, that if they would promife to be obe- dient, he would give them the only chief worthy of ruling them, and ot making them happy. By his interpreters he had lesmed, that the choice of the majority leaned towards one Ha ipa, a man about 40 years of age ; tall, well made, exceedingly ftrong, and confequently formed by nature for ruling the feeble multitude. He theretoie named riaripa chief; and the people appearing to approve of his choice, he commanded filence, and caufing tlie new monarch to ap- proach, placed on his head, with great folsmnity, a Dutch grenadier cap, of which the copp.rplate on the front was ornamented with the arms of Holland. This fymbol, '01%. a lion rampant, having in one of his fore- paws fcven arrows, and in the otlier a naked falre, could not fail to pleafe the favages, as it exhibited a reprefen- t uion of the weap:^ns peculiar to them, and of the mill formidable animal of their country. They leftilied their admiration in the mofl expreffive manner ; and invigined that, fuperior to kings, the white msn during the night had by magic made this crown, merely 10 adorn their chief, and to niTord them pieafure. Vail- lant then aflixed to the fkin, whicii fcrmcd Haripa's dr^fs, feveral rows of glafs beads ; gave him a girdle made of a (Iring oi very large onei ; ornamented his arms with tin bracelets, and fufpcnded from lis neck a fraall padlock, (haped like a butterfly, the key of -.vhich had been loll. Such padlocks, mad: in the form of animals of every kind, are very common at tiie Cape. They come from China ; and are brought to Afric.i by the captains of the Company's fhips which trade in the Indian feas. During the ceremony of inftall.ilion, the wliole horde, dumb and motionleU thniut,!) admiration, fetmed 1 olt in ccllicy. Haripi liirnfeif, though highly gratified, did not dare to make the lead movement, and obferved- a gravity altogether rifible. When the inauguration was liiiiflied, a.id ho was completely dreJed, our author prefcDteik K O 11 [ 3'- ] K R t KoiMiiuai. jirdliUcd him wiih a mirror, tliat lie might enjoy the ^*'~^^*'^ iatisfiic^ton of I'urveying his own figure. He then (hew- cj liim to the people, who exprcfleJ their joy by Ihouts and applaules without end. " Yc lionell hearts (fays M. Vaillant), who perufe th.is account, behold what it coll mc to refloie peace among a whole tribe, and to prevent them from deCtroy- ing each o:her!" From this moment concord was re- cflablilhed ; univerfal joy prevailed through llie horde ; and they inllantly b:gan their dancings, which continu- cil for three days and three nights without interniiirion. They l<ilted fur tliis IclHval feveral fat llieep, and even two oxin ; an extraordinary and truly aftonilhing mag- niricence among a people who, when they barter one of llicir daughters for a cow, think they have made an excellent bargain. Our au'hor, wifhlng to purchafe fome oxen for his waggons, bought them at llie price of a nail tha ox ; and thofe who liad the good fortune to make fuch an exchange were highly fatitfisd with their bargain. Nails and fmall bits of iron v;cre indeed of real value to them, to point the arrows and afl'ageys with which tliey fliot thu antelopes that abound in their country, and crnlH- tute much of their food. Like other favages, the Ko- rac]uas were ready to pillcr, and appropriate to their own ufe whatever they found pleafing, or fuited to their purpofes. They attempted to carry away fome of our author's effeifls, even before his hice : and to prevent their rapacity, he was obliged either to watch over, or to dcpofit them in fome place of fafety. The Koraquas are much talkr than the Hottentots of the colonies, though they appeared evidently to be defcendej fiom the fame race, having the fame language and cuftoms with their neighbours the NiMiciyAS (f;e that article), who are certainly of Hottentot extra<5lk)n. As the exceffive drynefs of the country renders fprings very rare, the Koraquas would be unable to in- habit it, had they not found the means of remedying this fcarcity of water. For this purpofe they dig in the earth a kind cf cifteins or rather wells, to which they defccnd gradually by Heps ; and thefe people are the only African nation among whom our author ever found the fame mark of indullry. As their wells always contain little water, and as none is to be loft, they take care to fecure it even from the birds, by clofing up the mouth of the hole with floncs and the brandies ot trees ; fo that, unlefs one knows the fpot, it is impoflible to find it. They go down into it every day, to fetch up as much water as may be nsceffary for the confumption of their people and cattle. They draw it in a kind of veffels made of hollowed wood, and pour it into the fkins of buffaloes or giraffes, placed in a concave form on the ground to hold it ; but they diftribute it with the utmoft parfi- mony, and never draw more than they abfolutely have occafion for. Notliwithllanding this drift economy, the wells often become dry ; and in that cafe the horde is obliged to remove to fome other place. Among all the weftern tribes, therelcre, there are none who lead fo wandering a lile as the Koraquas : the confequence of which is, that, as they olten change their abode, and acquire new neighbours, they muft, in fome meafure, adopt the cuf- toms cf the nations near which they fix their refidence. Some tribes of them greafe themfelves like the Hotten- tots; while ethers tattoo their face, brcaft, and arms, Kortright, after the manner of the Caffres. It is, however, to be II remarked, that the fame colour is not employed by all Krifhna. the Koraquas; eacli has his own, according as caprice ^'^^'^'^ may direct him in his choice, and it generally varies every day ; whicli renders, as one may fay, the inhahi- unts of the fame horde llrangers to eacli other, and gives them a motley appearance, as if llicy were dreffed for a mafquerade. KORTRIGHT, a townflilp in Otlego county, Ncw-York ; i 22 of its inhabitants are clcftors. — Mone. KRIS, Indians inhabiting the banks of Lake Chrif- tineaux. They can raifc 1,200 w.-irriors. — il. KRISHNA or Crisna, is an eaftern river of con- fiderable magnitude, wliich is very little known in Eu- rope. Wc have the following account of it. and its tributary waters, and the countries through which it flows, in Mr Pennant's View of Hindullan : " From Gangapatam, on the northern moutli of tlis Pennar, the land runs due north as far as MottapiUi, when it forms a ftrong curve toward the eall ; the point of whicli is one fide of the great river Crifna, in about lat. 15° 43'. Its Delta, which winds round as far as Mafulipatam, is not confidcrable. Tliis river annually ovei flows a vaft traft of country, like the Indus on the weftern fide of this einpire, and like all the other great rivers on tliis extenfive coaft. The Crifna rifes from the foot of the weftern Ghauts, and not more than 45 miles from Severndrug, on the weftern coaft. There is another branch to tlio eaft, that tifcs ftill more norther- ly. On that fide is Sattara, a ftrong forlrefs, the capi- tal of the Mahratta ftate in the time of the rajahs of Sivaji's race. It was taken by him in 1673, and found to be the depofiloiy of immenfe treafure ; at that time it belonged to the king of Vijapur; it was afterwards ufed by the Mahrattas as the lodgment of their riches, and alfo as a retreat for the more defencelefs inhabitants of Puna, and other open towns, in time of potent in- vafions. " The river continues defcending to the eaft. In latitude 17° is Meritch, a ftrong fortrefs, with a Jag- hirdar territory, conquered from its owner by Hyder. In lat. 16° 45', a fmall river difcliarges itfelf into the Crilha from the north. It would not be worth men- tioning, but that Pannela, a fortrefs of vaft ftrength, was made by Sumbuji, the profligate fon of Sivaji, liis refidence juil before his furprifai in 1689, betrayed by Cablis Khan, the vile inftrument of his pleafures, cor- rupted by Aurengzebe. His extravagant love of wo- men brought on him ruin. Informed by Cablis that a Hindu of rank and great beauty was on the road fo be delivered by her parents to her hufband, according to the cuftom of the Hindus, he inftantly put himfelf at the head of a fmall body of horfe to carry off the prize, and ordered Cablis to follow at a diftance for his pro- teflion, in cafe of accidents in that hoftile time. The traitor had given notice to Aurengzebe of this expedi- tion, who, fending a body of cavalry, furprifed Sumbuji jufl as he had difperfed the nuptial procellion. " Into the north fide of the Crilha, in lat. 16° 20', falls the great river Bima, after a courfe of 350 miles. It rifes at the head of the weftern Ghauts, parallel to Chaul in the Concan, and not above 50 miles from the fea. It defcends rapidly towards the fouth-eaft. In lat. 17° 40' it receives a fmall river from the well, on the fouthern banks K R I C 31 Krinina. banks of which ftands Vljapur, the capital of the fa- ^■'^^■^'^^^ itious kingdom of the fame name, now poifcired by the Mahrattas, but once governed by its own monarchs, till conquered by Aurengzebe in 1686. It was of great extent, and readied to the weilern fea, where it polfef- fed the ports of Dabul, Vingorla, and Carapatan. " The capital Vijapur is fome leagues in circuit, feat- ed in a fine but naked country, well watered. It makes a fingular appearance from an adjacent eminence, filled with numbers of fmall domes, .and one of a majellic fize. It was once a city of great fplendour, and filled with palaces, mofques, maufoleums, and public and pri- vate buildings of great magnificence ; many of them are fallen to ruin, and give melancholy prools of its former fplendour. I (hall not attempt to detail them. The pa- laces of the kings, and accommodations tor their atten- dants, were within avail fort, furrounded with a ditch 100 yards wide; the depth appeared to be great, but is now filled with rubbllh : within the Ibrt is the cita- del. Tavernisr fays, that the great ditch was filled with crocodiles, by way of garrifon, to prevent all ac- cefs by water. Lieutenant Moor has his doubts about this, imagining that there never was any water in this fofs. That fuch garrifons hare exided I di.ubt not. 1 have read in Parchas, that in Pegu the fofles of for- tified places were (locked with thofe tremendous ani- mals, not only to keep out enemies, but to prevent de- fertion. This praflice has certainly been of great anti- quity in fome parts of India : Pliny mentions it as ufed in a fair city of the Horatx, a people I cannot trace. " The Crifna, above and below its conflux with the Bima, is fordable ; and a few miles below its channel is 600 yarjs wide, made horrid with the number and rudenefi of the varioufly formed rocks, which are never covered but in the rainy feafon. " The Tungbuddra is another vaft branch of tlie Crifna. It falls into it in lat. 16" 25', and originates extremely fouth, from a doubtful fountain. Towards its lower part it divides into three or four fmall branches, which rife remote from each other ; the moll fouthern is the Curga N.i'ir's country ; the mod north- ern from the head of the Ghauts oppolite to Onor, and fcarcely 20 miles from the fea. What muft give this river great celebrity, is its having had on its banks, in lat. 15° 22', the fplendid city ot Vijanagar. Ferifhta fays, that it was founded in 1344 by Belaldeo king of the Cariiatic, which in ihofe dajs included the whole pcninfula. It was vifited by Ca;far Frederick a Vene- tian traveller, in 1565, and found deferted and ruinous, having been facked by fmir confederated Mahomedan princes two years before, on whicli its monarch had re- tired to Penuconda. Frederick f.iys that its circumfe- rence was 24 miles. Mr Reniiel has given us a view of its prefent Hate from Lieutenant Emitt, who vifited it in 1792. " The ruins of Vijanagar are in the little Sircar of Anagundi, which does not extend above 20 miles a- round this vaft city. It is very fincular, lli;it tiiat little Sircar is now pollelfed by a lineal defceiidant of Kama Rajah, the lall great monarch of V:janagar, and its at- tendant nations Canarineand Mil.ibar, united 700 years before under the rule of Crifna Deva. Tippu willicd to rcferve this little tract to liimlell, for tlie fatiiLution of generoufly redoring to the defcendant the fmall re- lique of the great empire of his ancellors. He is dc- SuppL. Vol. II. 3 ] K U M nied tlie title of R.(jah, indead of which he has the di- minutive Rail bedowcd on him. This is fuitable to his revenues, whicli do not exceed two lacs of rupees, or ^ 25,000 per annum, with the empty regality of a mint at Anagundi." In the remainder of its courfe the Crifna offers nothing remarkable. KUARA, is a beautiful tree, which grows in the fouth and fouth-wed parts of Aljyffinia. With the ebony it is almoft the only wood of the province of Kuara, of which it bears the name; but Mr Bruce af. fures us, that it is very frequent in all the countries where there is gold. " It is (fays he) what naturalills call a Carallodendron, probably trom the colour of its flowers or of its fruit, both equal in colour to coral. It« fruit is a red bean, with a black fpot in the middle of it, which is inclofed in a round capfula or covering, of a woody nature, very tough and hard. Tliis bean feems to have been in the earlied ages ufed for a weight of gold among the Shangalla, and, where that metal is tound, all over Africa ; and by repeated experiments, I have found that, from the time of its being gathered, it varies very little in weight, ,inJ may perhaps i;ave been the very bed choice that therefore could have been made between the culkcflors and buyers of gold. " I have faid tiiis tree is called kuara, which fignifies the lun. The bean is called carat, (rom which is de- rived the manner of efteeming gold as fo many carats fine. From the gold country in Africa it palled to In- dia, and there came to be the weight of precious dones, efpecially diamonds ; fo that to this day in India we hear it commonly fpoken of gold or diamonds, that they are of fo many carats fine or weight. I have feea thefe beans likewife from the Wed- Indian iflands. They are jull the fame ftze, but, as far as I know, are not yet applied to any ufe there." This is a very different account of the origin of the term Carat from what we have given in the Encyilo- pifdia ; but the reader will judge for himfelf between the two. KULSAGE, or Sugar Torxm, a little Cherokee town in the vale of Keowe. — Morse. KUMI, the name of an ifland between Japan and China, of which Peroufe writes in the following terms : " On the 5th of May, at one o'clock in the morning, we made an illand, which bore north north call of us ; we palled the red of the night, ftanding oft' and on, un- der an eafy fail, and at day-break I fliaped my courfe fo as to run along the wed coad of this ifland, at the di- llance of half a league. We founded fevetal times without finding bottom. We were foon fatisfied that this illand was inhabited, for we fi'v fires in fevcral places, and iicrds of oxen grazing on the lea-lhore. When we had doubled its wed point, which is the moft beautiful and bell inhabited lide, fevcral canoes put off from the Ihore in order to obfcrve us. They fecmed to be extremely in fear of us ; their curiofity cau:ed them to advance within mulket ihut, and their dillrull made ihem immediately flee away with fpced. Our (houts, gedures, ligns of pe.ice, and the fight of fome duffs, at leiigtli dcitimiiicd two of the canoes 10 come alonglide of u-.. I made each of them a prefent of a piece of nankeen and fume nudah. It was cvidmt that thefe illandcrs had not kit the coad with any in'ention of traflicki. g with us, for they had nothing to otfer in ex- change lor our pref:nts ; they only fadcncd to a rope R r a bucket LAB C 3 Kumi. a bucket ol" frefh water, making figns to us, tliat they '^'"^''"^^ IHII thought themfclvcs in our debt, but that they were going afhorc to fetch provilioii, which they exprelFed by pii'ting (licir liand into their mouth. Belcrc ctmiiig ;iloiigriJe the frigate, they placed t'.ieir hands upon their bread, and railed their arms towards tlie iky : thele geftures were repeated by us, and then they re- folved to come on board ; but it was with a want of confidence, which was Arongly exprerted in their coun- tenance during the whdlc time. Tliey nevcrthclefs in- vited us to appioach the land, giving us to underhand, that we Ifiou'd there want tor nothing. The(e iflanders are neither Jipanefe nor Chinefe, but, fituate between ihefe two empires, they feein to partake of both people. Their coveiing was a Ihirt and a pair of cotton drawers. Their hair, tucked up on the croivn of the head, was rolled round a rcedlc, wliich fcemed to us to be gold : each ot them had a dagner, the handle of which was gold alfo. Their canoes were made out of hollowed trees, and they man;)gcd theni very ind'iferently. I could li.ive wllhcd to land u|ion this iflaud, but as we had brought the lliip to, in order tn wait for tiiel'e ca- noes, and as the current fet to the noithward vvth ex treiTie lapidiiy, we had drifted a great way to leeward, and our eff.'rts to reach it would perhaps have been in vain : belides, we had not a moment to h'le, and it was «if the higheft importance to us to get out of the Japan i'eas before the month of June ; a period o{ dorms and hurricanes, which render tliele feas the moft dangerous in the whole world. " It is clear, that veflels which might be in want would readily provide themfelves with pr ivilion, wood, and water, in this ifland, and perhaps even carry on a little trade ; but as it is not more than three or four leagues in circumference, there is no t;rea' probability that its population exceeds four or live hundred perfons ; and a few gold needles are not of themfelves a proof of 14 ] LAB wealth." Our author, by obfervation, found the lati- tude of Kumi to be 24'* 33' north; its longitude 120" 56' call Irom Paris. KURILES, are a clufter of iflands, of which fome account has been given under the word Kuril, in the Encyclofadia. In addition t<i iliat article, the follow- ing particulars are worthy of notice : Oi the 21 dlands belonging to Ruffia, which are diltinguiihed fiom each other, not by names, but by numbers, fur only are inhabited, viz. thofe which arc c.ill. d the firft, the fe- cond, the thirteenth, and the fourteenth. Tlie lalf two may indeed be counted only as one, becaufe the inhabi- tants all ptD the winctr upon N" 14, and return to N" 13 to pafa the fummer months. The others are en- tirely uninhabited, the iflanders only landing there oc- cafionally from their canoes for the fake of hunting foies and otters. Several of thefe lall mentioned ifljnds are no better than large rocks, and there is not a tree on any one of th-jm. The currents are very violent be- tween the ifland s, particularly at the entrance of the channels, ftveral of which are blocked up by rocks on a level with the fea. The population of the four inha- bited iflnids anii unts at molt to 1400 fouls. The in- habi'aiits are very hair;., wear long beards, and live en- tirely up'n I'cals, ti:-ii, and the produce of the chace. When vilired by M. P:roufe they lud juil been exemp- ted for ten years trotn the tiibute ulually p.rid to Ruf- fia, becaufe the number of otters on their iflands i.s very- much dinii..ilhed. Thefe poo-- people are good, hofpi- table, and docile, and have all embraced the Chriftian religion. The more fouthern and independant iflanders fometimes paf^ in canoes the channels that feparate them from the Rulllan Kuriies, in order to give fome of the comm"ditifs of Jip.m in exchange f-r peltries. KYUQUOT, ., large found or bay on the N. W. coalt of N. .\inerica, having Roberts Ifl md on the one fide. N. lat. 50°, W. long. 127" 2o'. — Alone. L. Lab da f- feba. L ABDASSEBA, a tribe of favage Arabs who in- habit the defart of S.ihara in Africa. They are the moft powerful of all thofe tiibes except the Ouade- lims ; and they refemble thefe fo much in every thinif, that we (hall give an account of the manners of both under the title Ouadelims, and of their country un- der that of S.\HARA. LABORATORY, is an apparatus fo nece/Tiry to the chemift, that every contrivance to render it more convenient, or to lelfen the expence of it, muft contri- bute greatly to the advancement of fcience. The abi- lities of ]\Iorveaa alias Guyton, and the fuccefs vvi-.h ■which he has profecuted the ftudy of chemilfry, are well known ; and therefore hi, different methods of faving time and expence in making cbeinieal expert- inents muft be worthy of the notice of younger che- milh. In the fecond volume of the Memoirs of the Ancient Academy of Dijon, we have a defcription by him of a Labora- box containing a kind of portable laboratory, compofed ""T'- of a lamp with thiee wicks, difp 'fed in the figure of an equilateral triangle, to form .in internal current of air, with fupporti for the different vcfl'els of diuellion, diftil- lation, evap'-r.ition, &c. He made a folution of (ilver with common aciua lortis and the metal in an alloyed (late, which anlwered very well as a re-agent, with lUC having occalion tor any other utenlils but this bo,\ and apothecary's phiah, which are every v here to be found. This apparatus, however, was confined in its applica- tion, and he loon thoualit ot improving it. He c in- ftrutTed a lamp, on the principles f A gand, with three concentric circul.ir wicks, e.ich h iving an interior and exterior current of air. The efFeifl furpafTed his expec- tations with regard to the intenfry of 'he heat ; but it wa-. diflicuk to prevent thedelfnidion of the hard folder round the wickj; and theglals retorts were frequently melted LAB [ 3^5 3 LAB Labora- melted at the bottom, and disfigtired. It was attended tory. ^^.j,^, (ither inconveniences, and the quantity ol oil con- fumed was great. A Ihort time afterward?, it occurred to him to fiibfli- tute, inftead of tlie glafs chTrancy of Argand's lamp, a cylinder of copper wiih an Indented part or ledge a few millimetre' (lie Revolution, Encycl. n" 183.) above the flame, to perform the (■(Hce of the indented cliimney of gl.ds, and by that means to render it pradlicable to raile the wiclc to a cerf.iin height without fmoal<ing. This cylinder lias three branches like a chafiingdifh. By this apparatus two ot three decilitres of water (about half an Englilh vine pint) may be brought to boil in a copper cr glafs velfel in about fix or feven mi- nutes. It has ferved for a number of operations ; but it was not till after he had obierveJ the degree of heat obtained from the lamp in its ordinary ttate, and paiti- cularly (ince he had iubtlituted Inftead of the metallic tube a chimney of glafs cut off at the length of thiee centimetres (rather more than cne Englilh inch) above the co'.uraftion, that he perceived all the advantages it was capable of affording ; and that by means of a move- able fupport for the reception of the diffeient velfcls, which may be fixed at ple<fure by a thumb Icrew, this lamp furnace, at the fame time that it gives light, and confequently without any adJitional expence, may with facility be ufed for almoft every one of ihe operations ofcheniirtry; fuch as digellions, folutions, ciyftalli/a- tions, concentrations ; the rcflification ot acids ; difl'lla- tion'i on the land-bath, or by tlie naked fire ; incinera- tions of the mod refraiftory relidues ; analyles with the pncnm nic apparatus, or ot minerals by the faline fufion, &c. " I iiave not (fays he) hitherto met with any excep- tion but for complete vitritications and cupellations j for even the diftiUations to drynefs may be performed with fome pr^'ciuiions, Inch as that of translcnirg the matter into a fmall retort blown by the enamellei's lamp, and placing its bottom on a liiile fand-bath in a thin metal- lic dilh." Tlie fupport here mentioned is fimply a cop- per ring eight centimetres (3,15 inch.) in diameter, which is raifed or lowered by Aiding on a llem of the fame met^l. Nothing more was required but to adapt it to the fquare iron Item which pallet through the re- ferviiir ol the lamp. The coiineilit n is made by a piece of wood, in order that lefs of the heat might be difper- fcd. As the lamp itfelf is capable of be ng moved on its llem, it is eafy to bring it neater or remove it at pleafure ft< m the velFels, which remain fixed ; a circum- llance which, independent of the elevation or deprtlliiin of the wick, affords the means of heating the retorts by degrees, of moderating or fupprclling the fire inllantly, or of maintaining it tt>r fevcial iioui s at a conftant or determinate intenlity, from the aimoll infenlible evapo- ration of cryftallizable folutions to the cbuUitioit of acids ; properties never polfcffed by the athanor, of which chemills have boalled f • much. The advantage of thefe will be properly valued by thofe operators who know that the molt experienced and the moll ;utcn(ive chtmifls meet with fiequent accidents, by which botii their velfels and the prodinSs of their operations are loft for want of power in the m;:nagcment of the fire." For the analyfis of Hones, fuoh as the ctyllals of tin, the Ihortencd chimney of glafs is to be nIeJ ; and the procefs is to be begun by phiring the mixture in a cap- fule of platina or lilver 2\ imhes in diameter. This capfule is to be placed on the fupport, and tlie heat re- Lafcnra- gulatcd in fuch a manner, that ebullition Ihall take place '"H- without throwing any portion of the matter out of the '~'~*'"^ vefl'el. As foon as its contents are perfeflly dry, they are to be transferred into a very thin crucible of platina, of which the weight is about 252:- grains Englilh, and its diameter one incli and three fourths. This crucible reds on a fmall fupport of iron-wire, which ferves to contraa the ring ; and the wick being at its greatcll elevation, with the ring lowered to the diftance of (jj- inches from the upper rim of the chimney, Guyton pro- duced, in lefs than twenty minute;, tlie faline fufio-.j to fucii a degree, that from the commencement of the operation the decompofition pioceeded as far as to 0.70 of the mineral. Tlie fame apparatus, that is to fay, with the iliottened chimney, ferves for oxidation?, in- cinerations, torrefaflions, and dillillations to drynefs. In fuch operations as require a lefs heat, he leaves the lamp with its large chimney abfolutely in the fime flate as when it is ufed for illumination ; and by raifi g and lowering ciiher the ring which fiippoits the vclfcl, or the body oi the lamp if the velfels be fixed in communication with otlicrs, he graduates the heat at pleafure. Vinegar dillils witiiout interruption at 2-j- inches Englilh from the upper termination of the chim- ney, that is to fay, 7i inthes Englilh from the fianie. Water is made to boil in eight minutes, at tlie lame height, in a glafs veflel containing one wine pint Englilh, and is uniformly maintained at the dillance of Sy inches from the fiame. " I mult not in this place (fays our author) omit to mention a flight obfeivation which thib procefs has af- lorded, becaufi: it may lead to ufelul applications, and tends to point out one great advantage of this method of operating ; namely, that an infinity of circumllinces may be perceived, which might not even be I'lfpe^'ted when the whole procefs is carried on within a furnace. I have remarked, .is did iikewil'e feveral oi my colleagues who were then piefent, that a column of bub'Ies con- ftantly role from a fixed point of the retort on one fide ot the bottom. We were of opinion, that fome parti- cle ot niattier was in that place incorporated with the glafs, whicli had a different capacity for heat from that ot the relt of the glifs. In order to verify this conjec- ture, I endeavoured the lollowing day to diilil the fame quantity of the I'arae water in the fame letcrt, alter hav- ing introduced a button of cupelled filver, weigiiing nine decigrammes (2Cf grains). At the commence- , mentct the operation there was a fmall llream of bub- bles from the fame point as before ; but a fli nt time af- terwards, and duiing tlie whole remaining time of' ope- rating, the largcll and moll incellant flreain oi bub'oles rofe from the circumference of the button, which was often difplaced by tlie motion ; and in proportion to the time the produ^ of the dillillation was feiifibly greater. Whence we may conclude, that metallic wires or rods, dillnliutcd tlirough a niafs of water reipiired in be kept inTi (late of ebuUition, and placed a httle below its fiir- f.ice, would produce, witiiout any greater cxpcnce of fuel, nearly the fame cffe<5l as thofe cylinders filled «ith ignited matter which arc ni.ide to pal's througli the boilers." We have related tills (.iSi in Guyton's own words, or at Icall in a faithful tranllation of them ; and wc are far from calling it in quellion, for it ii a {'aSL which has R r 2 beci» LAB C 316 ] LAC been often obferved ; but we think his inference from it too hilllly drawn. It is not conceivable tliat lieat can be more rapidly conveyed through a mafs of liquid by the condufling power of metal, than by a free circu- lation ; but we agree with what feems to be Mr Nichol- • 7»uf-M,', fon'5 opinion*, that ihe thin flratum of water beneath Auguft the butmn becomes more fuddeiily and violently clallic ^79^1 than elfewhere, and therefore rifes regularly to the fur- note, [-aje f^f.g 'j^'j^^. vvhole of this phenomenon the reader will find explained in f.ur article Steam {£ruyi:l.), n° 10. But this is a digrtfli'n. We reiuin therefore to Guyt^n's laboratory, of wh'cb the reader will form a dilliudl notion frcm pi ile XXXIH wl.eie fij^. 1. reprefents the whole appiraius ready nnunted tor dillilhition, with the tube ol Ihfety and a pneumatic receiver. A is the body or rcfervoir of the ulual lamp of Argand, with its fhade and glafs chimney. The 1 imp may be railed or lowered at plea- fure by n)eans of the tliumb iciew B, and the wick rifes and falls by the motion of the finall toothed wheel pla- ced over the wafte cup. This conftruiflion is moft conve- nient, becau(e it affords the facility of altering the pofi- tion (if the flame with regard to the veHels, which remain fixed; and ihe troublef.me manacement ot bended wires above the flame fi^r the lupport of the veirds is avoided, at the fame lime that the fl.me icfelt can be brought near- er to the matter on which it is intended to aft. D, a fupport confiiling of a round ftem ot brafs, formed ot two pieces which fcrew together at about two-thirds of its height. Upon this the circular ring E, the arm F, and the nut G Aide, and are fiiable each by its relpcftive thumb-fcrew. The arm alio carries a moveable piece H, which ferves to fufpend the vellels in a convenient lituation, or to fccuie their pufition. The vvhole fup- port is attached to the fquare iron Hem of the lamp by a piece of hard wood I, which may be fixed at any re- ijuired fituation by its fcrew. K reprefents a ftand for the receivers. Its moveable tablet L is fixed at any re- quired elevation by the wooden fcrew M. The piece which foims the foot ol this lland is fixed on the board N ; but its relative pufition with regard to the lamp may be changed by flld:ng the foot of the latter between the pieces 00. P, another It.ind for the pneumatic trough. It is raifed or lowered, and fixed to its place, by a llrong wooden fcrew, Q^ R is a tube of fafety, or re- verfed i'yphon, which feives, in a great meafure, to pre- vent the bad effeifts of having the veli'els either pertedly clofcd, or perfectly open. Suppofe the upper bcll-lliaped vefiel to be nearly of the fame magnitude as the bulb at the lower end of the tube, and thai a quantity of wa- ter, or other fuitable fluid, fomewhat lefa than the con- tents of that vefTel, be poured into the apparatus: In this fituation, if the elallicity ot the contents of the vef- lels be lefs than that of the external air, the fluid will defcend into the bulb, and aimofpheric air will lollow and pafs through the fluid into the velfels : but, on the contrary, if the elafl icily of the contents be greater, the fluid will be either luftained in the tube, or driven into the bell Ihaped veifcl ; and if the force be (Irong enough, the gufeous matter will pafs through the fluid, and in part efcape. Fig. 2. Shews the lamp furnace diipofed to produce the faline fulion ; the chimney of glais lliorlened ; the fupport D turned down ; the capfule of platiua or Hlver S placed on the ring very near the flame. Lacflii Fig. 3. The fame part of the apparatus, in which, Librador, inllead of the capfule, a very thin and fmall cruciMe of platina T is fubltituted, and relh upon a triangle of iron wire placed on the ring. Fig. 4. Exhibits the plan of this laft difpofilion. LABRADOR, a large lake wlii^h by its numerous branches forms a water communicaii n lhrou/;h great part of the ifl md of Cape Breton. In fome maps it is called Si Pe-ei'i Like. — Mor e. LACERTA, in allrcnoniy. See Astronoi«iy, n" 406. Ertcycl. LACHAWANNOCK, a mountain in the noith- weltern part ot Penniylv.iuia. — Alunc. Lac HAWANNocK, a townlhip in Luzerne county, Peniilylvania. — ib. LACK, a townfliip in Mifflin county, Pennfyl- vania. — //•. LACMUS, a dye (luff prepared by the Dutch from the Lichen rocella, which fee in this Supj^lemtnt. LA COLE, a river which falls into lake Chaniplain from the W. 5 miles S. S. W. of Nut-lQand, after a Ihort courl'e. — Morse. LACOMIC, a fmall creek which empties through the wert bank of Alleghany river, in Pennfylvania, oppofite Licking Creek, a fhort diftance below fort Frankiin. — ib. L/V.CSHA, the Indian name of the lac infeft, which has been defcribed in the F.ncyilopaclia under the title Coccus, Species 5. Since that article was publifhed, a defcription of that infeft, which is more to be depend- ed upon, has been given to the world in thefecond vo- lume of the Allatic Refearches. It is by Mr Rox- burgh, furgeon on the Madras eflablifhment, and was communicated to the Society by Dr James Anderfon phyiician at Fort St George, who oblerves, tliat Mr Roxburgh's difcovery will bring the laclha as a genus into the clafs IJemiptera of Linnseus. " Some pieces of very frefli-looking lac (fays Mr Roxburgh) adhering to fmall branches of mimofa ci- nerea, were bri ught me from the mountains on the 20th of November 1789. I kept them carefully, imd to- day, the 4th of December, fourteen days from ihe time they came iri^m the hills, myriads of exceedingly minute animals were obi'erved creeping about the lac and branches it adhered to, and more llill ilfuing from fmall holes over the furface of the cells : other fmall and per- forated excrefcences were obferved with a glafs amorgft the perforations, from which the minute inle<5ls if- fued, regularly two to each hole, and crowned wiih fome very fine white hairs. When the hairs wei e rubbed off, two white fpots appeared. Tiie animals, when fingle, ran about pretty brifkly, but in general they were fo numerous as to be crowded over one another. The body is oblong, tapering moll towards the tail, below plain, above convex, with a double, or flat margin : la- terally on the back part of the thorax are two fmall tu- bercles, which may be the eyes : the body behind the thorax is crofTed with twelve rin-s : legs fix ; feelers (antenna) half the length of the body, jointed, hairy, each ending in two hairs as long as the antenm : rump, a while point between two terminal hairs, which are as long as the body of the animal. The mouth I could not fee. On opening the cells, the fubftance that they were formed of cannot be better defcribed, with refpeft 10 appearance, than by faying it is like the tranfparent amber 4 y LAC C 31 Lacfha. amber that beads are made of : the external covering of "^"'^^^ the cells may be about half a line thick, is remarkably rtrong, and able to refilt injuries: tiie partitions are much thinner : the cells are in general irregular i'quarcs, pentagons and hexagons, about an eighth ot an inch in diameter, and one quarter deep : they have no commu- nication with eacii other. All thole I opened during the time the .inimals were ifTuing, contained in one half, a finall bag filled with a thick red jelly-like liquor, re- plete uitli what I take to be e?gs : ihefe bags, or utri- culi, adhere to the bottom of the cells, and have each twii necks, which paf» through perforations in tlie ex- ternal coat of the cclK, forming the tore mentioned ex- crefcence^, and ending in fome very fine hairs. The otiier hilf of the cells have a dillnift opening, and con- tain a white fubllance, like fome few tilaments of cotton rolled together, and numbers of the inlefts themfelves ready to make their ex t. Several of the fime infeds 1 obferved to have drawn up their legs, and to lie fl it : they did not move on being touched, nnr did they ihew any figns of life with the greatell irritation. " December 5. The fame minute hexapedes continue ilTuing from their cells in numbers : they are more live- ly, ot a deepened red colour, and fewer ot the motion- lets Ibrt. To-day 1 fiiw the moulh : it is a flattened point about the middle of the breaft, which the little animal projects on being compreifed. " December 6. The male inl'eifls 1 have found to-day ; a few of them are conftantly running ami'ng the females mnft adively : as yet they arefcaice more, I imagine, than one to 5000 female , but twice their lize. The liead is obtufe ; eyesbbik, very large ; antenna; clava- ted, feathered, about |ds the length of the body : below t!ie middle an articulation, fucli as thole in the legs: colour between the eyes a beautiful fhining green : neck . very lliort : body oval, brown: abdomen oblong, the length of body and head : legs fix : wings membranace- ous, four, longer than the body, fixed to the fides of the tliorax, narrow at their infertions, growing broader for yds of their length, then rounded ; the anterior pair is twice the fize of the pollerior : a llri ng fibre runs along their anterior margins: they lie H,it, like the vings of a common fly when it walks or relh : no hairs from the rump: it fprings moil aflively to a confider- able dillance on being touched : inouih in the under part of the head : maxilix tranfveife. To-day the fe- male inllcls continue ifluing in great numbers, and move about IS on tlie 4th. " December 7. The fmall red infeds flill more nu- merous, and move about as before : winded infcifls. Hill very few, continue acti\ e. There have b.'en frefh leaves and bits of ihe branches ot botli Alimofa Cinerea and Coriiida put into the wide mouthed bottle with them: they walk over them indifferently, without (hewing any preference, or intlin.itioii to wo.k or copulat:. I open- ed a lell whence I thought the winced flies had come, and found levcral, eij;ht or ten, more in it, Itruggliiig to fhake olf their incnmbiances : they were in one i.f thofe titriciili mentioned on the 4th, which ends in two mouths, (hut up with fine white hairs but one of them was I'pen tor tlie exit of the flies ; the oiher would no doubt hive opened in due time : this utriculus I found now perl'i-ifHy drv, and divided into cells by exceeding thin partitions. I imagine, before any of the flie> made their efcape, it might have contained about tweuiy. In 7 ] LAM thefe minute cells with the living flies, or whence they had made their efcape, were fmall dry dark coloured compreifed grains, which may be the dried excrements of the fltes." LADIES IJland, a fmaU ifland of S. Carolina, near Port- Royal. — Morse. LAGOON, one of the new difcovered iflands in the South Sea. Captain Cook vifited it in 17C9. S. lat. 18" 47', W. long, from Greenwich 139° 28'.— /i. LAGUNA, a town of Peru, (kuated on Amazon river, S. E. of the town of B .tja. — lb. LA GUAYRA, a mariiime fortified town in Ca- raccas, a province of Terra Firma. This town, and Puerto Caoeli are the chief in the province. — ib. LAM ANON (Robert Paul), of the academy at Turin, crrefpondent of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and member of the Mufeum in the fame city, was born at Salon in Provence, in 1752, of an old and re- fpeftable family. Being ayoungei fon, he was dedined for the church, and fent to Paris to complete his theo- logical (ludics ; but getting acquainted with the pliilo- fophers (as they called themfelves), he foon lo(t all relifti for the fludy of theology, and devoted himfelf to the phyfical fciences, efpeci.ihy thole of cliemiftry and mi- neralogy. Into the church, however, he got, and rofe to the dignity of canon ; but by the death of his father and elder brother, having acquired the right of direiling his own future exertions, he halfened to quit a profei- fion, towards which he felt no pjrliality. A prelate, then in high favour at court, hearing of Lamanon's intention oi quitting his olhce of canon, of- fered him a confidcrab'e fiim, to induce him to refign in favour of one of his dependents. The chapter of Aries, replied our young eccleliaftic, did not fell me my bene- fice, I (hall therefcie relfore it in the fame manner that I received it. This conduft was certainly meritorious ; and his eulogift Fonce mentions another trait of his cha- rader, which lets him in a very amiable point of view ; he refufed to accept ot his paternal inheritance, other- wife than as an equal iharer with hia brothers and fillers. Thus liberated from the trammels of liis former pro- felTioUiLamanon applied himfelf with uncommon ardour to (ludy. Eager to raife the awful veil that conceal* from our eyes the fecrets of nature ; perfuaded, that even the gieateft genius only amules itfclf with falfe fyllems in the filence of a cabinet ; convinced of the ne- ceflaty of much and various obf;rvatioii, and of furpri- fing Nature, as it were, in the very faifl, in order to pe- netrate into thefublimity of her operations ; — our young philofopher travelled throogh Provence and Dauphine, and fcaled the Alps and Pyrenees. At the fight cf thefe vail natural laboratories the bent of his mind burft fonh inliant.ineoufly : he climbed to the fuinmit of rocks, and explored the abyfs ot caverns, weighed the air, an.ih fed fpecime is, and, \.\ his ardent fancy, havin» attained the feciets of creation, he formed a new fyllem cf the world. On his return home, he appl ed « iih ad- ditional interell to the lludy of nieieorolo^), mineralo- gy, natural philofophy, and the other br:inc!ieb of the h'llciry of na ure. Wliiifl he was mo»iitating a vifit to Paris for the pur- pofe, ,is h's eulogill exprclfe' hmfelf, of converfing with the luHiinaries of fcicnce, the inhabitants of the com- mune of Sal on, having loll a caufe againi^ their lord, unanimouily tlci-^eJ Luinanon, with whofe integrity and abilities LAM C 318 J LAM I^amanoH. abilities tliey were well acquainted, to go and folicit of ^~''~^~^'^ llie council the repeal of an unjult deciee tiiat had been obtained by partiality. The reply of the young philo- fopher on this occilun is an additional proof of his un- common difintcrefteJiiefi. '• As I intend (faid he) to go to Parii on bufinefs of my own, I cannot think of accepting your oiler of 24 livres daily pay : a twelfth of this film will cover the extraorJinai y expences oi the journeys that I (hall be obliged to make 10 Verf.iilles on your account." He had the fatisfaftion of complete fuccefs in the bufinels thus undertaken. Havlnt; fatisfied his curiofity in Paris, he went over to England. During the pali'age, though much incom- moded by fea-t'icknefs, and in imminent hazard of being overwhelmed by the tumbling waves of a very llormy lea, he cauied himfelf to be tied to the main-malt, in order to contemplate at leifuie fo giund and tearful a fpeaacle. The burfts of thunder, the howling of the wind, the brilliancy of the lightning, the glancing of the fpray which covered him every moment, thefe ob- jects, fo terrible to an ordinary man, threw him into a kind of mental intoxication, and he has often declared, that this day was the moll exqnifite of his whole life. Convinced that the friendlliip cf an eminent man ele- vates the foul, excites generous emulation, and becomes an additional Itimulus to one whole delight is lludy, and whofe moll prelling want is an objeft on which to place his affeaion, L.unanon anxioufly endeavoured to meiit the regard ot Condorcet, fo well known by his talents, his impieties, his rebellion, and his misfortunes. This academician, julUy confidering that an apollate priefl would be ready to join the conlpiracy of the philolo- phills Hgainfl; the altar and the throne, received Lama- non with diftindion, and at length admitted him to his mod intimate frienJfnip. During the three fuccelfive years that L^manon fpent at Palis, he follovfed with care the track of ihofe learn- ed focieties, of which he had been elefled a member. He became at this period, fgether with Count de Ge- belin, and iome other phdofopheis and artills, one ot the founders of the Mufeum, the greater part of the members of which are now reunited m the open fociety of fciences, letters, and arts, at Paris. Among the dit- fercnt papers of his that wereiead at various meetings of thefe focieties. Ponce mentions with particular ap- probation what he calls a notice of Adam de Crapone, an eminent hydiaulic engineei ; a memjir on the Cre- tins ; a memoir on the theory of the winds ; a trealile on the alteration in ^he courfe of rivers, particularly the Rh ine ; and anotlier on an enormous bone belonging to fonie cetacei.us filh, that was dug up at Paris in lay- ine the fomidations of a houfe in the rue Dauphinc. We have not feen thefe memoirs ; but as their author was the friend of Condorcet, and fancied that he had attained the fecrets of creation, we can eafily conceive their tendency. Having refolvsd again to revifit Switzerland and Italy, Limanon firft went to Turin, where he allied himlelf to the learned of that country. During his ftay there, the brilliant novelty difcovered by Montgolfier was occu[)ying the attention of all the philofophers of Europe. Lamanor, defirous of making Iome experi- ments of this kind himfelf, afcended in a balloon from the city of Turin ; but not perceiving in this difcovery, which had at fiift. highly interelled him, an object of public utility ; not forefeeing, tlut one day, on tlie I-amanan. plains of FlwUius, it would be the caufe of rallying and ^-^"^''*-' tllablilhing viaory under the (landards of France, he utiiined to his lavouiitc cccupatirns. Purfuiiig his rou;e fioni Pitdmont, he vifned Italy, and returned by Switzeilaiid, where he explored the Alps and afcended the fumniit ( f Mont Blanc : thence returning, loadcn with the fpoils ot the countries wliich he had traverfed, to Provence, he employed himiislf in the arrangement ot the interclling fruits of his journviy. Of tl.e fcrupulous cxaflnefs or hi) obfervations, his eulogiit gives tire tollowing inllance. " Being con- vinced that the plain of Craa, divided by the channel of the Durance, had tormcrly been a lake, he wilhed to be abfolutcly allured of it. For this purpufe he col- leded a Ipccimtn of each of the (lones that are to be found in this valt plain ; the number of thefe he found to amount to ninetesn ; then tracing the courfe of the river towards its head, near the frontiers of Savoy, hs obferved, that above each junaion of the tributary Itreams with the Durance, the variety of pebbles dimi- nilhed. Afterwards afcending the current ot each of thefe fmaller llrcams, he difcovered on their banks the origi- nal rock of every pebble that overfpreads the plain of Crau ; thus inconteftably proving, that this plain was anciently a lake tornied by the waters of the Durance, and the llrcams that fall into it. If all philofophers (fays our author) would condua their essminations with equal precillon, certain hypotheles, more brilliant thaix folid, would not find fo many admirers ; the charm of imagination, and the graces ot (lyle, would notfo often encroach upon the imprefcriptible rights of nature and truth." To citizen Ponce this appears a domonllration of Lamanon's theory ; but we cannot fay that it does fo to us. It may be a kind of proof, though not a demon- flration, that in feme convullion of nature, llones had been rolled from the rock, and the plain of Crau, for a time, overflowed by the Durance ; but it furely furnifhes no evidence ot that plain's having ever been a permanent lake. It may have been fo ; l)ut fuch invedigati.ns as this will not guard philofophers agamfl the delulions of favour te hypotiiefes. It was ai the time when Lamanon was preparing for the prefs his great work on the Jheory of the Earth, that the French government conceived the vafl prnjeft of completing the dilcoveries of Captain Cook : the aca- demy of Iciences was entnifted with 'he care of leleft- ing men capable ot reaitying our ni lions of the fr utlurn hemifphere, of improving hydrography, and advancing the progrels of natural hiftoiy. Condorcet, not know- ing any one better qualified for this laft department than Lamanon, wrote to him an invitation to fhare the danger and gl >ry of this great enterprize. He accept- ed with eager tranfport a propnfal that fulrtiled his higheft expeaations, haftened to Paris, refuleil in a con- ference with the miniller the falary tha' was offered, took a h.ifty leave of his friends, and departed for Bred. On the III of AuKud 1785, the armament fet fail under the orders of La Peroufe, an experienced com- mander, whole patriotifm and fcientific ze.il were equal to his courage and g lod fenfe, and who had already merited the public confidence. The philofophers of all Europe were in expeaation of tiiofe ufeful dilcoveries, the probable fruit of the zeal and talents employed iii the LAM C 3^9 ] LAM Lamanoa, the expedition. The beginning of llie voyage was II piofpcrous. After various Jcl.iys, and a multitude of v^^v-^W "bletv.i'ioMS, the two veifels arrived at the ifltnd of Maonna, one of the fouthern Afchipehgo. The inn- pa. ient Latnan^n, eager to alfure himrelt of ihe truth of tli<; publilhed accounts of that counrry, debarked with Lai.gle, tlie lecoiid in command. At ihe m< ment cf their leiurn, the natives, in hopes < f bi oiy, whch had been exciied by the number of prefentb thai they had received, fei/ed uptm the boats, and attacked the party. The French were obhged to have recourfi to arms for felf-deilnce, and a defperaie combat enCued. Liinanon, Lantle, md ten of the two boats ctews, fell a f.icrifice to the fury oi thefe barbarians. Thub periflied Laraanon, a young man ardent in the purfuits of Icience, to a high degree dilintereRed, and a zealot in what he thoughi ihe caufe of liberty. He re- fufed the falary which was allotted to him wt.en he was appointed to this uufoituiute expedition ; for " if I do not feci fatisficd (fdid he) on boaid ihe veffel ; if my in- clination orcuriofity lead me to qtiit the (hip, — I fhould be unhappy if any power in the world had acquired the right of preventing me." .•\ccordinj; to M. Ponce, Lamanon feemed born to bring about a i evolution in fcience: the depth ot his ideas, the energy of his chaiiotar, the fagacityofhis mind, united to that lively curiofity that can draw in- ftiuifli(>n out of any thing, and leaves nothing unexplo- red, would have led him to the moll vahi.ible difco- veries. In perlon he was tall ; and to great vivacity and exprellion of feature added prodigious llrength and ac- tivity ; in a word, Nature formed him with fuch care, as if (he had intended him for one ot thofe few who are dellined to great exploits. His Ityle was nervous, often poetical, without Uiling light of piopriety, and the lan- guage of fentinient rnigh; frequ-.ntly be dilcovered in die m:dll of ftrong and Unking exprefll ns ; and if he wanted the exquilitely dazzling pohlh of duflion, he w.^s eminently gifted with the prccifi n of logic^-.l reafoning, which command^ atlenti ii and enforces perfuafion. LA MOELLE, a large river m the N. W. ptrt of Vermont. I's general conrfe is weftetly : after running about 75 miles, and receiving 14 leffer ftr^ains, it falls into Lake Cliamplain at Colchcfter, 5 mile* north of the rnuuth of Onion river, and is of about the fame magnitude. — Morse. LAMBAYECH.IE, a t' wn on the road fr'^m Gua- yaquil to Lmia in Peru, four leagues from M irr ope. It coiuifts of about 1,500 houfes. built irf dilLreni ma- terials, but in general of bajareques or unburnt bricks. The meaneft of the houfcs are the habitations of the Indians, which conlill ent'rcly of canes The luutibcr of its inhabitants amounts to ab ve 30,000, foire of whom aie opulent ; but the generality are poor Spani- ard , Mu'.ittoes Melti/.-ie-, and Indians. It has a laige and elegant llone church. Ir iv the tefKience of a corregidor, having under his jurifdiiflion, bofides many other towns-, that of M irrop^-. One • f the two officcis o: the ravtnue appointed for Truxdl", alio re- fides h-ie. S. lit. 6° 41' 37", W. long. 76" i j'.— /*. LAMP (fee Encycl is an inlbument comprifing three article- whicli Jem.ind our a'tention, r;i. the oil, the wick, and the lup;>ly 'fair. I' is required that the oil fli: iild I e readil> inflamm-iblc, wi;h ut cont.iining any fetid lubllantc whith m.iy prove ctfenlive, or muci- lage, or other matter, to cbflrudl the channels of the Lamp. wick. Mr Nichoifon lays,* that he knows (.f no procefs V^^^!^ by which oils can be meliorated for this purpofe, except vol. i. that of wafhing with water containing acid or alkali, n" s. Either of thefe is faid to render the rnucilagc of animal oils more folnble in water ; but acid is to be preferred, b.caufe it is lefs difpnfed to combine witii the oil itfelf. Perhaps oil might be deprived of all fetid fmell in burn- ing, by being made to pafs through Collier's hltering ap- paratus, defcribed under the v/ord Filtf.r in this Su/>/)/. The ofTice of the wick appears to be chieHy, if not folely, to convey the oil by capillary attradion to the place of combultion. As the oil is conRimed anil flies off, other oil fucceeds, and in this way a continued cur- rent of oil and maintenance of the fl.ime are ellefled. But as the wicks of lamps are commonly formed of combullible matter, it appears to be of fbme conlVquence what the nature and (lrii(fture of this material mny !>;. It is certain that the flame affirded by a wick of rulh differs very conlideraWy from that afforded by cotton ; though perhaps this difference may, in a great mealure, depend on the relative dimenfions of each. And if we may judge from the different odour in blowing out a cmdle of each fort, there is fome reafon to fufpecl that the decompofition of the oil is not effcifted ptecifely in the lame manner in each. We have alio fbme obfcure accounts of prepared wicks for lamp«, which are Hated to poffefs the property ot facilitating the combul^ii'n of very imp rre oils, fo that they lliall burn for many hours without fmoke or fmell. The economical wicks of M. Leger, concerning which a report was prefented to the Ac.idemv at P.iris in 1782 by Condorcet, Livifier, and De Milly, i' ere comp ifed of cotton of difr--ient fizes and firms, iiamtly, round and flat, according to the ufe tliey were intended to ferve. They were covered w'r.h a t.'.t fubllance, cf a fmell not difagreeable, but feebly aromatic. From the trials of thefe commiifaries it w.is af ert.iined : i. That they aflbrded a clearer flame, with lefs undulation. 2 That they confumed fonieuhat Icfs oil ; and, 3. That they polfelfed the remark.ible pr ipcrry of affording neither fmell nor fmoke, however common the oil made ufe of. When uling a lamp with a flat wick, we have ourfelves found a piece of clean cotton ft' eking anfwer the pui pofe better than the cotton wicks which are fold in the (hops. Tlie accefs of air is of the laft importance in every procefs of combullion. When a lamp is fitted up with a very llendcr wick, the flame is Imall, and of a brilliant white C'lour : it the wick be larger, the combullion is lefs perlefl, and the tlaiiie is brown : a ftill lari;er wick not only exhilnts a brown flame, but the lower intern.il part appears dark, and is occupied by a portion of vo- latililed matter, which does not become ignited until it has alcended towards the point. When the wick is either very large or very long, part of this m.itter efcapes combuftioi), and fhcws itielf in the form of cnal or fmnke. The difTereiit intenfity of the ignition rrf flame, according to the greater or Itfsfupi ly of air, is remark- ably (een by placing a lamp with a fmall wick beiicatij a fhade of 14 hit's not perleflly doled below, and mote or lei's covered above. While the current of air through the glafs Ihadc is perfei5lly Iree, tiie flame is uhite; but in proportion as the aperture above is diminilhetl, the flame becomes biowo, long, wavcting, and I'moky ; it iiidamly LAM [32 Lamp, inftanily recovers its original wliitcnefs when the open- """""''"^ ing is again enlarged. TLc inconvenience of a thiclc wicii has been long fince oblerved, and attempts made to remove it ; in i'ome inllances, by fubftituting a number of fmall wicks inllead of a larger ; and in others, by ma- king the wick flat inftead of cylindrical. The moll fcien- liiic improvement of this kind,lliough perhapslefs fimple than tlie ordinary purpcfes of life demand, is the well known lamp of Argand, defcribed in the Encyclopedia. Much has been faid of this lamp, and great praife lavithcd on the inventor. It cannot indeed be denied that it was a very pretty invention, nor have we the fligiitell wilh to dctradl from the merit of M. Argand ; but truth compels us to fay, tiiat the fame thouglu had occurred to otliers as early as to liim, and that lamps had been conllru>!led on his principles long before he had pubhllieJ an account of his lamp to the world ( a ). M.iny ingenious men have endeavoured to determine the moll economical method of lighting up large halls and workhoufcs by means of different lamps and can- dles ; and when the expence of tallow and oil is con- fidered, it will be admitted that they could not employ their time in a manner more beneficial to the poor and the indullrious. Among others. Count Rumford and M. Hallcnfratz have turned their attention to this fub- jed ; and the refults of their inveftigations are woithy of notice. To the Count, a method occurred for mea- faring the relative quantilies of light emitted by lamps of different conlliuflinns, which is at once fimple and accurate. It is as follows : Let the two burning lamps, or other lights to be compaied, be called A and B ; and let them be placed at equal heights upon two light tables, or moveable (lands, in a darkened room ; let a (heet of clean white paper be equilly fpiead out, and faftened upon the wainfcot, or fide of the room, at the fame height from the floor as the lights ; and let the light;, be placed over- againft this Iheet of paper, at the dillance of fu or eight ieet from it, and fix or eight feet from each other, in I'uch a manner, that a line drawn from the centre of the paper, perpendicular to its furface, Ihall bifeft the angle formed by lines drawn from the lights to that centre ; hi whicli cafe, confiJering the iheet of paper as a plane Ipeculum, the one light will be precifely in the line of reflection of the otlier. This may be eafily performed, by adlually laying a piece of a looking-glafs, fix or eight inches fquare, flat upon the paper, in the middle of it; and obferving, by means of it, the real lines of reflexion of the lights from that plane, removing it afterwards, as foon as the lights are properly arranged. When this is done, a fmall cylinder of wood, about ^th of an inch in diame- ter, and fix inches long, muft be held in a vertical po- fition, about two or three inches before the centre of the fheet of paper, and in fuch a manner, that the two Ihadows of the cylinder, currefponding to the two lights, may be dillinftly feen upon the paper. If thefe Ihadows (liould be found to be of unequal denfities, which w ill almoft always be the cafe, then that light whofe correfponding fhadow is the d-nlell mufl be removed farther off, or the other mull; be brought nearer to the paper, till the denfities of the fliadows ap- o ] LAM pear to be exactly equal ; or, in other words, till the denfities of the rays from the two lights are equal at the ^ furface of the paper ; when, the dillances of the lights trom the centre of tlie paper being meafured, the fquares of thofe diftanccs will be to each other as the real intenlities of the lights in queftion at their fourccs. If, for example, the we.tker light being placed at the dillance of lour feet from the certie of the paper, it ihould be found neceffary, in order that the Ihadows may be of the fame denfity, to remove the ftronger light to the dillance of eight feet from that centre, in that cafe, tlie real intenlity of tiic flronger light will be to that of the weaker as 8' to 4* ; or as 64 to 16 ; or 4 to I : and fo for any other dillances. It is well known, that when any quality proceeds from a centre in llr.iight lines in all direiilions, like the light emitted by a luminous body, its intenfity at any given dillance from that centre will be as the liquate of that dillance inverfely ; and hence it is clear, that the imenfities of the lights in quellion, at their fources, muft be to each other as the fquares of their dillances from that given point where thiir rays uniting are found to be of equal derjhy. For, putting x z= the intenfity of D, if P reprefents the point where the rays from A and from D meeting are found to be of equal denfity or llrength, and if the dillance of A from P be = m, and. the dillance of B from the fame point P = n; then, as the intenfity of the light of A at P is = — -, and the in- m tenfity of the light of B at the fame place =r -v, and as it is -^ = -4" by the fuppofiiion, it will be .v : v : : HI" n »i' : n' . That the fnadows being of equal denfity at any given point, the imenfities of the illuminating rays muft of necelVity be equal at that point alio, is hence evident, that the total abfence of light being perfe(S blacknefs, and the fliadow correfponding to one of the lights in queftion being deeper or fainter, according as it is more or lefs enlightened by the other, when the Ihadows are equal, the imenfities of the illuminating rays muft be equal likewife. In removing the lights, in order to biing the fliadows to be of the fame denfity, care mull be taken to recede from, or advance towards, the centre of the paper in a ftraight line, fo that the one light may always be found exaflly in the line of refledion of the other; otherwifs the rays from the different lighrs falling upon the paper, and confequently upon the fliadows, at different angle.s, will render the experiment fallacious. When the intenfity of one ftrong light is compared with the intenfities of feveral fmaller lights taken toge- ther, the fmaller lights (hould be placed in a line per- pendicular to a line drawn to the centre of the paper, and as near to each other as poffible ; and it is likewife necelfary to place them at a greater diflance from the paper than when only fingle lights are compared. In all cafes, it is abfolutely neceffary to take the greateft care that the lights compared be properly trim- med, and that they burn clear and equally, otherwife the X-amp. (a) One of thefe was employed in the college of Glafgow, by tlie ledurer on chemiftry, fo long ago as 1766. LAM [ 321 ] LAM Lamp. Of the re- lative quan- tities of oil confumed, and of light emitted, by an Ar- gaiid's lamp, and by a lamp on the com- mon con- tlruSion, with a ri- band vick. the refults of the experiments will be extremely irregular and inconclufive. It is aftonifhin-j what a diflcrence there ii in the quantities of light emitted by the fame candle, when it burns with its greateR brilliancy, and when it has grown dim for want of fnuffing. But as this diminution of light is progreffive, and as the eye infenlibly conforms to the quantity of light aftually pre- fent, it is not always taken notice of by the fpedtators ; it is iieverthelcfs very confideraMe, in facl, as will be apparent to any one who will take the trouble to make the experiment ; and fo great is the flu(5hiation in the quantity of light emitted by burning bodies, lamps, or candles, in all cafes, even under the mod favourable cir- cumftances, that this is the lource of the greatell difii- ci^lties which our author met with in determining the relative intenfities of lights by the method here pro- pofcd. To afcertain by this method the comparative denfi- ties, or intenlitijs, of the light of the moon and of that of a candle, the moon's direft rays muft be received up- on a plane white furface, at an angle of incidence of about 60°, and the candle placed in the line of the re- fledlion of the moon's rays from this furface ; when the fliadows of ihe cylinder, correfponding to the moon's light and to that of the candle, being brouglit to be of equal denlty, by removing the candle farther off, or bringing it nearer to the centre ot the white plane, as the occalion may require, the intenfity of the moon's light will be equal to that of the caudle at the givtn dtjlance of the candU from ihe plane. To al'certain the intenfity of the light of the heavens, by day or by night, this light mull be let into a darken- ed room through a long tube blackened on tlie infide, when its intenlity may be compared with that of a candle or larr.p by the method above delcrihcd. The Count, however, has contrived an apparatus for afcertiiiiiing the intenfity of the fim's light, compared with the light emitted by an artificial illuminator, with much greater accuracy than it can be done by this fim- ple meiiiod. That apparauis we (hall defcribe under the title Photometer in this Supplement ; and in the mean time we proceed to lay before our readers the re- fults of his experiments as they relate to economy in the produi5lion of artificial light. The brilliancy of Argand's lamp is not only unrival- led, but the invention is in thehighell degree ingenious, and the inftrument ufeful for many purpofes ; but ftill, to judge of its leal merits, as an illuminator, it was ne- celi'ary to know whether it gives more light than another lamp in proportion to the oil conf timed. This point he de- termined in the K Uowing manner : Having placed an Argand's lamp, well trimmed, and burning with its gre-.te(l brilliancy, before hXs photomettr, and over againft it a very excellent common limp, with a riband wick about an inch wide, and which burnt with a clear, bright Hame, without the lealt appe.rance of fniike, he found the intenfities of the light emitted by the two lamps to be to eacli other as I7y56 to 9063 ; the denfiiies of the (hadows being equal when, the Argcind's being placed at the dillance of 1 34 inches, the common lamp was placed at thf dillance ot 95,2 inches, from the field of tl'e photometer. Both lamps having been very exadly weighed when tliey were lighted, they were n^^w (without being re- moved from their plaecs b.:fore tiie photometer) caufed SuPPL. Vol. II. to burn with the fame brilliancy jull 30 minute? ; they I-amp. were then extinguilhed and weighed again, and were '-""v^*-' f.iund to have confumed of til, the Argand's lamp V»Vf' ■^^'^ 'he common lamp -y'tVY' of a Bavarian pound. Now, as the quantity of light produced by the Ar- gaud's lamj), in this experiment, i( to the quantity pro- duced by the common lamp as 17956 to 9063, or ■*% 187 to 100, while the quantity of oil confumed by tlij former is to that confumed by the latter only in ihe ratio of 253 to 163, or as 155 to too, it ib cTident that the quantity of light produced by the combuftion of a given quantity of oil in an Argand's lamp is greater than that produced by burning the fame quantity in a com- mon lamp, in the ratio of 187 to 155, <^r as ico to 85. The faving, therefore, of oil which aiifes from ma- king ufe of an Ar^^and's lamp inllead of a common lamp, in the produdion of light, is evident ; and it ap- pears, from this expel inient, that that faving cannoc amount to lefs than fifteen /(f/- cent. How far the ad- vantage of thik faving may, under certain circumliances, be counterbalanced by inconveniences that may attend the making ufe of this improved lamp, our author does not pretend to determine. The Count made a confiderab-e number ofeiperi- i ments to determine the relative quantities ^f light emit- Of the re- ted by an Argand's lamp and a common wa>: candle; '^'ivequan- and the general refult of them is, that a common Ar- [.'"." °^ ., gaud's lamp, burning witji its ufual brightnef;, gives ,eVl>y"an' about as much liglit as nine good wax-candles ; bu't the Argand's fizcs and qualities ot candles are lb various, and the lamp and light produced by the fame candle fo fluctuating, that*'? a corn- it is very difiicult to afcertain, with any kind ot preci- '"""!,*" r u . ] 1 • . 1 > . 1 candle, lion, what a common wax-candle is, or Iiow much light it ought to give. He once found that his Argand's lamp, when it was burning with its greatell brilliancy, gave twelve times as much light as a good wax candle 3-ths of an inch in diameter, but never more. To determine to what the ordinary variations in the 3 quantity of light emitted by a common wax-candle ^^'^'^''"'^' might amount, he took luch a candle, and, ligliting it, |J^fj""|'t'''^ placed it before the photometer, and over againit it an emitted by Aigand's lamp, whicli was burning «i;h a very Heady candles. Hame ; and meafuring the intenlity of tlie light emitted by the candle from time to time, during an hour, the candle being occalionally finilTed when it appeared to ftand in need ot it, its light was found to vary liom 100 to about 60. The light ol a wax-candle of an interior quality was Hill more unequal ; but even this was buc trilling, compared to the ii.cqualllies of the light ot a tallow-candle. An ordinary tallow candle, of rather an inferior qua- lity, having been jult fnulFed, and burning with its greatclt brilliancy, its light was as 100; in eleven mi- nutes it was but 39 ; alter eight miiiutei more huJ elapfed, its light was reduced to 23 ; and in ten minutes Of the re- more, or twenty-n'uc minutes after it h id been hit iniifl- lativcciiun- ed, its light was reduced to 1^1. I'pin being again '"'" "'^ fiuitfed, it recovered its original brilliancy, 100. bce*-wji, Inorder to afcertain the rcla.ive qiiaiiiitics of bees i- . "'1 wax and of olive-.il coniumed, in Uic produdion ofraiie-oil* light, the Cniiu prrceeded in the following mar.ncr : an.llin- Vlaving provided an end ol a wax candle of the bell feid-oil, quality, ,68 of an inch in diameter, and about lour '^""'^""'^"'' inches in length, aiul a lamp with five fniall wicks, wliich julf.ou ^^ S s he liaht. LAM [3 Lamp. lie ImJ found upon tiial to give the f^me quantity of ^'~^'~''*^ llglit as the canJle, he wciglisd very exactly the cmJle and the limp tilltd with cil, and then, placinj^ them at equal dill incci (lorty inches) beioie the held of the pho- tometer, lie lighted ihcm both at the fame lirac ; and, altLr li ivinj5 canfcd tlitin to burn with prcciuly the lame d;£;tte of hrighlnels jiijl cm cowpU-tf hour, he ex- tiiiguiihed them both, and, weighing them a fecond tinic, he found that 100 parts of wax and izgpaitsot oil had been confiiined. H:nce it appears, that the confumption of bees wax is to the coiiluiiiption of olive-oil, in the produftion of the fime given quantity ot light, as icoik to \2<.j. Ill this esperiiiieiit no cii cumllance was ncgleftcd that could tend to renJer the rcfult of it conchilive; care was taken to fnufi' the candle very often with a pair ot Iharp fcilfais, in order to make it burn conftantly with the fame degree of brilliancy ; and the light of the lamp was, during the whole time, kept in the moft exaft equilibrium with the light of the candle, which was cafdy dene by occafionally drawing out, a little more or Icfb, one or more of its live equal wicks, Thefe wicks, which were placed in a right line, perpendicular to a line drawn from tlie middle wick to the middle of the field of the photonieier, were about -iV''' "* •'" '"'^'^ in diameter eacli, and ^th I't an inch from each other ; and, when they were lighted, their flames united into one broad, thin, and very clear, white flame, without the leaft appearance of fnioke. In order to al'certain the relative confumption of olive- cil and rap: oil, in the production ot light, two lamps, like that jull defcnbed, were made ufe of; and, the ex- ptiimen: being made with all poflible caie, the con- I'umpuon of olive-oil appeared to be to that nt rape-oil, in the produ6ion of the lame quantity of light, as 129 is to 125. The experiment being ai'^terwards repeated with ollve- cil and very pure linfeed-oil, the confumption of olive- cil appeared to be to that ot linfeed r.il as i 29 to 1 20. The experiment being twice made with olive-oil and with A tallow-candle ; once when the candle, by being often fnuffed, was made to burn conltantly with the grea'.ell pollible brilliancy, and once when it was fuffer- ed to burn the whole time with a very dim light, owing to the want of fnufling ; the relults of thefe experiments were very remarkable. When the candle burnt with a clear, bright flame, the confumption of the olive-oil was to the conlumption of tlie tallow as 129 is to 101 ; but when the candle burnt with a dim light, the conlumption of the oliveoil was to the confumption of the tallow as 129 is to 229. So that it apjieared, from this lad experiment, that the tallow, inllead of being nearly as produflive of light in its combuhion as bees wax, as it appeared to be when the candle was kept conllantly well fnuffed, was now, when the candle wa'- fuffired to burn with a dim light, by far lefs fo than oil. But this is not all ; what is dill more extraordinary is, that the very fame candle, burning with a long wick, and a dim light, actually confumed more tal'.ow than when, being properly fnuffed, it burnt with a clear, bright flame, and gave near three times as much li^hl. To be enabled to judge of the relative quantities of light aftualiy produced by the candle in the two experi- ment:, it \\ill fuffice to know, that in order to counter- 22 ] LAM balance this light at the field of the f'hotomcUr, it re- quired, in the former experiment, the confumption of ' 141 parts, but in tlie latter tmly the confumption of 64 parts, of olive-oil. But in the toimer experiment i 10, and in thelatter 1 14, parti of tallow weieaiftually found to be confumed. Thelc parts were 8i92ths of a Bava- rian pound. From the refults of all the foregoinj; experiments, it appears that the relative expcnce <f the tindermention- cd iutlamrnable fubllances, in the produdion of light, ii as follows : Lamp. Equal Parts in Weight. Bees wax. A good wax-candle, kept well fnuffed, and burning with a clear, bright flame, ... too Tallow. A good tallow candle, kept well fnuffed, and burning with a bright flanic, loi The fame tallow-candle, burning very dim f<..r want of fnufling, 229 Oliveoil. Burnt in an Argand s lamp, . . 110 The fame burnt in a common lamp, with a clear, bright flame, without fmoke, 129 Rape-oil. Burnt in the lame manner, . . 125 Liufeed-oil. Llkewife burnt in the fame manner, 120 With the foregoing table, and the prices current of the therein mentioned article;, the relative prices of light produced by thofe different materials may very readily be computed. In the year 1795, Mr J. H. HafTenfratz was em- ployed by the French government to make a leries of experiments to determine the moll economical method of procuring light from the different combullible fub- llances ufualiy employed for that purpofe. The niaie- riah of his experiments were, wax, fpeimaceli, and tal- low candles, tilh-oil, oil of colefeed, and of poppy ieeds. In ufing tiiefe oils, both the Argand and common lamps were employed. The wicks of the latter were round, containing thirty-fix cotton threads. The tallow and fpermaceti candles were mould, llx to the pound. The wax candles five to the pound. Mr Halfenfratz uled the fame method with Count Rumf )rd for determining the comparative intenlity of the lights. Count Rumford, as we have feen, ufed the Argand lamp as a llandard for comparifon ; but as the inteniity of Its light varies according to the height of the wick, Mr Halfenfratz preferred a wax candle, making ufe of it foon after it was lighted. When two luminous bo- dies, of different intenfities, are put in compariion with each other, the Ihadows are of two colours. That from the weakeft light is blue, and from the ftrongell, red. When the lights of two different combuflible bodies are compared, they are either red or blue in a com- pound ratio of the colour and intenfity. Thus in com- paring the ftiadows trom different luitiinnus bodies, they will be red or blue refpedively, in the following order : Light of the fun. of the moon. ot Argand lamps. — of tallow-candles. — of wax ditto. -of hittlf. LAM of fpennacst; ditto. - of common lamps. o-j ] I. A' N That is to fay, when a body is illuminated hy the fun and by any other luminous fubllance, the (hadow of the former is red, and of the latter, blue. In like manner, the fhadowfrom an Argand lamp is red, when placed by that of a talluw candle, which n blue. price of thcfe articles; by which he find?, that in I'aris the moll expenfive light is that prfducc-d from wax- candles; and the molt economical, tliac i:oin c^il of ccl:- leed, burned in Argand lamp--. The chief difference between the Arjrand .ind com- mon lamp is, that in the latter much of i| e o'l is vola- tilized without combuftion, and hence the uiiDleafan- The following table will (hew, according to Mr Haf- f'^'^l '';^''^h it produces ; whereas in the former, thi fenfratz, the proportional diftance that dilferent lumi- \''^} '* '" K^''}. ^' ''!^ '^'i', "^ ''l« '"}^^' 'J'-^t all the oil nous bodies fhoul tenfe (liadow from ition (f the mhu.'lion. be placed at to produce an equally in- 's.'J^compoled in paffing through, the difpofu ..... u, the fame objeft. The fecond column "^''^ ^' °'^;"S '''^ free accefs ot air to aiUlf en . . _ gives the proportional intenfity of each li^ht, which is V" ""'"/''. ^^^<''f>'^ '"'1"^. that the Argand lamp cor. known to be m proportion to the fquares of the diftances '."'"'^^ ^^^' ^^'^ to produce agiven light th .n the com propo of luminous bodies giving the fame depth of fhadow The third column fliews the quantity of combuftible matter confumed in the hour by each mode of giving lighr, which Mr Halfenfrat/ calculates from the average of many repf atsd experiments. Di- fiance. Inten- fity. Quan. tity confu- med per hour. IQuan- tity requi- red for ! equal inten- iitie&. AigandT Oil of poppy-feed lo lamp: with J. —of rilhes J — of cole-feed Common "J Oil of cole -feed lamps y — of filhes lo 9.246 6.774 lo.coo 23 io.ooo'23.77 8.549 H-'^ 4.;88| 8.81 ■with J — of poppy-feed 5 917 6524' 4.556 Spermaceti candle O.d tnUow-candle New ditto Wax candle 5-917 5 473 5 473 4-275 3-501 2.995 2.995 1.827 9.14 7.05 9-23 7-54 9 54 23 »3-77 16.59 19.3 20 06 . ^^ LANCASHIRE. In the account which we have Ihe relative quantity of combuaible matter required given of that county in tlie Encydop^ili.i, an obliginr to produce equal hghts at equal diftances, may be ob- correfpondent has pointed cut to us feme mift.ikes Me tamed by a limple rule of proportion trom the above alfures us, that ihefea coaft, where we underllood the data. Thus, if a given intenfity of light, expielfed by atraofphere to be lo.ided with fuch e.<hal itions as pro- 3.501, has been produced by a confumption of 9.23 of duce m:ilignant and intermitting levers, is remarkably Ipermaceti in the hour, the fame luminous body will pro. healihy; and he fpeaks from expc.ience, having lived duce a light of 10.000, by confuming m the fame time a on th.it co.ift for forty years. He afhircs us hkewife, 10 000 X 9 2.3 _ .^ ._ that the Duke of Biidgewatcr's inland navlg.^tion wa! quantity of fpermaceti ^ • = 26.37 — 3501 ---J'- begun foon after, if not bitore, the year 17^6, and that Therefore we may add to the talile a fourth column, he (the writer), (o early as 1764, was one <f a p.irtr exprcfling the quantity of combultible which each body who failed up the foiigh or edit a conliderable wav ti) mull confume to produce a li^ht of 10.000. fee how tlie coals were worked. The fame correfpon- From what has been laid down, it will alfo appear dent ha^ pointed out a few millakes in our .acccun: of that the number of lights required to produce a given L.ANCASTER, the capital of the county. " rhat light, will be as lollows : To produce a light equal to town (lie f.iys) carries on no trade whatever with North 100 Argand lamps, burning pcppyfecd oil, it will re- America, but a very conliderable one uith Jamaira and nu'rc the other Weft India ill.inds, in vclfek of firm ico to 500 ton, bunh.en. It exports to ihefe illands all fuch Briiilh m.inufaeliircs as tiiey h.ive cccafiou tor, Irllh linens, and faltcd provifions of all kinds, futh as Inlli beef, pork, butter, Stc. It iraJrs ,ilfo to the Biltic, I'ortugal, Hambingh, S:c. toa l.ugc amount ; and fome of its Ihips with tlicir cargoes have o( late been worth from L.60 to L. So.ooo llerlmir It ha', however, n'> communication by w.iter v.ih the riveis M;rftv, D:?, ."^c. as wehavc f.iid: 100 Argand lamps with fifh-oil 117 Ditto do. with cole-feed oil 218 Common lamps with cole feed oil 219 Ditto do. with tilli-oil 285 Ditto do. with poppy-feed oil 285 Spermaceti candles 333 T.illow ditto 546 Wax ditto. the canal reichiugas yet iiofarthe.- Mr HafTenfratz ncct takes notice of the comparative than to near I'rellon in Lancalhiie.'' 'I'lie communi- «> » i ca:io:i mon lamp, and thi>;, as we have feen, is the opinion of Count Kumford. Yet (Mr HafTenfratz obferves) there are two circumttances that prevent the full efilcl tf tl.i complete combuftion in the Argand lamp. The one is, that the glafs cylinder abfotbs a part of the rays of light as they pafs through ; the other, that the columa of light proceeding from the inntr furlice of the wici:, is, in pait, loft, by being obligrd to pafs through that from the outer furface. Count Rumford all 'v.'s the firft caufe of diminution of light, an J eltimates it at .1854, but nut the latter. The author of tliis memoir, in re- peating Count Runilord's eipeiiments, alferts, tha: when two candles are placed fo tint the li^ht of the one it obliged to pals through that of the other, the fum of the light fo produced is not fo ftrong as when tliey are placed fule by fide ; for in the firft ca'e, a pai: of the hlndmoft light is abforbed by the foremolt. LAMPA, a jurifdidion of Cuico, in Peru, in S. 20.14 A""^'"''^^- ^' begins about 30 leagues fouth of the city ^ of Cufco ; and is the principal province included under 2^ the name of Callao. Here are excellent paftuies and •37 filver mine?. Tlie air is very cold. — Mors;. ^' y LAMPETER, a townlhip m Lai.caikr county, '■^ Pennfylvania. — ih. LAN [ 324 ] LAN , cstlon with thefe rivers is indeed intended to be com- pleted ; but whether the fthenie be praflicable isi ac- cording to our correlpondent, very uncertain. Lancaster, a bay or found on ihe weftern coaft of Sir Thomas Smith's bay. The foulliernmoll part lies in N. hit. 74° 20'. The moll northerly i.s cilled Aldeiman Jonai's Sound, and lies in N. lat. 76°. — Mone. Lancaster, a populous and wealthy county in the interior part ot Punnlylvania, extending I'outh to the Maryland line. It is about 42 miles Iquare, is divided into 25 townlhips,^and contains 566,240 acres ot land, and 36,147 inhabitants, includmg 348 Haves. The lands in this county are rich and well cultivated. The hills in the northern parts abound with iron ore; tor the manulafturinj; which, 2 furnaces and 8 forger have been ereifled. The furnaces nianiitaifture about 1,200 tons of pigs and nearly that number of bar-iron an- nually. Copper and lead have alfo been found here. Chief town, Lancajier. — ib. Lancaster, a county of Virginia, bounded eaft by Chefapeak Bay, and S. W. by Kappuhannock river. It is about 40 miles long, and 15 broad, and contains 5,638 inhabitants, of whom 3. 336 are ilaves. — ib. Lancaster, a county of Camden diltri(5t, S. Caro- lina, lying on Lynche's creek, and Wateree river. It contains 6,302 inhabitants, of whom 4,684 are whites, and 1,370 Ilaves. — ib. Lancaster, a poft-town of S. Carolina, 36 miles from Camden, and 47 from Charlotte, N. Carolina. —ib Lancaster, a very pleafant poft-town in Worcefter county, M^lFachufctts, the oldell in the county, having been fettled in 1645, and incorp rated in 1653. It is fituated in a branch of Nafhua river, which empties into the Merrimack. It is 35 miles W. N. W. of Bolton, 4 miles W. of Bolton, and 14 N. by E. of Worceller. The lands of the townfhip of Lancafter, and thole of Sterling on the S. W. ate part of the traifl called Ni2jhiwogg by the Indians. The pleal'aiit- rels of this town hai invited many perfons of educati- on and foitune to refide here. In the N. ealterly part of Lancalter, there is a valuable, and perhaps inex- haullible (late pit, furnifiiing Hates for hr.ufes, and ex- cellent (tones for tombs and graves. No flates equal to tliefe have yet been difcovered in the United States. Thefe are fcnt to B. fton, and exported to New-Yoik, Virginia, &c. Two principal branches of N.ifhua river, over which are 9 large bridges, water this town, and have on their banks excellent intervale land. Cumberry pond in tliis town is obferved to rife as much as two feet, juft before a ftorm; and Sandy pond rifes in a dry I'eafon. — ib. Lancaster, a townfhip in Grafton county. New- Hampfhire, on the eaft bmk of Connefticut river, about 41 miles above Hanover. It was incorporated ia 1763. In 1775 it contained 61 inhabitants, and in 1790 — 161. — ib. LANCE ISLES, on the N. W. coaft of N. Ame- Tica, lie off Cape Scott, which is the fouthern point at the mou-h of Pintard's Sound, oppolite to Point Dif- appointnient. There is a narrow cliannel between the largert ifle and the cape. — ib. LANDAFF, a townfhip in Grafton county, New- Hampfhire. It was incorporated in 1774, and con- Land's, tains 292 inhabitants. — ib. || LAND'S HEIGHT, in North America, is the L.ntcrn. high ground on the chain ot lakes between Lake la Piue and Lake Superior, where there is a portage of 7 miles. It is 80 miles eaft of the grand portage fiom the weft end of Lake Superior. — ib. LANGDON, a townlhip in Chelhire county, New- Hamplhire, incorporated in 1787, and coniaini 244 inhabitants. — ib. LANESBOROUGH, a tnwnftiip in Berkfhire coun- ty, Malfjchuletts, N. by E. of Hancock, t2 miles N. by W. of Lenox, and 144 W. by N. of Bofton. It affords a quarry of good marble, and contains 2,14a inhabitants — ib. LANSINBURGH, (dty) in the tnwndiip of Troy, Renlfalaer county, Jjew-Y.irk, is very pleafantly fitu- ated on the E. bank of Hudfon's river, oppolite one of the mouths of the Mohawk, and contains about 200 dwelling houfes, a brick church, the joint proper- ty of the Dutch and Prelhyterian congregation, a court- houfe, gaol, and an academy, incorporated in 1796. Here is a library company which was incorporated in 1775. It is a very flourilhing place, fituated on a plain at the foot of a hill, f. ■ m die top of whicli is a moft delightful profpedl. A few years ago there was but one llage between this town and Albany ; now (1796} 20 ftages daily pals and repafs between the neighbouring towns of Lar.linburgh, Troy, Water- ford, and Albany ; and the average number of palTen- gers is faid to exceed 150. It is 9 miles north of Al- bany, 3 above Troy, 175 norih of New-York, and 270 N. N. E. of PhilaJelphia. — ib. LANTERN {S><:i Encycl.). Sir George Staunton informs us, that of the Chinefe lanterns, fome were fuch as we have defcribed, viz. compoled of thin tilk gnuze, painted or wrought in needle-work with figures of birds, infefls, flowers, or fruit, and ftretched on neat frames of wood. Others, however, were very different, being entirely made of hum. Thefe were fo thin and tranfparent, that they were taken at fit ft for glafs ; a material to which, for this purp-le, the horn is prefer- red by the Chinefe, as cheaper, lightei, lefi, liable to ac- cident, and, in cafe of accident, more ealily repaired ; many of them were about two feet in the diameter, and in the form of a cylinder, with the ends rounded off, and the edges meeting in the point to which the fuf- pending cords were tied. Each lantern confifted of an uniform piece of horn, the joints, or teams, being rendered invillble by an art found out by the Chi- nefe ; among whom, the vaft number of fuch lan- terns ufed in their dwelling houfes and temples, as well as on the occafions of their feftivals and procelTums, have led to many trials for improving their conftruc- tion. The horns generally employed are thofe of fheep and goats. The ul'ual method of managing them, ac- cording to the information obtained upon the fpot, is to bend them by immerfion in boiling water, after which they are cut open and flattened ; they then eafi- ly fcale, or are feparated mto twu or three thin laminse or pi ites. In order that thefe plates (hould be made to join, they are expofed to the penetrating effefl of fteam, by which they are rendered almoft perfeftly foft. In this Hate the edges of the pietes to be joined are carefully fcraped LAP [3 Lantern, fcraped and flanted ofF, Co as that the pieces overlapping II. each other (IvM not together exceed the thickneCs of ,^^:iPl^ the plate in any other part. By applying the edges, tlius prepared, immediately to each otlier, and prefling them with pincers, they intimately adhere, and incorpo- rating, form one fubltance, fimilar in every refpeft to the other parts ; and thus uniform pieces of horn may be prepared to almoft any extent. It is a contrivance little known elfewhere, however firnple the procefs ap- pears to be; and perhaps fime minute prec.iutions are omitted in the general defcripiion, whicli may be elFen- tial to its complete fiiccefs. Such lanterns as thefe would be very proper for mi- litary (lore houfes ; and Roclion of the Natlmiat Injl'ttute was employed, fince the commencement of the prefent war, to make them, if he could, for the marine ftorc- houfes of France. While he was thus engaged, how- ever, it occurred to him, that he might fupply the pref- fing wants of tiie navy uithuut li rn, merely by filling up the interftiees of wire-cloih with tine tranfparent glue. In carrying this thought into execution, he at firll tinned the iron wires of the fieve cloth he made ufe of; but afterwards found it moie convenient, in every refped, to give it a flight coating of oil paint to preferve it from ruft. The glue he made ufe of was afforded by boiling the clippings of parchment vvirh the air-bladdert and membranes of fea filh ; materials which he ufed, not from any notion that they were pre- ferable to ifinglafs, but becaufe they were the cheapell he could procure. He added the juice of garlic and cy- der to his compffition, in fuch proportions as he found to communicate great tenacity, and fime what more of iranfparence than it would have polfelFed without them. Into this tranparent and very pure glue or fize he plunged his wire cloth, which came out with its inter- ftiees filled with the compound. It is requifite that the fize Ihould polfefs a determinate heat and conlift- ence, concerning which experience alone mull guide the operator. When this prepared wire cloth is fixed in the lan- tern, it mull be defended from moifture by a coating of pure drying linleed oil ; but even in this (late it is not fit to be exjiol'ed to the weather. The eale with which thefe lanterns are repaired in cafe of accident, by a flight coating of glue, is pointed out as a great advan- tage by the inventor ; who likewife informs u^, that they were ufed in the expedition to Ireland as tignal lanterns, though contrary t'l his wifhes. LAPIS FuNCiFER, a fpecies of earth found near Rome, Naples, and Florence, of which the following account is taken from the AVw Tranfiidions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm (or the year 1 797 : Near Naples the lapis fuugifcr is found in the chalk- hills like a white flaladtites, intermixed with a great many fine roots of fin ubs ; and near Florence there is a fpecies of it, confifting of hardened turf, which is dug up near volcanoes. The author made experiments with a pt ce procured from Italy, and found that 100 parts contain from 45 to 46 liliceous earth, 23 argillaceous earth, 7 calcareous earth, and 20 calx of iron, with fome white niagncfia and vegetable alkali. It is well known, that when this friable fpecies of Hone is pre- fer! c J in cellars .ind moilfened with water, it produces abundance of eatable Q>ulhroonas, which iu Italy are 25 ] L A R highly efleemed and brought to the firft tables. Hence the origin of its name. LAPIS LAZULI, a fmall rock furrounded with and almoft covered by the fea on the coad of Nova- Scotia. It IS about 2 miles from Monano Ifland, znd Ihews the palTage into St John's river. — Mont. LARDIZABALA, a new genus of plants belong- ing to the dixc'ta hexandria of Linnxus. It is a native of Chili, and is thus defcribed in Ptroufe's Voyage, from drawings fent to France by La Martiniere. The leaves are alternate, on footllalks inflated at their bafe. Each leaf is bi-ternate, that is to fay, it is divided into three leaflets, each of which isagain fabdivided into three oval (haip pointed folioles, which, when young, are en- tire, but afterwards become obfcurely lobed. The flowers, difpofed in fimple and pendent cluflers, grow towards the top of the flem and of the branches in the axillas of the leaves. The plant is dioecious. At the bafe of each duller of blo/Foms are two fmall, rounded, oval, floral leaves. Male Flower. — Calyx formed of fix expanding leaves, oblong oval, and obtufe, of which the tliree out- ermolt are the larged. Corolla compofed of fix fharp lanceolated petaU, oppolite to, and fhorter than, the leaves of the calyx. A cylinder lifes from the centre of the flower of the length of the petaU, terminated by fix oblong bilocular anthers, which open from below. FtMALK Flower. — Calyx, fimilar to that of the male flower, but larger. Corolla inferted lieneath the piltil, compoled of fix petals, rarely entire, but general- ly bifid or trilid at their fummit : fhortcr than the leaves of the calyx. Staviina fix, having the fame inleriion as the corolla ; filaments dillinifl, broad, very (hort, fur- rounding the piftil; anthers, fix, upright, oblong, acu- minated, barren. Seed bud, cells, from three to (w., ob- long, gibbous on the outfide, of nearly the length of the corolla ; flyles none ; Itigmata, fitting, oblomr, per- manent. Berries, equal in number to the celb, oblonj, acuminated (divided into fix cells, containing feveral angular feedi. Flora Peruviana). The general charader of the lardizabala evidently places this new genus among the family of the menifper. vt/e, to which it is related by its climbing fialk, its bunches of dicEcious flowers, by its fix petals, (lamina, and leaves of its calyx, by its pillil, compnfed of from three to fix cells, which contain as many feeds. It dif- fers from the known genera of this order only in its fruit, which, inltead of being monofpetmous, contains feveral feeds. This charaiflcr, which requires the in- troduiflion of a new feifllon into the menifpernur, (Irengthens the relation of this family to the next order of the anonce. In faifl, the greater part oi the genera of the anon^, as they have in the fiime flower feveral fruits, with numerous feeds, differ in this particular from all the genera of the mcnifpermi ; and by placing between them ihc lardizabala, we ellablifh 3 natural tranfition. In order to confirm thefe re(eniblance«, it only remains to examine the infide of the fruit, and par- ticularly the ftrui-Ture of the fiieds. Thofe of the me- nifpermi are reniiorm, at leall on the infide, inclofed in a hinged pericarpium, and containing in their upper part a very fmall dicotyledonus embryo. The charac- ters that we havi: given of the lardizab.ila render pro- bable a fimilar llructurc in its feeds. LARGE L A T [3: LARGE ROCK lies r,n ihe S. bank of Ohio river, in the travt called Indiana, snd nearly oppuilti th*: mouth of Miilkingum river. — Mora. Large Island, one of the larjjeft iflands on the Labrador coart, due weft of the mouth of Shecaiica Bay.—;*. LARICAXAS, a province of La Paz, and audi- ence of Charcas, in Peru. It lies acijacent to the terri- toils'; of the jurifdiction of La Pa^, and to the north of that city, extending 118 leagues from E. to W. and about 30 from N. to S. It abounds in gold mines, the metal of which is of fo (ine a quality, that its llan- dard is 23 carats and 3 grains. — ib. LAll.MIER, in architciflure, a fiat fquare member of the cornice below the cimarnin), and jets out farthell ; being fa called from its ul'e, which is to difperfe the water, and caufe it to fall at a diftance Irom the wall, drop by drop, or, as it were, by tears ; larmc in I'rench ligiiifying a tear. LA I'ACUNGA, AJJlcMo of, the firft jurifdiaion to the fouihward of that of Q_uito, in Peru. The word ajji.nto implies a place lefs than a town, but larger than a village, It ftands on a wide plair, having on its ea(l lide the eaftein cordiUera of the Andes, horn which projefls a very high mountain ; and at a fmall dillance from its foot is fuuated Latacungi, in 55" 14' 30" S. lat. On its W. fide is a river, which is fometimes fordable, but generally palfed over a bridge. This Mlliont'i is large and regular, the flreets broad and flratght, the ht ufes of (tone, aicheJ, and well contriv- ed, one (lory high. This precaution the inhabitants were taught to obferve by a dreadful de(lru<fiion of all the building", on the 20th of June, 1699. Out of 600 itone houfes, which the aflienco then contained, only a fart of one, and the Jefnit's church, were left Itand- ing, and molt of the inhabitants were buried in the ruins. The ftone of which the houfes and churches are built, is a kind of pumice, or fpongy (lone, eje<5ted from volcanoes; which have (ormed inexhaullible quarries in the neighbourhood. It is fo light, that it will frtim in the water, and from its great porofuy, the lime cements the different pieces very (hongly to- gether. This junfdidlion contains T7 principal villa- ges. The air of the afliento is colder from the place being only 6 leagues Inni the mountain of Cotopaxi ; whicli as it is not lefs in height or extent than thole of Chimborazo and Caymburo, fo, like them, it is cover- ed with ice and (now. The villages are populous ; fuch as are feated in the vailies are hot, thofe in the plains temperate, whilft thole which border on the mountains, like that of the afliento, are cold, and fometimes to an excellive degree. The inhabitants amount to about 12,000, chiefly Spaniards and Mefti- zoes. Great quantities of pork are lalted here and fent to Qjiito, Guayaquil, and Riobamba, being highly valued for the peculiar flavour given it in the pickhng. The manufaftures are thofe of cloth, bays, and tucu- y<'S. 'i'he inhabitants of Fugili, and Saquifili, are no- ted for making earthen-ware, highly valued all over the province of Q^iito. The clay of which they are made is c( a lively red, remarkably fine, emitting a kind ot tragrancy, and t!ie wcrkmanlhip very neat and ingenious. — Marse. LATU6 Primarium, a right line drawn througli 6 ] LAV the vertex of the feflion of a cone, within the lame, and parallel to the bale. L.nui Rctlui.T. See Cosic Sc3ion, Encycl. J, /111!) 1'ranjverfum of the hypeibola, is liie right line between the vertices of the two oppolite feflions, or that part of their common axis lying between the two oppolite cones. LAUREL MOUNTAIN, a range of mountains wellward of the Alleghan\ ridge, and a pan of wiiat is called the Alleghany Mountains. It extends from Pennfylvania to N. Carolina, and gives rife to feveral branches of the Oliiu river. The Great Kanhaway breaks through the Laurel Ridge in its way to the Ohio, in N lat. 38" 30', W. long. 81" 19'. In a fpur of this mountain, about latitude 36", is a fpring of water, 50 feet deep, very cold, and, it is laid, as blue as indigo. The lands within a fmall diftance of the Laurel Mountain, through which the Youghio- gany runs, are in many places broken and (loney, but rich and well timbered ; and in fome places, and par- ticularly on Laurel Cieek, they are rocky and moiin- tainous. Fioin the Lautcl Mountain to Mononga- hela, the fir ft 7 miles are good, level, farming lands, wiih fine meadows; the timber, white-oak, chefnut, hickory, &c. — Mone. LAURENS, a county in Ninety-Six diilriifl, S. Carolina, lying between Enoree and Saluda rivers. It is about 31 miles long, and 22 broad, and contains 8,217 free inhabitants, and 1,120 Haves. — ib. LAURENT of the Mine, Si, a fettlement in the ifland ot St Domingo, near the Spanilh capital, St Domingo. It ftands in the place where the capital was liilt founded, on the eaft lide of the Ozama, and about a quarter of a league from its confluence with the Ifabella. It can only be confidered as a dependen- cy on St Domingo, and contains 3C0 inhabitants, all Iree negroes, lormiiig .1 cure. It was formed in 1723, by 128 runaway French negroes who being ftnt down to the bay of Ocoa to be (hipped off", llu Spaniards attacked the efcort, and gave arms to the fugitives, maintaining that ihey were free men. — ib. L/VVA. In addition to the oblervations t( Sir William Hamilton, Bergmann, Formes, and Dalmieu, on tlie compoliiion ot different lavas, which have been given in the Emyclopadia, we cannot lelulc ourfelves the plealure of noticing, in this place, thofe of Sir James Hall. From a number of well-devifed expe- riments. Sir James thinks himfelf warranted to con- clude, that lava and whinftone are intrinfically the fame fubftance ; and that their apparent differences arife wholly from the circnmftances under which they have palfed from a liquid to a Iblid Hate. The lavas, it is well known, have been cooled rapidly in the open air, and the whins (according to Dr Hutton's theory, which Sir James feems willing to adopt) flowly in the bowels of the earth. Though we aie far from adopting that theory in all its parts, to which we ihtnk inluperatile obje^ions may be made (fee Earth, i-JH.jc/. r." 120), we admit, that the experiments of Sir James Hall go far to cftablilh the identity c f lava and whinftone. Thefe experiments were made upon (even different fpecies of whinftone and fix lavas, of which four were broken from the cur- rents of Etna and Vefuvius by Sir James himfelf. Each of LAV [ 527 ] LAV LiTi. cf the original whinftones was reduced, by fufion and ter of lavas when ccnipared with that of gl.4fs, \Uiich L?.vo:f»r. "^~'^"^*^ fubfcqiicnt rapid cooling, to a ftate of perfeifl glafs. they aflume in confequcDce of fufion in our Inmates. ^^~''"*»-' 'I'liis glafs-, being again placed in the furnace, was fub- But now he hopes we may be lelieved frdm the necef- jeded to a fecond iufion. The heat, being then redu- fity ot fuch violent efforts of iniaginalion, fince the phe- ced to a temperature generally abuiit 2S" ot Wedge- nomena have been tuUy accounted for by the firrple, wood, was maintained llaiionary for feme hours ; when though unnoticed, principle of refrigeration, and have tlie crucible was eitlier immediately removed, or allow, been repeated again and again with eafe and ceitai;itr ed to cool wiih the furnace. The confcquence was, in a I'mall chamber turnacc. that in every cafe the fubftance had loll the charafler LAVOISIER (Ancoine I^aurent), was born in Pa- cfglaf., and by cryllallization had alfumed in all re- ris on the 26di of Auguft 1743. ■'^'i father, who di- fpccts that of an original whinflone. It mud be owiied, refled his education, was opulent, and fpaied no coft that in moll cafes the new produiftion did not exailly for his improvement. The youth ifiewed a decided rcfemble the paiticular original Iron) whicii it was form- tafte tor the phyfical fciences. In 1764, government ed, but fome other original ot the fame clals ; owing having propoled an extraordinary premium fir tlis bell to accidental varieiies in the mode of ref;igcration, and and cheapcll mode ot lighting the ftreets of a lar^e city, to chemical changes which unavoidably took place du- Lavoifier obtained the gold medal ; and his niemoir, ling the procefs. In the cafe, however, of the rock of full ot nice inveftigalion, was printed by the Academy. Edinburgh callle, and of that of the bataltic columns Into that body he was received on the 13th May 17C8, of Staffa, ihe artificial fubllances bear a complete re- in fpite of a turmidable oppofuion ; and to its fcrvice I'embhmce to their original, both in colour and texture, he ever alter devoted his labours, and became one of its The lavas were nuw treated in the fame way, and moll ufeful alfociates and coadjutors, were each, by lufn n and rapid cooling, reduced, as the His attention was lucceffively ojcnpicd with every whinllones had been, to glafs. This glalV, when fufed brancii of phyfical and mathematical fcience. 'I'he pre- again and cooled llowly, yielded the larne kind of cry- tended converiion of water into earth, the analyfis of llallized, tlony, or earthy malfcs, completely refembling gypfum in the neiglibourhood of Paris, the cryftaliiza- an original whin or lava. tion of lalts, the elfefts produced by ihe ^ranJi ile loufe Aliliougli the internal ftruiflure of lava was thus ac- of the garden of the Infanta, the project of bringing counted for, yet Sir James was embarrafled with the water trum I'Yvette to Paris, the congelation of v.-ater. Hate of its external furtace ; which, though cooled in and the phenomena of thunder and the aurora bor;alis contaifl with the open air, is feldom or never vitreous, all occupied hi> attention. holding an intermediate iLuion between glais and Hone; Journeys, undertaken in concert with Guettard into but this diflicuky was removed by a circumllance which every dillriifl ot Fiance, enabled him to procure nuni- took place in the courfc of thele eiperimenis. It was bcrlcls materials towards a defcriplion of the lithologi- found, that a Imall piece of pl.ds ot any of the lavas, or cal and mineralogical empire ; ihef; he arranged into a of leveral ot the whins, being intrrdnced into a muffle, kind of chart, which wan;ed little of bein:^ completed. • the temperature ot which w<is at any point between tiie They ferved alio as a foundarion lor .•» more labori- 20th and the 22d det,ree of Wedgewood's fcale, the ous work ot his on the revolutions of the globe, and glafs became quite loft in the fpace of one minute j but, the formation of Couches ile la Tern ; a work cf u hich being allowed to remain till tlie end of a fecond nnnute, two beautiful fketches are to be fecn in the Memoirs of it was found to have become hard throughout in conle- the French Academy for 1772 and 1787. All the quenceot a rapid cryltaliizalion, to liaveloll itscharaifler fortune and all the time of Lavoifier were devoted to ot giafs, and to have become by 12 or 14 degrees more the culture ot the fciences ; nor did he feem tu have a intufible, being unalTeifled by any heat under 30, though preponderating inclination fir any one in pai ticular, un- the glalbhad been lufibleat 18" or at 16°. This account- til an event, fuch as feldom occurs in the annals of the cd lor the fcoria on the /urface of lavas ; for the fub- human mind, decided his choice, and attached him (lance even at tlie furfacc, being in conta«ft wiili the tiienceforth cxcUifivcly to chemillry — a purfuit which flowing dream, and furroundcd with heated air, could has fince rendered his name immortal, not cool with exceflive rapidity : and the experiment The important difcovery of gales was juft an- (hews, that fliould any part of the mafs, in delcending nounced to the philofophical world. Black, Priellley, heat, employ more than one or two minutes in cooling Scheele, Cavendilh, and Macbride, had opened to phy- from 22 to 20, it would infallibly lofe its vitreous cha- fiologills a fort of new creation ; they had commenced rafler. a new era in the annals of genius, which was to become Independently of any allufion to fyllem or to general equally memorable with thofe of the compafs, printing, theory, S r James Hall flaiteis himfelf that thele expe- elciflricity, Jcc- riments may be of lome impoitancc, by limplifying the It was about the year 1770 that Lavoifier, (Iruck hiltory of volcanoes ; and, above all, by fuperfeding with the importance and grandeur ot this dil'covcry, fome very extraordinary, and, he conceives, unphilofo- turned his attention to this inexhaullible fountain of phical opinions advanced with regard to volcanic heat, truths, and inllantly perceived, by a kind of mrtinit, the which has been llaicd as pollefling very little intenlity, glorious career whuh lay belore him, and the iiilluence and as aiding by fome occuh and inconceivable inlluence, which this new fcience would necclfarily hive over the or with the help of fome mvilible agent, f > as to pro- whole train oi phyfical refearche«. Of thofe who had duce liquidity w.ihout fufion. Thefe I'uppofitions, preceded him, the mod indetatigable experimenter was which have been maintained ferioully by fome of the Priellley : bot fails the mod brilliant remained frevjuent- mod celebrated naturalills in Eurcpe, have originated ly unproduflive in his hands; he was often ready to Irom the ditliculty of accounting iox the llony charac- draw certain condufions which as liadily h: abandi n- cd. LAV [32 Lnvoifitr. eJ. Lavoifier was imbued wiih the true fpirit of '"^'^''^^^ induclive I'hiliifophy ; his obfervations, eminemly pre- cile and luminnus, always pointed to general views. In 1774, he publifhtd his chemical opufcules, v.hich contained a very neat hillory of all that had beea done with refpc>5t to gafes, and concluded with the au- thor's capital experiments, by which it was proved, that metals, in calcination, derive ihcir augmentation of weight from the abforp'.ion of air. Soon alterward, he fhtweJ, in oppofition to PrielUcy, that nitrous acid is compofed of air ; a remark, of which the importance appeared in the fequel. His ingenuity as a chemill was now fo well known, tliat in 1776 Turgot employ- ed him to infpeifl the manufa>fture < t gun-powder. He introduced fome valuable improvements, and, fuppref- fing the odiius vifits in quelt of the materials ot lalt- petre, he yet quintupled its produce. 'I'he gun-powder would now carry 120 loi.e;, when formerly it would not reach 90. This fuperiuriiy was indeed acknow- ledged in the lall war. It had been alleged, that by frequent dillillation wa- ter is converted into earth. Tl is quellion Lavoilitr refolved in 1778, having Ihewnth.u the earthy fcdiment was owing to the continual erohon ot the internal lur- face of the retort. In that fame year he made a more intereftuig difcovery ; namely, that the refpirable por- tion of tlie atmofphert; is a conllituent pi nciple of all acids, and which he therelbre denominated oxygen ; a moll important fact, and the hrll great (lep towards the new chemiftry ; which the compofition of water, afcer- tained in 1783, triumphantly completed. Lavoifier poiFeiFed dccifive advantages over his con- temporaries ; he ftudied a geometrical accuracy of in- veftigation ; and his wealth enabled him to make expe- riments on a large fcale, and to uie inllruments of the mod perfeft conltruiSion. He was able to hold in his houfe, twice every week, ailemblics, to which he invi- ted every literary chara(5ter that was moll celebrated in geometrical, phyfical, and chemical, ftudies ; in thcfe inftrucftive con-verfationes, difcudlons, not unlike fuch as preceded the firlt cftabliflmient of academies, regularly look place. Here the opinions of the moll eminent li- terati in Europe were canvalfed ; pafTages the moft (Iri- king and novel, out of foreign writers, were recited and aniniadverted on ; and thetries were compared with ex- periments. Here learned men of all nations found eafy admiffion ; PrielUey, Fimt.ma, Blagdcn, Ingenhoufz, Landriani, Jacquin, Watt, Bolton, and other illullrious phyliol'igills and chemills of England, Germany, and Italy, found therofelves mixed in the fame company with La Place, La Grange, Borda, Coufin, Meunier, Vandermonde, Monge, Morveau, and Berlhollet. Hap- pv hours paifed in thele learned interviews, wherein no lubjedl was left uninveftigated that could pcffibly con- tribute to the progrefs of the fciences, and the amelio- ration and happinefb of man. One of the greatell be- nefits refulting from thefe aff'eniblages,andthe influence of which was foon afterwards felt in the academy itfelf, and confequently in all the phyfical and chemical works that have been publfbed for the lall twenty years in France, was the agreement cllabli(hed in the methods of reafoning between the natural philofophers and the geometricians. The precifion, the feveiity ot llyle, the philofophical method of the latter, was infenfibly tranf- iufed into the minds of the foncer ; the philofophers 8 ] LAV became difciplined in the taflics of the geometricians, Lavoifier. and were gradually moulded into their refemblance. ^-^"^^^^-^ It was in the alfemblage of thefe talen"t^that Lavoi- fier embellilhed and improved his own. When any new refultlrom fome important experiment prefented itfelf, a icfult which threatened to influeiice the whole theo- ry of the fciencc, or which contradicted theories till then adopted, he repeated it before this fckd fociety. Many times luccellivcly he invited the fevered objec- tions of his critical friends ; and il was not till after he had fui mounted their obje^ions, to the convidtion and entire pcrlualion of the fociety; it was not till after he had removed from it all myftery and oblirurlty, that he ven- tured to announce to the world any difcovery of his own. At length he combined his philofophical views into a conlilteut body, which he publilhed in 1789, under the title cf Elements of Chemijlry ; a book which is a mod beautiful model of fcientilic compofition, clear, lo- gical, and elegant. It would be foreign to our purpofe t ) attempt an expofition of the principles, or to expa- tiate on the merits, of this cclebiated lydem ; which, within the fpace of a very few ye^rs, has been almoll univerfally adopted, and which, if not the genuine in- terpretation of nature, a;iproaches as neai to it as the piefent date of knowledge will permit. See Chemis- try in this Supplement. The lad, but not the lead ufefiil, of Lavoifier's phi- lofophical relearches, on the Peifpiration of Animals, was read to the Academy on the 4;h May 1 791, and of which part was publifhed in the volume for 1790. He found, by fome delicate experiments, made in con- jundion with Scguin, tiiat a man in 24 hours perfpires 45 ounces; that he confumes 33 ounces of vital air; that he difcharges from the lungs 8 cubic feet of car- bonic acid gas, of which one-third is carbon and two- thirds are oxygen ; that the weight of water difchar- ged from the lungs amounts to 23 ounces, of which 3 arc hydrogen and 20 ox)gen, exclufive ot 6 ounces ot • water already formed, loft in pulmonary perfpiiation. Thefe difcovenes were direited to the improvement of medicine. We have mentioned the afTidance which Lavoifier received while he w;-s digeding his new fydem of che- midry ; but we mud add, that to him pertains exclu- fively the honour of a founder. Kis own genius was his fole conductor, and the talents of his affociates were chiefly ufeful in illudrating difcoveries he himfelf had made ; he firft traced the plan of the revolution he had been a long time conceiving ; and his colleagues had only to purfue and execute his ideas. In the twenty volumes of the Academy of Sciences, from 1772 to 1793, are 40 memoirs nf Lavoifier, re- plete with all the grand phenomena of the fcience ; the doiflrine of combuflion general and particular ; the na- ture and analyfis of atmofpherical air ; the formation and fixation of eladic fluids ; the properties of the mat- ter of heat ; the compofition of acids ; the augmenta- tion ot the ponderofuy of burnt bodies ; the decompo- fition and lecompofition of water ; the dilTolution of metals ; vegetation, fermentation, and animalization. For more than 15 years coiuecaiive, Lavoifier purfued, with unlhaken condancy, the route he had marked out for himfelf, without m.aking a fingle falfe dep, or fuf- feiing his ardour to be daniped by the numerous and increafing obftacles which condaiitly befet him. Many LAW [ 329 ] LEA I.awunak. Lavolfier, Many were the fervices rendered bf Lavoifier, in a public and private capacity, to manufaflures, to the icicnces, and to artilb. He was treafurer to the Aca- demy alter BuiFon and Tiller, and introduced economy and order into the accounts. He was alfo a member of the Board of Confultaticn, and took an aiftive fliare in whatever was going forwards. When the new fy- ftem of mcafures was agitated, and it was propofed to determine a degree of the meridian, he made accurate experiments on the expanfion of metals, and conftruft- ed a metalline thermometer. By the National Conven- tion he was confulted on tlie means of improving the manufaiflure of allignut?, and of increafing the difficul- ties of forging them. Like a good ciliien, Lavoifier turned his thoughts to political economy. Between the years 1778 and I 785, he :»llotled 240 arpn-.h in the Vendomois to expe- rimental agriculture, and incrcafed the ufual produce by one-half. In 1791, he was invited by the Condituent Ailembly to digell a plan for Amplifying the colledion of the taxes. This gave occafion to an excellent re- port, afterwards printed with the title of Tirrilorial Riches of France. At this time, alfo, he was appointed commiliJoner of the national treafury, in which he ef- fefled fome beneficial reforms. During the horrors of the Robefpierrean diflator- (hip, Lavoilicr told La Lande that he forefaw he Ihould be llrippid of his property, but that he would work for his biead. Tlie prolellion of apothecary would have fuited him the belK But his doom was already fixed. On the 8th of May 1794, confounded with 28 farmers-general, he fuffered on the fcafFold, merely be- caufe lie was rich ! Lavoifier was tall, and of a graceful, fprightly appear- ance. He was mild, fociable, obliging, and extremely aftivc; and in his manners he was unaffe(fledly plain and limple. Many young men, not blcfled with the gifts ot fortune, but incited by their genius to woo the fciences, have confeifcd their obligations to him for pe- cuniary aid ; many, alfo, were the unfortunate whom he relieved in fdence, and without the oftentation of virtue. In the communes of the depaitment of the Loir and Char, where he pofrelfed confiderable cftates, ho would frequently vilit the cottages of indigence and dillrefs; and long will his memoiy be cherifhed there. But his reputation, influence, virtues, and wealth, gave him a great preponderance, which unfortunately provo- ked the jealoufy of a crew ot homicides, who made a fport oi laorificing the lives of the bed of men to a fan- guinary idol. This great and good man married, in 1771, Marie- Anni-Pierette Paul/.e, daugliter of a farmer-general ; a woman whofe wit and accomplilhments conllituted the charm of his life ; wiio alTifted him in his labours, and even engraved the fi;;ures of his lall work. LAWRENCE, I'ort, is a little above the crolling pl.ice of Tufcarawas, a branch of Mulkingum river. — Mone. Lawrence-Town, a thinly fettled agricultural townlhip, a few miles to the eaflward of Halifax in Nova- Scotia — ib. LAWUN.VK.HANNOCK, a M.^ravian fcttlement neaily oppofite Golhgofhink, on Alleghany river, and 20 miles northeaft of Foit Franklin. — ib. SuppL. Vol. II. Lead. LEACOCK, a townfliip in Lancallercouniy, Pir.n- Lcacock, fylvania. — ib. LEAD. See that articl« (EncycL), and Chemi- , STRY-/fi/ex in this Supplement. It is well known, that lead generally contains a portion of filver, and fome- times of gold ; and that there are occafions, f-articulas- ly in alfaying, when it is of importance to have it freed from thefe metals. For accomplifhing thefe purpofcs different procelTes have been propofed ; but the follow- ing by Pet. Jac. Hjjlm, as it is the leall cxpenfive, pro- miles to be the rrioll; ul'eful : Litharge (fee Encycl.) was the fuijftaics on which this chcmill made his experiment", and his principal i-b- jedl was to free it from all mixture cf filver. This was accornpliihed in the following manner: He placed a crucible, in which half a pound of litharge lourd good room, and whieh was fitted with a cloie covtr, in a wind-furnace tilled with dead Cdals. He the;) put in- to the crucible a mixtuie of four ounces of pntufh and the fame quantity of powder of flint. When the whole was well melted by ftreiigthening the draught, .md ma- king the coals glow, he took off the cover, and laid hold of the crucible with a pair of tongs, in order to take it out, and to fufler this very fulible glafs to cover the infide of the crucible, to fccure it from the glafs of the lead which he meant to melt in it. The fup;rflu- ous glafs was poured out ; the crucible again placed on its foot, and hall' a pound of litharge thrown into it with a Ihovel. The cover was placed upon it while the litharge was melting ; and when it was thoroughly glowing and Huid, charcoal dull was fifted into the un- covered crucible through a fieve, fo that the lurface of the litharge was completely covered with it. This im- mediately produced an efFervcfcence, and the rifmg of bubbles, by means of the feparation of the air occahon- ed by the redudfion of the lead. During this proccfs, the cover was put on, and a few coals thrown into tlie furnace : when thefe were burnt, every thing in the crucible was quiet, and the melted mafs was poured in- to a warm conical mould. The crucible was then a. ain filled with half a pound of the fame kind of litharge, and put into the furnace, and charco.^] dull was ftvcral times lilted over the melted furlace, till it was well co- vered before the m.ifs was thrown out, a fullicient fpace being every time left for the cffervel'cence. The firft mafs had, in the mean time, become cool, and, on exa- mination, contained four ounces of lead at the bottom, and litharge at the top. When this litliarge was re- duced wiih potafhcs and wine Hone, the lead thence ob- tained, which weighed 23 ounces, was found to contain lels than onehall grain of filver in the pound. In the fecond mafs there was frund lomewh.it more than fir ounces of lead, which contained all the filver that had been before mixed witli the litharge, becauf'e in the lead which had been reduced from the lithaige in the above manner, there w^:rc no perceptible traces ot lilver. This le.ad was then melted over a flow fire, and cal^ ir.io bar-, which were rolled fmoolh, and totmcd into m.ilfes c^f 3. known weight, to be uled tor alfiying gold aid fiUrr, and for other purpofes ot the finie kind. All ihel'e meltings were made in one crucible, \«hi>°h, according to cveiy appearance, remained uniiurt. I: th.c lame ex- periments were made with led lead, the like ref'ult would infallibly follow. T I Witk Lcafburgh, II I.cdyard. LED I 33 Wiih the'fiimc view of obtaining load fiee fioni fil- ver, li-j mi-lted, in tlie like roanner, half a pound of white lead, which prnlucsd half an ounce of lead. When the litharge llanJinn over it was revived, the lead obtained was liill found to contiijn too much lllver. He there- fire pieiipitated anolhtr half pound i.K white lead by cli.iicoal powder, after the lead tiiat fell from it iiad been ieparated ; and then it produced, by reviving, a ma.'s of le id without any mixture of filver. LEASBURGH, the chief io«n of Cafwcll county, N. Carolina, [t contains a court-houfc, gaol, and a few hou^e^ — Morse. LED.-\NON. a townOiip in York county, Diftna (if Mime, l'itua;ed on the call fiue of Salmon F./ll ri- ver, loo nvUs nor:h of Bofton It was incorporated in 1767, and contain'; 1275 inhabitants. A fpecits <if ftone ii found here which ) xlds copperai and fulphnr. — /■*. Leb/Inon, New, a pk-afant village in New- York Staff, b( rJerlnsj on Pittsfiuld, Maliachufetts, fituated p,ir:ly in a vale, and partly on the declivity cf hills. Thcmedxln.tl fprings here are next incelsori'y to thofe of S iratoga. The poel is fnuated on a conimxnJing eininence, overlo king the valley, and furrrundi.d with :i tew loules wliich afford tolerable accomn.oJations to invalids. — ib. IvtiiANON, a townllilp in Windham county, Crn- neiSticut, was. feitled in 1697. The foil is eo.utl to al- nioit any in the State, and the inhabitants are i;eneral- ]y farmers, many rf whom are wealtliy. Tiie thick I'ettled part of the town forms a very wide llreet, and the houfes are at cr^nfiderable di'ftancea from eich other. Academic education has been patronized in this jilace for above 80 year?, greally to the honour of tiie people. The river Shetucket is formed by the jiiniflion of WiUamaniic and Mount Hope rivers, which unite between this town and Windham. It lies 9 miles north of Norwich, and 30 foulh-eaft of Hart- ford. — ib. I.iB.'VNON, a townfhip in Gr.ifton county, New. Hanipfhire, fituated on Mufcomy river, and on ihe e;;ft fide of the Connecticut, 2 miles below Dartmouth College. It WIS incorporated in 1761. In 1775 '' contained 347 inhabitants, and in 1790 — ti8o. It is in contemplation to build a bridge on Conneclicut river at the middle bar of Agai's falls in this ti wn, vvheie the dilfance between the rocks is 1 10 feet. It is 35 miles above the bridge built by Col. Hale at Cel- lows's Falls at Walpole. — ib. LEBA>iON, a pofl-town of Pennfylvania, fituated on the liiuih lide of'Qu^itipahilla creek, in Dauphin county. About :i mile from the town is the Sulquehannah, and Schuylkill canal, which connects this cieek with the Tu.pehocken, a branch of the Schuylkill. Leba- non contains about 300 honfes, regularly built, many of which are of brick and (tone ; a German Lulh.eran and a Calvinifl church. It is zy miles E by N. of Hjrrifburg, 43 E. by S. of Carhlie, and 82 N. W. by W. of Piidadclphia.— ;^. LEDYARD ( ), the celebrated, though unfortunate, traveller, was a native of North America, but of what province we have not learned. We are equ '.Uy ignorant of the year of his birth, and the rank rf fiis parents; hut have no reafon to think that they were opulent. From his early youth lie difpl.iyed a ] LED llrong propenfity to vifit unknown and favage countries ; I-edyard. and to gratify that propenfity, he lived f)r feveral years ^•*'*^''^^^ with the American Indians, wholo manners and habits he feemed in tome degree to have acquired. After- wards he failed round the world with Captain Cook in the humble Itation of a corporal of marines ; and on his return, he determined to traverte the vafl continent of America, from ihe P.iciric to the Atlantic Ocean. This delign l)cing frutlrated by his not obtaining a paifage to Nooika Sound, he determined to travel over land to Kimfchatka. AVitb this view he went over to Offend, uiili only ten guineas in his pocket, and pro- ceeded by the way of Denmark and the S und to the capital of Sweden, and end.-avourcd to crofs the Gidi-h of Bothnia on Uie ice; but finding, when he came to the middle, that the water was not frozen, he walked rotind thegnlph to Petaifourgh Here lie found him- felf without llockings or I hoes ; but procured relief from the Ponuguefe anibalfidor, and obtained leave to proceed with a detachment of flores to Yakutz. He made this journey of fix thoufand miles, and there met Ml Biilengs, an Englifhnian, whom he had known on board Captain Couk's thip. From thence he went to Oczakow, on the coall: f ihe Kamfchaika Sea; but being too late to embatk that ye.!r, returned to Yakutz to winter. Here he was, on fome fufpicion, f'eized, conveyed on a fledge through Noiiliern Turtary, and left i>n the fr ntiers of the Polilh dominions. In the midfl of poverty, rags, and difeafe, he however reached Koningfbiiig, where he found fiiends that enabled him to reach England. On his arrival in London, he waited on Sir Jofeph Banks, on whofe credit he had, in his diftrefs, received at different limes 25 guineas. Sir Joieph communica- ted to him the views of the African Affociacii ri, and piiint»d cut the n ute in which they wifhed Africa to be explored. On his engaging at once in the en;er- prife, Sir Jofeph afked him when he would be able to let out. " 'I'c-murrow morning," replied Ledyard, without helitation. At this interview the preliJent cf the Royal Society declares, that he was ftruck witli the figure cf the man, the breadtli of his chefl, the open- nefs of his countenance, and the rolling of his eye. Though fcarcely exceeding the middle fiz;, his figure indicated great flrength and activity. Defpifing the accidental ditliniflions of fociety, he feemed to regard no man as his fuperior; but his manners, though coarfe, were not dil'agreeable. His uncultivated genius was original and compi ehenfive. From the native energy of his mil d, he was adventurous curious, and unappalkd by dangers ; while the fbength of his judgment united caution with energy. The track pointed out to him was from Cairo to Senaar, and thence well ward in the latitude and fuppofed direftion of the Niger. He was not ignorant, that the talk afligned him was arduous and big with danger; but inftead cf fhrinking from it, he faid, on tlie day of his departure, " I am accullom.d to hardlhips ; I have known both hunger and nakednefs to the utmoli extremity of human fuffer- ing ; I have known what it \<. to have food given me as charity to a madman ; and I hare at times been obliged to Ihelter myfelf under the mil'eries of that charaiter to avoid a heavier calamity. My dillrelTeshavebeen greater than I ever owned, or ever will own to any man. Such evils are terrible to bear, but they never yet had power to L IE D ' C 331 ] LEE l--!yar(t. to turn me from my purpofe. If I live, I will faithful- diious enterprifc in which he liad enga:;eif. The per- '^^"'■'''^^ ly perfoim, in its utmoll extent, my tngagement to the fon who, with fuch fcanty ("unJs, could penetrate ihe Society : and if I peridi in the attemj)!, my honour will frozen regions of Tanary, fiiblifl among ilieir cliurlilh be i.ife ; for death cancels all bonds." inhabit-mts, and ingratintc hin:felf with the ferocious Alter receiving his inllrucHons and letters of recom- Mjors of Egypt, could hardly have failed to obtain a niend^U(>n, this iiiirepid travellcrfailcd from London on kind leception fiom the gentl; and hcfpit^ible Negro, the 30th of June 1788; and in 36 days arrived at A- had r.o untoward circumllance intervened. At He- le.-candtia. Proceeding to Cairo, where he arrived Au- iraai, indeed, his lilk would have been great ; ai.d Mr gull the 17th, he vilited the llave marketb, and converf- Bruce was decid-.-dly of opinion, that a man fo po<'riy ed with the travelling merchar.ts of the caravans. Thefe attended as Mr LeJyard, could never hive made his fources of information, generally ncgleflcd by travel- lers, enabled him to obtain, at a \ery fmall expence, moie correft information concerning the Afiican na- tions and their trade, the poiuion ci places, the nature efcape from that treacherous and ferocious peojik-. The obfervatioi'.s ot this accurate obfciver on the fe- male char.iiler, though tliey have been repeatedly quot- ed in other works, arc well intitled to a plsce here ; ilaves eipofed to fale, who had been brought hom tlie interior p.irts of Africa; their ajipearance lavage, but not like i)rifoners of war; ihey had head ornaments, and iheii hair plaited in detached jiiaits oi great length. Another parcel, which had come tioni Daifoor, were m.ilUy women ; and the beads, and fame other 01 na. ments which they wore, were Venetian. They wcie and fond nf focitty ; mme liable, in general, to err than mail ; but in general alfo more virtuous, and perform- ing more good aftions than he. To a woman, wheiher civilized or favage, I never addrelied niylelf, in the lan- gii 'ge of decency and friendll.ip, without receiving a decent and friendly anfwer. With m.m it has otten been oiheiwife. In wandeiing over the b.iir.n plains I .ceds. oi the country, the manner ol travelling. Sic. than could and v/i:li them we lliall conclude this fkclch of his life ; have been eafily obtained by any othtr method. He '• I have always (fays he) remarked, that women in all thus le.irned, that the Arabs of the defert have an in- countries are civil and obliging, tender and humaiiC ; vincible attachment to liberty, though it is fmguiar that that they are ever iixlined to be gay and cheerful, ti- lliey have no v^oid to expreis liberty in their language, morous and modeft ; and that they do not heiitate, like The Mahomedans of Alrica are a trading, fupcrltitious, man, to perform a generous AiWun. Not haughty, not and warlike fet of vagabonds. He fav/ near :oo black arrogant, not fupercilious ; they are full tf courtcfy. well formed, quite black, had the true Guinea lace, and of inhofpitable Denmark, throiigli honeil Sweden, and culled hair. Mr Ledy.ird was informed, that tlie king frozen Lapland, ruile andchurlilh Finland, unpiinciplej of Senaar was a merchant, and concerned in the c»ra- Ruliia, and the wide f,'read regions of the wandering vans; that 20,000 negro (laves are imjjcrted into E- Tartar; if hungry, dry, cold, «et, or lick, the wo- gypt annually. Among fome Senaai ilaves, he faw men have ever been friendly to me, and uniformly fo. three uf a bright olive colour, but their heads iincoof- And to add to thij virtue (lb worthy the appellation of monly formed, the forehead the narroweft, longelt, and benevclence), thefe aftions have been pertormed in fu moll protuberant lie ever fav.'. free and kind a manner, that if I was dry, I drank The Senaar caravan is the mod rich ; that of Dar- the fweeteil draught ; and if hungry, I eat the coaritll foor is not equally fo, though it trades with almoft the morfel with a double reliih." For a fuller account of fame commodities. Belides Haves, thefe are gum, e!e- Ledyaril, ice The TrartJ'ncTions of the Afiiurn Affoci^tion, jihants teeth, camels, and ollrich-leathcrs ; lor which or A Fienu of the Late Dijcoveries in Africa. are received in exihange tiinkels, foap, antimony, red LEE, a i'mill town in Stratford county. New- linen, razors, fcilllirs, mirrors, and beads. Wangara, Hampihire, about 12 miles noith of Exeter. It was to wliicli the caravans alfo trade, was repiel'ented to Mr foimeily pait ot Dover and Durham, and was incor. Ijcdyard as a kingdom producing much gold ; but the potated in 1766. 101775 it contained 934 inh.ibil- kinc items to inteimtddle witli commerce as well as ants, in 1790 — 1029. — ib. the potentate of Senaar ; for in order to deceive llran- Li:e, Fort, was ere(51ed by ihe Americans during gets, and prevent them from guelling at ihe entent of the late war, on the well bank of Noith river, having his riches, he was reported to vary continually the gold the tra^l called the Engluli Neighbourhood on the ul(:d in barter, which it is his ])rovince to regulate, and north, and that called Hebuken en the Itu'.hward, in of which he iilues at one time a great quantity, and at N. lal. 40° 56', and about 9 miles above the town of ethers little or none. A caravan goes Ironi Cairo to Bergen. The Americ.ins had 2,00c men in gariifon Fezy.an, which they call a jjurney of til'ty days ; and as herein the late war, but evacuated it in November, the caravans travel about 20 milts a day, the diltancc 1776, with the lols of their artillery and l^ores. — u. mull be about loco miles; from Fezzan to Tombuc- Lee, a county of Virginia, lately taken trom liulf:!, too is 1800 miles; I'lom Cairo to Senaar about 6co in the S. W. coiner ot the State, bounded ibuth by the miles. State of N. Carohna, and well by Kentucky. — ifi. Such was the information which Mr Ledyard deriv- Lek, a towniliip in Beiklliirc lounij, M.iitachufetts, ed irom the merchants of the caravans in Egypt ; but 5 miles louthcrly of Lenoi, 4 call ot M< ckbtidge, and wlicn he was about to verily it by his own obleivations, 140 well of Bollon ; was iiicorpoiated in 1777, and End had announced to the A iFociation that iiis next dif- contains 1,170 inh ibit.iiits. Houlatonick iivcr runs patch would be dated I'rom Senaar, he was feizcd with foutherly thr.uigh this town — ib. a bilious complaint, which frultrated the Ikill of the moil LEEDS, a town in the eailein part of Glrucell^r eminentphyiicians,and put a period tohistiavelsand his county, New-Jerfey, 4 miles well ot the mouili of life at Cairo. It is nccdlefs to fay how much his death Mull cus liver, and 8 norlh-wclUrly of Biigantine In- was regretted, or how well he was qu ali tied for ihe ai- let. — ;'/'. T t : LiEDs L E I C 33^ ] L E M Leeds, a* village of Richmond county, Virginia, fituated on the north banic of Rappahannock river ; 14 miles E. by S. of Port Royal, 40 S. E. of Fredcrickf- burg, and 70 N. E. of Richmond. Near Leedllown is ,1 famous courl'e for horfe-racinjj. — ii. LEEFOOGA, one ot the Friendly illands, in the South Sea. It was vilited by Captain Cook in 1776, who coniiders it, in fome refpeifls, fupcrior to Ana- niooka. The illand is fmiated near Ilapaee, and is about 7 miles long and 3 broad. — ii. LEESCURGH, a poft-iown of Maryland, 25 miles from I'"red^rickllown. — ib. Lefsburg, a pod town of Virginia, and capital of Loudon county. It is fituated 6 miles S. W. of the P.itowmac, and 4 fouih of Goofe Crsek, a branch of that river on the great road leading from Philadelphia to the fouthward, and on the leading roid from Ale.x- andria to Eath. It contains abcut 60 houfes, a court- houfe, and gacl. It is 20 mdes from Salifbury, 32 from Shepherd down, 20 miles from Frederickftown in Maryland, 46 north- well of Alexandiia, and 64 E. S. E. of Wincheller. — ik Lehsburg, or Leejlown, a fettlement in Kenrncky, on the b.inks of Kentucky river, 20 miles from Lex- ington, and about 30 from the Upper Blue Lick. It was dellroyed by the Indians and abandoned. The country for many miles round is firll rate land. Great plenty of maible is found on the banks of Kentucky, particularly at this place. — ib. LEE'S ISLAND, in Patowmac river, in Fairfax county, Virginia, about 2 miles fouth-eallward of Thorp, which is on the north fide of Goofe Creek. — \b. LEEK, aimall ifland of Pennfylvania, in Delaware river. — ib. Hyperbolic LEGS, are tlie ends of a curve line that partakes of the nature of the hyperbola, or having afymptots. LEHIGH, or Leda, a river which rifes in North- ampton county, Pennlylvania, about 21 miles eaft of Wyoming Falls, in Sufquehannah river, and taking a circular courfe, paffing through the Blue Mountains, empties into Delaware river on tlie fouth iide of E.if- lon, 11 miles N. E. of Bethlehem. It runs about 75 mile', and is navigable 30 miles. — Morse. LE GRAND, a confider.ible river of the N. W. Territory, which rifes within a few miles of the weft extremity of Lake Erie, and purfuing a N. N. W. courfe for nearly 100 miles, thence turning to the well, empties into Lake Michigan. It is about 250 yards wide at its confluence vvith the lake — \h. LEICESTER, a townihip in Addifon county, Ver- mont,, fituated on the eaft fide of Otter Creek, having 343 inhabitants. Great Trout Pond, or Lake, is p.irtly in this town, and partly in Salilhury, on the north. This town was granted Odl. 20, 1761. — ib. Leicester, called by die Indian natives Tov-jtaiJ, is a coniiderable town in Worccllcr county, Maifachufetts, containing 1076 inhabitants. It is fituated upon the pod-road from Bcdon to Hartford, Nevv-York and Philadelphia, 6 miles wederly of Worceder, and 54 W. by S. of Bofton ; bounded N. by Paxton and S. by Oxford. It was fettled in 1713, and incorpcr.ited jn 1 720 or 1721. There are three meeting-houl'es here for Congregationalifts, Anabaptifts, aad Quakers ; who live in harmony together. The Lticzf.er Academy was incorporated in 1784, and is well endowed. Wool Leming- cards are manufaflured here to the annual amount of "'°' 15,000 pairs. — lb. , " LEMING TON Priors, is a village two miles eaft v^^v^v» of the town of Warwick, famous for its mineral waters. One fait fpring, which rifes near the church yard, has been long known, as well as another which rifes in the bed of the river j but the mod remarkable fpring was difcovered in the year 1790. The waters of both fprings have been analysed with great accuracy by William Lambe, M. A. late Fellow of St John's col- ledge, Cambridge, who has given us the following fy- noptical table of the fubftances contained in them : Gafeous Fluids contained in a Wine-gallon in Cubic Inchet. WATIR OF THE WATER OF THE NEW SPRING. OLD SPRING. Hepatic gut Too fmall to be Too fmall to be meafured. meafured. yliolic gas i-S 3 Carbonic acid gas •5 Solid contents of a Wine-gallon in Grains. WATER OF THE WATER OF THE NEW SPRING. OLD SPRING. Carbonat of iron •75 Oxyds of iron and Tci fmaU to he manganefe iVi ighed. Oxygenated muriat Unlnoivn, but very Unknown, but very of iron and man- fmall. fmall. ganefe - - Sulphur - - - Unknown, but very fmall. Muriat of magnefia 11.5 58 Muriat of fuda 430 330 Sulj hat of Joda 152 62 Sulphat of lime 112 146 In the courfe of his experiments, for which we mud refer to the original mamoir, in Tranfaflions of the Mancheder Society, Mr Lambe thinks he dif- covered the origin ot the muriatic acid. He found a coincidence, veiy unexpected, between the hepatifed folution ot iron and the oxygenated muriat of iron. " I had alrnod concluded (lays he), from the refem- blance between the properties of this fait and the phe- nomena of the water, that the water contains this very fait. Now, I conclude, that they contain a matter, be it what it may, prc>duced by the a(5lion of hepatic gas on iron. But tiiey are the very fame tafls whicli toim the bafis, upon which each feparate inference is built. Does it not follow, then, as a neceifary confeqnence, that the hepatiled folution itfelf contains a muriat of iron highly oxygenated, and that therefore in this pro- cefs muriatic acid is generated? This conclufion feenied autiioi ifed by reafcn, and experiment has confirmed it." Lemington, a townihip in ElTex county, Ver- mont, on the wed bank ot Conneclicut river, and near the N. E. corner of the State. The Great Monad- nock mountain is in this town. It contains 31 inhabi- tants. — ib. LEMNISCATE, the name of a curve in the form of the figure of 8. LEMON-JUICE, is an article of fiich liarmlefs lux- ury, and in fome cafes of fuch real utility, that many cf L E N C 333 ] LEO Lenfcs. Lemon, of our readers will be pleafed to know a funple method i)y which they may obtain it in great piiriiy. In the article Chemistry {Suppl.), n" 476, we have fhewn J'rom Scheele and Dizc, how to obtain the citric acid perfectly pure, and in the (orm of cryftaU; but here we mean nothing more than to Ihew how it may be completely feparated from that (limy fubftance with which it is always mixed in the lemon, without allow- ing it time to fpoil or to acquire any difagrecable tafte during the fep.iration. This we are enabled to do by M. Brugnatelli, who, in the 2d volume of the Annali Ji Chimta, informs us, that he exprelled in the common manner the juice of perfeilly ripe lemons, and drained it through a piece of linen. In half an hour he drain- ed it again, to free it from a little flimy matter which had fettled at the bottom of the veffel. He then add- ed to the juice a certain quantity of the ftrongeft fpirit of wine, and preftrvcd the mixture for fome days in a well-corked bottle. During that time there was a con- fiderable depofit, which to all appearance was of a llimy nature, and which he feparated by filtering paper. If the fluid was too thick to pafs through the filter, he diluted it again with fpirit ol wine. After this opera- tion, the depofit remained on the paper, which was en- tirely covered with it ; and he obtained, in the veflel placed below, the purcfl acid ot lemons combined with ipirit of v.ine. If it be required to obtain the acid perfcdly pure, nothing is necelfary but to feparate from it the fpirit ot ■wine, which can be bell eft"e(Sed by evaporation. The acid of tlie lemons alFumes, after it has been freed from the fpirit of wine and the moillure combined with it, a yellowifh colour, and becomes fb flrong, that by its tafte it might be confidered as a mineral acid. It is not necctfary to evaporate the fpirit of wine in a clofe vefTcl, if the experiment is made only on a fmall fcale ; nor is there any danger that in open veffels any of the acid will be loll, as it is too fixed to be volatill- fed l>y the fame degree of heat at which fpint ot wine evaporates. This acid has peculiar propertie , which defer ve farther examination. LEMPSl'ER, an iuconlideiable townfhip in Che- ftiire county, New-Hampfliire. It wa^ incorporated in 1761. In 1775 it contained 128 and in 1790 — 414 inhabitants. — Morse. LENOIR, a county of Newbern dillrift, N. Caro- lina, furrounded by Glafgow, Craven, Jines, and Dauphin. It contains 2,484 tree inhabitants, and 957 llaves. Chief town, Kingtlon. — ib. LENOX, the (hire town ot Berkfhire county, Ma(- fachufctts. It is a plealant and thriving town, and has a coun-houfe and gaol. Houfatonick river palfes through the town. It lies call of Walhington, fouth of Pittsfield, 17 miles fouth-wellerly of Cheller, and 145 miles north of Bolton. — ib LENSES (fee Lens and Dioptrics, EncycL), are either blown or ground. Bloiun Lesh-s are ufed only in the fingle microfcope ; and the ufual method of making them has been to ^iraw out a tine thread of the foft white gl.ifs called civflal, and to convert the extremity of this into a f'pheriile oy melting it at the flame of a candie. But this gl'<l"s con- tains lead, which is difpofed to become upake by par- tial reduction, unlefs the management be very carefully attended to. We arc inibimcd, however, by Mr Ni- Leo. cholfon, that the hard glafs ufed for windows feldom Lenfcs, fails to afford excellent fpherules. This glafs is of a _ U clear bright green colour when feen edgcwit'e. A thin , piece was cut i'rom the edge of a pane of glafs Icfi than one-tenth of an inch broad. This was held perpendi- cularly by the upper end, and the flame of a candle was direifled upon it by the blow-pipc at the diitance of about an inch from the lower end. The glafs became foft, and the lower piece defcended by its own weight to the ditlince of about two feet, where it remained fuf- pended by a thin thread of glafs about one five-hun- dredth of an inch in diameter. A part of this thread was applied endwife to the lower blue part of the flame of the candle without the ufe ot the blow-pipe. The ex- tremity immediately became white-hot, and ffirnicd a globule. The glafs was then gradually and regularly thruil towards the flame, but never into it, until the globule was fufficiently large. A number of thefe were made ; and being afterwards examined, by viewing their focal images with a deep magnifier, proved very bright, perfeil, and round. Tiiis, as the ingenious author ob- tervcs, may prove an acceptable piece of inform.ition to thofe emiaent men (and there are many fuch), whofe narrow circumtlances, or remote fituation<, are obliged to have recourfe to their own fkill and ingenuity for experimental implements. Ground I.R.vsFi, are fuch as are ground or rubbed in- to the defircd Ihape, and then poliliied. DifTerent fhapes have been propofed forlenfes; but in the article Optics, n" 251 [EmycL), it has been fhewn that, after all, the Iphtrical is the moll pracflically ufeful. By many of the methods of grinding, however, the artifi- cer, with his utmofl care, can only produce an approxi- mation to a truly fpherical figure ; and, indeed, gentle- men have, for the moti part, nothing to depend on tor the fphericity of the lenfes of their telefcnpes, but the care and integrity of the workmen. In the 4 ill vo- lume of the Tranfac'tions of the R"yal Society cf Lon- don, a machine is dcfcribed by Mr S imuel Jenklnr, which, as it is contrived to turn a fphcre at one and the fame time on two axes, cutting each other at right anglef, will produce the fegment of a true fphere mere- ly by turning round the wheels, and that without any care or fkill in the workmen. Tiie following defcrip- tioii of this machine will aiable our readers fully to comprehend its conltruflion, and the mode of uling it : A is a globe covered with cement, in which are fixed the pieces of glafs to be grourd. This globe is faflened to the axis, and turns with the wheel B. C is the brafs cup which polillies the glafs : this is fallen- ed to the axis, and turns with the wheel I). The mo- tion of the cup C, therefore, is at right angles with the motion of the globe A ; whence it follows demonllra- bly, tiiat the pieces of glafs ground by this double mo- tion mull bo formed into the legments of fphercs. LEO X. is a pontiff to whom learning, and art, and fciencc, are fo deeply indebted, that net to give a fketch of his life and char.aclcr, in a Work of this kind, would be an unpardonable omilTion. A charaifler of him is in- deed given in the Knryclup,rJi.i ; but it is fo far from the truth, th.it it is dilhoult to conceive the prejudices under which the writer mull have laboured by whom it was drawn up. Leo, whofe name, before his elevation to the pontifi- cate, was Giovanni Jc Alcdia, was the fecond fon c f Lo- icn20 Phte XXXll. LEO [ 334 ] LEO 1 CO. rtnzo dc MeJici, jnflly ftyled the Magnificent. In the clave, when fitted up fcr an eleiaion, is fo large a place, :e of that great man publilhed in this Su/f/im.-iit, the that we may lately affirm, that had the cardinal's ulcer adcr willfce by what means, and for what purpafc, he difcharged matter lb let id m \a ^'AJjn all ihe cells, the I.fO. lii rca got Giovanni railed to the dignity of cardinal at lb early a period of life ; and in the ckg.inl work of R.0I- cof, to which we there refer, he will lind I'uch inftruc- tinns of Lorenzo to the cardinal as inuH have made a deep iinprelHon on his youlhiul mind. S;^eaking cf hii piomotion, Lorenzo fays, " The In ft thing thatl would fucgcll to you, is, tliat you ought to be grateful to God, and continually to recoiled that it is nut through your nicTus, your prudence, or your folicitude, that this event has taken place, but through his favour, which you can repay only by z pious, chajlc, and exemplary life ; and that your obligations to the performance ot ihefe duties are lb much the greater, as in your early years you have given fume reafonable ex- aiferiion cf the phyhciar.s would hive been verified, and that in the then ll.ireof the healing art, the new pope couid not have lurvived a month. Let it be remem- bered, too, that l^to, at his accclllon, wjs not 30, but 37 years of age, and that he liad long ruled in Florence witii foveieign iway by the fame means which had up- held the authority of his father. The follies of youth, therefore, h.idhc ever been remarkable fcr fuch follies, nuill have been over with him ; and in Aich a ftate as Florence he could not liave maintained the authority of Lorenzo, without e.'ihiljiling not only Loienzo's libe- rdlity, but likeuif: his decency of manners. The next ihirge brought againll Leo in the Enry- chpttdia is, that he publilhed gefieral indulgences pc/Ialicri that your riper age may produce luch fruits, throughout Europe ; and this is lb exprsfled as tole^d It would indeed be highly difgraceful, and as contrary the ill-informed reader to fuppole, either that no fuch to your duty as to my /jupus, if at a time when others indulgences had ever been publilhed by any cf his pre- difplay a greater Ihare of reafon, and adopt a better deceflbrs, or that there was Ibmelhing peculiarly fcan- modc of li:e, you lliould forget the precepts of your dalous in Leo's mode of publilhing iheni. Both fup- yjuth, and foriake the path in which you have hhkerlo piifuionj, however, are erroneous. The hiftorian of the trotljen." " I well know (continues Ljren/.o), that as council of Trent, who ceitainly was not partial to the you are now to rilide at Rjme, that link of all iniquity, court of Rome, or to the dii'pennng power of the pope, the dilViculty of condu(5tingyourfeU by thefe admonitions has Ihewn, that the pra6ice of railing money by the will be incrcafed. The inHuenee of example is iti'ell publio.i'ion of iiidnlgences, had prevailed ever lince the prevalent ; but you will probably meet with ihofe, who year iico ; that many former popes had raifed money will pat ticularly endeavour to coil upt and incite you to in tliis manner lor purptles much lefs laudable than vice ; becaufe, as you yourfelf may perceive, your early attainment of fo great a dignity is not oblerved without envy, and thofe who could not prevent ycur receiving that honour, will fecretly endeavour to diminiih it, by inducing you to forfeit the good eftimation of the public." — " You are not unacquainted with the great importance of the charadcr which you have to fultain ; for you well know, that all the Chriltian world would profper if the c.irdinals v\^ere what they ought to be ; becaufe in fuch a cafe there would always be a good pope, upon which the tranquillity of ChrilkndLm fo materially depends." As this was a confidential letter from Lorenzo to his fon, the fiilt oi thefe extra(fts furnilhes very fiifiicient evidence, that Giovanni had been at lead a well behaved boy, diligent in Iiib lludies, and regular in his conda(!t ; lue and without fuppoling him remaikably religious, the admonitions of fuch a father, aided by his own ambi- tion and love of letters, would furely guard him againll fuch grofs liceniioulhcls as that of which he is accufed in the Encyclopirclia. How much he revered his father. thofc wliich Leo had in his eye ; and that the real caufe of Luther's attack upon Leo's iniiilgences was, that they were preached through Si.\ony by the Dominican friars; whereas the preaching of former indulgences had been committed to the hermits cf St Augulline, the order to which Luther himfelf belonged ! Leo is likewife accufed in the Encyclopedia of being a piofelFcd infidel, and cf having called Chriftianity " a fable very profitable for him and his predecclfors." but of tlie truth of this accufation there feems not to be the fhadow of evidence. Leo had too much fenfe to utter expreflioiis of this kind, even had he been an unbeliever in his heart ; for he could not podlbly expecft that his induleenccs and pardons would be purchafed, had he declared in Inch llrong terms that they were of no va- Father Paul indeed fay.s that he was not a deep divine, or lb pious as Ibme of his predecelfors ; but he afiirms, that he adorned the papacy wiih many admirable qualities ; th.it he was learned, affable, liberal, good ; that he delighted in healing differences, and that his equal had not, for many years, filled tlie chair of St is apparent from the letter which he wrote to his brother Peter. Surely this is not the cbarafter of a profane immeiiiately after Lorenzo's death. " What a father infidel ! (fays he) have we loll I How indulgent to his children ! Wonder not, then, tijat 1 grieve, that I lament, that I find no rell. Yet, my brother, I have fome confolatiou in refle<5ling that I have thee, whom I fliall always re- gard in the place cf a father." Surely this is not the language of a grofs fenfualilt, or of one who could loon forget the falutary admonitions of luch a parent as Lo- renzo de Medici. But it is needlefs to infer the de- cency of hi» charafler by fuch reafonings as thefe. Leo has been charged with raifing his own family to grandeur at the e.xpence of juflice ; and of dealing treacheroufly in order to effed (his purpofe, both with the emperor and with the French king. But the charge is either fall'e or greatly exaggerated. He loft no op- portunity indeed of aggrandizing his relations, vi-ell knowing, that in order to fecure to them anv lading be- nefit, it was nece/Tary that they fhould be powerful enough to defend jhemfelves, after his death, from the The (lory publilhed in the Encyclopedia, of tiie manner rapacious aims of fucceeding pontiffs ; bur, in profecut- in which the Caidinal de Medici obtained the tiara, can- ing this plan, he was fo far from acting tyrannically or not polTibly be true. The reader, who fhall turn to injurioufly to othcrs,that during his ponlincate,the papal the article Pope in that Work, will find tliat the con- dominions enjoyed a degree of tranquillity fuperior to any LEO [ Lcogane, anf otlier It^liiiii ftate. During the coiUefts that took place between the emperor and the French king, Co fir from a>fting treachernufly, he diltinguillied himfelf hy his inoderation, his vigilance, niid bis political addrefi ; on which account he is juftly celebrated by an eminent • Dr R,. hiftorian of our own,* as " the only prince of the age leri/wi. who obferved the motions of tlie two contending mo- n.irchs with a prudent attention, or who difcoverc;d a proper lbhciti\de for the public farecy." We trull that no zealous Protetlant will think we have employed our time ill, in vindicating the charafter of this Iplendid pontiff; for good learning, and, of courfe, true relijiii'n, are more indebted to Leo X. tiian to any other individual of the age in which he lived. Lis fat)ier Lorenzo al Te fxcepted. Lno Minor, the Litl/c Lion, a conftellition of the noitiiern hemifphcre, and one ot the new ones that were formed out of wlut were lelt by the ancients, under the nam-" of SieUa: Infoimes, or unformed liars. See As- tronomy, 11° 406, Encycl. LEOGANE, Buy of, called alfo B'lght or Bite of Leiigaiie, alio Cnl ue Sac of Leogane, at the welt end of the illand of St Domingo, is formed by iwm penui- fulas. Ic opens between Cape Si Nichi-l.is at ;lie well end of the noith jieninfula, and Cape Dame Marie, the N. VV. point of the fouth psninfula, 45 leagues apart. At (he bottom of the bay are the illands Gonave, and on the north tide of the fouth peninfula the illes Relllf and Caymite. It embofoms a v.ill number ol line bays. The chief bays, towns and ports from Cape St Nicholas round to Cape Dime ^lalie aie La Plate Forme, or the Platfoi in, Ginaives, St Marc, Mon- trouis, Archahaye, Port au Prince, Leogane, Goavc, Mitagoare, Petit Trou, B ly of BaraJairts, Bay of Durot, Jercmie, Cape Dame Mine, &c. Trou lior- dct, ut the head of which is P.irt au Prince, is at the extremity of the B<y of Leogane eallward, 6d leagues E. oi Cape Dame Mane, and 5 i S. E. of Cape ot Nicholas. — Alone. Leogane, a fea pnrt town in the French part of the idand tf St Domingo, iituated on the N. fide of the neck rt the louth peninfula in the bay or bite of Leogane, at the head of a imall I)ay which fets up E. fiom the bay rif Grand Goave, 4 league-; N. E. xf the town of that n im«, 61 N. ot J ,cmel, 8 N. W. of C-.yes de Jacnicl, 9 W. by S. of Port au Pririce, and 6^ leagues S. E. of Petite Gonave ifland. N. lat. 18" 30', W. I'-ng. from Pans 75" 2'. It is an agreeable, pleafant, and commercial place. The exports iiom Jan. I, 1789 to Dec. 31, of the f.imc year, were 95,87 libs, white fupar — 7,079,20jlbs. brown lu- gar — i,932,952lbs. coffee — I39,887lhs. cotton — and 4,96olbs indigo. Tic duties on ihe exportation of the abovf, 16,103 dollars 70 cents. — \b. LEOMINSTER, a poll-tnwn in Wurcefter county, MafTachiifetts, 7 mile, N. by W. of Lancaller, 20 S. E. "f Winchendnn, 46 weftwaid of BoUon, 19 N. of Worcerter, and 20 S. of Marlbomugh, in New-Hamp- ftiire, has a printiiig-ollice and feveral neat buildings. This town(hip w.is lakeii from Lanciftcr, incorporated in 1:40, and C'-ntains 1 1.S9 inhabitants. On the differ- ent itrc.ims wh ch pafs thioirjh the tO'.*n .ire 2 grill- mills, 5 fa w-n)ili>, an oil mill, i,nd clotliiers work>, veiy excellent. About 20O,coo bricks are annually ii.ade here. The munul'adure of combs is .tlfo carried 00 10 335 ] L E S great perfcaion and profit. Leommjlcr Gore, adjoining, L-on, contains 27 inhabitants ih. II LEON, a river which falls into the Gulf cf Mexico ^;^i^^^ from the N. W. at the bay of St Bernard. — ih. LtCN, M-Tu, a populous kingdom of New-Spair, in N. America, in whicli are feveral filver mines. — ib. LnoN, a town of the province of Panuco, in Mexi- cn. It has rich mines, and lies 30 leagues r.orth of Mechoacan, and 55 N. W. of the city cf Mexico ib. Leon de Caracas, St, a city, the capital of the province of the Caracas, fituated on a river, about 6 leagues fouth from the coaff, endofed by moun- tains. The valley in which ic (lands is a f.ivannah, well watered and very healthy, about 3 leagues Ion" and I broad in tl)« middle, the only entrance into which is through a crooked and deep roaJ. The city is i^.ear a mile long ; the houfes handfome and well lurnilbed; the llrcets regular, ilraight and broad, cutting each other at right angles, and terminating in a magnificent fquare in the centre. It contains about 4. or 5,000 inhabitants ; moft of whom are owners of cocoa pia:itati(>ni, which 12 or 13,000 negroes culti- vate in tlie rich vallies, which is aimofl the only culti- vation they have. — ib. Leon de Nicaragua, a town r^f N. America in New-Spain, and in the province of Nicaragua; the re- fidence of a governor, and a bilhop's fee. It was ta- ken by the buccaneers in 1685, in fight of a Spaniflj army who were 6 to i ; is feated .-.t the foot of a moun- tain whicii is a volcano, and occalions earthquakes. It conlills of about icoo houfes, and has fl-veral monalleries and luinneries belonging to it. At one end cf the town is a lake which ebbs and flows like the iea. It is 30 miles from the South Sea. N. lat. 12° 2j', W. long. 88° ic'.—ii. LE()NARDSTO\ViJ, a poft town of Maryland, and the capital oi St Mary's county, is fituated on the call fide i.f Britton's brook, juft where it falls into Britton's bay, 5 miles from its mouth in the Patowmac, and contains about 50 homes, a courl-houfc, nnd caol. It is 1 13 miles fouth of Baltimore, 62 S. by E. of Up- per Mailborough, 30 foutii-eall of Port T< bicco, ar.J 217 f uth-w.il of Philadelphia. N. lat. 38® 18'. — i!>. LEPERS' JJlj/iJ, one of the Nc-ju /MriJet. The inhabitants of ihi> ifland, accoiding to Bougainville's account of them, " aie of two colours, black and mulatto. Their lips are thick, the:r hair frizzled, and lomehavea kind of yellow wocl ; they are fmall, ugly, ill-made, and in general devoured by the /f/ri,J/, which occjfioned the difc<Jverer Bougainville to call it the I/Ji of Leptrs : few women were fecn, but they "tic altogether as difguHing as the mtn. They go naked, hardly covering their waifts wilh a mat." They carry their children on their backs in a kind of fcaif. They wear ornaments in their noflrils ; and have no brards. — /'/'. LE ROACH /JlaaJ, is near Fauikland'i Illands ; difciivered in 1657. — ib. LES CAYES, a jurifdiilli n on the S. fide of the French part of the illand . f St Domingo, c. nt.ilns 4 parilhcs and yields ahund.ince of fug.ir, cotton, and coffee. Ii5 exports from the town Lcs Caycs fnnj J.inuary i, 1789, to Dec. 31, of the lame year, were 2,597,6661bs. white fugar ; 24,526,t jclbs. br-wn fugar ; .<.02 J.6c4lbs. ccffec j 855,447 cotton ; 1 69, jojlbj. L E S [ 336 ] L E S l.-nie. ^^ojlbs. indigo ; and fmall articles to th; value cf 8,256 ^'''^^'^^ iivies. The value of duties paid on the above on ex- portatinn 101,528 dollars, 85 cents. The town Les Caycs lies between t!ie villages Torbeck and Cavaillon, on the large bay which lets up to th; illand Avache; from whicli it is about 3 leagu-.-s dillant, and 5 leagues northerly of Point Abacon. N. lat. 18" 12', W. long. frc/m Paris 76'' 8' \b. LESLIE (Charles), was a man fo eminent for his learning, his talents, and his piety, that a fuller account of liim than that which is given in the Encydoficdia mull be acceptable to our Chriflian readers. He was the fecond fon cf Dr John Lellie bilhop of Clogher in Ireland, who was defccnded from an ancient family in the north ot Scotland, and being an admirable fcholar, rofe to the dignity of billiop of Orkney in his own country, whence he was tran(lated, in 1633, td Raphoe in Ireland, and afterwards, in 1661, to the fee ot Clogher. Our author was born in Ireland, but in what year we have not learned. A ludicrous llory goes indeed of his having been begotten in priliin, and of his tather having faid that hehoped he would in confequence be- come the greatell fcourge of the covenanters that Great Britain or Ireland had ever feen. Thi» ftory, with all its circumftances as told to us, can hardly be true ; but we think it could not have been fabricated, had not Charles Leflie been born within a year of Cromwell's con quell of Ireland, when the good billiop, having fuf- tained a fiege in his caftle of Raphoe againft that arch rebel, was lome time kept in clofe continement. We are equally ignorant of tiie fchool where he was educated as of the year of his biitli ; but we know that he had his academical education in Trinity College, Dublin, where he took the degree of mafter of arts. In the year 1671, he loll his father, when he came over to England, and, entering himfclf inthe temple, (ludied law for feme years, but afterwards relinquillied it for the ftudy of divinity. In 1680, he was adniitted into holy orders; and, in 1687, was made chancellor of Connor. About this period he rendered himfelf particulirly JJiofrj/i/ffl/ obnoxious to the Popilh party in Ireland, by his zealous Diilhnjry. oppoHjion to them, which was thus called forth. Roger Boyle, bilhop of Clogher, dying in 1687, Patiick Tyrrel was made titular Popilh bilhop, and had the re- venues of the fee affigned him by king James. He fet up a convent of friars in Mon.ighan : and, fixing his ha- bitation there, held a public vilitation of his clergy with great folemnity ; when, fome fubtle logicians attending him, he was lo infolent as to challenge the Proteftant cleigy to a public difputation. Lellie undertook the ta(k, and performed it to the nuisfaaion of the Pro- tellants; iliough it happened, as it generally does at fuch Cornells, "that both fides claimed the viSory. He afterwards held another public difputation with two ce- lebrated Popilh divines, in the church of Tynan, inthe diocefe of Armagh, before a very numerous aifembly of perfons of both religions ; the ilfue of which was, that Mr John Stewart, a Popiili gentleman, folemnly renoun- ced the errors of the church of Rome. As the Papills had got polTeirion of an Epifcopal fee, they ciigroHeJ other otKces too ; and a Popidi high- (herifF was appointed for the county of Monaghan. This proceeding alarmed the gentlemen in that county ; who, depending much on Leflie's knowledge as a juftice of peace, repaired to hira, then confined, by the gout, Lfdic to his houfe. He told them, that it would be as illegal ^-^"""^ in them to permit the ifierilT to ad as it would be in him to attempt it. But they infilling that he (hnuld appear hiiiiiclf on the bench at the nest quaiter-feliions, and all proinifmg to lland by him, he was carried thither with much dilliculty and in great piin. When the iheriiT appeared, and was taking his place, he was aiked whether he was legally qualified ; to which he anlwered pertly, " That he was of the king's own religion, and it was his majefty's will that he lliould be iherilT." L:flie replied, " That they were not inquiiing into his majelly's religion, but whether he (the pretended IheiifF) had qualified himfelf according to law, tor afting as a proper officer ; that the law was the king's will, and no- thing elle to be deemed fuch ; that his lubjeifts had no other way of knowing his will, but as it is rerealed to them in his laws : and it mull always be thought to continue fi, till the contrary is notified to them in the fame authentic manner." Upon this, the bench una- nimoully agreed to commit the pretended (herifT, for his intrufion and arrogant contempt of the court. Lef- lie alio committed fome oilicers ot that tumultuous army which the Lord Tyrconnel raifed for robbing the country. In this fpirited conduft I-eflie afled like a found di- vine and an upright magiltrate ; but though he thought himfelf authorifed to refill the illegal mandates of his fuvereign, like many other great and good men, he di- flinguiihed between active and paflive obedience, and felt not himfelf at liberty to transfer his allegiance from that Ibvereign to another. Retufing theretbre to take the oaths to kmg William and queen Mary, he was de- prived ot all his preferments ; and in 1689 he removed with his family to England, where he publilhed the fol- lowing works, belides thofe already noticed in the En- cyclopddia : i . Anl'wer to Archbithop King's State of the Protedants in Ireland. 2. Calfandra, concerning the new Alfuciations, &c. 1703, 410. 3. Rehearfals ; at firft a weekly paper, publilhed afterwards twice a- v.'eek in a halt-lheet, by way of dialogue on the affairs of the times ; begun in i 704, and continued for iix or feven years. 4. The Wolf Itripped of his Shepherd's Clothing, in Anfwer to Moderation a Virtue, 1 704, 4to. The pamphlet it anfwers was written by James Owen. 5. The Bilhop of Sarum's [Burnet's] proper Defence, from a Speech laid to be fpoken by him againft occafional conformity, 1704,. 410. 6. The new AlFocialion of thofe called Moderate Churchmen, &c. occafioned by a pamphlet, intitled, the Danger of Priellcratt, 1705, 4to. 7. The new Aflbciation, part 2d, 1705, 4to. 8. The Principles of Diffenters con- cerning Toleration and occafional Conformity, 1705, 4to. 9. A Warning for the Church of England, 1706, 410. Some have doubted whether thefe two pieces were his. 10. The good old Caufe, or Lying in Truth ; being the fecond Defence of tl:e Bilhop of Sarum from a fecond Speech, &c. 1710. For this a warrant was ilTued out againft Leflie. 11. A Letter to the Bilhop of Sarum, in Anfwer to his Sermon after the Queen's Death, in Defence of the Revolution, 17 15. 12. Salt for the Leech. 13. The Anatomy of a Ja- cobite. 14. Gallienus redivivus. 15. Delenda Car- thago. 16. A Letter to Mr William Molyneu.T, on his Cafe of Ireland's being bound by the Englifti Afts of Parhament. 17. A Letter to Julian Johnfon. 18. Several T. E S C 2.37 I.eflie. Several Trafts againft Dr Higden and Mr Hoadly. •^^'■'^'^^ 19. A Difcouife, fliewing who they are that are now qualified to adminifler Baptifm. 20. The Hillory of Sin and Herefy, &c. 1698, 8vo. 21. The Truth of Chriftianity demonftrated, in a Dialogue between a Chrillian and a Deill, 171 1, 8vo. — Agauift the Papills ] L E S own country. Some of his friends acquiinting lord Sunderland with his purpofes, implored his proteiflion for the good old man, which his lordfliip r:adily and generoully promil'ed. Mr Leflie had no foontr arrived in London, than a member of the houfc of comnioni officioufly waited on lord Sunderland wiih the news, but 22. Of private Judgment and Authority in Matters of met with fuch a reception from liis lordlhip as the ma- r-cflie. Faith. 23. The Cafe ftated between the Church of Rome and the Church of England, &c. 1713. 24. The true notion of the Catholic Church, in Anfwer to the BKhop of Meaui's Letter to Mr Nelfon, &c. Befides thefe, he publillied the four following trails : 25. A Sermon preached in CheRer, againft M^irriages in different Communions, 1702, 8vo. This fermon oc- cafioned Mr Dodvvell's difcourfe upon the fame fubjecft. 26. A Dlifertation concerning the Ufe and Authority of Ecckluirtical Hillory. 27. The Cafe of the Regal and the Pontificate. 28. A Supplement, in Anfwer to a Book, intitled. The regal Supremacy in Ecclefiafti- cal All.iirs ail'erted, &c. Thele two laft pieces were occafioned by the difpute about the rights of convoca- tion, between Wake, &c. on one fide, and Atterbury and his friends, among whom was Leilie, on the other. It is faid by the authois of the Biographical Dic- tionary, that, in confequencc of a publication of his, intitled, " The hereditary riglit of the crown of Eng- land alfcrted," he was under the neccffity of leaving lice of his errand deferved. Our author iben went over to Ireland, where he died April 13, 1722, at his own houfe at Gladough in the coimty of Monaghan. His charaflcr may be fummed up in a few words. Conlummaie learning, attended by thelowell humility, the ftriaeR piety without the leaft' tinflure of motole- nefs, a converfation to the Lift degree lively and fpiri:cd, yet to the lad degree iiuioccnt, made him the delight of mankind, and leaves what Dr Hickes fays of hint unqueltionablc, that he made more converts to a found faith and holy life than any other man of our times. A charge, however, has been lately brought againft him oi fuch a nature, a.s if well founded, muft detract not only from his literary fame, but alfo from his inte- grity. " The Ihort and eafy Method widi the Deifts" is unqueftionably his moft valuable, and apparently his moft original work ; yet this trad is publKhed in French among the works of the Abbe St Real, who died in 1692 ; and therefore it has been fiid, that unlefs it was publilhed in Englilh prior to that period, Charles Lefllc the kingdom ; and that he repaired to the Pretender at muft be conlidered as a (hamelels pl.ieiaty. T, I I ...1 1.- _ii 1 . en- • _ ^- Tu« Tr„„i:/i. 1 • , ° Bar le due, where he was allowed to officiate, in a pri- vate chapel, after the rites ot the church ot England ; and where he endeavoured, though in vain, to convert the Pretender to the Proteftant religion. That he repaired to Bar le due, and endeavoured to convert to the church of England him whom he confi- dered as the rightful fovereign of England, is indeed true; but we have reafon to believe that this was not in confequencc of his being obliged to leave the king- dom. There is, in the firlt place, fome grounds to be- lieve, that " The hereditary right of the crown of Eng- land aiferted" was not written by him ; and there is ftill in exiftence undoubted evidence, that, in confequencc of his great fame as a polemic, he was fent to Bar k due for the exprefs purpofe of endeavouring to convert the fon of James II. by fome gentlemen of fortune in England, who wilhed to fee that prince on the throne of his anceftors. The writer of this article had the ho- nour, 16 or 17 years ago, to be known to the grand- daughter of one of thofe gentlemen — a lady of the ftrifleft veracity ; and from her he received many anec- dotes of Leflie and his alfociates, which, as he did not then forefee that he ftiould have the prefent occafion for tliem, he has fuffered to flip from his memory. That lady is ftill alive, and we have reafon to believe is in polfeflion of many letters by Leflie, written in con- fidence to her grandfather, both from Bar le due and from St Germains ; and by the account which (he gave of thefe letters, Leflie appears to have confidercd his prince as a weak and incorrigible bigot, though, in every thing but religion, an amiable and accomplilhed man. This may have been his genuine charafler; for we all know that it was the chara>51er of his father; but it is not of him that we are writing. Mr Leflie having remained abroad from the year 1709 till I 721, returned that year to England, lefcl- ving, whatever the confequences might be, to die in his SurPL. Vol. II. The Englifli work was certainly not publiflied prior to the death of Abbe St Real ; 'for the firft edition bears date July 17th 1697 ; and yet many reafons con- fpire to convince us, that our countryman was no pla- giary. There is indeed a ftriking fimilarity between the Englifli and the French works ; but this is no com- plete proof that the one was copied from the other. The article Pmilologv in the Etieydoptdia, of which Dr Doig is the author, was publilhed the very fame week with Dr Vincent's dilFertation on the Greek verb. It was therefore impollible that either of thefe learned men, who were till then ftrangers to each other's names, could have ftolen aught from'the other ; and yet Dr Vincent's derivation of the Greek verb bears as ftrik- ing a refemblance to Dr Doig's as the Abbe St Real's work does to Charles Leflie's. In the article Miracle {Eneycl.), the credibility of the gofpel mirscles is efta- blifticd by an argument, which the author certainly bor- rowed from no man, and which the late principal Campbell confidered as original ; yet within half a year of the publication of that article, the credibility of the gofpel-miracles was treated in the very fame manner by F. Savers, M. D. though there is in his diilcrtation complete internal evidence that he had not feen the ar- tide in the Ericy.lopxdij. Not many months ago, the autlior ot this (ketch reviewed, in one of the journals, the work of a friend, which was at the fame time re- viewed in another jouinal, that at this moment he has never feen. Yet he has been told by a friend, who is much verfant in that kind of reading, and knows no- thing of his concern with either review, that the book in queftion muU, in both journals, h:ivc been reviewed by the fame hand ; becaufe in both the fime charaiHer is given ol it in almoft the very fame words ! After thefe inft.inces of apparent plagi.irifm, which we know to be un!y apparent, has any man a right to fay that Charles Leflie and the Abbi St Real might U M uot L E S [ 338 ] LEW IcEie • See ^lan- tity (Ull- cycl ), A- Jirortbmy, Irtpuljianf and Har- riot, in this Suppl. not have tre:iteJ tlieir fubjeft in the way that they liave clone, wit'.iout eill.er borrowing from th; other ? The cdincidcnce of arrargement and roafoniiig in the two works is ir.de:J veiy furpiifrng; but it is by no means fo furprifing as the coincidence of etymological tlediKftions which appears in tiie works of tho Doflors Doigand Vincent. 'Yh: divines reafin from the acknow- ledged laws of honun thought; the reafonings of the gr.inimarians, with all due deference to their fnperior learning, we cannot help conlidering as fometimes fanciful. But this is not all that we have to urge on the fub- jeift. If ihcre be pligi irifm in the cafe, and the iden- tity of titles loiiks very like it, it is infiiiifely more pro- liable that the editor uf St Real's works ft?le from Lef- lie, than thai Leflie ftole from St Real, unUfi it can be proved that ih.- works of the Al)be, and thii work in particular, were publilhed before the year 1C97. At that periud, the Engllh langnage was very little read or underrtood on the continent ; whilft in Britain the French language was hy J'cholnn, as generally under- Iluod as at prefent. Hsnce it is, that fo many French- men, and indeed foreigners ot difl'erent nations, tiiought tiiemfelves fafc in pihering fcience from the Britilh phi- lolophers* ; whilft there is not, that we know, one well authenticated irillance of a Britilh philofopher appro- priating to himfeli the difcoveries of a foreigner. If, then, luch men as Leibnitz, John Bernoulli, and Des Cartes, trading to the improbability of detec- tion, condefcendcd to pilfer the difcoveries of Hooke, Newton, and Harriot, is it improbable that the editor of the works of St Real would claim to his friend a celebrated trad, of which he knew th; real author to be obnoxious to the goveinnient of his own country, and therefore not likely to have powerful friends to maintain his light ? But farther, Burnet, blfhop of Sarum, was an excel- lent feii>.ljr, and well read, as every one knows, in the works of foreign divines. Is it conceivable, that this prelate, when Imarting nnder the la(h of Lellie, would have let flip fo good an opportunity of covrring with dilgrace his m^lt formidable antagonift, had he known that antagonitl to be guilty of plagiarifm Ironi the writings of the Abbe St Real? Let it be granted, however, tliat Burnet was a ftranger to thefe writings and to this plagiarifm; it can hardly be fuppol'cd iliat Li Clare was a ilranger to them likewife. Yet this auth r, when, for reafons beft known to hinsfelf, he chofe (1706; to depreciate the argument of the Jl7ort method, and to traduce its author as ignorant of ancient liillory, and as having brought forward his four marks for no other purpole than to put the deceitful traditions of Popery on the fame footing with the mofl authentic doflrines of the gofpel, does not fo much as infinuate that he borrowed thefe marks from a Popifli abbe, ihougli fuch a charge, could he have eltablilhed it, would have ferved his purpofe more than all his rude railings and iiiveflive. Bat there was no room for fuch a charge. In the fecond volume of the works of St Real, publilh- ed in 1757, there is indeed a tradl entitled Mc'.hnde Courte ct Aijce pour comhaltrc les Ijeijits ; and there can be little doubt but that the publilher wilhed it to be ennfidered as the work of his countryman. Unfortu- aatel^', biwcvcr, fur his dcfign, a catalogue of the Ab- Lewif- town. he's works is given in the firft volume; and in that ca- LeTw, talogue the Methods Courle ct A\jL' is not mentioned. \V'e have dwelt thus long on The Short and Eafy Me- thod iv'tlh the D.ijis, becaule it is one of the ableft works that ever was written in proof of the Divine origin of the Jewilh and Clirillian Scriptures; a work of which the merit is acknow'edged by Lord Bjling- broke, and which, as has been nblerved tlfewhere (fee Theology, n" 16. Etirycl.) Di Conyers Middleton confell'es to be unanfwerable. If by men of fcience we be thought to have fpent cur time well in vindicating the riglits of our illuftrious phiioi'ophers Hooke and Newton, to difcoveries which have been unjullly claim- ed by the philofophers of Germany and France; we will not furcly by the friends of Chrillianity be thought to have employed our time ill in vindicalin:^ Leilie's claim to this decifive argument in fuppurt of our holy reli'jicn. LEVER, the firll of the mechanical powers, for the properties of which fee Mechanics ; and for a demoii- Uration of its fundamental property, fee Steel varu, both in the Encyclopaedia. LEWISBURG, a county in Orangeburgh diftriiff, S. Carolina. — Morse. Lewisburg, a poft-town of N. Carolina, and capi- tal of Franklin county. It is lituated on Tar river, and contains between 20 and 30 houfes, a court houfc and gaol. It is 30 miles N. of Raieigli, 25 fouih of Warrenton, 56 from Tarborongh, and 411 from Phi- ladelphia. — ib. Lewisburg, a p' ft-town, and the chief town of Greenbriar county, Virginia; lituated on the N. fide of Greenbriar river, contains about 60 houfes, a court- houfe and gaol. It is 250 miles W. by N. of Rich- mond, and 486 W. by S. of Philadelphia. N. lat. Lewisburg, or Tarjhnijn, a town of Northumber- land county, Pennfylvania ; fiiuated on the wed fide of the Sufquehannah, 7 miles above Northumberland. It contains ;.b.)ut 60 houfes, and is well fituatcd for carrying on a briilc trade with the N. W. part of the State. It is 30 miles E. by N. of Aaronfburg. — ib. LEVVISTOV/N, a plantation in Lincoln county, Diftriia of Maine, lituated on the eall fide of An- drofcoggin liver, and bounded S. W. by Bowdoin. Lewiftown and Gore contain 532 inhabitants. It is 36 miles N. E. of Portland. — ib. Lewistown, or Lc-jjes, a town in Sulfex county, Delaware, is pleafantly lituated on Lewes creek, 3 miles above its mouth in Delaware Bay, and as far V\''. by N. of the light-houfe on Cape Henlopen. It contains a Prefbyterian and Msthodifl church, and about 150 houfes, built chiefly on a flreet which is more than 3 miles in lengtli, and extending along a creek, which feparates the town from the pitch of the cape. Tlie fituation is high, and commands a full profpeft of the light-houfe, and the fea. The court- houfe and the gaol are commodious buildings, and give an air of importance to the town. The iituation of this place mud at fome future time render it of con- fiderabie importance. Placed at the entrance of a bay, which is crowded with velfels from all parts of the world, and which is Jrccjuenily clcfed with ice a part of the winter feafon, nccefflty feeras to requiie, and nature LEX C 339 ] L I C i.ewif- nature feems to fuggeft, the forming this port into a town, harbour for fliipping. The deficiency of water in tlie J creek, may be cheaply and eafily fupplied by a fmall ij^-^" canal fo as to afford a paifage for the waters of Reho- both into Lewes creek, which would enlure an ade- quate fupply. The circumjacent country is beautifully diverfified with hills, woods, llreams, and lakes, form- ing an agreeable contrail to the naked fandy beach, which terminates in the cape ; but it is greatly infefted with miilkeroes and fand-fiies. It carries on a fmall trade with Philadelphia in the produflions of the coun- try. A manufiflure of maiineand glauber falls, and magnefia, has been lately cftabliflied here, which is managed by a gentleman fkilled in the praiflical know- ledge of chemiftry. It is 113 miles fouth of Philadel- phia. N. lat. 38"^ 6', W. long. 75° i8'.— ;3. Lewistown, the chief town of Miillin county, Pennfylvania, fituated on the northern fide of Juniatta river, on the W. fide, and at the mouth of Cilhico- quilis creek ; a Ihort way weft of the Long Narrows in Jun'uta river, and about 23 miles north-eafteily of Huntingdon. It is regularly laid out, and contains about 120 dwelling-houfes, a court-houfe and gaol. It was incorporated in 1795, and is governed by two burgefles, one high conftable, a town-clerk, and two affillants. It is 150 miles W. N. W. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 40'' 33', W. long. 77" 23'. — ib. LEWUNAKHANNEK, a town on the Ohio, where Chrillian Indians fettled under the care of the Moravian miffionaries. — ib. LEXAWACSEIN, a fmall river of Pennfylvania, which rifes by feveral branches in Northampton coun- ty, Pennfylvania, on the eaft fide of Mount Ararat ; tliefe unite about 10 miles from its mouth in Delaware river. Its courfe is S. E. and eaft. It joins the De- laware aI)ont 174 miles above Plvladelphia. — ib. LEXINGTON, a poft-town of Virginia, and capi- tal of Rockbridge county. It is fituated on the poU- road from Philadelphia to Kentucky, by way of the wilderncfs, and about a mile fcuth of the north branch of James's river. It contains a coutt-houfe, gaol, and about too houfes. The fituation of the town is heal- thy and agreeable, and the country round highly cul- tivated. It is 159 miles W. by N. of Richmond, 398 from Philadelphia, and 465 from Danville in Kentuc- ky. — ib. Lexington, a poft-town of Kentucky, and for- merly the metrcpihs of that State. It is fituated on a tich extenlive plain, in Fayette county, on the north iide of Town Foik, a imall ftream which falls into the fouth branch of Elkhorn river. It is built on a regular plan, and contains about 250 houfes, 3 places of public worftiip, a court-h-ufe and gaol. It contains 2 printing-offices, which publilh two weekly gazettes; has feveial ftores of goods well alForted, and is a flou- rilhing, agreeable place. It is fituated in the midft of a fine tradi of country, on the head waters of Elkhorn river, 24 miles eaft of Frankfort, and 774 S. W. by W. of Philadelphia. Its inhabitants arc iuppofed to amount now (1796) to 2,000; among whom are a number of very genteel families, artbrding very agree- able fociety. N. lat. 38'^ 6', W. long. Hj'' 8'. Near this town are found curious fepiilchres lull of human Ikeletons. It has been alferted that a man in or near the town, having dug 5 or 6 feet below the furface of the ground, c.ime to a large flat (lone, under \»liicli Leiinstoii, was a weliof common depth, regularly and artifici-.Hy 11 ftoned. In the vicinity of Lexington arc f lund the M^^^ remains of two ancient fortilicaiions, furniftied with ditches and baftions, overgrown wiih large trees. — ib. Lexington, a county in Orangeburgh diftrifl, S. Carolina. — ib. LiiXiNGTON, formerly called the Great Fulls, a fmall town of Georgia, fituated on the foutli fide of Ogee- chee river, on a beautiful eminence which ovei looks the falls of the river. It is 2 miles from Georgetown, and 30 from Greenlborough. — ib. Lexington, a town in MIddlefex county, MafLi- chufcits, 10 miles N. W. of Bofton, having a neat Congregational church, and a number cf corepafC houfes. It has been rendered famous by the battle fought in it, Apiil 19, 1775, which may be confider- ed as the commencement cf the American levolution. This townlhip contains 941 inhabitants, and was incor- porated in 17 12 — ib. LEYDEN, a townOiip in HampdiTe county, Maf- fachufetts, between Colerain and Bernardfton, 29 miles from Noilhampton, the (hire town, and 117 N. VV. of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1784, and contains 9S9 inhabitants. — ib. LEZARS, an Indian nation, wlio inhabit betwe.-n the mouth of the Ohio and VVabalh rivers. They can furnilh 300 warriors. — ib. LIBERTY, a piftlown of Virginia, 15 miles from New-London, x,^ from Fincaftle, 40 fiom Franklin court-houfe, and 65 (rom Martinfburg. — ib. LiBERTv-TowN, a village of Maryhnd, fituated in Frederick county, 10 miles north-eaft of Frederickf- town, and about 44 N. N. W. of the Federal City. Copper mines have been found near this town, and have been worked ; but to no great extent as yet. — ib. LICENSER OF Books (fee Liberty of the Piefs, Encjcl.), has been an officer in almoft every civilized nation, till the end of the laft century that the office was aboliftied in Gieat Biitain. ProfeJfor Beckmann, with his ufual induftry,* has proved th.it Auh an office • Hljlcrjof was eftabhlhed not only in the Roman Empire, but In-.'tntioni, even in the republic, and in the free ftates of ancient^"'- 3- Greece. At Ath.ns, the works i^f Protat'oras were prohibited ; and all the copies of them which could he colleiSed were burnt by the [)ublic crier. At Rome, the writings of Numa, wiiich had been found in his grave, were, by order of the fenaie, condemned to the tire, becaul'e they were contrary to the relii;ion which he had introduced. As the populace at Rome were, in times of public calamity, more addiftcd to fuperfti- tion than fcemed proper to the government, an order was ilfued, that all fuperftitious and aftroligical books ihould be delivered into the hands of the pntor. This order was often repeated ; and the emperor Auguftus caufed more than twenty thoiifand of thcfc books to be burnt at one time. Under ih: fame emperor the fati- rical works of Labienus were condcnined to the fire, which was tlie firit iiiUance of this nature ; and it is re- lated as foniething lingular, that, a (ew years alter, tl:c writings of the pcrfon who had been the caufo of the order for that piirpofe Iharcd the like fate, and were alfo publicly burnt. Wlien Ciemuiius Cordus, in his hiftory, called C. Caffius the laft of the Romans, the fe- nate, in order to Hatter Tiberius, caufed the book to Ije U u 2 burnt } L I C [ 340 ] L I C lAchtn. burnt ; but a number of copies were faved by being con- ^'^^'''"^~' cealed. Antiochus Epiphanes caufsd the books of the Jews to be burnt ; and in the firft centuries of our xra the books of the Chriltians were treated with equal fe- vtrity, of which Arnobius bitterly complains. We are told by Euftbius, that Dioclefian caufed the facred Scriptures to be burnt. After the fprcadiiig of the Chrillian religion the clergy exercil'ed, againll books that were either unfavourable or dilagreeable to them, the fame feverity which they had cenlured in the hea- thens Hi f<>nh(h and prejudicial to their own caufe. Soon after the invention of printing, laws began to be made ior fiihj'cting books to examination ; a. regula- tion prop( fed even by Plato ; and whi.h has been wifh- ed for by mnny fmce. Our author gives a great deal of curinus intorniaton on ihit important fubjeft, which our limits do not permit us to repeat ; but it is appa- rent Irom hi» work, that the liberty of the prefs is but a n.odei n p; ivilege ; and it has not been enjnyed com- pletdy in any country but in Biitain and America. LICHEN (fee Encycl.], is a genus of plants, of vhich tlie moll valuable fpecies feems to be the Lichen RocELLA, or Jlrgul. As that fpecies has not been no- ticed in the article referred to, the following account of it from Prcfciror Beckniann will be acceptable to many ci our readers : Tt is found in abundance in fome of the iflands near the African coaft, particularly in the Canaries, and in feveral of the illands in the Archipelago. It grows up- right, partly in fingW, partly in double flems, which are about tsvo inches in heiglit. When it is old, thefe ftems are crowned vtith a button fonietimes round, and lometimes ot a flat form, which Tournefort, vtry pro- perly, compares to the excrefcences on the arms ol the fepia. Its colour is fometimes a hght, and fometimes a dark grey. Of this moA, with lime, urine, and alka- line falts, is formed a dark red pafte, which in com- merce has the fame name, and which is much ufed in dyeing. That well known fubllance called lacnms is alfo »j)ade of it. Theophraflus, Diofcorides, and their tranfcriber Pliny, give the name of Phycos thalajfion, cir /lontion, to this plant, which, notvvithftandmg its name, is not a fea weed but a mofs ; as it grew on the rocks of different Iflands, and particularly on thofe of Crete or Candia. It had, in their time, been long ufed for dyeing wool, and the colour it gave when frelh was fo beautiiul, that it excelled the ancient purple, which was not red, as many fuppofe, but violet. Pliny tells us, that witli this mofs dyers gave the ground or firll tint to thofe cLuhs •which they intended to dye with the colHy purple. When it was firll employed as a dye by the moderns, is not fo certain, though the Profclfor has proved, we think completely, that it mud have been at leall as early as the beginning of the 14th century. " Among the oldelt and principal Florentine fami- lies ,fays he), is that known under the name of the Oricell.irii or Rucellarii, Rufcellat or Rucellai, feveral of whom have dillinguirtied themfelves as (latefmen and men of letters. This family are defcended from a Ger- man nobleman, named Ferro or Frederigo, who lived in I.ichc«. the beginning of the twelfth century. One of his de- '^^''^^'^ fcendants, in the year xjco, carried on a great trade in the Levant, by which he acquired confiderable riches, and returning at length to Florence, with his lortune, firll made known in Europe the art of dyemg with argol. It is laid, that a little betore his return from the Levant, happening to make water on a rock cover- ed with this mofs, he obfeivcd, thai the plant, which was there called re/pio, or ir/)>o, and in Spain orci^Ua, acquit ed by the urine a purple, or, as others fay, a red colour. He therefore tried feveral experiments; and when he had brought to perfcflion the art of dyeing wool with this plant, he made it known at Florence, where he alone pradlifed it for a confiderable time, to the gieat benefit of the Hate. From this ufelul inven- tion, the family received the name of Oricellarii, from which, at lall, was formed Rucellai." The Profelfor, however, does not believe that this Florentine difcover- ed the dye by means of the above mentioned accident, but that he learned the art in the Levant, and on his return taught it to his countrymen. " Our dyers do not purchafe raw argol, but a parte made of it, which the French call orfeilie tn pile. The preparation of it was for a long time kept a fecret by the Florentines. The perfon who, as far as I know, made it firil known was Rofetti ; who, as he himfelf tells us, carried on the trade of dyer at Florence. Some information was afterwards publilhed concerning it by Imperati * and Micheli the botanift.f In later times . l|[,_ thi, art has been much practifed in France, England, and xxvii. c. 9. Holland. Many druggills, inftead of keeping th-s pafte t ^'^o m a moill (late with urine, as they ought, fuif:r it to P^""*'"^"'* dry, in order to fave a little diity work. It then h-Ai^'""!' ^''' the appearance of a dark violet-coloured earth, with j'^a'a.' here and there fome white fpots in it. " The Dutch (continues our author), who have found out better methods than other nations of manufai5lurlng many commodities, fo as to render them cheaper, and thereby to hurt the trade of their neighbours, are the inventors alio of lacmus, a preparatit.n of argol, called orfiiiU en pierrf, which has greatly lelfened the ufe of thsil en pate, as it is more ealily tranfported and pre- ferved, and fitter tor ule ; and as it is befides, if not cheaper, at leall not dearer. This art confifls, un- doubtedly, in mixing with that commodity fome lefs valuable lubltance, which eillier improves or does not much impair its quality, and which, at the fame time, increafes its weight \a). Thus do they pound cinnabar and fmalt finer than other nations, and yet fell both thefe articles cheaper. Thus do they fitt cochineal, and fell it cheaper than what is unfitted. " It was for a long time believed, that the Dutch prepared their lacmus from thofe linen rags which in the fouth of France are dipped in the juice of the cro'.on tinaorium ; but at prel'ent, it is almoll certainly known, that oifeiUe en pate is the principal ingredient in orfeilie en p'terre that is in lacmus; and tor this curious infor- mation we are indebted to Ferber. But whence arifes the fmell of the lacmus, which appears fo like that of the (a) As dry lacmus is much cheaper than moift, it may be readily fuppofed that it is adulterated with fand and other fubRances. Vakntinl Hijloria fimplkhm. Francf. ad Moen. 1716. fol. p. 152. L I G [ 34' ] I I M Light. Lichtenin, the Florentine Iris '." Some of the latter may, perhaps, be mixed with it ; for our author thinks, that he has ob- ferved in it fmall inclilPoluble particles, which may have been bits of the roots. The aJdition of thii i'ubftance can be of no ufe to improve the dye ; but it may in- creafe the weight, and give tlie lack more body ; and perhaps it mny be employed to render imperceptible Ibme unpleafant fmell, for which purpofe the roots of that pl.mt are ufed on many other cccalions. LICHTENAU, a Moravian fetllement on the eaft fide of Mufkingum river, 3 miles below Gofchach- guenk ; but as the warriors palled conftantly through this place, it was forfaken, and they removed to Sa- lem, 5 miles below GnaJenhuetten — Morse. LICK, a name by which fait fprings are called in the wellern puts of the United States. — ib. LICKING, a navigable river of Kentucky, which rifes on the weftern confines of Virginii; interlocks vith the head waters of Kentucky river; runs in a N. W. direiflion, upwards ot ibo miles, and by a mouth 150 yards wide flows through the fouth btnk of Ohio river, oppolite fort Waftiington. Upon this river are iron-works, and numerous fait fpriags. Its principal branch is navigable nearly 70 miles.. From Lime- ftone to this river, the country is very rich, and cover- ed with cane, rye-grafs, and natural clover. — ii. LIGHT, it has been obl'erved in the article Che- mistry, n" 319. {Siippl.), conlilh of rays diiferently flexible. This was eltalililhed by fonie well deviled ex- periments made by Henry Brougham, Efq ; of which it inay be proper to give an accoimt here. In the rirft experiment, he darkened his chamber in the ufual way, and let a beam of the fun's liijht into it through the hole of a metal plate ti.Ned in the Ihutter of the window, -j'Trth of an inch in diameter. At the hole within the room he placed a prifra of glafs, of which the refraifling angle was 45 degrees, and which was everywhere covered with black paper, except a fmall ■part on each fide; and througli this part the light was refraifted fo as to form a dilUnft fpeiflrum on a chart at fix feet diftance from the windo.v. In the rays, at two feet from the prifm, lu placed a black unpolilhed pin, of wliich the diameter was ^Vh of an inch, parallel to the chart, and in a vertical poiition. The Ih idow of the pin was found in the fpedrum ; and this fliadow liad a coiiliderable pc.iumbra, which was broadell and moft dillindl in the violet pari, njrrowell and rnoll con- fufed in the red, and of an intermediate ihicknefs and dilliniflnefi in the intermediate colours. Th; penumbra was bounded by curvilini-ar fide*, convex towards the axis to which they approached as to an afymptote, fo as to be neareft to it in the place i.f the leall refrangible rays. By moving the pnfrn on it^ axis, and caufinsj the colours to afcend and dcfcend on any bodies tliat were ufed inftead of the pin, the red, wherever they fell, made the lealt, and the violet the greatell, Ihadow. In the next experiment, a fcreen was fublUtuted in •the place of the pin ; and this fcieen had a l.irjie liole, on which was a br.ils plate, pieiced wiih a fmall hole ^'jd ot an inch in diameter. While an ailill.mt mi-ved the prii'm llowly on it axij, the au'hor obf rvcd the round image m.;de by the JitT rent rays pnHing through the hole to the chart ; that made by the red was great- eft, that of the violet leall, and th.it of each interme- diate ray was of an intermediate lixe. When the Iharp blade of a km'fe was held at the back of the hole, " fo Ligonier, as to produce the fringes mentioned by Grimaldo and .H Newton, thefe fringes in the red were broaddl and ^"^^^^ molt moved inwards to the fliadow, and molt dilated when the knife was moved over the hole ; and the hole itfeli on the chart was more dilated during the motion when illuminated by the red than when illuminated by any other of the rays, and lealt of all when illuminated by the violet." From thefe two experiments, the author infers " that the rays of the fun's light differ in degree of flexibility, and that thofe which are leall refrangible are ot<;/? infex't- bU." From other experiments, he concludes, that the mojl infexibl: rays are alfo moji dejlexible. In the fequel of his paper, he afcertains the proportion which the angle of injealon bears to that of d-iflf^wn at equal in- cidences, and the proportion which the different_/'<'*iii- litks ot the different rays bear to one another. We ihall give an account of fome other experiments made by him, and of the inferences drawn from tliem, under the word Reflexity, to which a reference has already been made. LIGONIER, Fort, lies on the road from Philadel- phia to Fit'.lburg; 266 miles from the former and 54 irom the latter, and 9 miles from the E. lide of Liu- rel HA].— Morse. LIGUANEA, mountains in the ifland of Jamaica. At the lo t of thefe in St Andrew's parilh, about (S miles from Kinglton, is the molt magnificent botani- cal garden in the world. It was eftablilhed in 1773, under the fanction of the aflembly. The fortune of war having thrown into Lord Rodney's handi many rare plants, he prelented to his favoured ifland plants of the genuine cinnamon, the mango, bread-fruit, and other oriental produiflions ; which are now become common in the ifland. — ib. LILLIE, a citadel at Cape Ann, in the townfhip of Gloucelter, Malfachufetts. — ib. LIM/^, the middle divilion of Peru, in 3. Ameri- ca. It has Quito on the north, the mountains called the Andes on the eafl, the audience of Los Charcos on the fouth, and the Pacific ocean on the well. There are many wild bealls in the audience. — ib. Lima, tlie c.pital of Peru, in S. America, is alfo called Los Reyes, or the City of Kings, and is the emporium of this part of the world. It was founded by Don Francifco Pi/arro on the 1 8th of January, ^SiS > 's f'tuated in a large, fpacious, and fertile plain, called the valley of Rimac, on the fouth fide of the ri- ver Rimac, which runs wellward. The name of Lima being only a corrupt pronunciation of the Indian word, which is derived from an idol to which the Indians and their Yncas ufed to iacrifice. This idol being fup- pofed to return aniwers to the prayers offered to it, they called it, by way of dillini-Tion, Rimac, i. e. the fpeaker. It is fo well watered by the river Rim.ic, that the inhabitants command a llream, each for his own ufe. The N. fide ot the town runs nearly clofc to the liver for the length of about 10 furlongs. At about -{ of this fpace, from the wellern extent, an elegant llone bridge of 4 or J arches is built acrofs the river leading fouth, about 200 yards to the great fquare, of which the fide is about 140 yards. Tiic flreet continues fouth from the bridge, lor near a mile, having parallel Ilreets» 3 t» L I M C 342 ] L I M T.ina. R to the weft, and 6 to the e.ift, befiJes other ftreets "^"^"^^ which run obliqutlj- fuuih-ealUvard. The 15 (Irects, running north and iouth, are rroiled by 8 others run- ning eaft and well, btlidts Icveral to the fouthward, not paiallel to the fninier, and others in tlie c.iftcrn parts, wlncli have dilFcrent diieflions. The figure of the town is nearly quadriLiteral. A diagonal hne i nu- lling eall and well, woulil be 18 furlongs in length; and the fouthern perpendicular, about 7 furlong', and the northern about 4 furlongs ; fo that the city Hands oa a fpace of ground neaily equal to a mile and a quar- ter fquare. 'J 'he northern lide for about three quarters cf a mile next tl;e river, is tortified niollly by redans; the rell of the circuit is inclofed with 34 hollow baf- tions and their intermediate curtains. The whole \i faced with a brick wall, and furrounded with a ditcli, but has no covered way, glacis, nor outworks. Eight gates, befiJcs that at the bridge, fuinifli a communi- cation with the adjacent country. The city Hands about 6 miles from Ciillao, which is the fea-port to Lima, and iSo north-well of Guamanga. The white people in Lima arc ellimaled at about 15,000, and the whole number of inhabitants are about 60 000. One remarkable fad is fufficieiit to demonftr.ite the wealth of this city. When the viceroy, the Duke de la Pa- lada, made his entry into Lima, in 1682, the inhabi- tants, to do him honour, caufed the llreets to be pav- ed with ini;ots cf filver, amounting to 1 7 millions fler- ling. All travellers ipeak with amazement of the de- corations of the churches with gold, filver, and preci- ous (tones, which load and ornament even the walls. The only thing that could juHify thefe accounts, is the immenie riches and extenHve commerce of the inhabi- tants. The merchants of Lima may be laid to deal with all the quarters of the world ; and that both on their own account, and as fadors for others. Here, all the produdlions of the fouthein provinces are con- veyed, in order to be exchanged at the harbour of Li- ma, for fuch articles as the inhabitants of Peru ftand in need of. The fleet from Europe and the Eaftln- dies land at the fame harbour ; and the commodities of Afia, Europe, and America, are there bartered for each other. But all the wealth ot the inhabitants, all the beauty of tha fituation, and the fertility of the cli- mate of Lima, are infufficient to eompenfate for the difafter which threatens, and has fometimes adually befallen tlieni. Earthquakes are very frequent. Since the year 1582, there have happened about fif- teen concuGJons, belides that on the 28th of October, 1746, at half an hour after 10 at night, five hours and three quarters before the full of the moon ; which be- gan with fuch violence, that in little more than three minutes, the greateft part, if not all the builings, great and fmall, in the whole city, were deftroyed ; burying under their ruins thofe inhabitants who had not made fufficient hafte into the llreets and fquares, the only- probable places of fafety in thole terrible convuliions of nature. At length the dreadful efTeds of the firfl fliock ceafed, but the tranquillity was of fhort duration ; concuffions returning fo repeatedly, that the inhabi- tants, according to the account fent of it, computed 200 in the firft 24 hours j and to the 24th of February, the following year, 1747, when the narrative was dat- ed, no lefs than 450 fliocks were obferved : fome of which, if lefs permanent, were equal to the firft in violence. The fort of Callao, at the very fame hour, tumbled into ruins. But what it flilFered from the earthquake in its buildings, was iiiconliderable, when compared with the lonib e catallrtphe which followed. For the f'ea, as is ulu.il on fuch occalions, receding to a confideiable dillaiice, relumed in mountainous waves, foamuig with the violciite of the agitatum, and lud- dciily overwhelmed C.iUao and the neiglihouring coun- try. Tii'S was not, however, p^irfoimcd by the firft fwelling of the waves: For tlie i'ea retiiing further, returned with ftill greater impetuofity, the Itupendous water covering both the walls and other buildings of the place; lb that whatever had efcapcd the full, was now t(>tally overwhelmed by thofe terrible mountains of waves ; and nothing remained, except a piece of the wall of the tort ct Sinta Cruz, as a memorial of this terrible devaftation. Here were then 23 fhips and velfels, great and fmall, in the harbour, of which 19 were funk, and tlie other four, among which was a frigate called St Ferniin, carried by the force of the waves to a conliderable dillance up the country. Tfiis terrible inundation extended to other parts of the coaft, as Cavallus and Guanape ; the towns of Chancay, Guaura, and the vallies Delia Baranco, Sape, and Pativilca, underwent the fame fate as the city of Lima. According to an account fent to Lima after this acci- dent, a volcano in Lucanos burft forth the fame night, and ejtded fuch quantities of water, that the whole country was overflown ; and in the mountain near Pa- tas, called Converliones de Caxamarquilla, three other volcanoes burft, difcharging frightful torrents of wa- ter; and in the fame manner as tliat of Carguayralfo. Lima is the fee of an archbifhop, and the feat of an univerfity. The inhabitants are very debauched ; and the monks and nuns, of whom there are great num- bers, are no more chafte than the reft of the inhabi- tants. If any one happens to rival a monk, he is in danger of his life, for they always carry daggers con- cealed. Lima, according to feveral obfervations made for that purpofe, ftands in lat. 12" 2' 31" S. and its long, is 75" 52' W. The variation of the needle is 9" 2' 30" eafterly. — ii. LIMBE, a village in the N. W. part of the ifland of St Donnngo, 7 leagues weft by fouth of Cape Fran- cois. — ib. LIMBERS, in artillery, a fort of advanced train, joined to the carriage of a cannon on a march. It is compofed of two fhatts, wide enough to receive a horfe between them, called ihs fillet horfe: thel'e fhafts are joined by two bars of w-ood, and a bolt of iron at one end, and mounted on a pair cf rather fmall wheels. Up- on the axle-tree rifes a ftrong iron fpike, which is put into a hole in the hinder part of the train of the gun- carriage, to draw it by. But when a gun is in action, the liuibers are taken off, and run out behind it. LIMERICK, a townfhip in York county, Maine, fituated near the confluence of Little Oflipee river with Saco, and oppofite Gorham in Cumberland county. It was incorporated in 1787, contains 411 inhabitants and is 114 miles northerly of Bofton, — Morse. Limerick, a townfhip in Montgomery county, Pennfylvania. — ih. LIMESTONE CREEK, in TennefTee, is the north-eaftern branch of Nolachucky river. It rifes 22 miles fouth of Long-Ifland in Holfton river. — ib, LIMIT LIN C 343 ] LIMIT OF A Planet, has been fometimes ufed for Danville to Virginia. L I T its greateft heliocentric latitude. Limited Problem, denotes a problem that has but one folution, or fome determinate number of folutions : as to dcfcribe a circle through three given points that do not lie in a right line, which is limited to one fo- lution only ; to divide a parallelogram into two equal parts by a line parallel to one fide, which admits of two iblutions, according as the line is parallel to the length or breadth of the parallelogram ; or to divide a triangle in any ratio by a line parallel to one lidc, which is li- mited to three folulions, as the line may be parallel to any of the three fides. LIMONADE, a village on the north fide of the French part of the ifl.ind of St Domingo, 4 leagues fouth-wcll of Fort D.iuphine, and yi meafuring in a ftraight line fouth eall of Cape Francois. N. lat. 10° 37'. — Alone. LINCOLN, a large maritime county of the Dif- triiS of Maine ; bounded north by Canada, fouth by the ocean, call by Hancock county, and well by that of Cumberland. lis fea-coafl extends from that part of Pcnobl'cot Day oppofite to Deer Illjnd eallward, to Cape Small Point weltward. It is 200 miles long, and 54 broad, and comprehends 46 towns and planta- tions ; but there are large trads yet unfettled. The population amounts to 29,962 free perfons. The fea- coalk of the counties of Cumberland and Lincoln is 100 miles in extent, meafuicd in a llraight line, but is faid to be above 200 by the courfe of the waters. It abou.ids with fafe and commodious harbours ; and the whole fli<.re is covered by a line of iflands, among which vefTels may generally anchor in fafety. There are in thefe counties many large rivers, fome of them navigable far up tlic country ; and although navigation for large vel.'cls is interrupted by falls, when far up the rivers, yet above the falh, there is plenty of water for boats, nearly to the lource of the livcrs ; and bv the lakes and ponds and branches of the rivers, there is a water coiTiirunicrtion, witii few interruptions, from the wcficin to the ealtern bounds, acrofs the country, above the ccntie of it. By this route its produ-Jtions may, at a fiiiail expcnfe, be tr^niported to the different fea ports. The fupreme judicial court held in Lincoln county, has civil and crimin.il jurifdictiun in caufes arifing in Hancock and Walhmgton counties. Chief towns, Pownalboroiigh, Hallowclland Waldoborough. —ib. Lincoln, a conntv of M-^rgan diflrici, North-Ca- Tclina ; bounded N. E. by Iredtll, N. W. by Burke, well by Rutherford, and eaft by Cab.irras. It con- tains 9,224 inhabitants, of whom 935 are llaves. Here are mineral iprings and mines of iron. A fur- nace and iorgc have been creeled, which carry on the manufiiflure of pig, bar iron, &c. Chief town, Liii- colntown — ib. Lincoln, a county of Kentucky, boundtrd north by Mercer, north-wjfl by Wafnington, northeaft by Maddifon, and fourh by Logan. By the cenl'us of 1790, i'. contained 6,548 inhabitants, of whom 1,094 ■were flavcs. The road from Danville on Kentucky river p.ilfcs through it fouth-wellerlj, and over Cum- berlu.d m.'uni..i!i to Virginia. — ib. Lincoln, a town in Meicer county, Kentucky, fitti- ated on the call fide tf Dick's river, on the icad f:cm It (lands 12 miles foutli-eaft of Danville, and 11 north-weft of Crab-Orchard. — ib. Lincoln, a townfliip in Gralton county, New- Hamplhire, incorporated in 1764, contains 22 inliabi- tants. — ib. Lincoln, a townfliip in the north-eaft part of Ad- difon county, Vermont, granted Nov. 7th 1780 — ib. Lincoln, a townfhip in Middlefex county, MafFa- chufetts, incorporated in 1754. It contains 740 inha- bitants, and is iCi miles north-weft of Bollon. ib. LINCOLNTOWN, a poft-town of N. Carolina, and capital of Lincoln county. It contains about 20 houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol. It is 46 miles from Morgantown, 159 from Salem, and 718 fouih by well of Philadelphia. — ib. LINDLEY, a village on the weft fid; of the Cana- wifque branch of Tioga river, in New-York, 2 miles north of the Pennfylvania line, 8 S. W. by S. of the Painted Poft, 64 fouth-eaft of Hartford, on the road to Niagara. — ib. LINN, a townfhip in Northampton county, Penn- fylvania. — ib. LISBON, a town in New- London county, Connec- ticut, lately a part of Norwich, about 7 miles nonhtr- ly of Norwich. It contains 2 parilhes, each Jiaving a Congregational church. It lies on th; weft fide' of Quinebaug river, and eaft of Franklin ib. Lisbon, a village of York county, Pennfylvania, fituated near the fouth fide of Yellow Breeches creek, which fiills into the Sufquehannah. It contains about 15 houfes, and lies 18 miles from York ib. LITCHFIELD, a townfhip in Lincoln county, DiUria of Maine, 45 miles frum Hallowell, and 220 N. E. of Bollon.— /i. LiTCHFiiLD, a townfhip in Hillftjorough county, New-Hamplhire, fituateJ on the e.ift fide of Merri- mack river, about 54 miles weftevly of Portfmouth. It was fettled in 1749, ^"^ '" '775 't contained 284, and in 1790, 357 inhabitants — ib. Litchfield, a populous and hilly county o( Con- necticut ; bounded north by the State o( Mall'.ichuletls, fouth by New-Haven and Fairlield coiin:ies, eall by Hartford, and weft by the State of New-Y'.rk. It is divided into 20 townlhips, containing 38,755 inhabi- tants, inclufive of 233 flaves. Tlie general face of the. country is rough and mountainous. 1 he foil is feitile, yielding large ciops of wheat and Indian corn, and af- fording line pafturc. It is fcparate entirely from mai i- time commerce, ai.J the inhabitants are almoft uni\cr. faly f^Imcrs. — ib. LiTCHfiELD, the chief town of the above county, fituated upon an ekvated plain, and much expofed to the cold wipds of winter, bin enjoys alfo a large lliare of the refrefliing breezes of fummer. It is a handfome fiiuation, containing about 60 or 70 dwelling-houfes, a court-houfe and m?et!ng-houfe. It is 32 miles wefl ( f Hartford, and 42 N. N. W. of New-Haven. N. lat. 41" 46', W. long. 73'-" 37'. In the S. W. corner of the townfhip Itands an high hill called Mount Tom. On fevcr.il fmall fticanis, fome of which fall into Great Pond, are 3 iron-works, an oil-mill and a number cf fiw and grill mills. — ib. LiTCHFiiLD, a townfliip in Herkemer county, New- York, taken from German Flatf, and incorporated in 1796— .-A. UTIZ* Lincoln, II Litchfield. L I T C 3+4 ] LOB Litlz, II l.ittle. LITIZ, or LeJU%, a village or lown in Lancader county, Pennl'ylvania, fituateJ in Warwick townlliip, on the foutli fule of a fmall flieam, which fends its waters through Coneftoga creek into the Sufquehan- nah. It contains ahout 50 houfes chietly of rtone, a ftone tavern, and an elegant church v»iih a lleeple and bell. The fettlement WHS begun in 1757. It is inha- bited by the United Brethren, wiinfe mode of life and culloms are limilar to thofc of Bethlehem. There is alfo a good farm and feveral mill-works belonging to the place. Tlie number of inhabitants, including thole that belong to Litiz congregation, living on their farms in the neighbourhood, amounted, in 1787, to upwards of 300. It is 8 miles north of Lancalter, and 66 W. by N. of Philadelphia. — ib. LITTLE EGG HARBOUR, a port of entry on the eaft coaft of New-Jcrfey, comprehending all the Ihores, bays and creeks from Barnegat Inlet to Biigan- tine Inlet, both inclufive. The town of Tticherton is tlie port of entry for this didrliit. — lb. LITTLE ALGONQUINS, Indians who inhabit near the Three Rivers, and can raife about 100 war- riors. — ib. LITTLEBO ROUGH, a plantation in Lincoln county, Diftria of Maine, having 263 inhabitants. — ib. LITTLE BRITAIN, a townlhip in Lancafter county, Pennfylvania. Alfo a townihip in Chefter county, in the fame State. — ib. LITTLE-COMPTON, a townfhip in Newport county, Rhode Uland, bounded N. by Tiverton; S. by the Atlantic ocean, where are Seakonnet rocks ; W. by the eaft paffage into Mount Hope Bay ; and E. by the State of Maflachufetts. It contains 1542 inha- bitants, of whom 23 are flaves. It was called Secon- net or Senkonnet by the Indians, and is feid to be the befl cultivated townOiip in the State, and affords greater quantities of meat, butter, cheefe, vegetables, &c. than any other town of its fize. The inhabitants are very indullrious, and manufacture linen and tow cloth, flannels, &c. of an excellent quality, and in con- fiderable quantities for fale. — ib. LITTLE FORT, in the N. W. Territory, ftands on the fouth-wedern bank of lake Michigan, and on the fouth fide of Old Fort river, which runs a N. eaft- ern conrfe into the lake. — ib. LITTLE HARBOUR. It is near the mouth of Pafcataqua river, about a mile from Portfmouth, in New-Hampfhire. A fettlement was attempted here in 16:3. — ib. LITTLE RIVER, in Georgia, is a beautiful and rapid river, and at its confluence with Savannah river, is about 50 yards wide. On a branch of Little river is the town of Wrightfborough. Alfo a river which feparates, in part, N. and S. Carolina. — ib. Little River, a plantation in Lincoln county, Diftricfl of Maine, containing 64 inhabitants. — ib. LITTLE ROCKS, on the N. W. bank of Illinois river, are fituated 60 miles from the Forks, 270 from the Miffiflippi river, and 43 S. W. of Fox river. The S. W. end of thefe rocks lies nearly oppofite to the mouth of Vermilion river, and the two fmall ponds where the French and Indians have made good fait, lie oppofite the N. E. end. A coal mine half a mile long extends along the bank of the river above thefe rocks, — ib. LITTLE SODUS, a fm.dl harbour of lake Onta- rio, about 15 miles foulhward of Ofwego. — ib. LITTLETON, a townfliip in Middlefex county, Mall'acluifetts, 30 miles N. W. of Bofton ib. LiTTLtTON, a townlhip in Gr.iiton county. New. Hanipfhire, (a part of Apthorpe) was incorporated in 1784, and contains 96 inhabitants. It lies on Con- neiflicut river, below the 15 mile Falls, and nearly oppofite Concord in Vermont. — ib. Littleton, a townlhip in Caledonia county, Ver- mont, on the \V. fide of Conneifllcut river, oppofite the 15 mile Falls, and contains 63 inhabitants. — ib. Littleton, Fort, in Pennfylvania, is 27 miles E. of Bedford, 39 S. W. by W. of Carlille, and 34 N. by E. of Fort Frederick, in Waftiingtoa county, Ma- ryland. — ib. LIVERMORE, a plantation in Cumberland coun- ty, Diftiiifl of Maine, fituated on Androfcoggin river, 19 miles N. W. of Hallowell. — ib. LIVERPOOL, a town on the S. fide of the Bay of Fundy, in Queen's county, Nova-Scotia, fettled by New-Englanders. Rollignol, a cnnfiderable lake, lies between this town and Annapolis. It is 32 miles north-ead of Shelburne, and 58 north-weft of Halifax. It was formerly called Port Rojfignole. — ib. LIVINGSTON, a townihip in Columbia county. New- York, fituated on the eaft bank of Hudfon's ri- ver, 4 miles northerly of Palatine town, 1 1 fouth of Hudfon, and 9 fouth-eaft of Claverack. It contains 4,594 inhabitants; of whom 659 are eleflors, and 233 flaves. — ib. Livingston'^ Creeh, a confiderable branch of North- Weft, an arm of Cape Fear river. This creek heads in vaft fwamps in the vicinity of the beautiful lake Waukama. — ib. LOBOS, iflands on the coaft of Brazil. The fouth- ernmoft ifland is in fouth latitude 6° 27'. One of thefe iflands obtains the name of Lobos de la mer ; the other, which lies to the north of it, and very like it in Ihape and appearance, is called Lolos de lierra. — ib. LoBos or Wolves Ifland, in the river of La Plata, on the E. coaft of South America, is the firft ifland within that river, a little S. from the N. point of the entrance, called Cape St Mary. Palm Ifland is on the Ihore nearly N. from it, but without the cape and Maldonada Ifland is within it, off the mouth of Mala- donada Bay, on the N. fliore alfo. — Malbam. LoBos or Wolves Ifland, on the coaft of Peru, on the W. fide of South America, and on the S. Pacific Ocean, is a league and a half from the Morro Que- mada, or headland of Quemada. It is a fmall ifland, about three quarters of a league in length, in the direc- tion of N. W. and S. E. and the land is indifferently high. Several fiat low rocks lie between this ifland and the main, which ftretch out towards the headland half over the channel, and leave the paffage between very narrow and dangerous, though fome fhips have parted through by miftake, fuppofing it to have been the channel between St Gallan Ifland and the headland of Paraca. But fuch an error muft have been occafi- oned by great inattention, as they are very readily known and diftinguifhed from each other; becaufethis ifland of Lobos is foul and has rocks all round it, and one in particular, which is called the Breaker, ftands above the water like a fugar-loaf, but the ifland of St Gallan LOB C 345 ] L O N I.ebos. Gallan is all clean and bold, and has no rocks about •^""'^^^ it, befides the advantjge of a much broader channel. The appearance of the land on the main ahb differs very- much, that of I'aracH being of an equal height, but this of Morro Quemadii comes down fl-^ping from the N. fide, from a vail high mountain quite to the Ihore, where Ihips anchor on the (larboard fide of the en- trance. But as fhip"; have pafled through between the ifland of Lobos and the main by millaice, it is a demonllra- tion that the meafure is prafticable. It is certain that there is a fufficient depth of water, but the hazard is that Ihips may touch upon the rocks, becaufe in com- ing out to the northward there is a ledge of rocks, as has been mentioned already, that reaches almoft half over towards the main. To the northward of this ledge of rocks there is alfo a fmooth bank of find, which forms as it were a creek between it and the ifland ; and the fea is here fo (lill, b;ing kept off by that land, that it makes a good road, where a (hip may anchor in from 7 to 8 fathoms water, and, if occafion required, might ventuie to careen in it ; but care fliould be taken to found it well bvifore any (hip ventures into it. From this ilLind to the Morro de Vejas, or Old Man's Head- land, is only half a league. The lat. of the ifland is about 14'^ 40' S. — ib. Loiios Ifland, or ///vi Je Lobos, otherwife called Sea Wolves Ifland, off the port of Guara on the coaft of Peru, is in lat. about 1 1° 30' S. It is but a fmall ifl ind, and near to it is a flioal, without which it is particularly necelFary to keep at a c^nod diilance, as being very dangerous, and having but little depth of wa.cr within it. It mult be broujjht a-llern to anchor in the port ot Guara, according to the dire«£lions there given. — ii. LoDos Iflands, diftinguiflied by the Spaniards from their fituation into Lobos de Barlevento and Lobos de Sotovento, or the windward and leeward iflands of Lobos, are about 7 leagues from each other, and not far from the coaft of Pern, in lat. 6° 25' and 6" 45' S. Thefe alfo are called 8ea Wolves or Seals Iflands. It is fuflicient to point out their fituation, fo as to avoid them, according as (hips are pafllng to the windward or leeward of them. The Lobos de Sotovento, or the Leewjrd Ifland, to the N. W. from the other, is about 2 leagues in circuit, and is low, but has fome high rocks about it ; from which to Cape Aguja to the northward is about 5 leagues. — i!>. Lobos de P.iyta, or Seals Ifland, to the northward of Cape Angiija, fo called from Port Pata, which is 1 1 leagues to the N. of it, is a fmall round iflanJ, the coall ot which is not high, but has very clean ground round it, and clofe to it ; and the bite within it is known by the name of Eucanada de Cechufa, or bay of Cechufa, which luns in fo deep that this ifland is 1 1 leagues due W. from the town of Cechula, as is the Port of Payta 10 leagues and a half at N. W. (Vom it. —ii. LoBos de la Mcr Iflands, in the S. Pacific Ocean, at the diilance of 16 Ic.igues (rom the m.iin, are two fmall iflands about a mile each in circumference, to the W. of one of which is a f.ifc harbour, with a fandy bottom, for (hips to careen. Tlicy are fo named to diftinguini them from Lobos dc la Terra, or near the Jand. But the two largcll of thofe which are met with iiuppL. Vol. II. under this name are 6 miles in length, and another fmall ifland is fa^d to be to windv/ard of the eallem- moft of thefe two, not half a mile in length, with jocks and breakers near the fliorc, the (oil of wliich is a hungry while clay, and the important article of ua^cr is wholly warning. But our accounts of tliel'e are re- lated very imperfciSly, fo that they can only be given as they have come to our hands. — ii. LOCAL Problem, is one tliat is capable of an in- (inile number of different folutions ; becaufe the point, which is tofolve the problem, maybe indiffere:itly tilcea within a certain extent ; as fuppofe any where in fuch 3 line, within fuch a plane figure, Sic. which is calkd a geomelrica! Locus. A local problem \% fimplc, when the point fought it in a right line ; plane, when the point fought is in the circumierenceof a circle ; foitJ, when it is in the circum- ference ot a conic feiflion ; or furfilid, when the point is in the perimeter of a line of a higher kind. LOCI, the plural of LOCUS, a line by which a loc.il or indeterminate problem is folved ; or a line of which any point may equally Iblve an indeterminate problem. See Algebra, Encyci. LOCKE, a military townfliip in New-York State, adjoining to Milton on the call, fituated in Onondago county. The centre of the town is 13 miles N. E. of the S. end of Cayuga lake. — Morse. LOCKARTSBURG, a town in Luzerne countv, Penni'ylvania, fituated on an iflhmus formed by the confluence of the Sufquehannah and Tioga rivers, about a mile above their junflion. There are as yet few houfes built, but it promifes to be a place of im- portance, as both the rivers are navigable for many miles into the State of New- York. It is 4 miles fnith of the New- York line, nearly 48 wefteily of Harmo- ny, and 90 above Wilkfbarre. — ii. LOG AN, a new county in the State of Kentucky. — ii. LOGISTIC Curve, the fame with Locj.irithmis Curve, for which fee Ev.cycl. LOGISTICS, or LoGihttcAL Arithmetic, a name fometimes employed for the arithmetic of fexageliinal fradions, ufed in aftronomical conipjtatinns. The fime term has been ufed for the rules of compu- tations in algebra, and in other fpecies ol arithmetic: witne(s the logidics of Vieta and other writers. Shakerly, in his Tabula Brilaniice, has a table of lo- garithms adapted to fexagefinial ('rations, and which he calls Logiflical Logarithms; and tlie expeditious aritlimetic, obtained by means of them, he calls Logi (Il- eal Arithmetic. LOGSTOWN, on the weftern fide of the Ohio, lies ibuth of Butlei's Town, and 18 miles from Pittf- bur))h. — Mone. LOGWOOD COUNTRY, lies N. W. of the Mof- quito Shi 're, at the head of the Bay of Honduras, and extendi from Vera Pa/, to Yucatan ix^m 15^" to 1 8^" N. lat. The whole coall is overfpread with iflots, keys and Ihoals, and the navigation is iniiicate. — ib. LONDON, a town in .-\E,n Arundel coucty, Mary- land, 5 miles S. W. of Annapolis. — ib. LONDON COVE, a narrow water of Long-Iflind Sound, which (ets up north into the townfl.ip of New- London, 4 miles welt tf the mouth of Thames river. X z MilUluue L O N C 346 ] L O N Xvondon- dcrry, II Lonp;- Illarid. Mlllftone Point fepHratCi it from another much broader on the welt, acrols which is ;i handfonie bridge, wilh a draw at Rope Ferry. — ib. LONDONDERRY, a poft-town In Roclcinghim ' cour.ty, New.Hampfliire, lituatcd near the licad oi Beaver river, which empties into Msrrimack river, at Pawtiicket FalU. It is 36 miles S. W. by W. of Ponfmniuh. Londonderry was fettled in 1718, and incorporated 1722, and contains 2590 inhabitants. The people are molHy the defcendants of emifi;rants from It, came chieHy from Ulller county in Ireland, originally from Scotland, and attend largely to the nianufaduTi uf linen cloih .ind thread, and males con- fiderabie quantities for f.ile. The town is much in- debted to them f > r its wealth and confequence. — ib. LoNDONDKRRY, a townlhip in H.ihlax county, Nova- Scotia, fituated on the N. iide of Cobequid or Col- chefter river, about 30 miles from its mouth, at the bafui of Minas. It was fettled by the North Irilh and Scotch. — ib. Londonderry, a townfliip, and the north-wellern- moll of Windham county, Vermont, on the head wa- ters of Welf river, about 33 miles N. E. of Benning- ton. It was granted March 16th 1780. Moofe Moun- tain extends into the eallern part of this town. — ib. Londonderry, the name of two townfhlps in Pcnn- fylvania, the one in Chefter county, the other in that of Dauphine. — iB. LONDONGROVE, a townfhipin Dauphine coun- ty, Pennfylvania — ib. LONG Bay, extends along the fhore of N. and S. Carolina, from Cape Fear to the mouth of Fedee ri- \ir. — ib. Long By, on the fouth fide of the ifland of Ja- jiiaica, extends from Gutt to Swift river, and affords anchorage for fraall veifcls. — ib. Long Bay, in the ifland of Barbadoes, in the Wefl- Indies, lies on the well fide of the ill-ind, hiving St Jofeph's river fouth-eallerly, and Pico Teneriffe north- werterly. Another bay of the fame name lies on the foutli end of tlie ifland, about 2 miles eafterly of the fouth point. — //'. Long, or Eighteen mile Beach, on the coafl of New- Jerfey, lies between Little Egg Harbour inlet and that of Barnegat. — ib. Long IJl.md, formerly called Manhattan, afterwards Kajau JJI111J, belongs to the State of New-York. It extends trom Hudfon's river oppodte to Staten THand, almoll to the wellern bounds of the coaft of Rhode- liland, terminiUing with Montauk Point. Its length is about 140 m-les, and its medium breadth not above 10 miles; and feparated from Conneiflicut by Long- Ifland Sound. It contains 1,400 fquarc miles; and is divided into 3 counties. King's, Queen's and Suffolk, and thefe again into 19 townfhip^.. The N. hde of the ifland is rough and hilly. A fmgle range of thefe hills extends from Jamaica to Southhold. The foil is here well calculated for railing grain, hay, and fruit. The fouth fide of the ifland lies low, with a liglit fan- dy foil. On the fea-coall are extenfive tradts of fait meadow, which extend from Southampton to the weft end of the itland. The foil, notwithllanding, is well adapted to the culture of grain, particularly Indian corn. Near the middle of the ifland is Hampflead Plain, in Queen's county. It is 16 miles long, and about 8 bioad. This plain was never known to have any natural growtli, except a particular kind of wild grafs, and a lew Ihrubs, although the foil is black, and to appearance rich. It produces feme rye, and large herds of cattle are fed upon it, as well as on the I'alt mar(he«. On the E pait of the ifland, E. of Hamp- Head Plain, is a large barren heath, called Brulhy Plain: It is overgrown with Ihruboak, intermixed with a few pine trees, where a number of wild deer, and prc'ufe harbour. The largefl river, or flream in the ifluid is Peakonok, an inconlideraUe ftream. It runs E. and empties into a large bay, that feparates Southhold from Southampton. In this bay are Rob- bin and Shelter illands. Rockonkama pond lies about the centre of tlie iflwnd, between Smith-Town and Illip, and is about a mile in circumference, and has been found, by obfervation, to rife gradually for feve- ral years, until it had arrived to a certain height, and then to fall more rapidly to its lowell bed ; and thus is continually ebbing and flowing; The caiife has ne- ver been invoftigated. Two miles to the I'outhward of the pond, i^ ;■- llream called Coniieifficut river, which empties into the bay. The produce nt the middle and wellern parts of the ifland is carried to New. York. 'J'he iiland c ntaincd, in 1790, 41,783 inhabitants, of whom 4,839 were flaves ib. Long-Island Soundh a kind of inland fea, fronn 3 to 25 miles broad, about 140 miles long, extending the whole length of the ifland, and dividing it from Con- nefticnt. It communicates with the ocean at both ends of Long-Ifland ; and affords a very fafe and convenient inland navigation.— //i. LcNG-lsLAND, an iiland in Sufquehannah river. — ih. Long Island, in Holfton river, in the State ot Tcnnelfce, is 3 miles long. Numbers of boats are built here eveiy year, and loaded with the produce of tl e Slate iov New-Orleans. Long-Ifland is to miles W. of the mouth of Wataugo river, 43 ir.'m Abing- don, 100 above Knoxville, 283 from Nalhvilh-, and 1000 from the mouth of the Tennelfee. It is 340 milei S. W. by \V. of Richmond, in Virginia, and to which there is a good waggon road. — ib. LrNG-IsLAND, on the coafl of S. Carolina, in N. America, is to the E. N. E. of Charles Town, and N. E. from Sullivan's Iiland, in lat. about 32° 48' N. and long. 78" 36' W. It is but a fmall ifland and at a little dillance only from the main land. — Malham. Long- L LAND, on the N. fide of the ifland of Anti- gua in the Weft Indies, is an ifland which lies before the opening into Parham harbour, having a fmaller iflind, called Maiden Ifland, a little to the W. of S. from it, between this ifland and a point of land of the miin ifland to the weftward of the latter ifland. It is befet with banks and rocks from the N. W. by the N. to the E. From the wefternmoft point of the ifland a fand bank runs to the N. W. for half a league nearly, fo that fhips muft keep at that diftance from the faid point, and at leaft 2 miles at N. W. from Maiden Ifland, before they attempt to go in on that courfe for the latter ifland. By this couife they will come thwart of the wellernrr.oll point of Long-Ifland, about half a mile lliort of Maiden Ifland, and thereby avoid a (hoal which runs oat from the main ifland to- v/aids Long Ifiund. LOR [ 347 I,ong Kle, wards the N. E. as well as this bank from the jioinc II in the dirtdion of N. \V. which has but fiom 2 to 6 ,^^^^;^ feet upon it.—/*. LONG ISLE, or IJe River In^iaKs, inhabit on Ille, or Wliite river, which runs vvefterly into the river Wabafli. The mouth of White river is in N. lat. 38° 58' \V. Ion},'. <;o'' y'.—Mai-fe. LONG LAKE, in the Geneflee country in New- York.—//.. LONG—MEADOW, a town in Hampfliire county, ] LOT Lorenzo //!jnJ, on tlic W. coaft of South Ame- rica, on the fouth Atlantic Oce.in, is above 2 miles to the W. of the cape at Callao, being about 4 miles long from N. W. to S. E. and near 2 broad in the broadeft; part. A very frnall ifland, called La L^j.i, lies in the midway between them, having only a depth of from 9 to 12 feet on its E. fide towards the cape, on the N. fide 4 fathoms, and on the W. fide towards Loien/.o Hill more water. There is generally from 7 to 17 fa- thoms round this ifljnd ; oli the S. E. end of which ii Malfjchufetts, fituated on the E. bank of Connedicut Fronton Ifland, having from 5 fathoms and a half to nver, about 4 mlhs S. of Springfield, and 23 N. of Hartford. It was incorporated in 1783; contains a Conpregaiional church, and about 70 dwelling houfes, which lie upon one wide flreet, running j)arallel with the river. The townlliip contains 744 inhabitants. It is 97 miles S. W. by W. of Bofton. — ii. LONG POINT, a peniufnia on the N. fide of Lake Eiie, and towards the eaftern end of the lake. It is 14 fathoms round it, and between the iflands fome fmall rocks. There are alfo fcveral fniHll iflands, call- ed Palominos, about 3 miles on the W. of Lorenzo Ifland, having irom 13 to 18 fathoms round ihem. — Mnlhimi. LORETTO, a fmall village cfChriilian Indians, 3 leagues N. E. of Quebec, in C.tnada. It has it? name from a chapel built accoiding to the model of compofcd of (and, and is very convenient to haul boats the Santa Cafa at Loretto, in Italy ; from whence an out of the fuif upon, when the lake is too rough for image of the Holy Virgin has been font to the converts rowing or failing. /^fr?«.//on Po/«/, between Puan Bay and Lake Michigan, is alfo calkd Long Point in fome maps. — ib. LONG POND, in the Diftria of Maine, lies moft- ly in BriJgton, and is 10 miles long liom N. W. to S. E. and about a mile broad. On each fide of this pond are large fwells of excellent land, with a gradual by a deep ditch here, lefemUling that in the famous Italian fanfluary. Thefe converts are of the Huron tnbe. — Morse. Loretto, Lady of, a place in the di(Iri<fl of Sc Denni.s on the iflhmus of California ; the Indians call it Cancbo. Here is a fmall fort ereded by the mif- 'ionaries, confifting of four ballions, and furroundcd defcent to the margin of the pond, and furnifh a varie- ty oK romantic profpeds. — ib. LONGUEY BAY, on the coall of Chili on the W. cnall of South America, fomelimes called Tonguey or Tciiguay, is 10 leagues to the N. from Limari, and in lat. 30" 30' S. In the road is a headland oppofite to a fmall river, where is good watering ; ai.d there is good anchorage all over the bay, and clean holding ground. This bay may be certainly known by the hill called Sierra del Gu.inaquero, and by a low point run- ning out, called Lengua de Vacca, the Cow's Tongue, which clofe the bay to weftward. This coaft, though indifferently high, fo as to be feen at 25 or 30 leagues off at fea, makes at firft as if it was all drowned, be- caufe the mountains of the Ci>rdilleras that appear over LORINCHINCA, on the coaft of Peru, in South America, and on the S. Pacific Ocean, is about mid- way between Pifco and Chinca, or 3 leagues from eacli, and has a tolerable good road, with a fair ftrand on the ftiore. But there runs a great lea on th.is coaft. Ships may anchor in 6 fathoms before a houfe that will be feen on the fliore near a white church ; this houfe is known by the name of £1 Molino, or the Mill. — Mal- ham. LOROMIE'S STORE, in the territory N. W. of the Ohio, a place wefteily from Fort Liwrence, and at or near a fork of a branch of the Great Miami river, which falls into the Ohio. At this fpot, bounded W. by the Indian line, the Indians ceded a trad of land to the United States, 6 miles fquare, by the treaty it, are always covered with Ihow. It is 7 leagues from figned Auguft 3, 1795. Here the portage commences hence to Herradura or Horfe Shoe Point to the foudi ward of Coquimbo. — Malham. LONGUILLE, or as the Indians call it, Kenapaco- maqua, an Indian village on the N. bank of Eel river, in the N. W. Territory. It was dcftroyed by Gen. Scott in 1791, with 200 acres ot corn in its neighbour- hood. — Morse. LOOKOUT, Cape, on the coaft of N. Carolina, is the fouthern point of a long infulated and narrow flip of land, eaftward of Core Sound. Its N. point foinis the S. fide ol Ocrecock inlet, which leads into Pamlico Sound. It lies N. E. of Cape Fear, and S. of Cape tanical readers : between the Miami ol ihi Ohio, and St Miry's river, which runs iiito Lake Erie. — Morie. LOS REYES, the chief town of the province of Uragua, in the E. divilion of Paraguay, in S. Ame- rica. — ;■/'. LOS CHARCOS, a province in the fouihern di- vifion of Peru, whofe chief cities are Potoli and Porco. — ih. LiBVAN LOTUS has been defcrihed {En:ye/.) un- der the title Rhamsus; but the following additional particulars from Mr Park will be acceptable to our bo- Hatteras, in about latitude 34" 50'. It had an excel- lent harbour, which has been filled op with fand fince the year 1777 — ib. Lookout, Cape, on the fouthern coaft of Hudfon's Bay, in New South Wales, E. S. E. of the mouth of Severn river. N. lat. 56", W. long. 84" — ib. LORENZO, Ca/e Si, on the coal! of Peru, S. America, lies in the province of Quito, W. of the city of tliatname. S. lat.o" 20', W/Tong. 80° 20'. — ib. The lotus is very common in all the countries v.hlch our author vifited, and he had an rpportunitv to make a drawing ot a br.inch in (lower, ot which an enpraving is publillied in his travels, that with his perimfiion we have C'pied (("ee Plate XXX.). The lotus produces truit which the ncgiocs call /jw/rronj/. Tliefe ar; fmall farinaceous berries, fif a yellow colour and deli- clous tafte. They arc much efteemcd by the natives, who convert lliem into a fort of bread, by expofing X X 2 them LOU [ 348 ] LOU them lor feme d.iys to ihe fun, and afterwards pound- ing tliem gently in a wooden murt.ir, until the farina- ceous part of the berry is feparated from the ftone. This meal is then mixed with a little water, and formed into cakes j which, when dried in the fim, refemblc in colour and flavour the fweeteft gingerbread. The Hones are afterwards put into a vcilel of water, and Ihaken abov.t fo-as to feparate the meil which may dill ;<dhere to them : this communicates a fwcet and agree- able talle to the water, and with the addition of a little pounded millet, forms a pleafant gruel called fondi, which is the common breakfaft in many parts of Luda- mar, during the months of February and March. The fruit is colleifled by fpreading a cloth upon the ground, and beating the branches with a ftick. Our au- thor thinks there can be little doubt of this being the lotus mentioned by Pliny, as the food of the Ly- bian Lotophagi. An army may very well have been fed with the bread made of the meal of the fruit, as is iaid by Pliny to have been done in Lybia ; and as the tafte of the bread is fweet and agreeable, it is not likely that the foldiers would complain of it. LOUDON, a county of Virginia, on the river Potowmac, adjoining Fairfax, Berkley, and Faquier counties. It is about ^o miles long, and 20 broad, and contains 1 8,962 inhabitants, including 4,030 (laves. Chief town, Leefburg. — Morse. Loudon, a townlhip in Rockingham county, New. Hamplhire» taken from Canterbury townfhip and in- corporated in 1773. It is fituated on the E. fide of Merrimack river, and contains 1084 inhabitants. — ib. Loudon, a townlliip in Berkfhire county, Mafla- chufetts, 21 miles S. E. of Lenox, 24 W. of Spring- field, and 124 W. of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1773, and contains 344 inhabitants. It contains 13,000 acres, of which 2,944 ^^^ ponds. — ib. LOUGHABER, or Lochaler, a fmall fettlement in Georgia, on a branch of Savannvth river, above its confluence with the Tugulo, the W. main branch. — \h. LOUIS, Fort, a fettlement formed by the French rear the mouth of the river Coza, in Florida, about 20 leagues N. E. of the nearefl mouth ot the MilFillippi, and until the peace of 1763, was the ufual refidence of the principal governor ot Louifiana \b. LOUIS DE MARANHAM, St, a town on the northern coall ot Brazil, and on the Atlantic ocean, fituated on the eaft fide of Mearim river ; about h;ilf way between point Mocoripe, and the mouth of the liver Para. — ib. Louie, Sr, a jurifdiflion and town on the fouth fide of the ifland of St Domingo. The jurifdiclion contains 3 parilhc. Its exports Ihipped fiom the town of St Louis from Jan. i, 1789 to Dec. 31, of the fame year, were 120,665 lb. cofl'ee ; 19,^53 lb. cotton; 5,75 I lb. indigo. Total value of duties on exportation, 904 dollars 13 cents. St Louis is rather a borough than a town. It is fituated on the head of the bay of its name, oppofite a number of fmall ifles which (belter the bay on the (buth towards the ocean, and on the S. iide I'f the fouth peninfula, 8 leagues N. E. of Les Caves, a little more than 3 S. W. of Aquin, and 36 leagues S. W. by W. of Port au Prince: from which laft are two roads leading to it; the one by Jacmel the other by Leogane, and of much the fame length ; both join at Aquin. N. lat. 18° 18', W. long, from Paris, 75° 52'. — \b. Louis, St, a fmall, compaft, beautiful bay in Weft- Florida, having about 7 feet water. It is 18 miles >« from the Rcgolets, and 26 from the bay of Biloxi. The land near it is of a light foil, and good for pafture. There were (everal fettlers formerly on it, but in the year 1767, the Chadlaw Indians killed their cattle and ■ obliged them to remove. — \b. Louis, St, a Spanilh village on the W. fide of the river Milllfllppi, about 13 miles below the mouth of the Milfouii. Its fcite is on a high piece of ground, the molt healthy and plcafurable of any known in this part of the country. Here the Spanllh commandant and the principal Indian traders refide ; who, by con- ciliating the afteiftions of the natives, have drawn all the Indian trade of the Milfouri ; part of that of the Miirilllppi (northwards) and of the tribes of Indians reliding near the Ouifconfing, and Illinois rivers, to this village. About 20 years ago there were here 120 large and commodious houfes, moflly built of llone, and 800 inhabitants, chiefly French. Some of them have had a liberal education, and were polite and hof- pitablc. They had about 150 negroes, and large hocks of cattle, &c. It is 4 or 5 miles N. by W. of Cahokia, on the call fide of the Miirulippi, and about 150 miles W. by S. of Poft St Vincent's on Wabafh river. N. lat. 38" 24', W. long. 92" 32'. — ib. LOUISA, a county of Virginia, adjoining Orange, Albemarle, Fluvanna, Spottfylvania, and Goochland counties. It is about 35 miles long, and 20 broad, and contains 8,467 inhabitants, including 4,573 (laves. There are here ("oine medicinal fprings, on the head waters of South Anna, a branch of York river ; but they are little frequented. — tb. Louisa, a river of Virginia, the head water of Cole river, a S. VV. branch of the Great Kanhiway. — ib. LOUSA CHITTO, or Loofa Chitto, a river which rifes on the borders if S. Carolina, and runs a S. werterly courle through the Georgia wellern lands, and joins the MUrillippi jult below the Walnut Hills, and 10 miles trom Stony river. It is 30 yards wide at its mouth, but after you enter it, is from 30 to 40 yards, and is ("aid to be navigable tor canoes 30 or 4c leagues. It is 39I miles below the Yazoo cliflPs. — ib. LOUISBOURG, the capital of Sydney, or Cape Breton ifland, in Noith-America. Its harbour is one of the finelt in that country, being almcill 4 leagues in circuit, and 6 or 7 fathoms water in every pait of it. 'Jlie anchorage or mooring, is good, and Ih ps may run aground without any danger. Its entrance is not above 300 toifes in breadth, imned by two fmall iflands, and i.s known 12 leagues olFat fea, by Cipe Lorembec, fituated near the N. E. (ide ot it. Here is plenty of cod, and the fifliery may be cur.tiiiued from April to the clofe ot November. The harb< ur is more than half a mile in breadth, from N. W. to S. E. in the narrowed part; and 6 miles in length, from N. E. to S. W. In the N. E. part of the harbour is a fine careening wharf to heave down, and very fecure Irom all winds. On the oppofite fide are the fifhing ftages, and room for 2000 boats to cure their filh. In winter the harbour is entirely frozen up, fo as to be walked clofe of No- vember, Louis, II Louif- bourg. over, which fsafon begins here at the LOU C 349 3 LOW l-ouifiani. vetnber, and lads till May or June ; fometimes the ^•■^~-^^*-^ frofts fet in fooner, and are more intenfe ; as parii- cularly in 1745, when by the middle of October a great part oJ the harbour was already frozen. The town of Loui/boiirj; (lands on a point 'f land, on the S. E. fide of the ifl.ind ; its ftreets are regular and broad, confiding for the moft part of ftone houfes, with a large parade at a little diftance from the citadel ; the infide of which is a fine fquare, near 200 feet every way. On its N. lide, while polTelFed by the French, ftood the governor's lioufe and the church : the other fid«s were taken up with barracks, bomb procf; in which the French fecured their women and children during the fiege. The town is near half a mile in length, and 2 in circuit. The principnl trade of Louif- bourg is the cod fifhery, from which vaft profits accrue to the inhabitants ; the plenty of fifli being remarkable, and at the fame time better than any about Newfound- land. N. latitude 45° 54', welt longitude 59'' 55'. — /*. LOUISIANA, a Spanifti province of North-Ame- lica, bounded E. by the Mifljlfippi, S. by the gulf of Mexico, W. by New-Mexico, and N. by undefined boundaries. Both fides of the Mifliflippi were under the French government till the peace of 1762 ; when the eaftern fide was ceded to the king of Great Bri- tain ; and the day before the preliminaries of peace ■were figned, his Chriftian Majelly ceded to Spain all his territories to the weftwaid of the Miffillippi, to- gether with the town of New Orleans ; with a ftipu- lation that the French laws and ufages lliould not be altered : this precaution, however, proved afterwards of no avail. Louifiana is intcrfeifled by a number of fine rivers, among which are St Francis, the Natchitoches, the Adayes, or Mexicano river, the Milfouri, Kouge, Noir, and many others which are defciibed under their re- fpedive names. The greater part of the white inha- bitants are Roman Catholics. They are governed by a viceroy from Spain. The number of inh.ibitants is unknown. The quantity of good land on the Mif- fillippi and its branches, from the bay of Mexico to Ohio river, a diftance of nearly 1000 miles, is very great ; but that in the neighbourhood of the Natchez, and of the river Yazoo, is the flower of it all. There have been forae plantations of fugar canes ; but it is not a crop to be depended upon, as the froft has fome- times been loo powerful for that plant. The chief articles of exportatimi are indigo, cotton, rice, beans, myrtle wax, and lumber. The climate is faid to be favourable for health and to the culture of fruits of various kinds, and particu- larly for garden vegetables. Iron and lead mines and fait fprings, it is affertcd, are found in fuch plenty as to aflord an abundant iuppl) of thefe ncccllary articles. The banks of the MilfiHippi, for many leiigues in ex- tent, commencing about 2c miles above the mouth of Ohio, are a continued ch lin of linie-flone. A fine tra<a of high, rich, level land, S. W. W. and N. W. of Ncw-M.idrid, about 25 miles wide, extends quite to the river St Francis. While the United Stales were engaged in the revo. lution war againll England, the Spaniards attacked and poffefl'cd theml'clves of all the Englifh polls and fetllements ou the MiiliQippi, from the Ibbervillc up to tlie Yazoo river, including the Natchez country ; LouiCana, and by virtue of this conqueli have fince peopled and ' governed an extent three degrees north of the United _, - " .^ States Ibuth boundary, claiming the cxclufive navi- gation of the other. This bufincfs has been amicably fettled bv the treaty of 1796. The MiffifTippi, on which the fine ccuntry of Loui- fiana i, fuuated, was firft dil'covered by Ferdinand de Soto, in 1J41. Monfieur de la Salle was the firft who traveifed it. He, in the year 1682, having paJTed down to the mouth of the Miiliflippi, andfurveyed the adjacent country, returned to Canada, from whence he took paffage to France. From the flattering ac- counts which he gave of the country, and the confe- quent advantages that would accrue from fettling a colony in tliofe parts, Louis XIV. was induced to ellabllfh a company for tlie purpofe. Accordingly, a fquadron of four veffels, amply provided with men and provifions, under the command of Monfieur de la Sallt, embarked with an intention to fettle near the mouth of the Miffiflipp'. But he unintentionally failed a hundred leagues to the weftward of it, where he at- tempted to eflablifli a colony ; but, tlirough the un- favourablenefs of the climate, roofl of his men mifer- ably perifhed, and he himfclf was villanoudy murder- ed, not long after, by two of his own men. Monfieur Ibbervillefucceeded him in his laudable attempts. He, after two fucccfsful voyages, died while preparing for a third. Crozat fucceeded him ; and in 1 7 1 2, the king gave him Louifiana. This grant continued but a Ihorc time after the death of Louis XIV. In 1763, Louifiana was ceded to the king of Spain, to whom it now be longs. — il). LOUISTOWN, in Talbot county, Maryland, lies on the weft fide of Tuckahoe creek, about 4 miles north of King's Town, and 7 or 8 norlh-eaft of Eaffm. — ii. LOUISVILLE, the prefcnt feat of government of Georgia, fituated in Burke county, in the lower diftriifl of the State, on the N. E. bank of the Great Ogeechee river, 70 miles from its mouth. It has been lately laid out, and contains a ftate-houfe, a tobacco ware- houfe, and about 30 dwclliiig-houfes. Large quan- tities of tobacco are infpeiffed here, and boated down to Savannah. The convention for the revifal of the conftitution fat in this town in May, 1795, and ap- pointed the rccotds to be removed, and the legidaturc to meet here in future. A college, with ample and liberal endowments, is indituted here. It is 52 miles S. E. of Augufta, and 100 N. W. of Savannah ib. LOUISIADE, Land of, difcovered and named by Bougainville in 1768, is probably a chain of iflands, fiirniing a fouth-eadern continuation of New Guinea. The coafl feen by the Dutch Ceelwint Yaclit in 1705, is a fmall didance north oi Louifiadc. — ib. LOVE-COVE, a fine opening to the weftward of Whale Covf, in New North Wales.—//-. LOVELL's POND, inNcw-Hampfliire, lies at tlie head of the eaftcin branch of Salmon Fall liver. — ib. LOWANG, a Chlnefe ifland of fome extent in tlie neighbourhood of the CMusAs-Ifles, which fee in this Supplement. Some of the gentlemen belonging to the firitldi embaily went afhore on Lowang, which they dcfcribcd as naked bnh cf trees and of cattle. They e.T.tmined particularly a fniall level plain recovered from the fca, which was kept out by an embankment of earth, L O X [ 35 Lowajig, earth, at leaft thirty i'eet thick. The qmmity cf gronnd gained by it fecmed fcarccly to be worth the labour that it mud have coft. The |)lain was iiidted cultivat- ed witU the utmoft care, and laid cut chiefly in rice- plats, fupp'.isd wiih water colle>5lcd iVoni the adjacent hills into little channels, through which it was convey- ed to every part of thofe plantations. It was manured, inftc-.id of the dung of animals, with matters more of- fenfive to the human fenfes, and which aic not very ge- nerally applied to the purpofes of agriculture in Eng- land. Earthen vefTels were funk into the ground for the reception of fuch manure ; and for containing li- quids ot an analogous nature, in which the grain was llecped previoully to its being fown ; an operation which is fuppcfed to hallen the growth ci the future pl.int, as well as to prevent any injury from infefts in its tender (late. The p.irty fell in with a peafant who, though flruck with their appearance, was not fo feared by it as to (hun them. He was drefled in loo!'e garments of blue cot- ton, a draw hat upon his head falK-ned by a filing un- der his chin, and half baots upon his legs. He feemed to enter into the fpirit of curinlity, naturally animating travellers, and readily led them towards an adjoining village. Pafllng by a fmall farm houfe, they were in- vited into it by the tenant, who, together with his fon, obferved them with aftonifhed eyes. The houfe was built of wood, the uprights of the natural form of the timber. No ceiling concealed the inllde of the roof, which was put together (Irongly, and covered with the flraw of rice. The floor was of earth beaten hard, and the partitions between the rooms confifted of mats hanging from the beams. Two fpinning wheels for cotton were fcen in the outer rooni ; but the feats for the fpinners were empty. They had probably been filled by females, who retired on the approach of ftran- gers ; while they remained, none of that fex appeared. Round the houfe were planted cluOers of bamboo, and of that fpecies of palm, of which each leaf refembles the form of a fan ; and, ufed as fuch, becomes an ar- ticle of merchandize. LOWER ALLOVVAY'S Cr,d, a towndiip in Salem county, New-Jerfey Morse. LOWER DUBLIN, a townftilp in Philadelphia countv. Pennfylvania, — ib. LOWER MILFORD, a tovvnfhip in Buck's county, Pennfylvania. — ih. LOWER MARLBOROUGH, a poft.town in Ma- rylind, 30 miles from Annapolis, and 12 from Cal- vert court-houfe. — il. LOWER PENN'S Neck, a townlliip in Salem county, Newjerl'ey \b. LOWER WEAU Towns, in the Territory N. W. of the Ohio, lie 20 miles below Rippacanoe creek, at its mouth in Wabafh river. — ib. LOWHILL, a townfliip in Northampton county, Pennfylvania. — \b. LOXA, a town of Quito in Peru, at the head of a N. W. branch of Amazon river, 215 miles north-eafl of Paita, and north-wefterly of Borja. It is the capi- tal of a jurifdiiflion of the fame name, and lies in lat, 5° 10' S. long. 77° 10' W. Bcfides 2 churches, it has ieveral religious foundations ; as, a college in- flituted by the Jefuits, an hofpital, with 14 villages in its diftriifl. J LUG Lucia. The jurifdiclion of the fame nnme produces the fa- Lox«dr«>- mous Ipecific for intermittent fevers, called Cafcarilla "''<^' de Logo Quinquina, or Jefuii's bark. Ot it there are feveral kinds, but one more clficacious than the others. , Here .ilfo tliey are employed in breeding cochineal. The inhabitants of L'ja, called alfo Loj inus, do not exceed 10,000 fouls, though formerly tar more nume- rous. Large droves ot horned cattle and mules are bred here. Carpets are alfo manufaflured here of re- markable fineneh. — ib. LOXODROMIC Curve, or Spiral, is the fame as the rhumb line, or path of a (hip failing always on the fame courfe in an oblique direftion, or making always the fame angle with every meridian. It is a fpecies of logaiidimic fpir.-jl, defcribed on the furface of the fphere, having the meridians for its radii. LOXODROMICS, the art or method of oblique failing, by the loxodromic or thumb line. LOYALSOCK Creek, in Northumberland county, Pennfylvania, empties into the W. fide of the branch of Sufquehannah river, from the north-eaft, a few miles E. of Lycoming Creek, 26 from Sunbury, mea- furing in a ftraight line, and about 170 from Phila- delphia. The lands from this to Sunbury are among the higheft and of the bell quality, and in the healthiell Ihuation in the State. It is navigable 20 or 30 miles lip for batteaux of 10 tons. — Morse. LUCANAS, a jurifdiflicn in the diocefe of Gua- manga, in Peru. It begins about 25 or 30 leagues S. W, of Guamanga. Its temperature is cold and moderate. It abounds with cattle, grain and fruit ; and has alfo filver mines ; and is the centre of a very- large commerce. — ib. LUCx^R, Fort St, lies on the north-eaft coaft of Brazil ; about half way between the city of Scara and Rio Grande. — ib. LUCAR, CAPE St, or Lucas. The S. E. end of the peninlula of California is fo named. — ib. LUCAYA, one of the Bahama Iflands, about 70 leagues eall of the coaft of Florida, and 6 from Ba- liama llle. It is about 9 leagues long and 2 broad, and gives name to the whole range. N. lat. 27° 27', W. long. 7S'' ^'.—ib. LUCAYONEQUE, another of the Bahama ifles, which lie- about 9 leagues further eaft than the former; whole length is 28 leagues and breadth 3, and lies north and fiuth. — ib. LUCIA, St, a river of Eaft-Florida, runs fouth- eafteily alone the eaft fide of the peninfula ; and com- municates inland with Indian river. It has 6 feet water as far as the Tortolas, where are hilly knowls. A branch joins it from thefouth. — ib. Lucia, St, called by the French, Sainte Aloufie, from its having been difcovered on St Lucia's Day; one of the Caribbee Iflands, 6 leagues fouth of Mar- tinico, and 21 N. W. of Barbadocs. It is about 27 miles long from north to fouth, and 12 broad. Here are feveral hills, 2 of which being very round and fteep, are called the Pins heads of St Lucy, and were volcanoes. At the foot of them are fine vallies, having a good fiiil and well watered. In thefe are tall trees, with the timber of which the planters of Martinico and Barbadoes build their lioufes and wind-mills. Here is alfo plenty of cocoa and fuftic. The air is reckoned healthy, the hills not being fo high as to intercept LUC C 35^ ] LUC intercept the trade-winds, which alway; fan it from tlie eaftby which means tJie heat of the climate is mo- derated and tendered agreeable. In St Lucia are feveral commodious bays and har- bours, witli good anchorage, particularly the Little Careenage, one of the principal inducements for the French to prefer it to the other neutral iflands. This port has feveral noted advantages ; there is every where depth enough, and the quality of the bottom is excel- lent. Nature has formed there three careening places, ■which do not want a key. and require nothing but a capllern to turn the keel above ground. Thirty fhips of the line might lie there (hekered from hurricane?, without the trouble of being moored. The boats of the country, which have been kept a long time in this harbour, have never been eaten by the worms ; how- ever, they do ni^t expe^ that this advantage will laft, ■whatever be the caufe. For the other harbours, the winds are always good to go out with, and the largcft fquadron might be in the offing in lels than an hour. There are 9 parifiies in the illand, 8 to the leeward, and only one to tiie windward. This preference given to one part of tlie illand more than another, does not proceed from the fuperioricy of the foil, but from the greater or lefs conveniency in fending out or receiving liiips. A high road is made round the illand, and two others which crofs. it fr.im call to well, afford all man- ner of facilities to carry the commodities of the plan- tations to the barcaderes, or landing places. In January, 1769, the free inhabitams ofthelfland amounted to 2.524; the flaves to 10,270. It had in cattle 598 mules and horfes, 1,819 horned hearts, and 2,378 Ihcep Irs plantations were 1,279,680 plants of cocoa — 2,463,880 of coffee — 681 fquares of cotton — and 254 of fugar canes ; there were 16 fiigar-works going on, and 18 nearly completed. Its produce yielded ^i 12,000, which by improvement m'ght be in- creafed to ^"500,000. The Englifii tirft fettled in this ifland in 1637. From this time they met with various misfortunes from the natives and French ; and at length it was agreed on between the latter and the Englilh, that this ifland, together with Dominica and St Vincent, lliould remain neutral. But the French, before the war of 1756 broke our, began to fettle thef'e iflands, which by the treaty of peace were yielded up to Great-Britain, and this ifland to France. The Lrililh m;ide tliemfelvcs malU-r of it in 1778) but it was rellored agiin tn the French in 1783 ; and retaken by the Britilh in 1794. St Lucia had 900 of its inha- bitants dcllrcycd by an earthquake, Oifk. 12, 1788. It is 63 miles N. VV. of Barbadoes. N. lat. 14", W. long. LUCIOLE, a name given in the yinnalts de Chi- niie to the LAMrvRis Italica (See Lampyris, Enc\cl.). According 'o Dr Carradori, the light of the luciole does not depend on the influence of any external caufe, but merely on the will of ihnfe infects. While tJiey fly about at Irecd'.m, their (hining is very regular; but wlien they are once in our power, tlicy (hine very irre- gularly, or do not fh ne at all. When they are mclelled, they emit a frequent light, whicli appears to be a mark of their refjntment. When placed on their backs, they (hine almoft without interruption, making continual ef- forts to turn thcmicKu^ liom rh it polition. In the day- time it is oeccllary Co torment them in order to ooAkt them fhinc ; and thence it follows, that the day to them Luriole. is the feafon of repofe. The luciole emit light at plea- ^"^'^'^*» fiire from every point of their bellies, which proves that they can move all the parts of their vifcera indepen- dently of each other. They can alfo render their phofphorefcence more or lefs vivid, and continue it as long as they pleafe. A flight connpredion deprives the luciole of their power of ceafing to lliine. The author is inclined to believe, that the movement by which they conceal their light is executed by lirauing back their phofphoric fub- ftance into a particular membrane or tunic. He fup- pofes alfo, that the fparklinu. conl'ifls in a trembling or ofcillation of the phofphoric mafs. He is of opinion, that there is no emanation of a phofphoric fubllance, and that the whole phenomenon takes place in the in- terior part of the luminous vifcera. Wlien the fhlr.ing is at its greatert degree of height, it is fo llrong that a perfon may by it eafily diflinguifh the hours on the fmallefl watch, and the letters of any type whatever. The phofphoric part of the luciole dees not extend farther than to the extreme rings of the belly. It is there inclofed in a covering compofed of two portions of membranes, one of which forms the upper, and the other the lower, part of the belly, and which are join- ed together. Behind this receptacle is placed the phoi^ phorns, which refembles a palle, having the fmell of garlic, and very little tafte. The phofphoric matter iffues from a fort of bag on the flightell preffure ; when fqueezed out, this matter lofes its fplenJour in a few hours, and is converted into a white dry f'ublfance. A portion of the phofphoric belly put into oil, Ihone only with a feeble liglit, and was foon extinguilhed. In water, a like portion fhnne with the fame vivacity as in the air, and for a much longer time. The author thence concludes, that the phofphorefcence of the lu- ciole is not the elFedl of flow inflai^imation, nor of the fixation of azotic gas, as the oil in which they (hine does not contain a lingle air-bubble : behdes, the phof- phnrus of thefe infcdls Ihines in a barometrical vacuum. Tiie obfervation made by Fuller, ihai the luciole ditfuf- ed a moie vivid light in oxygen gas than in atuiuiihe- ric air, does not, according to Carrad ri, depend upon a combuftion more animated by the infpiration of this ga-, but on the animals feeling thcmiljlvo , while in that gas, in a better condition. " Wi'.cnce, then, arife.s (fays the author) the phofphoric lif:ht (,f the luciole? I am of opinion (adds, he), that the light is peculiar and innate in thel'e inlt-fts, as tever.il "'iher produiftions are peculiar to other animals. As fomc animal-, have the faculty of accuniulaiing tlie cleflric fluid, and of keeping it condenfed in particular organs, to diffufe it af'erwards at plealure, there may be other animals en- dowed with the faculty of kcepir.g in a condenfed (late the fluid which conftitutes light. It is poffible, that by a peculiar organization they may have the power of extraiiling the liaht which enters into the compofition of their food, and of tranlmitting it to the refervolr de- (lined lor that purpofe, which they have in their abdo- men. It is not even iinpollible that they may have the power to cxtraft from the atmolpheric air the lumi- nous fluid, as other aiiimjls have the power of extraft- ing from the fame air, by a chemical procef's, the fluid of heat." C-wradori difcovcred, that the phofphorefcence of the lucicle L U D C 352 3 L U D LuJamsr. luc'iole is a property independent of tlie life of thcfe "^•^"^^^^ animah, and that it is chitfljr owing to the loft ftate of the phofphoric fubftance* Its light is fufpended by drying, and it is again rsvived by fofiening it in water ; but only after a certain time of deficcation. Reaumur, Beccaria, and Spallanzani, obferved the fame tiling in regard to the phuUidcs and the mcdufa. By plunging the luciole alternately into Uikewarm and cold water, they iliine with vivacity in the former, but their light becomes extinft in tiie latter ; which, according to the author, depends on the alternate agree- able and difigree.ible fenfation which they experience. In warm water tlieir light difappears gradually. Dr Carradori tried on the luciole and their phofphorus the adion of different faline and fpirituous liquors, in which they exhibited the fjme appearances as other phofpho- ric animals. Thefe laft experiments prove that the phofphoric matter of the luciole is only foluble in wa- ter. LUDAMAR, a Moorifli kingdom in the interior of Africa, of which the capital Benorm is placed by Ma- jor Rennel in rj'^ N. Lat. and 6° 50' W. Long. It has for its noithern boundary the great defert (fee Sa- H.4P.A in this Supp'tmenl), and is dcfcribed by Mr Park as little better ih in a deCrt iifelf. Our traveller was taken captive on the confines of this kingdom, and car- ried to the camp of the king, where he was fubjedfed to the crueleft indignities that the malice of bigotted Moors could invent. He was not fufFsred to travel beyond the camp ; though he moved as it moved, and of courfe faw a confiderable part of the country, and had an op- portunity of obferving the manners of the people. " The Moors of Ludamar fubfift chiefly on the flelh of their cattle ; and are always in the extreme of either glut- tony or abfunence. In confequence of the frequent and fevere fafts which their religion enjoins, and the toilfome journeys which tlieyfomeiimes undertake acrofs the defert, they are enabled to bear both hunger and third v.'ith furprifing fortitude ; but whenever oppor- tunities occur of fati^fying their appetite, they general- ly devour more at one meal tlian would I'erve an Euro- pean for three. They pay but little attention to agri- culture ; purchafing their corn, cotton cloth, and other necelfaries, from the Negroe?, in exchange for fait, which they dig from the pits in the Great Defert. «' The natural barrennefs of the country is iuch, that it furnilhes but few materials for manuiadure. The Moors, however, contrive to weave a ftrong cloth, with whicji they cover their tents ; the thread is fpun by their women from the hair of goats : and they prepare the hides of their cattle lb as to furnilh laddies, bridles, pouches, and other ai tides of leather. They are like- wife fufficiently fkilful to convert the native iron, which they procure from the Negroes, into fpears and knives, and alfo into pota for boiling their food ; but their fa- bres and other weapons, as well as their firearms and ammunition, they purchafe from the Europeans, in ex- change for the Negro llaves which they obtain in their predatory excurfions. Their chief commerce of this kind is with the French traders on the Senegal river." Tlie Moors of this country have fingular ideas of feminine perfedtion. The gracefulnefs of figure and motion, and a countenance enlivened by expreilion, are by no means elfential points in their ftandard ; with them corpulence and beauty appear to be terms nearly fynonymous, A woman, of even moderate pretenfions, LmlatTvur, mud be one v.'ho cannot walk without a Qave under ^^'^«'"^~' each aim to fupport her ; and a perl'eft beauty is a load tor a camel. In confequence of this prevalent tado fur unwieldiiiefsof bulk, the Moorilh ladies take great pains to acquire it early in life ; and for this purpofe many cf the young giils are ciiiipelled by tlieir mothers to devour an inimenfe quantity of food, and drink a large bowl of camel's milk every morning. It is of no im- portance whetiier the girl has an appetite or not, the meat and the drink mud be fvvallowed ; and obedience is frequently enforced by blows. Tliis fingular prac- tice, indead of producing indigedion and difeafe, foon covers the young lady with that degree of plumpnefs, which, in the eye of a Moor, is perfedion itfelf. " Although the wealth of the Moors confids chiefly' In their numerous herds of cattle ; yet, as the padoral life does not afford full employment, the majority of the people are perfedlly idle, and fpend the day in trifling converfation about their hcrfes, or in laying fchemet of depredation on the Negro villages. " The ufual place of rendezvous for the indolent is the king's tent, where great liberty of Ipeech feems to be exercifed by the company towards each other. While in fpeaking of their chief, they exprefs but one opinion. In praife of their fovereign, they are unanimous. Songs are compofed in his honour, which the company fre- quently ling in concert ; but they are fo loaded with groi's adulation, that no man but a Moorilli defpot could hear them without blufliing. The king is diflinguifti- ed by the finencfs of his drefs, which is compofed of blue cotton cloth brought from Tombufloo, or white linen or muflin from Morocco. He has likewife a larger tent than any other perfon, with a white cloth over iti but in his ufual intercourfe with his fubjefts, all didindions of rank are frequently forgotten. He fometimes eats out of the fame bowl with his camel driver, and repofes hinifelf, during the heat of the day, upon the fame bed. "The military ftrength of Ludamar confids in cavalry. They are well mounted, and appear to be very expert in Ikirmilhing and attacking by lurprife. Every Ibldier furnidies his own horfe, and finds his accoutrements, confiding of a large fabre, a double barrelled gun, a fmall red leather bag for holding his bails, and a pow- der horn flung over the fhoulder. He ha'i no pay, nor any remuneration but what arifes from plunder. This body is not very numerous ; for when Ali the king made war upon Bambara, our author was informed that his whole force did not exceed 2000 cavalry. I'hey conditute, however-, by what he could learn, but a very * fmall proportion of his Moorifh fubjefts. The horfes are very beautiful, and fo highly edeemed, that the Negro princes will fometimes give from twelve to fourteen flaves for one horfe." Cut off from all intercourfe with civilized nations, and boading an advantage over the Negroes, by poffef- fing, though in a very limited degree, the knowledge of letters, the Moors of Ludamar are at once the vain- ell and prouded, and perhaps the mod bigotted, fero- clous, and intolerant of all the nations on the earth ; combining in their charai.1er the blind fuperdition of the Negro with the lavage cruelty and treachery of the Arab. It was with the utmod difficulty that our author made his efcape from this inhofpitable people. LUDLOW, L U R C 35i ] L Y N Luilow, LUDLOW, a townftip in Hampfliire county, II MallUchuletts, fouth of Granby, lo miles north-earterly ^_^^ of Springfield, and 90 wefterly of Bolton. It was in- corporated in 1784, and contains 560 inhabitants. — jMone. Ludlow, a townfhip on Black river, Windfor county, Vermont. It contains 179 inhabitants, and is about to or I2 miles W. of Wcathersficld, on Con- neiflicut river. — it. LUE, St, the chief town of the captainthip of Pe- tagiies, in the northern divifion of Brazil. — ili. LUMBERTON, a poll-town of N. Carolina, and capit.il (if Robefon county, fituated on Drowning creek, 32 miles fouth of r.iyetteville, and 93 S. by W. of Raleigh. — i/>. LUNENBURG, a county of Virginia, adjoining Notlaway, Brunfwick, Mecklenburg, and Charlotte counties. It is about 30 miles long, and 20 broad, and contains 8,959 inhabitants, including 4,332 flaves. —ib. LuNENBt;RG, a townflilp in Eflex county, in Ver- mont ; (ituated on Conncfticut river, S. W. of Guild- hall, and N. E. of Concord. The river takes a S. E. courfe along thcfe towns, feparating them from Lan- caller, Dalton, and Littleton, in the State of Ntw- Hamplliire. 'I'he Upper B.ir of tlie Fifteen mile Falls is upp' ("lie this town. 1 he Cat Bow, a bend of ihe Connefticut, is near the middle of the town. Tiie Upper Bar lies in lat. 44" 21' 30". The townfliip contains 119 iul)abitants. — ii. I-i NF.NBURG, a townfliip of New-York, fituated in Albany county, on the \V. fide of Hudfnn's river, 0))pofiie to the city of Hiidfon, and 30 miles fouth of Albany. It is a thriving village ot about 20 or 30 houfes, chiefly new, with a neat Dutch church, land- ing on the bank of tlie river. A new road is cutting from this village into the fettlements on the upper branches of the Delaware and Sufquehannah rivers, which will probably prove highly beneficial to the town. A number of the Mellis LivingUons have pur- chafed land in and about this village, to the amount of ^10,000, and have laid out a regular town, which will be a rival to Kaats' Kill, 5 miles below. The fcite of the town is uneven, and not of a very good foil.— /i. Lunenburg, a county of Nova- Scotia, on Mahone Bay, on the fouthern coafl of the province, facing the Atlantic Ocean. Its chief towns are New-Dublin, Lunenburg, Chefter, and Blandford. In Mahone Bay, La Have, and Liverpool, I'evcral fliips trade to England with timber and boards. Chefter isYettled hy a few New-England families and others : from hence to Windfor is a road the diftance of 25 miles. —ii. Lunenburg, a townfliip in the above county, fi- tuated on Merliqueth, or Merligualh Bay, well fettled by a number ol iodullrious Germans. The lands are good, and generally well cultiv.ued. It is 35 miles S. W. by S. of Halifax, and 27 N. by E. of Liver- pool. — ii. LUPUS, the IVolf, a foutliern conftellation, joined to the Centaur, containing together 19 liars in Ptolo- my's citalogue, but 24 in the Biitannic catali-igue. LURGAN, a townlhip in Franklin county, Pcnn- fylvania. — Jilorte. Sum.. Vol. II. LUTTERELLE, an idand in Machi.is Bay, in the Diftria of Maine. — ii. LU FTERLOCK, a townfhip in Orleans county, in Vermont, ncrth of Craftfborough, Irafburgh, Coven- try, and Salem, which lie in a N. N. E. direftion from this town. Hazen's Road, which extends S. S. E. to the Oxbow on Conneflicut river, palfes through Lutterlock. — ii. LUZERNE, a large county of Pcnnfylvania, bounded north by Tioga county, in the State of New- York, eafl and fouth-eall by Northampton, well by Lycoming and Northumberland counties. It is about 79 miles in length from north to fouth, and 75 in breadth from call to weft, and is divided into 12 townfhips. In this county are 2 churche;, 33 faw- miUs, 24 grill-mills, 2 fulling-mills, and 1 oil-mill. The number of inhabitants is 4,904, including 1 1 flaves. A great part ot the county is barren where remote from rivers. It is well watered by the eaft branch of Suf- quehannah river and its tributaries, which fuinilh nu- merous and excellent mill-feats. The foil near the ri- ver is remarkably fertile, producing good crops of wheat, Hax, and hemp. The northern parts abound with pine timber and fugar ni.ple. In th; townlhips of Wilkfbarre, Kingltoii, Exeter, and Plymouth are large beds of coal. Bog-iron is found in fevcral places, and two forges have been erc(5ted. In this county arc many remains of ancient fortifications. They are ot an elliptical form, and overgrown with large white- oak trees. Chief town, Wilklharre. — ii. LYCOMING, a new county in the north-weftem part of Peiinfylvania, bounded north by the State of New- York, and well by Alleghany county. — ib. Lycoming, a fmall creek which runs fouth, and empties into the wefl branch of Sufquehannah, a few miles well of Loyall'ock Creek. — ii. Lycoming, a village in Pcnnfylvania, 40 miles from Northuinbeiland, and 66 from the Painted Poll in the State of Nev/.York. — ii. LYMAN, a townlhip in Grafton ciunty, New- Hamplhire, fituated at the foot of a mountain on the eafl liJe of Conneflicut river, between Littleton and Bath, and 7 miles W. by N. of New. Concord. It was incorporated in 176J, and contains 202 inhabitants. — //■. LYME, or Linif, a townlhip in Grafton county, New-Hamplhlre, fituated fju the call fide of ConnciSi- cut river, i 2 miles above Dartmouth College. It was incorporated in 1761, and contains S16 inhabitants. Lyme, a townfhip in Ncw-London county, Con- neflicut, the Nehawick of the Indians, is fituated rn the eall fide of Conneiftlcut river, at its mouth ; bounded fouth by Long-Ifland Sound, north by Haddam and Colchcller, and eafl by New- London. It was fettled about the year i6rt4, and w.is incorpoiatcd in May, 1667. It contains three patilhes, bciJes a congrega- tion of Separai ills, and an thcr of Daptids, In 1790, it contained 3,859 inhabitants. — H. LYNCHBURG, a pofl-town of Virginia, fituated in Bedford county, on the fouth fide ot Jame> river, nearly cppofilc to Maddilon, and one rri'le diilant. Heie are about 100 houfes, and a large warehoufi; for the inf|Kai.>n of tobacco. There isalfo a printint'- ollice which iliuci a weekly gazette. In th« vicinity of tiie town are fevcral valuable merchant mills. It is V y 12 miles Tvl A C [ 354 ] M A C 12 miles from New- London, 23 from Cabellfburg, jo head, &c. in the fummer feafon. Tlie beach is uf:d as Lymifield, liom Pi incc Edward's court-houfe, 150 W. bv N. of a race-ground, for wliich it is well cakul.ited, being Richmond, and 408 S. W. of Philideljihia. — il). level, fniooth, and htrd. A mineral I'piing has been LYKDEBOROUGH, a town(hip in Hilllborouph difcovered within the limits of the lownlhip, but is not. county, New-Hamplliire, about 70 miles from Portf- of much note. — il>. mouth. It was incorporated in the year 1764. In LYNNFIELD, a townfhip in Elfex county, MifTa- 1775 it contained 713; and in 1790, 1,280 iniiabit- chuftlts, N. E. of Salem, and 15 miles N. by E. of ;iius, who are chiefly farmers. — il> Uofton. It was incorporated in 1782, and contains LYNDON, a townlliip in Caledonia county, in Ver- j^tji in'iabitants. — ii. nioiu, lies north of S: Jiihiifbury, and foiitliward of 13il- LYNNHAVEN B,iy, at tlie fouth end of Chefa- iyniead and Durke. It contains 59 ir.habi'ants. — ;/■. LY'NN, a raatitime town in Elfex county, Malla- chuletts, lituateJ on a bay which lets up from that ot Malficluifetts, north call ol Bolton B.iy, and about 9 miles north by ead of the town of Bufton. The compafi part of the town forms a very lung lUeet. York Town in 1781. — ii> peak Bay, and into whicli Lynnhaven river empties its water?., lies between the mcutli of James's river and Cape Henry. The mouth of the river is 7 miles wefl of Cape Heniy. Here Compie de Graffe moored the principtl part if the French fleet, at the blockade of The townlhip, named S^iug^ius by the Indians, was in- corporated in 1637, aiid contains 2 291 iniiabicants. Here are two p.irithes, befiJes a fociety of Methodilb, and a large number of Friends. The bufinefs which makes the greatelk figure, and lor which the t<iwn ot Lynn is celtbraled, is the manufaclure ofwc.mcns' I'llk LYNX, a conlitllation of the northern hemifpherc. compofed liy Hevel tii rut of t!ie unformed liars. In his catalogue it conlllts of 19 Uarr, but in the Britan- nic 44. LYONS, a town lately laid out in Ontario county, NcwYo:k, about 12 miles N. W. of Geneva, at the and cloth ihoes. Thefe are difpofed of at Bolfon, Salem, junction of Mud-Creeic and Canandaque Outlet. — and other commercial towns, and fold for home ule, Alane. or Ihipped to the fouthein States, and to the Well- LYSANDER, a townlhip in Onondago county, N. Indies. By a ca'culatio.i made in 1795, it ap- York, incorporated in 1794, and comjjrehends the peared that there weie 2C0 malter workmen and 600 military towns of Hannibal and Cic-ro. The town- apprentices coiilhin-.ly employed in this bufinefs, who meetings are held at the 'Fhree Rivers in tliis town, jnake annually 500,000 pair of (hoes. Lynn Beach It is 16 miles S. E. of Lake Ontario. In 1796 there mav be reckoned a cuiiolity. It is a n-ile in length, vere 10 of its inhibitants entitled to be eleiflors. — ib. and conneft') the peninfula called Nahant with the main LYSTRA, a fm.iU town in Nelfon county. Ken- land. This is a place of much refort for parlies of tucky, fituaied on a well water of Rolling Fork, a plcafure from Bullon, Charlellown, Salem, Marble- foutii branch of Salt river. N. lat. 37° 25'. — il>. M. MAATEA, one of the Society Iflands, in the S. Sea, S. lat. 17" 52', W. long. 148° i'.— Morse. MACAPA, a town lituated on the north-well b;ink of Amazon river, W. of Caviana ifland, at the moiuh of the river, and a few minutes north of the equinoifli- al line. — ih. MACAS, the fouthern diflriil of (^ixo^■, a go- vernment of Peru, in S. America, bounded E. by the government of Maynas ; S. by that of Bracamoros and Yaguaifjngo ; and on the W. the E. Cordillera of the Andes feparates it from the jurifdiiflions of Riobamba :ind Cuenca. Its capital is the city of Macas, the name commonly given to the whole country. It produces, in great plenty, grain and fruits, copal, and wild wax ; but the chief occupation of the country people is the cultivation of tobacco. Sugar-canes thrive alfo here, as alio cotton ; but the dread of the wild Indians prevents the inhabitants from planting more than ferves tor pre- fent ufe. Here are cinnamon trees, faid to be of fu- perior quality to thofe of Ceylon. There are alfo mines of ultra marine, from which very little is extrai5l- ed, but a finer colour cannot be imagined. Among she vail variety of trees which crown the woods, is the florax, whofe gum is exquifitely fragrant, but fcarce. — tb. MAC-COWAN'S ForJ, on Catabaw river, is up- wards (,'f 500 feet wide, and about 3 feet deep. Lord Cornwallis crolfed here in purfait of the Americans in 1781, in his way to Hilliborough. — ib. MACHALA, a town of Guayaquil, on the coaft of Tumbez, in Peru, in a declining (late. The jurifdic- tion of the fame name produces great quantities of co- coa, reckoned llie heft in all G'layaqiiil. In its neigh- bourhood are great numbers of mangles, or mangrove trees, whofe fpreading branches and thick trunks cover all the plains ; which lying low are frequently over- flown. Tills tree divides itfelf into very knotty and diltorted branches, and from each knot a multitude of others germinate, forming an impenetrable thicket. The wood of the mangrove tree is fo heavy, as to link in water, and when ufed in (hips, &c. is found very du- rable, being fubjeifl neither to fplit or rot. Tlie In- dians of this jurifdiiflion pay their annual tribute in the wood of the mangrove tree. — lb. MACH ANGARA, a river formed by the junflion of feveral ftream?, ilFuing from the fouth and well fides MAC [ 3SS ] M A C Macliias. fiJts of the P.inccillo or Sugar Loaf mountain, on ^-^~''"*^ the fouih-v.ell fide of Q^iiito, in Peru. It wadies the fouth parts of ih-: city, ani has a (lone bridge over it. —a. MACHIAS, a port of entry, pod-town and feat of juftice, in Walhington county, Diftrift of Maine, iiiu- nted on a bay of its own name, 20 miles fouth-weft of Pair.imaqnoddy, 95 E. by N. of Penobfcot, and 236 nonhcalt of Portland, in 47° 37' N. lat. 1: is a thriving place, and carries on a confiderable trade to Bolton and the Weft-Indies in filh, lumber, &c. It is contemplated to eRiblilh a regular poll between this town and Halifax, in N^va Scotia. The name of the town is altered from the Indian n ime Mechilfes, given to the river in the oldell maps. It is 4C0 miles north- eaft of Bofton, and about 300 by water. Early attempts were made to fettle here, but the firft permanent fettle- ment was made in 1763, by 15 perfons of both fexes from Scarborough, in Cumberland county, and in 1784 the town was incorporated. The chief fettle- inents are at the eall and well Falls, and at Middle river. Machias river, after running a north courfe, 6 miles diftmce from Crofi ifland, (which forms its entrance) feparates at a place called tkc Rim; one branch taking a noitheaft diretlion, runs 2I miles, with a width of 30 lods to the head of the tide, where are two double faw-mills, and one griil-miU. Tne main branch runs a north-well courfe, nearly 3 miles, and is 70 rods wide, to the head of the tide, where are two double and fingle faw-mills, and two grill-mills. The thief fcttlement is at Weft Falls, the county courts being JielJ and lh> gaol erected there. The main chan- .M;chi;i. nel of the river takes its courf: to thefe falls, which, ^-^~'"*" though crooked and narrow, admits yelTcls of burden to load at the wharves within 50 rods ofth« m'lls. This advantage no other part of the town can enjoy. The entrance of Machias river is in N. bt. 44-" 35', W. long. 66'^ 56'. The town is divided into 4'dillriias for the iiipport of fihools; and into 2 for the convenience of public worlhip. In 1792 Walhington academy wa< eftablilhed here. The general court incorporated .1 number of gentlemen as truftces, ,ind gave for its fup- port a townlhip of land. In 17'jo the town contained 818 inhabitant-:. Since that time its population has rapidly incre.tfed. The exports of Machias confift principally of lumber, viz. boards, fhingles, clapboard", laths, and various kinds of hewed tirnber. The cod- fifhery might be carried on to advantjge though it has been greatly neglecled. In 1793, bttween 70 and Ho tons were employed in the filhery ; and not above 500 quintals were exported. The mill-faws, of which there are 17, cut en an average tliree million feet of boards annually. A great proportion ot timber is ufually Ihipped in Britilh velfels. The total amount of exports annually exceeds 15,000 dolLirs. From Ma- chias Bay to the mouth of St Croii, thrre are a grea: many fine iflands ; but the navigation is generally with- out therein the open fea. In the year 1704, when Col. Church made an attack on the French plantati- on on the river Schoodick, he found one l.uttcrelle, a French nobleman, on one of thefe ifltnds, and remov- ed him. The ifland ftill retains his name ib. MACHINERY. THE denomination Machlni is now vulgarly given to a great variety of fubjecls, which have very little analogy by which they can be clalTed with pro- priety under any one name. We fay a travelling ma- chine, a bathing machine, a copying machine, a threlh- ing machine, an ele^lrical machine, &c. &c. The on- ly circumfiance in which all thefe agree feem to be, that their conftruclion is more complex and artificial than the utenfils, tools, or inftruments which ofter themfelvcs to tlie firft thoughts of uncultivated people. They are more artificial than the common cart, the bathing tub, or the flail. In the language of ancient Athens and Rome, the term was applied to every tool by which hard labour of any kind was performed ; but in the language of modern Europe, it feeros reftriiflcd either to fuch tools or inftruments as are employed for execut- ing feme philofophical purpcfe, or of v.-hich the con- ftiuflion employs the fimple mechanical powers in a conlpicnous manner, in which their operation and ener- gy engage the atteniion. An eL-iftrical machine, a cen- trifugal in.acbinr, are of the fit ft clafs ; a threlhing ni;i- chine, a fire machine, are of the other clafs. It is near- ly fynonymous, in our language, with ENCrsE; a term altogether modern, and in fome meafure honourable, being bellowed only, or chiefly, on contrivances for ex- ecuting work in which ingenuity and mechanical Ikill lire manifeft. Peth.aps, indeed, the term engine is li- mineJ, by careful vriterf, to machines of confiderable magnitude, or at Icall of confiderable art and contiiv- ance. We fay, with propriety, fteam engine, fire en- gine, i^lating-engine, boring-engine; and a divicin" machine, a copying machine, &>:. Eti^er of thefe terms, machine or engine, are applied with impropriety to contrivances in which fome piece of work is not ex- ecuted on materials which are then faid to be manufac- tured. A travelling or batliing machine is Inrcly a vnl- garilm. A machine or engine is therefore a tool; but ot complicated conftruction, peculiarly fitted for expediting labour, or for performing it according to certain invariable principles : And we fliculd add, "that the dependence of its cilicacy on mechanical prir.ciples muft be app.trent, and even confpicuc lit. I'y.q contriv- ance and eretliou of fuch works conilitute the profef- lion of the engineer ; a profellion which ought by no means to be confounded with that of the mechanic^ the artifan, or manufacturer. It is one c^x the aria ibtri- Its ; as dcferving of the tiile as medicine, fi-rs^err, u'- chitefliire, painting, or fculpture. Nay, whether we conlidwT the importance t^f it to this fluurilhing naiinn, or the fcience that is necelfary f-sr giving eminence to the profelfor, it is very drubiful whether it ih"u!d roc take place of the three lait named, and go fori paffa with furgiry and medicine. The incomi-.'erate reader, who |>erufes Clc.ro de Oratore with fatisfaflion, is apt to fn)ile at Vitruvius, who requires in his architci: nearly t.'ic fame accomplilhmeius which Cicero requires in bis orator. He has not recollefted, or perhaps did not know, that the profetlion of an architect in th; Y y 2 .^ugufta-i 3S(^ MACHINERY. Au;;uftan age was the liK.ll refpcflable of all thofe which were not elientially connected with the manage- ment of Itate affaiis. It appears that the architedls were all Greeks, or the pupils of Greeks, altogether Jiffcrent fiom the members of the Collegium Murario- rum, the coiporalion of builders and malnns. The ar- chiteflure of temples, (ladiums, ciicul'es, amphitheatres, ieeins to have been mouopoUfed, by Itate auth(M ity, r.y a fociety which had long fubfilied in Afia, connefted by certain mvfteridus bonds, both civil and rclii^ious. We find it in bvria; and we learn tliat it was brought thi- ther from Pcrfia in very ancient times. Fiom thence it fpread into I( nia, where it became a very eminent and jKjwerful art'ociation, under the particular protection i>t Bacchus, to whom the membeis had erefled a magnifi- cent temple at Teos, wi;h a vail eilablilhn.ent ot priells and priefte/les, confifting of pcrfons of the fir 11 rank in the (late. They were the !o!e builders of temples and lladiums throiig!u>ut all Greece and the Lelfer Afia ; and t)ie contra>flors for the machinery that was employ- ed in the tlie.nres, and in the great temples, for the ce- lebration nf the higli mylleiies of paganifni. By the imperfefl accounts which remain of the Eleulinian and other m\ ISeries, it appears, that this michinery mull have been imrecnfe and wonderful, and mull have re- quired a great deal of methan'cal fkill. Thii indeed appears, in the moll convincing manner, to any perfon who refle(5ls on the magnificent llruclures which they credled, which excite to this day the wonder of the world, not only on account of their magnificence and incomparable elegance, but alio on account of the me- chanical knowledge that feems indifpenfably necellary for their eredion. This will ever remain a mylkry. There are no traces of fuch knowledge to be found in the writings of antiquity. Even Vitruvius, writing ex- prelbly on the fubject, has given us nothing but what is in the Inwell degree of elementary knowledge. This alfociation of the Dyonihacs undoubtedly kept their mechanical fcience a profound fecret from the un- initiated, the profane. They were the engineers ol aii- tiquity, and Vitruvius v.-as perhaps not one of the ini- tiated. He fpeaks of Myro and other Greek architei-'ts in terms of refpeift which border on veneration. Per- haps the modern alfociation of free mafons is a remain of tjiis ancient fraternity, continued to our limes by the company of builders, who erecled the cathedrals and great conventual churches. No one who conhders their works with fcientific attention, can doubt of their being tleeply verfed in tlie principles of mechanics, and even its more refined branches. They appear to have car- ried the art of vault-roofing aliiioft to its acme of per- ic(5lion ; far outftripping their Grecian inllrudlors in their knowledge oi this molt delicate branch of their art. It were greatly to be willied that fome fuch inflitu- tion did yet exill, where men might be induced by the moft powerful motives to accomplifli thenifelves in the Inowiedge neceffary for attaining eminence in their profeflion. We have been informed (and we thought our au- thority good), that the King has fignified his in- tention of patroniling an inllimtion of this kind. We heard, that it was propofed to inftitute degrees frmi- l.ir to our univerfity degrees, and proceeding on fimi- lar conditions of aicgular education or (landing, which would enfure the opporliiniiis of information, and alio on an examination of the proficiency of the candidate. This examination, being conduded by perfons eminent in the proftflion, perhaps (lill excrcifing it, would pro- b.;bly be f;rii'US, becaule the luccefslul candidate would immediately become a rival practitioner. Such an infti- tution would undoubtedly prevent many grr.fs impoli- tuinsby unlettcreil millwrights and pump-makers, who now fcldom appear under any name but that of engi- neer, although they are frequently ignorant even of die elements of meclianical fcience, a\id are totally unac- quainted with the hither niaihematics ; without which it is abfolutely impolllble for them to contrive a ma- chine well fuiled to the intended purpofc, or to fay with any tolerable precifn n what will be the perform- ance of the engine they liave eredled. Yet thefe are qucfiions fufceptible of accurate folution, bccaufc they depend on the unalterable laws of matter and motion. All who have a juft view of the unl'peakable advan- tages which tills highly favoured land polfelfes in the fuperiority and adivity of its manuladures, and who know how much of this fuperiority ihould be afcribed to the great improvements wliich have Ijeen made in pradlical mechanics within thefc Lift thirty years, will join us in wilhing fuccel's to fome fuch inllitution as that now mentioi;ed. We were naturally led to thefe reflexions when we turned cur thoughts to machinery in general, and ob- ferved what is done in this coui.try by the native ener- gy of its inhabitants, unaililled by fuch fcientific in- Ifruiflions as they might have expeded Irom the pupils of a Newton, their countryman, under the patranagc of the bed of Sovereigns, eminently knowing in tin fa thing?, and ever ready to encourage thofe fciences and arts whxh have (o highly contributed to the national profpeiity. What might not be reafonably expefled from Brltilh aflivity, if thofe among ouifelves who have knowledi;e and leifure had been at the fame p.iins with the members of the foreign academies to cultivate the Newtonian philofophy, and particularly the mote refined branches ot mechanic?, and to deduce Irom their fpeculatit ns maxims of cnnftruiflion fitted to our fitua- tion as a great manufafluring nation? But fuch know- ledge is not attainable by thofe wh.) are acquainted only with the iiiiperfefl elements contained in the publica- tions read by the bulk of our prafliticners. Much to this pnrpofe has been done on the continent by the moft eminent mathematicians; but from want of indi- vidual energy, or perhaps of general fecurity and pro- teiftion, the patriotic labours of tliofe gentlemen have not done the fervice to their country wliich might have been reafonably expefled. Indeed, their diO'ertations have generally been fo compofed, that only the learned could fee their value. They feem addrelTed only, or chiefly, to fuch'; but it is to thofe authors tliat our countrymen generally have recourfe for information con- cerning every thing in their profellion that riles above mere elementary knowledge. Tlie books in our lan- guage which profefs to be fyflems of mechanics rarely go beyond this : they contain only the principles of equilibrium. Thefe are abfolutely necellary tor the knowledge of machines ; but they are very far indeed from giving what may be called a praflical knowledge of -working machinery. This is never in a (late of equi- librium. The machiae muil m.ove in order to work. There There mud be a fupericrity of impelling power, beyond what is merely fuflicient for balancing ihe refilhince cr contrary acftioa of the work to be pertormed. The reader may turn to the article Statics in the Er.cy- tloptdia, and he will there fee ff.me farther obferva- tions on this head. And in the article Mechanics he will find a pretty ample detail of all the ufual doc- trines, and a defcription of a cnnfideralile variety of machines or engines, accompanied by fucli obfcrvations as are necclfary for tracing the propagation or tranf- miflion of prelfure from that part of the machine to which tl'-e natural power is applied to the working part of the machine. Along with thefe two articles, it will be proper to read with peculiar attention the article Rotation. By iar the greateft nnmber of our moft ferviceable engines confill chiefly of parts which have a motion ot rotation rcund fixed axes, and derive all their energy fr. m I'.vtrs virtually contained in them. And thefe afting parts are alfo material, requiring force to move thtrn, over and above what is neceilary for producing the aft.ng force at the working part of the machine. The inoditications which this circumflance frequently makes of the whole motions of the machine, are indica- teJ in the article Rotation in an elementary way ; and the propofitions there invelligated will be found almolf continually involved in the complete theory of the operation of a machine. Laftly, it will be proper to confider attentively the propofitions contained in the article Strf.voth of Mater'uils, that we may combine them with thole which rel.ite wholly to the working of tlie machine ; becaufe it is trom this conibiniition only that we difcover the ftrains which are excited at the various points of fupport, and of communication, and in every member of the machine. We fuppofe all thefe things already underltood. 1 Our objeift at prelent is to point out the principles The chief which enable us to afcertain what will be the precife qucllion in motion of a machine of given conllruflion, when aiSua- nicchanics. (^j (jy ^ natural power of known intenfity, applied to a given point of tlie machine, while it is employed to overcome a known refillance aifling at another point. To abbrevi.ite language, we (hall call that the impelled POINT of the machine to wh.ch the prelfure of the mo- ving power is immediately applied ; and we may call that the working point, where the refilfance arifing from the work to be pcif'rmed immediately afls. To conhder this important fuljcLt, even in its chief varieties, requires much nu re room than can be allowed in an undertaking like ours, and therefore we niuft con- tent ourfelves with a very limited view j but at the fame time, fuch a view as HihU f/ive futficient indication of the principles which fliould dir it the praOical reader in every important cafe. We Ihall confider thofe machines which perlorm their motions round fixed axes ; thcie being by far the moft numerous and important, becaufe they involve in tlieir conftruelion and operations all the leading principles. J That we may proceed fecurely, it is necefTiry to have The proper a prccilc and adequ.ite notion of ii;oviiig force, as ap- mcafurc of plied to machinery, and • f its mtafures. We think mechanical j|,jj |,eci]l;;,rly ne.elTiry. Dilfcrent notions have been tmd'^ '^^ entertained on this fubj'.a by Mr Leibnitz, lies Cirte?, and other eminent mechanicians of the l.ill century ; and tlieir fuccclFors have not yet cotnc to aa agrceoieac. MACHINERY. 357 Nay, fome of the moft eminent praflitJoners of the pre- fcnt times (for we muft include Mr Smeaton in the number) have given meafures of mechanical power in machinery which we think inaccurate, and tending to erroneous conclufions and maxims. We take tor the meafure (as it is the effefl) of ex- erted mechanical power the quantity of motion which it produces by its uniform exertion during fome given time. We fay uniform exertion, not becaufe this uni- formity is necelTary, but only becaufe, if any variation of the exertion has taken place, it mulf be known, in order to judge of the power. This would ncedlefsly complicate the calculations ; but in whatever way the exertion may have varied, the whole accumulated exer- tion is llill accurately mcafured by the quantity of mo- tion exiiling at the end of the exertion. The reader muft perceive that this is the fame thing that is expref- fed in the article Dynamics of this Suppl'in-nt, n° 90. by the area of the figure whofe abfcilfa or axis repre- fcnts the time of exertion ; and the ordinates are as the prelTures in the d.fferent inftarts of that time, the whole i)eing multiplied by the i-.umber of particles (that is, by the quantity of matter), becaufe that figure reprcfents the quantity of m ition generated in one particle of matter only. All this is abundantly clear to perfons conveifant in thefe difquifitions ; but we wifh to carry along with us the dillinfl conceptions of that ufeful clafs of readers whofe profetlion engages them in the conllruftion and employment of machines, and to whom fuch difcuihons are not fo familiar. We muil endea- vour theiefore to jullify our choice of this meafure by appealing to familiar fads. If a man, by preffing uniformly on a mafs cf matter for live leconds, generates in it the velocity ot ei;jht feet per fecond, we obtain an exaifl notion o{ the pro- portion of this exertion to the mechanical exertion of gravity, when we f.iy that the man's exerted force has been precifely onetwenlietii part of the adion of gra- vity on it; for we know that the weight of that body (or, more properly, its heavinefs) W(.iuld, in fivefeconds, have given it the velocity of 160 feet per fecond, by acting on it during its fall. But let us attend moie clofely to what we mean by faying that tiie exerted, force is one-'.wentieth of the exertion of gravity. The only notion we have of the exertion of gravity is wliat we call the weight of the bodv — the preliure which we feel it make on our hand. To fay that this is 20 pounds weight, does not explain it ; becaufe this is only the ac- tion of gravity on an<nher piece of matter. Bith pref- fures are the fame. But if the body weighs 20 pound;, it will draw out the rod of a lleelyard to the mark 20. The rod is fo divided, that the 20!h part of this |)iel"- fuve will draw it out to 1. Now the faft is, that if the man prelfes on the mafs of 20 pounds weight with a fpring lleelyard during five feconds, and if during that time the rod of the lleelyard was always at the maik I, the body will have acquired the velocity of eight feet per i'econd. This is an acknowledged faiS. Thcrefoie we were right in laying, that the man's ex- ertion is or.e-twentieth of the exctiii^n of gravity. And fince we believe the weight of bodies to be prop(>rtional to their quantity of matter, all muter being equally- heavy, we may fay, that the man's exertion was equal to ihe aQion of gravity on a quantity of mancr whofe weight is one pound. We czprefs it nai>:h more fami- liarly 25^ MACHINERY, Ivlr. Smca- ton's nica- farc liatly, by faying, that the man exated on it the pref. iure of one pound of matter, cr the force of one pound. In this manner, the motion communicated to a mafs of matter, by afling on it durinj; fome time, irifoims us with accuracy of the re.il mechanical force or pref- I'liic which has been exerted. This is judged to be double when twice the velocity has been generated in the f ime mnfs, or where llie fame velocity lias been ge- nerated in twice the mafs ; becaufc we know, that a double preflure would have done either the one or ilic other. But farther: We know that this prelTure is the ex- ertion; we have no other notion of our own force ; and our notion of gravity, of elafticity, or any oth;r natu- ral force, is the lame. We alfo know that the conti- nuance of this exertion fatigues andexhauds our ftrength as completely as the mofl violent motion. A dead pull, »•; it is called, of a horfe, at a poll fixed in the ground, is a ufual trial of his ftrength. No man can hold out his arm horizontally for much more than a quarter of an hour; and the exertion of the lad minutes gives the molt dirtrelling fatigue, and difables the Ihoulder from ;ji5iion for a confiderable time after. This is therefore an expenditure of mechanical power, in the ftvift pri- mitive fenfe of the word. Of this expenditure we have an exadl and adequate efFeft and meafure in the quan- tity of motion produced ; that is, in the produft of the quantity of matter by the velocity generated in it by this exertion. And it muft be particularly noticed, that this meafure is applicable even to cafes where no motion is produced by the exertion ; that is, if we know tliat Uk exertion which Is juft unable to ftart a block of llone lying on a fmooih llouc jjavement, but would Hart it, if increafed by llie fmallcll addition ; and if we know that this would generate in a fecond 32 feet of velocity in ICO pounds of matter — we are certain that it was a prelfure equal to the weight of this 100 pounds. It is a good meafure, though not immediate, and may be ufed without danger of millake when we have no other. The celebrated engineer Mr Smeaton, in his excel- lent dilfertation on the power of water and wind to drive machinery, and alfo in two other difiertations, all publilhed in the Pliilofophical Tranfailions, and aftei- wai ds in a little volume, has employed another meafure, both of the expenditure of mechanical power, and of the mechanical effedl produced. He fays, that the weight of a body, multiplied by the height thro' which it defcends, while driving a machine, is the only proper meafure of the power expended ; and that the weight, multiplied by the height through which it is uniformly laifed, is the only proper meal'ure ot the effecf produ- ced. And he produces a large train of accurate expe- riments to prove that a certain weight, defcending through a certain fpace, always produces the fame et- ieift, whetlier it has defcended fwiftly or flowly, em- ploying little or much time. Had this eminent engineer propof;d this as a popu- lar nicifure, of eafy comprehenfion and remembrance, and as well accommodated to the ufes of thofe engaged in the conftru(5lion of machines, when reftiifted to a certain clafs of cafes, it might have aufwered veiy good purpofes ; but the author is at pains to recommer.d it to the philofophsrs as a necelTary corredlion of their • Page 7- theories, which be fays ttnd to ralflead the artitlf. His own rcafonings terminate in the fame conclufion with Mr Leibnitz'.^, namtly, that the power of producing a me- chanical efieifl, and the efleiff produced, are propoi tional to the fquate rf the velocity. The deference julUy due to Mr Smeaton'i authoiity, and the influence of his name among thofe who are likely to make the niofl ufc of bis inl^rudions, render it neccfLry for us to examine this matter with lome attention. Mr Smeaton was led to the adoption cf this meafure by his profeffional habits. R^ifing a weight to a height is, in one fliapc or another, the general tafk of the ma- chines he was employed to ereift ; ami we may adJ, the opportunities of expending the mechanical powers of na- ture which are in our command, are generally in this proportion. A certain daily fupply ot water, c.iming from a certain height, is our belt opportunity, and may very properly be faid to be expended. 4 This being the general cafe, the meafure was obvious, Examined, and natural, and good. Tlie power and effed were of the fame kind, and nii// be meafures of each other ; at leaft, in thofe circumltantes in which they were fet in oppolition. Yet even here Mr Smeaton was obliged to make a relfriclion of his meaiurcs : "The height thro' which a hoAy Jloivly and equally defcended, or to which it was raifed." And why was this limitation neceflary ? " Becaufe in rapid or accelerated motions, the inertia ot bodies occafioned fome variation*." But this is too vague language for philofophical difquifition. Befides, what is meant by this variation ? What is the (landard from which the unreflricfted meafure varies ? This ftand- ard, whatever it is, is the true meafure, and it was needlefs to adopt any other. Now, the ftandard from which Mr Smeaton eftimates the deviation, is the very meafure which we wilh to employ, namely, the quantity of motion produced. Striflly fpeaking, even this is not the immediate meafure. The immediate meafure is that faculty which we call prelfure. This is the interme- dium perceivable in all produdlions of motion ; and it is alfo the intermedium of mechanical eifeft, even when motion is not produced ; as wlien the weight of a body bends a fpring, or the eladicity of a body fupports an- other prelfure. How it operates in all or any of ihefe cales, we know not ; but we know that all thcfe mea- fures of prelfure agree with each other. A double quantity of motion will bend a fpring doubly ftrong, will laife a double weight, will with. land any double prelfure, S:c. &c. In Ihort, prelfure is the immediate agent in every mechanical phenomenon. It penetrates bodies, overcoming their tenacity; ii overcomes fric- tion; it balances prelfure; it produces motion. Mr Smeaton's meafure is only nearly true, in any cafe, and in all cafes it is far from being exaift in the; firft inllants of the motion, during its acceleration or retardation. We have already noticed the complete expenditure of animal power by continued prefiure, even when mo- tion is not produced: the only difficulty is to conneifl this in a meafurable way with the power which the fame exertion has of generating motion in a body. When a man fupports a weight for a fmgle inftant, he certainly balances the prelfure or action of gravity on thit body; and he continues this aiftion as long as he continues to fupport it : and we know that if this body were at the end of a horizontal aim turning round a veitical axis, the fams effort which the man exerted in inacely M A C H I N E R Y. 35^ merely caiTying tlic \re!g!it, it no-.v exerted on the bo- dy, by pulhing it horizontally round the axis, will gene- rate in it liie lame velocity whicli gravity would gene- rate by its Tailing freely. On this authority therefore we fay, that the whole accumulated aflion of a man, when he hab juft carried a body whofe weight is 30 pounds for one minute, is equal to the wJiole exertion of gravity en it during that minute; and if employed, not to counteraft gravity, but to generate motion, would generate, during that minute, the fame motion that gravity would, that is, 60 X 32 feet velocity per lecond, iii a mah of 30 pounds. Tiiere would be 30 pounds cf matter moving with the velocity of 1920 feet per fecond. We would exprefs this produdion or el- fe^ by 30 X 1920, or by 57600, as the meafure of the man's exertion during the minute. But, according to Mr Smeaton, there is no expen- diture of power, nor any production of mechanical ef- fcft, in thus carrying 30 pounds for a minute ; there is no produfl of a weight by a height through which it is equably raifed ; yet fiieh exertion will completely exhaull a man's llrenglh if the body be heavy enough. Heic then is a cafe to which Mr Smeaton's mealure does not readily apply ; and this cafe is important, in- cluding all the aftuius ot animah at a dead pull. But let us conlider more narrowly what a man re illy does when he perfnms what Mr Smeaton allows to be the produOion ot a mealuiable mechanical cffeift. Stip- pofe this weight of 30 pounds hanglns; by a cord which paflesover a pulley, and that a man, taking this cord over his (liiiulder, turns his back to the pulley, and w.ilks away from it. We know, that a man of ordinary force will walk along, raifing this weight, at the rate of about 60 yards in a minute, or a yard every fecond, and that he can continue to do this for eight or ten hours from day to day ; and that this is all that h: can do without fatigue Here are 30 pounds raifed uniformly 1 80 feet in a minute; and Mr Smeaton would exprefs this by 3c X l^o, or 5400, and would call this the mcafuie of the mechanical efi'c<5t, and alfo of tiic expenditure of power. This is very d.ifetcnt from our meafure 57600. But this is not an accuiate and complete account of And fcund '^"^ man's a^icn oil the wiight, and ot the whole efFefl to lie in-ic- produced. To be convinced ot thi^, fupp<fe that a furate. nian A has been thus employed, while anotlier B, walk- ing along fide of him at the fame rate, fuddeiily takes the rope out ot his hand, trees him of the tafk, and con- tinies to raife the weight without the fmallelt change on its velocity of afcent. What is the action of B, and whether is it the fame with that of A or not ? It is ac- knowledged by all, that ihe exertion of B againft the load is precifely equal to 30 pounds. If he holds the rope by a fpring lltelyard, it will Hand conftantly at llie mark 30. B exerts the fame aftion on the load as when he (imply fupport^ it from falling b.ick into the pit. It was movini; with the velocity of three feet per i'econd when he look hold of ihe rope, and it would continue to move with that velocity if any thing c Mild annihilate or countcraifl its gravity. If therefore theie was no aflion when a perion merely carried it, there is none at piefent when it is rifing 180 feet in a minute. The man d<ies indeed work more than on that occafion, but not againfl the load : his additional work is walk- ing, the motion of his own body, as a thing previoufly aeccfTary that he may continue to fupport the load, that lie may continue his mechanical effort as it follows him. It appears to yield to him : but it is not to hit eff^irts that it yields; its weight completely balances thofe effirts, and is balanced by them. It was to a greater eflbrt of the man A that it yielded. It was then lying on the ground. He pulled at tlie cord, gradually perhaps increafing his pull till it was jull equal to its weight. Wl.en ihis obtains, the load no longer preffes on the ground, but is ci^mpletcly carried by the rope. But it iJoes not move by this efl'ort of 30 pounds ; but let him exert a force of 3t pounds, and continue this for three feconds. He WiU put it in motion ; will accelerate that motion ; and at the end of three fecond. the load is ri:ing with the velocity of three feet per fe- cond. The man feels tliat this l> as much fpeed as he can continue in his walk; lie therefore flackens his pull, reducing his aiflion to 30 pounds, and with this atli in he walks on. All this would be dilfinflly per- ceived by means of a lleelyard. The rod would be l)ulled out beyond 30, till the load acquired the uniform velocity intendec*, and after this it would be obferved to fhrink back to 30. More is done therefore than appears by Mr Sniea« ton's meafure. Indeed, all that appears in it is the ex- ertion r.ecelfary for continuing a motion already produc- ed, but which would be immediately extinguilhed hj a contrary power, which inul\ therefore be counteracted. This meafure will not apply to numberlefs cales of the employment of machines, where there is no fuch op. poling power, and where, notwithdanding, mechanical power mnll be opeiided, even according to Mr Smea- ton's meafurcment. Such are corn mills, boring mills, and many oiheis. How then comes it that Mr Smeaton's valuable ex- periments concur lb exadtly in Ihewing that the fanio quantity of water defcending from the fame height, al- ways produces the fame effect (as he meafured it), what- ever be the velocity ? In the tirll place, all his experi- ments are cafes where the power expended and tlis work performed are of the fame kind ; A heavy body defcends, and by its preponderancy railes another heavy body. But even this would not enlure the preciie a- greemcnt obferved in his expciimcnts, it Mr Snieatia were not careful to exclude from his calculations all that motion where there is any acceleration, and all the ex- penditure of water during the acceleiation, and to ad. niit only ihofe motions that are feniibly uniform. In moderate velocities, the additional preffuic required for the fiill acceleration is but an infignificant part ol the whole; and ti take thtfe acceleiaicd mjtions into the account, would have embarralfed the calculations, and perhaps conlufed many of the readers. We fee, in the inllance now given, tint the addition of one pound con- tinued for three feconds only, was all that was necef- fary. Mr Smeaton's meafurement is therefore abundantly exaift for practice ; and being accomnmdated to the circumllances mod likely to cngai;e the attention, is ve- ry proper lor the in(liui5k;on of the numerous prafli- tioncrsin all manufafluring countries who are employed for ordinary ere^ious : but it is improperly pri>pofed as :m article elfcntial to a jull theory of mechanics, and therefore it was prtiper to notice it in this place. Befides, there frequently occur moft important cafes, in which the motion ol a nachinc i-s of cecellity, defuUory, aU tiraa'.clj .^6o ol in a ma' chine at work. M A C H lernately accelerated, and retarded. We fliould not de- rive all the advrintagcs in our power from the tird mo- ver, if we did not attend pHrticiilarly, and chiefly, to the acccliraiing forces. And in every cafe, the im- provement, or the proper employment of tlie machine, is not attained, if we are not able to difcriminate be- tween the two parts of the mechanical exertion ; one of them, by which the motion is produced and accele- rated to a certain degree ; and the other, by which that motion is continued. We mull be able to appreciate what part of the efled belongs to eacii. — But it is now time to proceed to the important quelUon, iyh.it luill be the precife motion of a machine of given conJlruSion, aSualed by a po-jjcr of known inteiifily and manner of aSinj, and oppofed by a known rejiflanie ? 6 In the folution of this quellion, much depends on Things to the nature of both power and refillance. In the ftati- bcconfidcr- cal confideration of machines, no attention is paid to any diiFerences. The intenfity of the prelfures is all that it is neceliary to regard, in order to ftnte the pro- portion of prelFure which will be exerted in the various parts of the machine. The preli'ures at the impelled and working points, combined with the proportions of the machine, neceifarily determine all the rell. Pref- fure being the fole caule of all mechanical aflion among bodies, any prclfure may be fubftitiited for another that is equal to it ; and the preliure which is moll familiar, or ot eafiell confuleratioii, may be uled as the reprelenta- tive ot all others. TJiis has occalioncd the mechanical writers to make ufe of the preiFure of gravity as the {landard of comparilbn, and to reprefent all powers and refinances by weights. However proper tiiis may be in their hands, it has hurt the proj^refs of the fcience. It has rendered the ufual elementary treatlfes of mecha- nics very imperfeiff, by limiting the expeiiments and il- luftrations to fuch as can be fo reprel'ented with facility. This has limited them to the ftate of equilibrium (in which condition a working machine is never lound), becaufe illullrations by experiment out of this (late are neither obvious nor eafy. It has alfo prevented the lludenti of mechanics from accomplilhing themfelves with the mathematical knowledge required for a fuc- cefbful profecution of the fludy. Tlie moll elementary geometry is fufficient for a thorougli underll.inding ot equilibrium, or the dodrines of llatics ; but true me- chanics, the knowledge of machines as inllruments by which work is perlormed, requires more refined ma- thematics, and is inaccellible without it. Had not Newton or others improved mathematics by the invention of the infinitefimal analyfisand calcu- lus, we mull have relied contented with the difcoveries (really gre;it) of Galileo and Huyghens. But New- ton, fud niathefi facem prafirente, opened a boundlefs field of investigation, and has not only gi\ en a magnifi- cent and brilliant fpecimen ot the difcoveries to be made in it, but has alio traced out the particular paths in which we are to find the folution of all queftions of practical m.:chanics. This he has done by ihewing an- othe: ipecies of equilibrium, indicated, not by the cefTa- tion of all motion, but by the uniformity of motion ; by lh= cellatio.i of all acceleration or retardation. As the extindion of motion by the aflion of oppofite for- ces is aifumed by us as tlie indication of the perfedl equality of thofe forces ; fo the extinction of accelera- tion Ihould be received as the indication of fomething I N E R Y. equal and oppofite to the force which was known t» have caufed the acceleration ; and therefore as the in- dication of an equilibrium between oppofite forces, or clle oi the celFition of all force. This new view of things was the fource of all our diflindl notions ot mechanical ioiccs, and gave us our only unexceptionable marks and meafures of them. Tlie 39th propolition ot the firfl book of Newton's Principles of Natur.<l Philnfi'pliy, and it.s corollaries, contain almoll the whole do(ftrine of aiSive mechanical nature, and are peculiarly applicable to our prelent pur- pofe, becaufe they enable us to comprehend in this xw^- chanicnl tquilU^riuvi (fo different from xhejlalical) every circumilance in which thofe prelFurcs wliich are exerted by natural powers tiifFer from each other, and vary in their ai'lion on the impelled and working points of a machine. Indeed, when we recolleifl that the operations of our machines are the fame on board a iliip as on fliore, and that all our machines are moving with the ground on which they fland, we mull acknowledge, that even ordinary llatics is only an imperfeft view of an equili- brium among things which are in motion ; and this Ihould have taught us that, even in thofe cafes wliere notliing like equilibrium appears, an equilibiium may ftill be ufefuUy traced. In the llatical confideration of machines, the quantity of preiFure is all that we need attend to. But in the mechanical difculllon of their operations, we mud attend to their dillindions in kind : and it will by no means be lutTicient to reprefent them all by weights ; for their di(lintT;ion in kind is accompanied by great difTerences in their manner ot acting on the machine. Some natu- ral powers, in order to continue their adlion on the im- pelled point of the machine, mult at the fame time put into motion a quantity of matter external to the ma- chine, in which thele powers refide ; and this mull be made to follow the impelled point in its motion, and not only follow, but continue to prefs it forward ; or, tliis matter, thus continually put into motion, mull be fucceflively applied to dilFerent points of the macliine, which become impelled points in their turn. This is the cafe with a weight, with the aftion of a fpring, the aflion of animals, the aiflion of a llream of water or wind, and many other powers. A part of the natural mechanical powers mult therefore be employed in pro- ducing this external m ition. This is fometimes a very confiderable part of the whole natural power. In foma cafes it is the whole of it. This obtains m the action of a deicending weight, lying on the end of a lever and. prelling it down, or hanging by a chord attached to the machine. There is alfo an important diftinflion in the manner in v.-hich this external motion is kept up. In a weight employed as the moving power, the actuating preflure feems to refide in the matter itfelf ; and all that is ne- celfary for continuing this preiFure is merely to continue the conneiflion of it with the machine. But in the ac- tion of animals it may be very dilFerent : A man pulh- iiig at a capllan bar, mull firll of all walk as fall as the bar moves round, and this requires the expenditure of his mufcular force. But this alone will not render his adion an cffeflive power: Vi.it xr.Vi'ii -Ai'i prefs fortuard the capllan bar with as much force as he has remaining over and above what he expends in w -Iking at that rate. The proportion of thefe two expenditures may be very di&reat 7 Mechani- cal equili- brium. S Diftinifli- onsniull be made in the nriturc of the powers applied to working machines. MACHINERY. 36 i different in difTerent circumftances ; and in the judicious fele6lion of fuch circumftanccs as malce the firft ot'tliefe as inconfiderable as poffible, lies much of the il;ill and fagacity of the engineer. In the common operation of thrafliing corn, much more than half of the man's power is expended in giving the necefTary motion to his own body, and only the remainder is employed in ur- ging forward the fwiple with a momentum fufficient for ftiaking ctl' the ripe grains from the llalk. We had fufficient proof of this, by taking off the fwiple of the flail, and putting the fame weight of lead on the end of the ftaff, and then caufing the hind to perform the ufual motions of thralhing with all the rapidity that he could continue during the ordinary houis ot work. We ne- ver could find a man who could make three motions in the fame time that he could make two in the ufual manner, fo as to continue this for half an hour. Hence we muft conclude, that half (Ibme will f.iy two-thirds) of a thradiet's power is expended in merely moving his own body. Such modes of animal action will therefore be avoided by a judicious engineer ; but to be avoided, their inconvenience muft be underllood. More of this will occur hereafter. — In other cafes, we are almoll (never wholly) free from this unprofitable expenditure of power. Thus, in the Iteam engine, the operation requires that the external air follow the pifton down the cylinder, in order to continue its preffure. But the force neceffary for fending in this rare fluid into the cylinder with the neceffary velocity, is fuch an infignifi- cant part of the whole force which is at our command, tliat it would be ridiculous affedation in any engineer to ttkc it into account ; and this is one great ground of prci'erence to this natural power. The fame thing may be faid of the aiflion of a ftrong and light fpring, which is therefore another very eligible firit mover for machinery. The ancient artillerilh had difcovered this, and employed it in their warlike engines. We mull alfo attend to the nature of the refiftance which the work to be performed oppofes to the motion of our machine. Sometimes the work oppofes, not a fimple obllruiflion, but a real refiftance or readlion, which, if applied alone to the machine, would caufe it to move the contrary way. This always obtains in cafes where a heavy body is to be raifed, where a fpring is to be compreffed, and in fome other cafes. Very often, however, there is no fuch contrary a>flion. A flour mill, a faw mill, a boring mill, and many fuch engines, exhibit no rea<flion of this kind. But although fuch machines, when at reft or not impelled by the firft mo- ver, fuftain no prelfure in the oppofite dire>flion, yet they will not acquire any motion whatever, unlefs they be impelled by a power of u certain determinate inten- fity. Thus in a faw mill, a certain force muft be im- prelfed on tlie teeth of the law, that the cohefion of the fibres of the timber may be overcome. This re- quires that a certain lorce, determined by the propor- tions of the machine, be imprcfl'ed on the impelled point. If this, and no more, be applied there, a force will be excited at the teeth of the faw, which will ba- lance the cuhefion of the wood, but will not ovtrccme it. The machine will continue at reft, and no wc rk will be performed. Any addition of force at the impelled point, wdl occafion an addition to the force excited in the teeth of the f.iw. The cohefion will be overcome, the machine will move, and work will be performed. It is Suprt. Vol. II. only this addition to the impelling power that gives mo- tion to the machine ; the reft being expended merely in balancing the cohefion of the woody fibres. While therefore the machine is in motion, performing work, we muft confidcr it as aifluated by a force impreffed on the impelled point by the natural power, and by ano- ther aifting at the working point, furnilhed by or de- rived from the refiftance of the work. Again : It not unfrcquently happens, that there is' not even any fuch refiftance or obftruflion excited at the working point of the machine; the whole refift- ance (if we can with propriety give it that name) arifes from the neceffity of giving motion to a quantity cf inert and inaftive matter. This happens in urging round a heavy fly, as in the coining prefs, in the punch- ing engine, in drawing a body along a horizontal plane without friflion, and a few fimilar cafes. Here the fmalleft force whatever, applied at the impelled point, will begin motion in the machine ; and the whole force fo applied is confumed in this fervice. Such cafes are rare, as the ultimate performance of a machine; but: occafionally, and for a farther purpofe, they frequently occur ; and it is neceffary to confider them, becaufe there are many of the moft important applications of macliinery where a very conliderable part of the force is expended in thii pan ot the general laik. Such are the chief circunillances of diftinflion among the mechanical powers of nature which muft be attend- ed to, in order to know the motion and performance o€ a machine. Thefe never occur in the ftatical confidera- tion of the machine, but here they are of chief im- portance. But farther : The aflion of the moving power is 9 transferred to the working point through the parts of ThcincrtU a machine, which are material, inert, and heavy. Or, °f .'l!^, to defcribe it more accurately, before the neceffary force '' "]^ ',/ can be excited at the workmg pouU ot the machuie, the ^^ couC- varions connedling forces mull be exerted in the difFe- Jcred, rent parts of the machine ; and in order that the work- ing point may follow out die iniprcffi 11 already made, all the conneding parts or limbs of the machine mult be moved, in different direiflions, and with different ve- locities. Force is neceffary for thus changing the ftatc of all this matter, and frequently a very confiderablc force. Time muft alfo el»pfe before all this can be ac- compliftied. This often confumcs, and really wailes, a great part of the impelling power. Thus, in a crane worked by men walking in a wlieel, it acquires motion by flow degrees ; becaufe, in order to give fufficienc room for the aflion of the number of men or cattle that are neceffary, a very capacious wheel muft be employed, containing a great quantity of inert matter. All of this muft be put in motion by a very moderate prepon- derance of the men. It accelerates flowly, and the load is raifed. When it has attained tlu- requited height, all this matter, now in confiderable motion, mufl be flopped. 1'his cannot be done in an indant with a jolt, which would be very inconvenient, and even hurt- ful ; it is therefore brought to reft gradually. This alio confiimcs time ; n.iy, the svheel muft get a motion in the contrary dircflion, that the load may be lowered into the cart or lighter. This can only be .iccomplilh- ed by degrees. Then the tackle muft be lowered doun again lor another load, which alfo muft be done gra- du.illy. All this waftes a great deal both cf lime and Z z of 2,6'. M A C H I N E R Y. 10 Anil it< iriwlioit. 71 Meifiire it hy A- raoRtons, oi" force, and renders a walking wheel a very improper lorni for the tiill mover ot" a crane, or any machine whofe life reciuircs fiich frequent cliatiges of motion. Tlie fame thin^ obtain=, although in a lower degree, in the lleam engine, where the great beam and pump rods, fometimes weighing very many tons, mull be made to acijuire a very brifk motion in oppollte diieclions twice in every working llroke. It obtains, in a gi eater or ■A lefs degree, in all engines which liavc a reciprocalinp; motion in any of their parts. Pump mills are of necef- ilty ilibj^ifted to this inconvenience. In the famous en- gine at Marly, about ^% of the whole moving power of Jeme of the wattr wheels is employe<l in giving a reci- ^jrocating moiion to a fct of rods and ch.iins, which extend from the wheels to a cillern about thiee-fouiths tf a mile dirt.mt, where t!iey work a fet of pumps. This engine is, by fuch injudicious conftruiflion, a mo- nument of miignificence, and the ftruggle of ignorance with the unchangeable laws of N.iture. In machine*;, all tlie parts of which continue the uirec'iion of their motions unchanged, the inertia ot a great mals of mat- ter does no harm ; but, on the contrary, contributes to the fteadinefs of the motion, in fpite of fmall inequali- ties of power or refinance, or unavoidable irregularities tif force in the interior parts. Cut in all reciprocations, it is highly prt judicial to the perfcimaiice ; and there- fore con(lru(flicns which admit fuch reciprocation with- out necelTity, are avoided by all intelligent engineers. The mere copying artill, indeed, who derives all his knowledge from tlie common treatifes of mechanics, will never fufpe<ft fcch imperfections, becaufe they do not occur in the llatical conlidciation of machines. Laltly, no machine can move without a mutual rub- bing of its parts, at all points ol' ct/miiiuniciition ; fuch as the teeth of whcelwoik, the wipers and lifts, and the gudgeons of its different axes. In many machines, the ultimate taCk performed by the working point, is either friiftion, or very much reiemblcs it. This is the cale in polilhir.g mill?, grinding mills, nay in boring nulls, iaw mills, and others. A knowledge of triftion, in all its varieties, feems therefore abfolutely necelfary, even for a moderate acquaintance with the principles of ma- chinery. This is a very abflrufe lubje^^t ; and ahhou^h a good deal of attention has been paid to it by i^me ingenious men, we do not think that a great deal has been added to our knowledge of it ; nor do the experi- ments wliich have been made I'eem to us well calculated to lead us to a dillinct knowledge of its nature and mo- difications. It has been conlidered chiefly wirh a view to diminiih it as much as poilible in the communicating parts of machinery, and to obtain fome general rules lor afcertaining the quantity of what unavuidably re- mains. Mr Amontons, of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, gave us, about the beginning ot this century, the chief micrmation that we have on the lub- }eSi. He difcovered, that the obftruiftion which it gave to motion was very neatly proportional to the force by which tl e rubbing lurfaces are preffed together. Thus he found, that a fmooth o.iken board, laid on another Imooth board of the fame wood, requires a force nearly equal to one-third of what prefTes the i'urfaces toge- th-r. DilRrent fubftances required different propor- of tions. He alfo found, that neither the extent of the rub- bing furtaces, nor the velocity of the motion, made any confiderablc variation on the obftruiflion to motion. Thefe were curious and uneip-fted refults. Subfe- quent obftrvations have made feveral correflions ne- ceffary in all thcle propofuions. This fubje(5t will be more particularly confidered in another place; but fince the deviations from Mr Amontons's rule are not very confiJerable, at leat^ in the cafes which I'ccur in this gener.il confideration of maeliines, we fhall make ut'e of it in the mean time. It gives us a very eafy method of eftimaling the effeift of fridlion on machines. It is a certain proportion of the mutual preiFure of the rubbing Airfaces, and therefore mult vary in tlie fame propor- tion with this prefFure. Now, we learn from the prin- ciples of (latics, that whatever prelluies are exeited on the impelled and working point of the machine, all the prelFures on its different parts liave the fame conl^mt proportion to thefe, snd vary as thefe vary : Theretore the whole fri^'^iou of the machine varies in the fame pro- portion. But farther, fince it is found that the fric- tion does n' t fciifibly change with the velocity, the force wliich is juft iliiBcient to overcome the friction, and put the loaded m ichiine in motion, mutt be very nearly the fame with the force expended in overcoming the fri>ftion while the machine is moving with any velo- city whatever, and performing work. Therefore if we deduft from the firce which jiift puts the loaded ma- chine in motion that pait of it which balances the re- adlion of the impelled point occafioned by the refinance of the work, or which balances the refiflance of th-j work, the remainder is the part of the impelling power which is employed in overcoming the triftion. If in- deed the aiftual refilling prclFure of the work varies with the velocity of the working point, all the pref- fures, and all the frifficns in the ilifferent comnijricat- ing parts of the machine, vary in tlie fame proportion. But the law of this variation of working refiftance be- ing known, the friiflion is again afcertained. We can now ftate the dynamical equilibrium of for- ces in the working machine in two ways. We may either confider the efficient impelling power as dimi- nilhed by all that portion which is expended In over- coming the frifllon, and which only prepires the ma- chine tor performing wo:k, or we may confider the im- pelling power as entire, and the work as incre.afed by the fri(ftion of the machine ; that is, we may fupp;ile the machine without fridlion, and that it is loaded with a quantity of additional refinance aifting at the work, ing p lint. Either of thefe method* will give the fame refult, and each has its advantages. We took the lall method in the flight view which v.-e took of this fubje^t in the Encycl. art. Rotation, n" 64. and (hall there- fore ufe it here. Suppofing now this previous knowledge of all thefe variable circumftances which affecfl the mmion of ma- chines of the rotative kind, lo that, for any momentary pofition of it while performing work, we know what are the precife prelFures aifting at the impelled and working points, and the conftruflion of the machine, on which depend the fridlon, and the momentum of its inertia (expreffed in the article Rotation by //"■'); '^''^ ^""^ "ow in a condition to determine its mo. tion, or at leaft its momentary acceleration, competent to that pofili.in. Therefore, Let there be a rotative machine, fo conftrudted, that while MACHINERY. Ccmpofi- tioii of the formula eiprcfling the per- formance ef a ma- chine. 1.1 Angular motion of the ma- ckinc. vvliile it is performing work, the velocity of its impelled point is to that of its working point as m to «. It is eafy to demonftrate, from the common principles cf ftatics, that if a fimple wheel and axle be fubdituted for it, having the radius of the wheel to that of the axle in the fame jjroportion of m to «, and having the fame momentum of friiSlion and inertia, and aifluated by the fame preflures at tlie impelled and working points, then the velocities of thefe points will be pre- cifcly the fame as in the given maciiine. Let/) reprefent the intenfity (which may be meafured by pounds weight) of the preliure exerted in the mo- ment at the impelled point ; and r exprefs the prelfure exerted at the working point by the refillance oppofed by the woik that is then performing. This may arife from the weight of a body to be railed, from the cohe- fion of timber to be fawed, &c. Any of ihefc refift- ances may alfo be meafured by pounds weiglit ; becaufe we know, that a certain number of pounds hung on the faw of a faw mill, will juft overcome this colielion, or overcome it wi'.li any degtee of fjperiority. Therefore the impelling power />, and the refiltunce r, however differing in kind, may be compared as mere prelFures. Let X reprefent the quantity of inert matter which mnft be urged by the impelling i)ower/), with the fame velocity as the impelled point, in order that this prcf- fure /> may really continue to be exerted on that point. Thus, if the impelling power is a quantity of water in the bucket of an ovcrlhot wheel, ac'ting by its weight, this weight cannot impel the wheel except by impelling the water. In this way, .v may be conlideied as repre- fenting the inertia of the impelling power, while /> re- prefents its preifuie on the machine. In likv.' manner, let y reprelent the quantity of external inert matter which is really moved witli the velocity of the working point in the execution of the talk peilormed by the machine. Whatever be the momentum of the inertia of the machine, we can always afceitain what quantity of mat- ter, attiched to the impelled point, or the working point of the wheel and axle, will require the fanie force to give the wheel the fame angular motion ; that is, which (hall have the fame momentum of inertia. Let the quantity a, attached to the working point, give this momentum of inertia an'. Laftly, fwppoling that the wheel and axle Inve no friiflinn, let/"be fucli a refillance, that if applied to the working point, it Ihall give the fame obftruilion as the fridion of the machine, or require the fame force at the impelled point to overcome it. Thefe things being thus ellabliflied, the angular ve- locity of the wheel and axle, that is, the numbtr of turns, or the portion of a turn, which it will nuke in -A given time, will be proportional to the fraSion J>m — r_+JJl (I.)— Sec Rotatmn, n" G4, &c. xm' -}-a-J-_yn' F.ncycl. Since the whole turns together, the velocities of the different points arc as their dillances from the axis, and may be txpreffcd by multiplying the common angular velocity by thefe diftances. Therelore the above for- mula, mulliplieJ by ;/; or n, will give the velocity of the impelled or of the working point. Therefore, 5^^ ocity of Velocity cf working point = LUl—ZL+X^l. (HI.) Vel, .V ot' + u -(- _y n* the work- in order to obtain a clear conception of thefe velo- '"2 1°"^'- cities, we mud compare them with motions with which we are well acquainted. Tiie propolition being univer- fally true, we may take a cafe where gravity is the fole power and refiftance ; where, for example, /> and r are the weights of the water in the bucket cf a wheel, and in the tub that is railed by it. In this cafe, /> = »:, and r=:y. We may alfo, for greater fimphcity, fuppofe the machine without inertia and fiidlion. Tne velocity or * IS RowC . pm' + rn' Let g be the velocity which gravity generates in a 16 fecond. Then it will generate the velocity p / in the Abfolutc . ° ' ° mcafur* of moment /. Let v be the velocity generated during them, this moment in />, connected as it is with the wheel and axle, and with r. This conne(fl!on produces a change of condition =z ^ t — v. For, had it fallen freely, it would have acquired the velocity £ l, whereas it only ac(pilres the velocity v. In like manner, had r fallen freely, it would have acquired the velocity ^ t. But, inftead of this, it is railed with the velocity— i. The t/i change on it is therefore = ^/ -f- — v. lliefe changes m of mechanical condition arife from their conneiflion with the corpcreal machine. Their prelFures nn it bring into aiflion its connecting forces, and each of the two external forces is in immediate equilibrium witli tic force exerted by ihe other. The force excited at the impelled point, by ;■ afling at the working point, may be called the momentum or energy of /■. Thefe ener- gies are precifely competent to the produdion of iho changes which they really produce, and muff therefore be conceived as having the fan)e proportions. They arc therefore equal and oppolite, by the gener.il laws ci- fervtd in all acflions of tangible matter ; that i«, they are fucli as balance each other. Thu^, and only thus, the remaining motions are what we obfei ve them to be. r-t Velocity of the impel- Velocity of impelled point le^l poiiit. pni^ — r ■{■ ] m n- rm" -j- a -t-_yn' (II.) That is, pxs'—vXm = rXi/+ — vXn m r\ ' ' ' . "' ' Ur f> nify t — p riv =: r ng / -j- r — v Or pm' g t — pm^ v = rm ng t -^^ rn' v Or pm' — rm n X £ : = p m' + r ir X v That is, pni' -\- rn' : pm' — r ik n =: t ; v That is, the tlcncminiitor of the fraOio':, cprfj/i'ij the ve- locity rf the impilird point, is to the mineratir at thf tr- Ucity "xhiih a heavy lody luou'd acquire in the momer.t t, iy fulling freely, is to the velocily vhlch the impelled point acquires in that moment. The lame thing is true of the velocity of the working jioint. This reafoning fuffers no change from the mere com- plicated nature of the general propr fition. Here the impelling power is fliU />, but the matter to be accele- r.iteJ by it at the working point is a +_>•, while its re- aftion, diminilhing the impelling power, is only r. Wo have only to conl'ider, in this cafe, the velocity with which a -[- v would fall freely when impcllc.', not' by /i-j-j', but only by /•. The rcfult vrould be the fame ; Z I 2 ^ : :M MACHINERY. 17 Perform- ance of the niachiae. " t would ftill be to V as tiie denominator of the fams fraftion to its numerator. Tims have we difcovered the momentary acceleration of our machine. It is evident, that if tlie preifures p and r, and the friflion and inertia of the machine, and the external matter, continue the fame, tlie acceleration will continue the fame ; the motion of rotation will be uniformly accelerated, and pm' + a +yn' will be to pni' — r+fmn as the fpacc s, through which a heavy body would fall in any given time, /, is to the fpace through which the impelled point will really have mo- ved in the fame time. In like manner, the fpace through which th e work ing point moves in the fame t>m n — r -{■ J n' time IS = ' =^=^ /. f> m' -\- a -{■ )■ /;"■ Thus are the motions of the working machine deter- xnined. We may illulUate it by a very fimple example. Suppofe a weight p of five pounds, defcending from a pulley, and dragging up another weight r of three pounds OQ the other fide, m and n are equal, and ; S, p + r or 5 ^ j^ or-, =-s. Therefore, in a fecond, the 5 + 3 ^ 4 weight p will defcend ^'h of i6 feet, or 4 feet; and will acquire the velocity uf 8 feet per fcc<ind. Having obtained a knowledge of the velocity of eve- ry point of the machine, we can eafily afcei tain its per- formance. This depends on a combination of the quan- tity of refiftance that is overcome at the working point, and the velocity with which it is overcome. Thus, in raifmg water, it depends on the quantity (proportional to the weight) uf water in the bucket or pump, and the velocity with which it is lifted up. This wdl be had by multiplying the third formula by r, or by r^t, or by rs. Therefore we obtain this expreffion, each may be called i. The formula becomes Work done = _pmrn — r +/>" «' gi. (IV.) p»i' + a +yn'- Such is the general expreflicn of the momentary per- formance of the machine, including every circumltance which can affea it. But a variation of thofe circum- Uanccs produces great changes in the refults. Thefe muft be difliniflly noticed. Cor. I. li pmrn .be equal to ; +/rn% there will be no work done, becaufe the numerator of the fraction is annihilated. There is then no unbalanced force, and the natural power is only able to balance the preifure propagated from the working point to the impelled point. 2. In like manner, if ;; = o, no work is done altho' the machine turns round. The working point has no motion. For the fame reafon, if m be infinitely great, although there is a great prevalence of impelling mo- mentum, there will not be any fenfible performance du- ring a finite time. For the velocity which p can im- prefs is a finite quantity, and the impelled point cannot move fader than x would be moved by it if detached from the machine. Now when the infinitely remote impelled point is moved through any finite fpace, the motion of the working point muft be infinitely leis, or nothing, and no work will be done. Ranaik. We fee that there are two values of n, viz. V, and m X —■> which give no performance. But in all other proportions of m and 11 fome work is done. Therefore, as we gradually vary the proportion of m to /I, we obtain a ferits of values expreffing the perform- ance, which muft gradually incrcafe from nothing, and tiien decreafe to nothing. There muft therefore be fome proportion of m to «, depending on the proportion of p to r J^ f, and of x to a J^ y, which will give the grcateft poilible value of the performance. And, on the other hand, if the proportion of m to n be already determineil by the cunftruclion of the machine already erefted, there muft be fome proportion of/> to r -f-yi and of .V to a ■\- y, by which the greateft performance of a machine may be enfured. It is evident, that the determination of thefe two propoitions is of the utmoll importance to the improvement of machines. The well informed reader will pardon us for endeavouring to make this appear more forcibly to thofe who are lefs in- llruifted, by means of fome very fimjile examples of the firft principle. Suppofe that we have a ftream of water affording three tons per minute, and that wc want to drain :i pit which receives one ton per minute, and that this is to be done by a wheel and axle ? We widi to know the belt proportion of their diameters m and n. Lc m be taken z= 6 ; and fuppofe, 1. That nz=. I. „, pmrn — r'»' 3.6.1.5 — 1.25 Gc Then' : --—- -r^ -^,=: -^, =0,4887 pm-J^rn'- 3.36+1.36 133 2. Let n be = 6. The formula is z= 0,5. 3. LetK=7. The formula is = 0,49045. Hence we find, that the performance is greater when n ii 6, than when it is either 5 or 7. As an example of the fecond principle, fuppofe the machine a limple pulley, and let/ be 10. 1. Let r be ir 3. The formula is i, r= — , 10+3 ' ,3' = 1,6154. 2. Let r be = 4. The formula is = i^I — , 24 '° + 4 = -. = .,7H3- 3. Let r be = 5. The formula is = 10 X 5 — 25 = ^, = 1,6666. io-f.5 Here it appears, that more work is 18 done when r is 4 than when it is 5 or 3. It muft therefore be allowed to be one of the moft important problems in praiftical mechanics to determine that conftru(5lion by which a given power fli.iU over- come a given refiftance with the greateft advantage, and the proportion of work which ihould be given to a ma- chine already conftrufted fo as to gain a fimilar end. I. The general determination ot the firft queftion has but little difficulty. We muft confider n as the vari- Proportion of the ma- , , . , . , r .pmrn — r -f /> n' chine able magnitude m the formula ' > which /,„- + a+j,„^ gives tht which exprelFes the work done ; and find its value when greateft the formula is a maximum. Taking this method, we work, ftiall find that the formula IV. is a maximum when n is V'v' {r -j-/)' -f/- .V (^ -hj-)| — ^■ (r +/) • MACHINERY. 365 This expreffion of the performance, in its beft ftate, appears pretty complex ; but it becomes much more fimple in all the particular applications of it, as the cir- cumltances of the cafe occur in praiflice. We have obtained a value of « exprelfcd in parts of m. If we fubftitute this for n in the third formula, we obtain the greatell velocity with which the refiftance r, conneaed with the inertia j, can be overcome by the power p, ciAmeiUd with the inertia x, by the inter- vention of a machine, whofe momentum of inertia and friiflion are a n* and fn. This is = — ■ ' ^'t. This exprefTes the ■velocity of tl'ie'' working' point in feet per fecond, and therefore the a^ual performance of the machine. But the proper proportion of m to n, afcertained by this procefs, varies exceedingly, according to the nature both of the impelling power, and of the work to be per- formed by the machine. I. It frequently happens that the work exerts no con- trary ftrain on the machine, and confilh merely in ini- pelling a body which refilh only by its inertia. This is the cafe in urging round a millllone or a heavy fly ; in urging a body along a horizontal plane, &c. In tins cafe r does not enter into the formula, which now be- <y'm-'\-') comes m X V.'r+ fi:j^a_ + ,)\-x/ J,. ,he fric- been joined w ith .v in the exprcfllon of the angular ve- locity. 3. In fome cafes we need not attend to the inertia of the power, as in the (learn engine. In this cafe, if ta- ken flriiflly, n appears to have no value, becaufe x is a faflor of every term of the numerator. But the for- mula gives this general indication, that the more infig- nificant the inertia of the moving power is fuppofed, the larger fhould m be in proportion to n ; provided al- ways, that the impelling power is not, by its nature, greatly diminidied, by giving fo great a velocity to the impelled point. This circumftance will be particularly conlidered afterwards. 4. If the inertia of the power and the refiflance be proportional to their prelTures, as when the impelling power is water lying in the buckets of an nverdiot w heel, and the work is the raifing of water, minerals, or other heavy body, ading on/y by its weight; then/! and r may be fubllituted for A-arid^', and the formula expref- fing the value of n, when the performance is a maxi- mum, becomes \/p' X r + r- + f>^ X'J + r\ —p X 7+7 n — m -^^ . /> X .J -f r If, in this cafe, the inertia and friction of the ma- cliine may be difregarded, as may often be done in pul- leys, we have tion be infignificant we may take n — mf . . , , ., The velocity of the working point is 2r+/ cily of the working point is In this cafe, the velo- 4*(^+/) + ap^ n-n, f'f n z^ m / - V r + neatly = . In this cafe, it will be found 2 y/ X a -j- y that the velocity acquired at the end of a given time will be nearly in the proportion tt the power applied to the machine. 2. On the other hand, and m.ore frequently, the iner- tia of the external matter which muft be moved in per- forming the work need not be regarded. Tlius, in the grinding of grain, fawing of timber, boring of cylin- ders, &c. the quantity ol motion communicated to the flour, to the faw dulf, &c. is too infignificant to be ta- ken into the account. In this cafe, y vanilhes from the formula, which becomes extremely fimple when the fric- tion and inertia of the machine are inconfiderable. We Ihall not be far from the truth if we make m to n as p 2 r to/, or n = m X — == If we make m the unit of the radii, and r the unit of force, we have n = v'/ + I — I, in parts oi tn =z i. Or, making /> = l, we have n = / - + ' — ' • Thefe very fimple eipreffions are of confiderable ufe, even in cafes where the inertia of the machine is very confiderable, provided that it have no reciprocating mo- tions. A fimple w'heel and axle, nr a train of good wheelwork, have very moderate friiftion. The general refiilts, therefore, wliich even very unlettered readers can deduce from thefe fimple formulce, will give notions tliat are ufeful in the cslcs which they cannot fo tho- roughly comprehend. Some fervice of this kind may be derived from the following little table of the belt proportions of ra to h, corrcfponding to the proportions of the power furnillied to the engineer, and the refift- ance which mud be overcome by it. The quantity r is always = 10, and m = i. 4{r+/) But it is rare that machines of this kind have x fmall inertia. They are generally very pcnderous and power- lul; and the force which is necclfary for generating even a very moderate motion in the unloaded machine (that is, unloaded with any work), bears a great pro- portion to the force necedary for overcoming the re- fiftance oppofed by the wi rk. The formula muft there- fore be ufed in all the terms, becaufe a is joined with y. It would have been fimplcr in this particular, had a c n J> « I 0,0488 10 0,4142 2 0,0954 20 0,7321 3 0,1402 30 I. 4 0,1832 40 1,2362 5 0,2246 JO '.4495 6 0,2649 60 •/•4S7 7 0,3038 70 1,8284 a 0,3416 80 2, 9 0,3784 90 2,1623 10 0,4142 100 2.3166 This muft fufEce for a very general view of the firft problem. II. Tin next qucfticn is not Icfs mcmcntous, namely, to 366 MACHINERY 19 Bed pro' and work. to dotermine for a machine of a given conftruiflion that proportion of the rcTiftnnce at the working point to the portion of in,pe]iji,g power which will enfure the grcatell perforni- »',!i xv"" ance of the machine ; tiiMt is, the proportion of m to n being given, to tind ihi bell proportion of/> to r. This is a much more complicated probkm tlian tlie other; for here we have to attend to the variations both of the prelfureb /> and r, and aU'c of the ejctenial matters .■< and j-, which aie generally conne.5led with them. It will not be fulTicicnt therefore to treat the quedion by the ufual fluxionary procefs for determining the maximum, in which r is confidered as the only va- rying quantity. We muft, in this curfory difcuflion, reft fatislicd with a comprebenfion of the circumftances which moft generally prevail in pradice. It miift either happen, that when r changes there is no change (that is, of moment) in the mafs of external matter which mud be moved in performing the work, or that there is alfo a change in this circumftance. It no change happens, the denominator of the fourth for- mula, exprefling the performance, remains the fiime ; and then the formula attains a maximum when the nu- merator /rmn — r +frn'- is a maximum. Alfo, we may include / without complicating the procefs, by the confideration, that/is always in nearly the fame ratio to r ; and therefore r +/ may he confidered as a certain multiple <f r, fuch as br. We may therefore omit /" in the fluxionary equations for obtaining the maximum, and then, in computing the performance, di- vide the whole by L. Thus if the whole friition be ■^th of the refilling prefTure c, we have '' + f~-~ we may reprefent y by any multiple l rJof r, which the cafe in hand gives us ; b being a number, integer, or fraiflional. In the farther treatment of this cafe, we think it more convenient to free r from all other com- binaticns ; and inflead of fuppofmg the force/ (which we made oquivali.-nt v.ith the friflion of the machine\ to be applied at the working point, we may apply it at the impelled point, making the tffeiftive power y = /> — ■_/". I'or the fame reafins, inftead of making the momentum of the machine's inertia = an', we may make it am*, and make ti-\-x:=%. Now, fuppofing y, or p — f, = I, and alio m= i, our formula eiprcffing the per- formance becomes- z + brn' . This is a maximum when 21 20' Having afcertained the bed value r 7Z ^! — — in' Cor. I. If the inertia of the work is always equal to its prelTure, as when the work confifts wholly in raifing a weight, fuch as drawing water, &c. then b= i, and the formula for the maximum performance becomes >/zii + z' — z r = . 2. If the inertia of the impelling power is alfo the fame with its preiTure, and if we may neglcd the iner- tia and friaion of the machine, the formula becomes Vn -4-1 — I r =: : , »' Example. Let the machine be a common pulley, f ) that the radii vi and n are equal, and therefore n = I . rr., v' I -t- I — I , Then, r = ■ , =. a/ z — 1, =: 0,4142, &c. more than -fths of what would balance it. Here follows a feries of the bell values of r, corre- of r, and b for r, we put this in its place in the fourth formula, and fponding to different values of n. m and/ are each = i. The numbersin the laft column havethe lame proportion take — of this for the performance 21 differ much from the truth. This will never p m n This procefs gives w% p m n =. 2 «' r, and r =^ ^ . — -t-^i and if we farther fimplify the procefs, by ma- 2 n ] king p — \, and m = i, we have r = — ; a moft fim- pie espreffinn, direfling us to make the refiftance one half of what would balance the impelling power by the intervention of the machine. This will evidently apply to many very important cafes, namely, to all thofe in which the matter put in motion by the working point is but trifling. But it alfo happens in many important cafes, that the to 1 which r has to the refiftance which will balance/. «=-i r= 1,8885 0,472410 1 ;- 1 ,3928 0.4639 -{■ 0,8986 0,4493 1 0,4142 0,4142 2 0,1830 0,3660 3 OMW 0,3333 4 0,0772 0,3088 From what has now been eflablifhed, we fee with fuf- ficient evidence the importance of the higher mathema- tics to the fcience of mechanics. If the velocities of the impelled and working points of an engine are not properly adjufted to the prclTures, the inertia, and the Iridion of the machine, we do not derive all the advan- change is at leaft equally confiderablc in the inertia of tages which we might from cur lituatinn. Hence alfo the work. In this cafe it is very difficult to obtain a we learn the falfity of the maxim which has been re- seneral folution. But we can hardly imagine fuch a ceived as well founded, that the augmentation of in- changf, without fuppofing that the inertia of the work tenfity of any force, by applying it to the long arm of c-n^^j varies in the fame proportion as the prelFure excited by a lever, is always fully compenfated by a lofs of time ; but It at tlie working point of the machine ; for fince r continues the fame in kind, it can raiely change but by a prcportional change of the matter with which it is connefled. Yet fome very important cafes occur where this does not happen. Such is a machine which forces water alcng a long main pipe. The refiftance to motion and the quantity of water do not follow nearly the fame ratio. But in the cafes in whicli this ratio is obferved. or, as it is ufually exprelFed, " what we gain by a ma- netus ma" chine in force we lofe in time." If the proportion of J^''^'- m to n is well chofen, we ihall find that the work done, when it refills by its inertia only, increafes nearly in the proportion of the power employed ; whereas when the inertia of the work is but a Imall part of the refitlancr, it increafes nearly hQ the duplicate ratio of the power employed. It MACHINERY. 3^7 20 Ciu'cswhy rnachines do not con- tinually ac- celerate. I . Incrcafc of iiiii'wn. a. Refin- ance of «ir. It was rem.irkeJ, in the fetting out in the prefent problem, ihiit tlie forniulae do not immediately exprefs the velocity of any point of the machine, but its mo- mentary acceleration. But lliis is enough for our pur- pol'c ; becaufc, when the mnmentary acceleration is a maximum, the velocity acquireJ, and the fpace del'cri- bed, in any given time, is aUo a maximum. We alfo Ihevi'ed how the real ve'-icities, and the fpaces defcribed, may be aicei taincd in knovrn meafures. We may fay in general, that if 5 reprefent the prefTure of gravity on any mafs of matter <w, then -i- is to x ^ . ' -l— as ''' a m' -\- a -{• y n^ 16 fict to the fpace defcribed in a fecond by the work- iog point in a fecond, or as 32 feet per fecond is to the velocity acquired in that time. A remark now remains to be made, which is of the greateft confequcnce, and gives an unexpefled turn to the whole of the preceding dcdrines. It appears, from all that has been faid, that the motion ot a machine mail be uniformly accelerated, and that any pc int will defcrilie fpaces proportional to the fquares of the times ; for while the preliures, friiflinn, and momentum of iner- tia leinain the lame, the momentary acceleration muft alfo be invariable. But this ieems contrary to all expe- jicnce. Such machines as are properly conUrucled, and work wiihout jilts, are obfervet! to quicken their pace for a few feconds after llarting ; but all of them, in a very moderate time, acquire a motion that is (enfibly tiniform. Is our theory erroneou<^, or what are the circunillances which remain to be confiJered, in order to make it a^ree with obfervation .' The fcience oi machines is imperfeift, till we have explained the cau- fes of this deviation from the theciry of uniloim accele- ration. Thcfe caufes are various. I. In fjme cafes, every increafe of velocity of the machine produces an increafe of liiiflion in all its com- rcimicating paits. By tliele means, the accelerating force, which is pm — r -\-fn, or p — /">« — rn, is di- minilhed, and conlequently the acceler.ition is dimi- liifhed. But it fcldom happens that friiflion takes away ox employs the whole accekratmg fpne. We are not yet Well inllruiSed in the nature of frlflion. Mill of ihc kinds of friftion which obtain in the communicat- ing parts of machines, are fuch as do not fenfibly in- creafe by an incieafe of velicity ; fome of them leally diminiih. Yet even the moll accurately conllruiSed ma- chines, unloaded witli work, attain a motion that is fen- fibly uniform. ]f we take off the pullets from a pen- dulum clock, and allow it to run down amain, it acce- lerates for a while, but in a very moderate time it ac- quires an unform motion. So docs a common kitchen jack. Thefe two machines feem to bid the faireft of any for an imifornily accelerated motion; for their im- pelling p'sver adts with the utmoll uniformity. There is fonieilimg yet uii xplained in the nature of friflion, which takes away f me of this acceleration. But the chief c.iu'e of its celFation in thefe two in- ftances, and others eif very rapid motion, is the refinance of the air. This aril'es from the motion which is com- mirnicated to the air difplaced by the fwift moving parts of the machir.e. At fi:ll it is very fmall ; but it increa- fes nearly in the dujiiicate ratio of the velocity (lee Ra tMrAHCf. of Fluids, Encyd.J. Tlius r incrcafcs coa- nually ; and, in a certain ftatc of motion, r +/n be- comes equal to pm. Whenever this happens, the ac- celerating power is at an end. The acceleration alfo ceafes ; and the machine is in a flate of dynamical equi- librium ; not at rtik, but moving uniformly, and per- forming work. Still, however, this is not one of the general caufes 3- Increafe of the uniform motion attained by working engines. "' "fiil- Rarely is the motion of their parts fo rapid, as to oc- ?"""'T r r.t 1- L • ,, ■ 1 impcrfeS- cahon any great reliltance ironi the air. But in the • • mnfl frequent employments of machines, every increafe of velocity is accompanied by an increafe of refillar.ce from the work pertoniied. This occurs at once to the imagination ; and few perfons think of inquiiing faither for a reafon. But there is perhaps no part of mecha- nics that is more imperfeiftly underftood, even in our prefent improved Rate of mechanical fcience. In many kinds of work, it is very difficult to (late what increa e of labour is required in order to perform ilie work with twice or thrice the fpeed. In grinding corn, Icr in- llance, we are ainioil entirely ignorant of this ma'ter. It is vciy certain, that twice the lorce is not nccelTary for making the mill grind twite as faft, nor even f i r irfaking it grind twice as much grain equally well. It is not eafy to bring this operation under mathertiatiial treatment; but we have confdered it with fome atten- tion, and we imagine that a very great improvement may Itill be made in the conlhuction of grift iniil'--, founded on the law of variation of the refifkunce to the operation t^t grinding, and a Icientitic ?.djullmei)t of m to «, in confequence cf our knowledge oi this law. We may make a limilar obfervation on many otlier kinds of work performed by machines. In none c f thofe works where the inertia cf the work is inconfiderable, are we well acquainted with the real mechanical procefs in per- forming it. This is the cafe in fawlng miils, b'^nng mills, rolling mills, flitting mills, and manyotl.ers, vhere the work confitls in ovei coming the (lioiig cchefion of a fmall quantity of matter. In fawlng timber (whicii is the mtft eafily underitood ot all thel'e operations), if the law move with a double velocity, it is very dlfncu'.t to f.iy how much the actual refuting prelTure on the teeth of the faw is increafcd. Twice the number of (ibres are necelfarily torn .uundcr during the fame time, l)ecaufe the fame number are torn by rne defcent of the faw, and it makes that llioke in half the time. But it is very uncertain whether the refirtance is double on this account ; becaufe if each fibre be fuppofed to have the fame tenacity in both cafes, it relills with this tena- city only for half the time. The parts of bodies relill a limilar change of condition in dilFsrent manners ; and tliere is another difference in their refillance ct different ch.inges — the refiftance of red hot iron under the roller may vary at a very different rate from that ot its relifl- ance to the cutting tool. The ret'illance of the fplndlcs of a cotton mill, arifing partly tVom friiflion, partly from the inertia of the heaped bobbins, and partly tiom the refifl.mce <'f the air, is l\ill more complicated, and it may be difficult to learn its law. The only cafe in which we can judge with fome precifion is, wiien the inertia of matter, or a conftant prelfuie like that of gr.»- vity, conlliiute'! tlie chief refillanc*. Thus in a mill empl lyed to r.iifc water by 3 chain of buckets, tire re- filhince proceeds from the inertw only of the water. X<ie buckets are moving with a certain velocity, and ihc ly known. 368 MACHINERY. the lowell of ihcm lakes hold of a quantity of water by the atmofplisre ; but it ferves us at prefcut for a lyinc at veil in llii pit, and drags it into motion with nieafure of the power of the wheel. At laft, all the Its acquiieJ velocity. The force required lor gencrat- buckets of the wheel arc iull, and the water is (for ex- iiig this iiioiicn on the quiel'cent water mull be double ample) 25 feet high in the pipe. Now lit the ftrcam or triple, when the velocity that mull be given to it is of water run its full quantity. It will only run over fo. This abforbs the overplus of the impelling power, from bucket to bucket, and run off at the bottom cf the by which that power exceeds what is necelfary for ba- wheel ; but the mill w ill not move, and no work will lancing the weight of the water contained in all the be performed. (N. B. We are here excluding all im- afcending buckets. This is a cei tain determinate quan- pulfe or ftroke on llie buckets, and fuppofing the wa« tity which does not change ; for in the fame inllant that ter to a..^ only by its weight.) But now let all be a new bucket of water is forced into motion below, and emptied again, and let the water be delivered on thi its weight added to that of the afcending buckets, an wheel in its lull quantity at the firlf . The wheel will equal bucket is emptied of its water at top. The immediately acquire a preponderancy, which will^rfa//y alcending buckets tequire only to be balanced, and exceed the Hrlt fmall prclfure ol the atmofphere on the they then continue to afcend, with any velocity already pillon. Ic will therefore accelerate the pifton, overcom- acquired. While the machine moves flow, the motion ing the preli'ure of tlie air with great velocity. The imprelTcd on the new bucket of water is not fufficient pilton riles fait ; the water follows ic, by the prefTure to abforb all the overplus of impelling power. The ot the atmofphere ; and when it attains the former ut- quantity not abforbcd accelerates the machine, and the mod height, it attains it with a cunfiderable velocity. next bucket muft produce more motion in the water If allowed to run off there, it will continue to run ofiF which it takes up. This confumes more of the over- with that velncity ; becaufe there is the fame quantity plus. This goes on till no overplus of power is left, of water prelling round the wheel as before, and therc- and the machine accelerates no more. The complete lore enough to balance the prelTure of the atmofphere perfotmance of the machine now is, that " a ceriaift on the pillon. The prclfure ol tlic fame atmofphere on quantity of water, formerly at reft, is now moving with the water in the cillern, raifed the water in the pipe a certain velocity." Our engineers conlider it different- with this velocity ; therefore it will continue to do fo, ly; " as a certain -jaeight of water lifted up." But and the mill will deliver water by the pump with this while the machine is thus moving uniformly, it is really velocity, although there is no more prefTure afling on not doing fo much as bef re ; that is, it is not exerting it than before, when the water ran to walle, doing no fuch great prefiures as before the motion was rendered work whatever. uniform : for at that time there was a prelTure at the This mode of aftion is extremely different from the working point equal to the weight of all the water in former example. The mill is not afling againft the the afcending buckets ; and alio an overplus of prelTure, inertia^ ol the water to be moved, but againll the pref- by which the whole was accelerated. In the ftate of fure r of the atmofphere on the pifton. The prelTure uniform motion, the prefTure is no more than juft ba- of the fame atmolpliere on the ciflern is employed againft lances the weight of the afcending chain. We fhall the inertia of the water in the pipe; and the ufe of the learn by and bye how the prelTuies have been diminiih- mill is \.o give occafion, by raifing the pifton, to the ex- ing, although the mill has been accelerating ; a thing ertion of this atmofpherical prclfure, which is the real that feems a paradox. raifer of the water. The maxim of conftrudion, and In this inftance, then, we fee clearly, why a machine the proper adjuftment of nj to n in this cafe, arc diffe- mull attam a uniform motion. A pumping machine rent from the former ; and we lliould run the rilk of ma- gives us the fame opportunity, but in a manner fo dif- king an imperfeft engine were we to confound them, ferent as to require explanation. The pifton may be We mull mention another cafe of a pumping mill, fuppofcd at the very furface of the pit water, and the feemingly the fame with this, but elTentially difFerent. impelling power may be lefs than will fupport a column in the pipe as high as can be raifed by the preffure of the atmofphere. Suppofe the impelling power to be the water lying in the buckets of an overlhot wheel. Suppofe the pipe of this pump to reach 30 feet below the furface of the pit water, and that the pillon is at the very bottom of it. Suppofe alfo, that the wheel buckets, when filled with water, only enable it 10 fiip- JLet this water be laid into the buckets by a very fmall port 25 feet of water in the rifing pipe. Let the wa- llream. It will hll the buckets very flowly ; and as ter be delivered into the wheel drop by drop. The this gives them a preponderance, the mill lofes its ba- wheel will gradually preponderate ; the pifton will gra- lance, the wheel begins to move, and the pifton to rife, dually rife, lifting the water above it, fuftaining a pref- and the water to follow it. The water may be deli- fure of water which gradually increafes. At laft, the vcred on the wheel drop by drop ; the pifton will rife water in the pump is 25 feet higher than that in the by infenlible degrees, always ftanding ftill again as foon ciftern ; the wheel is full and running to wafte ; but as the atmofpheric prclfure on it juft balances the wa- no work is performed. Let all be emptied, and now ter on the wheel. The water in the riling pipe is al- let the water come to the wheel in its full ftream, but ways a balance to the preffure of the atmofphere on the without impulfe. The pifton will lift the water brifk- ciftern ; therefore the prelTure of the atmofphere on the ly, bring it to 2J feet high with a confiderable velocity, pifton (which is the r in our formula) is equal to the and the mill will now raife it with this velocity. In weight of this water. Our pump makers therefore this example, the mill is the immediate agent in raifing (calling thcml'elves engineeis) fay, that the weight of the water; but, in this cafe alfo, its ultimate office is water in the pipe balances the water on the wheel. It not overcoming inertia, but overcoming prelTure. It does not balance it, nor is it raifed by the wheel, but was the overplus of power only that was employed in ovcrcomin;: tl. 22 The chief caufc is a teal dimi- ■ution of power. M A C H I N E R Y. •vercoming inenia, while accelerating the water in ilie dy in rapid motion as on one at retl, yet when gravity rifjng pipe, in order to give it the neceflary velocity for is not the immediate agent, but afls by the intervention a continued difchargc. Thefe and firailar examples (hew the great dilTerence between the ftatical and dynamical equilibrium of ma- chines, and the necelTity of a fcientific attention by all who wifli to improve pradllcal mechanics. Without this, and even a pretty refined attention, we cannot fee the connexion between a copious fupply of water to the bucket wheel and a plentiful difcharge by the pump. We bslieve, that the greateft part of thofe employed in 569 of a body in whicli it refidcs, the necelBty of previoufly moving this body frequently diminiflies the acceleration which it would otherwife produce. Thu5, in an cver- rhot wheel, if the water be delivered in'.o the bucket with a velocity (eftimated in tlie direiflion of the part of the wheel into which it is delivered ) lefs than that cf the rim of the wheel, it muft retard llie motion ; for it muft be immediately dragged into that motion ; that is, part oi' the accelerating overplus, already afling on the erecting machines conceive it as owing to the greater wheel, muft be employed in accelerating this new buck- weight of water impelling the wheel witli greater et of water, and this muft leiTcn the general acceleration force ; but we fee that there is no difference in the pref- of the machine. Hence we learn, that the water muft fures on the mill at reft, and the mill doing its work be delivered on the wheel with a velocity that is at leaft fteadilyand uniformly, with any velocity.however great, not lefs than that of the wheel's motion. Without keeping the notions of that part of the im- The cM'e in which we fee this diminution of power it obtsin* pelling power which fupports diftindl from that of the on machines moft diftindlly is, when water or wind, in all ma- part which accelerates, we fhall never have a clear con- afling by impulfe alone, is our moving power. Since '^'"''" ^'^- ceplion of the operation of machines, or of mechanical the mutual impulfes of bodies depend entirely on their T"^'^? ^f power in general. We cannot derivs all the advanta- relative motions (fee Impulsion, Suppl.), it follows, ""^''"'''"' ges of ctir natural powers, without knowing how our that when the veKcity of the impelled point is aug- machine employs the preffure excited by it at the work- menteJ, the impulfioD, or effeflive prelfure, muft be diminilhed. Nay, this velocity may be fo increafed, that there (hall b; no relative motion, and therefore no impullion. If the floats of an undeiftiot wheel be mo- ving with the velocity of the ftream, they remain con- joined in their progrefs, but without any mutual ac- tion. Therefore, when an i:nderlhot wheel is fet into a running water, the Grft impulfions are ftrong, and ac- celsrate the w. eel. This diminilhes the next iimpulllon and acceleration : but the wheel is ftill impelled and accelerated ; lefs and lefs in every fucceeding momenr, as it moves fafter ; by and bye, die acceleration be- comes inlenfible, and the wheel appears to attain a mo- ing point; that is, without perceiving in what cafes it is oppofed to inertia, and in what to the mechanical properties of tangible matter. This only can inlorm us at what rate the rcfiftance varies by a change of ve- locity ; and when it happens that this augmentation, ne- celTarily accompanied by an augmentation of all the fiiftions, and tlie refiftance of the air, is in equilibrio with the whole of the impelling power, and all accele- ration is at an end. Laftly, another chief caufe of the finally uniform mo- tion of machines is, that, in moft cafes, an increafe of velocity produces a real diminution of impelling power. We hardly know any exception to this befides the em- tion which is perfectly uniform. This requires a very ployment of one defcending weight as a power or firft long time, or rather it is never attained, and we only mover. Moft of the powers which we employ refide in cannot difcern the very fmall ad. litions which are lliU bodies external to the machine ; and thefe bodies muft be put in motion, and continued in that motion, in or- der to continue their prefkire on the impelled poii.t. Frequently a great part of the power is employed in gi- ving this necelfarv motion to the external matter, and the remainder only is employed in prelling forward the machine. We mentioned a remarkable inftance of this in the operation of thraftiing. Now, the power thus employed muft increafe in proportion to the motion re- quired ; that is, in proportion to the velocity of the im- pelled point ; what remains, urging forward the ma- chine, is iheretore diminiftied. The acceleration is therefore diminiftied, and may ceafc. At Liji the ac- tual prelTure is fo much diminilhed, that it is no more made to the velocity. All this happens gerer.illy af- ter a very moderate time, by reafon of vaiious other obftrutftions. Animal aftipn is fubjeifl to the fame variation. We Or ^y the know, that there is a certain rate at which a horfe can force of inj. run, exhaufting or employing his whole ftrength. If"^- he be made to drag any thefmalleft load alter hi.ni, he muft employ psrt of his force on it, and his fpeed will be checked. The more he is loaded with a drausht, the llower he will run, ftill employing all his ftrencth. The draught may be increafed till he is reduced to a trot, to a walk, nay, till he is unable to draw it. Now, juft inverting this procefs, we fee, that there is a ceitain ftrain which will futlicienily tire the horfe without ftir- than what is necelfary for overcoming the increafed re- ring from the fpot, but which he could continue to tx- fiftance of the work, the increafed friclion. The ma- ert for hours. This is greater than the load that he chine therefore accelerate^ no more, but moves uni- can juft cr.iwl along with, employing his ftrengih as formly. much as would he pruJent to continue trom day to This caufe This caufe of the diminution of power by an increafe day. And, in liko manner, every lelicr dr.»ught has a very gene- of velocity, obtains in all cafes where the ftrength of correfponding rate, at which the horfe, employing his •*'• animals, offprings, the force of fired gunpowder, &c. whole working ftrength, cm continue to draw at du- is exerted. In fome cafes, the vifible cS/St is not very ring jhe working hours of a day. At fetting out, he confidcrablc ; as in the employment of a ftrong fpring, poiis harder, and accelerates ii. Following his pull, lie the force of gunpowder, and a few others. In the ac- walks (after, and therefoie pulls lefs (becaufe we are tion of .inimaU, this defalcation of power is very great ftill fuppofing him to employ Lis whole working when the velocity is confiderable. Nay, even in the ftrcngilij. At laft he attains that fpccd whicli occu- a(ftion of gravity, althcugh it aifli as ftrongly on a bo- SuprL. Vol. II. pies his whcle ftrength in merely continuing tiie pnil. 3 A Otl.^ 37° MACHINERY. 13 \Vc muft dilliiiguifli between the power expended and the Other animals afl in a (imilar manner ; and it becomes a general rule, that the preflure actually exerted on the impelled point of a machine diminiflies as its velocity increafcs. From the concurrence of fo many fafls, we perceive that we mull be caiet'ul to dillinguilh between the quan- tity of power expended, and the quantity that is ufe- t'ully employed, which mull be mealured folely by the ptelfure exeited on the machine. When a weight ot five pounds is employed to drag up a weight ot three powc'rem- pounds by means of a thread over a ptiUey, it delcends, ployed. with a motion uniformly accelerated, four teet in the fiill fecond. Mr Smeaton would call this an expendi- ture of a mechanical power 20. The weight three pounds is raifed four feet. Mr Smeaton would call this a mechanical effect 12. Therefore the effcil pro- duced is not adequate to the power expended. But the faa is, that the preifure, llrain, or mechanical power really exerted in this experiment, is neither five nor three pounds; the five pound weight would have fallen 16 ieet, but it falls only 4. A force has therefoie ailed on it fufficient to make it defcribe 12 feet in a fecond, with a uniformly accelerated motion ; lor it has coun- terafled fo much of its weight. The thread was drain- ed with a force equal to 3^ pounds, or |ths of 5 pounds. In like manner, the three pound weight would have fallen 16 feet; but it was railed 4 feet. Here was a change precifely equal to the other. A force of 3^ pounds, aftiug on a mafs whofe matter is only 3, will, in a fecond, caufe it to defcribe 20 feet with a uniform- ly accelerated motion. Now, 5 X 1 2, and 3 X 20, give the fame produifl 60. And thus we fee, that the quan- tity of motion extinguiihed or produced, and not the produfl of the weight and height, is the true unequi- vocal meafure of mechanical power really expended, or the mechanical ellciil really produced; and that thele two are always equal and ojiporue. At the fame time, Mr Smeaton's theorem merits the attention of engi- neers ; becaufe it generally meafures the opportunities that we have fc>r procuring the exertion of power. In fome fenfe Mr Smeaton may fay, that the quantity of •water multiplied by the height from which it defcends in working c ur machines, is the meafure of the power expended ; bccaule we mull raife this quantity to the dam again, in order 10 liave the fame ufe ot it. It is expended, but not employed ; for the water, at leaving U- the wheel, is Hill able to do fomcthing. I'irft prin- ciple of working machines. It rcquiies but little cor.fidsration to be fenfible, that the preceding account of the ctifatinn cf accelerated motion in our principal machines, mull introduce djffe- rent maxims of conftruiSlon trom thofe which were ex- pref'.ly ailapted to this acceleration ; or rather, which procseJed on the erroneous fuppofitionof the conllancy cf the impelling power and the refillance. The exa- mination of this point has brought into view the funda- mental principle ('f working machines, namely, the per- feift equilibrium which takes place between the impel- ling power and the fimultaneous refiftance. It may be exprelled thus : The force required for prrfervhig a machine in uniform motion, lulth any velocity luhativer, it that lubich is ne- crjfary for balaiuing the tejijiance then a^lualiy exerted on the ivorking foiiit of the machine. We fiaw thi^ dillin<fl- ly in the inllance of the two weights afting againlt each other by the intervention of a thread over a fixed pul- ley. It is equally true of every cafe of afling machine- ry : for if the force at the impelled point be greater than what balances the refiftance adling at the fame point, it mult accelerate that point, and therefore acce- lerate the whole machine; and if the impelling force be lei's than this, the machine niuft immediately retard in its motion. When the machine has once acquired this degree of motion, every part of it will continue in its prefent Hate of motion, if only tlie two external forces are in equilibrio, but not ctherwife. But when the predure of the external power on the impelled point balances the refillance oppofed by that point, it is, in fafl, maintaining the equilibrium with the external power aiding at the working point ; for this is the only way that external forces can be fet in oppofition to each otiier by the intervention of a body. The exter- nal forces are not in immediate equilibrio with each other, but each is in equilibrio with the force exerted by the point on which it adls. This force exerted by the point is a modification of the conneifling forces of the body, all of which are brought into action by means of the ac5tions of the external forces, and each is accom- panied by a force precifely equal and oppofite to it. Now, the principles of ftatics teach us the proportions cf the external prelfures which are thus fet in equili- biium by the intervention of a body; and therefore teach us what proportion of power and refiftance will keep a machine of a given conllruftion in a ftate of uni- form motion. This propofition appears paradoxical, and contrary to common oblervation ; for we find, that, in order to make a mill go fafler, we mufl either diminilh the re- fillance, or we muft employ more men, or more water, or uater moving with greater velocity, S;c. But this arites from fome of the caufes already mentioned. Ei- ther the refillance of the work is greater when the ma- chine is made to move faller, or the impulfion of the power is diminilhed, or bo'.h thefe changes obtain. Fricftion and refillance of air alfo come in for their fhare, &c. The actual prelFure of a given quantity of the external power is diminilhed, and therefore more of it mull be employed. When a weight is uniformly raifed by a machine, the preifure exerted on it by the working point is precilisly equal to its weight, what- ever be the velocity with which it riles. But, even in this fimpleft cafe more natural power muft be expend- ed in order to raife it falter ; becaufe ei;her more natu- ral power mull be employed to accelerate the external matter which is to prefs forward the impelled point, or the relative motion of the preffing matter will be dimi- nilhed. It is well known, that, in the employment of tlie mechanic powers, whether in tlieir ftate of greateft fim- plicity, or any how combined in a complicated machine, if the machine be put in motion, the velocities of the extreme points (which we have called the impelled and ivorLin'j points) are inverfely proportional to the forces which are in equilibri.) when applied to thefe points in the direiflion of th;-ir motion. This is an induflive propofition, and has been ufed as the foundation of fyftems of mechanics. It is unnecelTary to take up time in proving what is fo faniilijrly known ; confequently, the produfls of the prelfures at thofe points by the ve- locities of the motions are equal ; that is, the produft of the preflure a>5lually exerted at the impelled point of a machine MACHINERY. «5 tecoiid princl|>Ie. Momen- tum of im' pulfe and the per- formance of the ma- chine arc equal. 26 Important dcliderata for prac- tice. a machine working uniformly, mulllplied by the velo- city of that point, is equal to the proJuil of the refin- ance actually exerted at the worliing point, multiplied by the velocity of that point, that is, by the velocity with whicJi the refillance is overcome, p 7n =z r n. Now, the produd of the relillance, by the velocity vitii which it is overcome, is evidently the meafure of the performance of the machine, or the worlc done. The produi5l of the aflual prcliure on the impelled point, by the velocity of that point, may be called the momen- tum OF IMPULSE. Hence we deduce this propofition. : In all •zvoriing machines tuhkh hove acqulnd a uni- form motion, the performance of the r/:achiiie is equal to the momentum of impuife (a). This is a propolition of the utmoft importance in the ■ fcience of machines, and leads to the fundamental ma- xim of their conllrufticn. Since tlie performance of a machine is equal to the momentum of impuife, it in- creafes and diminirties along with it, and is a maximum when the momentum of impuife is a maximum ; there- fore, the fundamental maxim in the conlliuclion of a machine is to falhion it in fuch a manner, that the mo- mentum of impuife ihall be a maximum, or that the produit of the prelfure aflually exerted on tlie impelled point of the machine by the velocity with whicli it moves may be as great as polliblc. Then are we cer- tain that the produdt of the rcfiftance, by the velocity of the worliing point, is as great as poQible, provided that we take care that none of the impuife be needlefsly waited by the way by injudicious communications of motion, Ijy friiSion, by unbalanced loads, and by reci- procal motions, which irrecoverably walle the impelling power. This maxim holds good, whether the refin- ance remains coniiantly the fame, or varies by any law whatever. But much remains to be done for the improvement of meclianical I'cience before we can avail ourlelves of this maxim, and apply it with fuccefs. The chief thing, and to this we Oiould give the moll unremitting atten- tion, is, to learn the changes which obtain in the adual prelfure cxeitcd by thofe natural powers which we can command ; the changes of aftual prelfure produced by a change of the velocity of the impelled point of the machine. Thefc depend on the fpecific natures of thoie powers, and are different in almofi every dilferent cafe. Nothing will more contiibute to the improve- ment of praiflical mechanics than a icries of experiments, wfell contrived, and accurately made, for difcovering 37 » thofe laws of variation, in the cafes of thofe powers which aie moft frequently employed. Such experi- ments, liowever, would be coflly, beyond the abilities ol an individual ; therefore, it were greatly to be wilhtd that public aid were given to fome perfons of (kill in the fcience to inftitute a regular train of experiment! of this kind. An experimental machine might be con- ftruL'ted, to be wrought cither by men or by cattle. This Ihould be loaded with fome kind of work which can b; very accurately mealuitd, and the load varied al pleafure. Wlien loaded to a certain degree, the men or cattle (hould be made to work at the rate which they can continue from day to day. The number of turns made in an hour, multiplied by the load, will give the performance correfponding to the velocities ; and thus will be difcovered the mull advantageous rate of mo- lion. The fame machine ihould alio be fitted for grind- ing, for fiwing, boring, &c. and fimilar experiments will difcovcr the relation between the velocities with wliich thefe operations are performed, and the refiftan- ces ivhich they exert. The laws of fricTion may be in- velligated by the fame machine. It fliould alio be fitted with a walking wheel, and the trial Ihould be made of the ll pe and the velocity of walking which gives the greateft momentum of impuife. It is not umeafonable to exped great advantages from fuch a train of experi- ments. Till this be done, we muft content ourfclves with t^ eflablifhing the above, in the moll general terms, appli- A ruhfti- cable to any cafe in which the law of the variation of •"" ^"^ force may hereafter be difcovered. them. There is a certain velocity of the impelled point of a machine which puts an end to the aiflion of tlie movinsj power. Thus, if the floats of an underfliot wheel be moving with the vel city of the llream, no impuife is made on them. If the arm of a gin or capftaii be mo- ving with that Velocity with which a h )rfe or a man can juft move, fo as to continue at that fpeed from day to day, employing all his working llrength, but not: fatiguing himfelf; in this (late of motion, the animal can exert no prelfure on the machine. This may be called the fxtinguisming velocitv, and we may ex- prel's it by the fymbol e. l^tif be that degree ri force or prelfure wliich the animal can exeit at a dead pull or thruft, as it is called. We do not mean the utmofl ftraln of which the animal iscapablc, but that which it can continue unremittingly during the working hours of a day, fully employing, but not fatiguing itfth. And let p be the prelfure which it aiflually exerts on the im- pelled point of a machine, moving with the velocity m, 3 A 2 Let (a* TUe truth of this propofition has been long perceived in every particular inflance that happened to engage the attention ; but we do nit recollcdl any mechanician before Mr Eulcr cor./idering it as a general truth, expicf- fing in a few words a mechanical law. Tnis celebrated maihematician undeitock, about tlic year 1735 or 1736, a general and fyllematic view of machines, in order to found a complete theory im-^icdiatdy conducive to the im- provement of praftical mechanics. In 1743 he publilhed the firll propofitions of this nfeful tJieory in the lotli volume ol the Comment. PetropoUtaiii, containing the excellent dynamical theorems of which we have given the fubllance. In the 3d volume of the Comment. Novi Petropol. he profecuted the fubjet'l a little farther ; and in the 8th volume, he entered on what we are now engaged in, and lormally announces this fundamental propoii- tion, calling thefe two prodii(5ls the momentum of impuife, and the momentum of ejfiil. It is much to be regretted, that this confiimmate mathematician did not continue tiiefe ulclul lal>ours ; his ardent mird being carried away by more abllrufe Ipeculaiions in all the moft refined dep.irtments of m.ithcmatics and philofophy. No man in Europe could have profecuted the fubjed with more judgment and fuccefs. — See alfo Mem, Acad. Berlin, 1 747 and 1753. 372 MACHINERY L,;t e — « be called the relative velocity, and let it be exprclFsd by t. And let it be Ibppofed, that it has been diicovered, by any me.ins wh;Uever, that the iift'ial preHiirc varies in the proportion of f ', or and by y f , gives -^f. Now/ is conQdered as equal to the e — m> . This fuppofition gives us tfl : v' =/:/>, q f —f'iCL- . For the machine niufl be at reft, in order e> that the agent may be able to exert the force f on its impelled point. But when the machine is alrell, what we ]nve named the relative velocity is e, the whole ot the extinguilhing velocity. The momentum of impulfe is p ni, that is— /;«, or f X-T X »• — "" (becaufe m = e — vl. Therefore f X— X « — •" muft be made a ma.ximum. But/ and e" are two quanlilies which fuffer no change. There, fore the momentum of impulle will be a maximum when maximum. Now ^■'' x c — ^' = "v' e — I)'-*-'. The fluxion of this is This being fuppofed — c> -Vl 11, — IS a I'l e ■ yr i"i — 'v — y-J- I -v v. we have the eqiiatation g e v'"' — '=y + ' ^' And q ( —. tj-^- 1 V Therefore 1) =-^ ' And; which is = <? — V, becomes . f+' Therefore we mull order matters fo, that the velocity of the im- pelled pwint of the machine may be = . Now p Js=/ — . and therefore =/x'=r^ ? + = /• ■'>=/-- '=fx-- And /> M, 5 + 1' ■ ' ?4- • ■• ■■?+' ■' ?+ '•■^ ' the momentum of impulfe, and therefore z: die mo- mentum of efleift, or the performance of the machine, when in its beil ftate. , Thus may the maxim of conflrudlion be faid to be Itxamplc in brought to a flate cf great limplicity, and of nioft eafy undcrfiiot recollcftion. A particular cafe of this maxim has been long knov.n, having been pointed out by Mr Parent. Since the afiinn of bodies depends on ihcir relative ve- locity, the impulfe of fluids mult be as the fquare cf the relative velocity'. From which Mr P.irent deduced, that the moft advantH.geous velocity of the floats of fin un- derihot wheel is or-e third of that of the tbeim. This maxim is evidently included in t.ur general prnpofition ; for in this cafe, the index q of that fiinflion of tlie rela- tive velocity t>, which is proporiional to the impulfe, is IT 2. Therefore we have the maximum when 1 = — ■ — , = \e, and m — l-e, c, the extiDguifliing »rlls by Air Pa- rent + I ■felocitv, is evidently the velocity ef the dream. Our propdfition alfo gives us the precife value of the perform- ance. Theinipulle of the ftream on the float at reft being fuppofed =: /, its impulfe on the float moving with the velocity -f e muft be = -f. This is the meafure of 9 ibe adual prefFure f>. This being multiplied by ?n, or weight of a column of water, having the furface of the floatboard for its bafe, and the depth of the fluice un- der tiie furface of th.e refervoir (or, more accurately, the fall required for generating the velocity of the ftream) for its height. Hence it has been concluded, that the utmoft performance of an undeilhot wlieel is to raife — of the water which impels it, to the height from which it falls. But this is not found very agree- able to obfcrvation. Friiftion, and many imperfeflions Not »cca- of execution in the delivery of the w.iter, the direiftion *■*"• of its impulfe, &c. m.ry be expefied to make a defalca- tion from this theoretical performance. But the aiflnal performance, even of mills of acknowledged imperfec- tion, confiderably exceeds this, and fonietimes is found neaily double of this quantity. The truth if, that the particular fadi from which Mr P.>.rent firft deduced this maxim (namely, the performance of what is called Parent's or Dr Barker's mill), is, perhaps of all that could have been felefted, the leaft calculated for being the foundation of a general rule, being of a nature fo abftrufe, that the firli mathematicians of Europe are to this day doubtful whether they have a juft conception of its principles. Mr Smeaton's experiments ftrew very diftinfily, that the maximum oi performance of an un- derihot wheel correfponds to a velocity confiderably greater than one-third of the ftream, and approaches nearly to one half ; and he affigns if me reafons for this which feem well founded. But, independent of this, the performance of Mr Smeaton's model was much greater than what correlponds with the velocity by the above mentioned eftimation of/. The theory of (he impulfion of fluids is extremely imperfcif) ; and Daniel Bernoulli ihews, irom very unqucilionable principles, tliat the impulfe of a narrow vein of fluid on an extend- ed furface is double of what was generally fuppifed ; and his conclufions are abundantly confirmed by the experiments adduced by hiin. It is by no means pictendcd, that the maxim of eon- 29 fttufflion is reduced to the great fimplicity enounced in This fub- the propofition now under confrderation. We only fup- p', 'f " pofed, that a cafe had been obferved where the prelfure ,^j,^„' :, exerted by fome natural agent did follow the proportions is not alto- of ^|'■'. This being admitted, the propofition is ftiiflly gether ex- true. But we do not know any fuch cafe ; yet is the pro- '^'^• pofition of confiderable ufe : for we can affirm, on the authority of our own obfervaiions, that the aftion both of men and ot di-aught horfes does not deviate very far fiom the proportions of ^''. The obfervaiions were made on men and horfes tracking a lighter along a canal, and working fevei'al days together, without ha- ving any knowledge of the puipofeof the obfervations. The force exerted was firft meaiured by the curvature and weight of the track rope, and afterwards by a fpring fteelyard. This was muU'plied by th« number of yards per hour, and the produft confidered as the momen- tum. We found the aftion of men to be very nearly as e — m'. The adlion of horfes, loaded fo as not to be able to trot, was nearly as <■ — m"', The praditioner can eafily avail himfelf of the ma- xim, although the funiflion q fhould never be reduced to any algebraic form. He has only to inftltute a train of 3« Two me- thod» of a- vailingour- fclvcs of this max- iw. Rfcapltu- htitn. M A C H of experiments on tlie natural agent, and felecl that ve- locity wluch gives the highcll product when multiplied by Its coriefponding prelFure. When this fokaion has been made, we have two ways of giving nur working machines the maximum of elTed, having onca afcertamed the prell'ure/ which our natural power exerts on the impelled point of the ma- chme wlien it is not allowed to move. 1. When the refillance arifing from the work, and from fiiition, is a given quantity ; as when water is to be railea to a certain heignt by a piiton of given di- mcnfions. Since the fiiiflion in all the communicating parts of the maciiine vary in the fame proportion with the pref- fure, and fince thcfe vary in the fame propoition with the reiUlance, the fum ot the refillance and friftion may be reprefeiited by b r, b being an abllrad number. Let u be the undetermined velocity of the working point; or let m : n be the proportion of velocities at the im- pelled and working points. Then, becaufo the pref- lures at thefe points balance each other, in the cafe of uniform motion, they are inveifcly as the vekicitiss at thofe points. Therefore we muft make b r -. p ~ m : n, , / m 9 -f ' , ■ ~, or m: n and «='-—,= r , — m a -\- l< r or or -q+ I^ X br:q'>/. 2. On the other hand, when m : « is already given, by the conftruflion of the machine, but b r is fufcep- tible of variation, we muft load the machine with ninre and more work, till we have reduced the velocity of its impelled point to . ?+ I In either cafe, the performance is eiprefled by what exprefies/im, that is, by/"* X — ^ . Buttheufeful g ■+■ 1''*"' performance, which is really the work done, will be had by dividing the value now obtained by the number i, whicli exprcffcs the fum of the reliftance overcome by the working poir.t and th: friction of the machine. What has been now delivered contains, we ima- gine, the chief principles of the theory of machines, and points out the way in which we mu!l proceed in applying them to every cafe. The reader, we hopr, fees clearly the irapcrfcftion of a confidera- tion of macliines which proceeds no f irther than the ftatenitnt of the proportions of the fimultaneous pref- fures which are excited in all the parts of the machine by the applicatiim of the external fcrces, which we are accullomed to call the /^oiu.r and tiie lucight. Unlefs we take alfo into confiderntion, the immediate efFviS of mechanical force applied to body, and combine this ■with all the preflures which flatical principles have tna- blcd us to afcertain, and by this comliinati.m be able to fay what portion of unbalanced foice there is acting at one and all of the preiling points of the machine, and what will be the m'^tinn of every part of it in confe- quence of this overplus, we have acquired no know- ledge that can be of fei vice to us. Vv"e have been con- templating, not a working machine, but a fort of b.i- lance. But, by icafonlng -about thefe unbalanced forces in the fame liniple manner as about the fall of heavy bodies, wc were able to difcover the mojiient;u-y accek- 1 N E R Y. rations of every part, and the fenfible motion which tt would acquire in any alTigned time, if all the circum- (lances remain the fame. We found that the refults, although deduced from unqueftionable principles, were quite unlike the obferved motions of moll working ma- chines. Proceeding flill on the fame principles, we confidered this deviation as the indicati -n, and the pre- cife meafure, of fometliing which we had not yet at- tended to, but which the deviation brought into view, and enabled us to afcertain with accuracy. Tiiefe are. the changes which happen in the exertions of our ac- tuating powers by the velocity with which we find it convenient to make tl.em act. Thus we learn more of the nature of thole powers ; and we found it neeeffary to dillinguilh caiefuUy between the apparent magni- tude of cur actuating power and its real exertion in do- ing our work. This confideration led us to a funda- mental propofition concerning all working machines when they have attained an uniform motion ; namely, that the power and relillance then really exerted on ilie machine piecifely balance each other, and that the ma- chine is precifely in the conJitinn of a fteelyard loaded with its balanced weights, and moved round its axis by fome external force didinct from the power and the weight. We found that this force is the previous over- plus of impelling power, before the machine had acqui- red the uniform motion ; and on this occafion we learn- ed to eflimate the efled produced, by the momenruni (depending on tlie form of the machine) of the quan- tity of motion produced in the whole sifemblage of power, refillance, and machine. The theory of machines fccmed to be now brought back to that fimplicity of equilibrium which we had faid was fo imperfeift a I'onndation for a theory ; but in the availing ourfelves of the maxim founded on this ge- neral proportion, wc faw that the equilibrium is ef a very different kind from a quiefcent equilibrium. It neceffarily involves in it the knowledge of tlie momen- tary accelerations and their momenta; without which we flionld not perceive that one (late of motion is more ad- vantageous than another, becaufe all give us the fame proportion of forces in cquilibrio. But this is n.it tlie only ufe of the previous know, ledge of the momentary accelerations of machines ; there are many cafes where the machine works in this very (late. Many machines accelerate throughout while performing their work ; and their efficacy depends en- tirely on the final acceleration. Of this kind is the coining prof-, the great forge or tilt mill, and fome other capital engines. The Iteani engine, and the com- m.n pump, are nccclfaiily of this clafs, altliougii their eilicacy is not elUmated by their final acceleration. A great number of engines have reciprocating motions in different fubordinate parts. The theory of all fuel', en- gines requires for its perfection an accurate knowledge of the momcntiry accelerations; and we mull ufe tlie formula; contained in the fiid part of this article. Still, however, the application of this knowlidge has many diflicuhies wliich nuke ^^ooii theory of fuch ma- chines a much more intricate and complicated matter than wc have yet k-d the reader to fupp<^fe. In moll of thefe engines, tlie whole moli jn may be divided in- to two parts. One may be called thevoRKiNc strokk, and the other in whicli the working points are brcucht back to a lituatiou which fits them lor ading again, may Z7i 51 Theor}* of machines ftiil intri- cate, cfp:- cially of fuch as re* ciprocatc» 32 Working and return. ing llrolut. 374 MACHINERY. may be called the rtturning stroke. This return mull be effe<5leJ either by means cl Ibnie inimediiite ap- plication oi the aftuatmg power, or by ibnie other force, which is counleraiftcd during the working ftroke, and mull be conliJered as making part ot the relillance. In the llcam engine, it is generally done by a counter- poife on the cuter end of the great working beam. This mull be accounted a part ot the relillance, for it mull be railed again ; and the pioportioui of the machine lor attaining the maximum mult be computed accordingly. The quantity of this counterpoil'e mull be aJjulled by other conliderations. It mull be luch, that the dcl'cenc of the pump rods in the pit \Ti:iy jtijl employ the whole time tliat is neceifjry for filhng the cylinder witii ftcam. If they dcfcend more briikly (which an unlkill'ul engi- neer likes to fee), this mult be done by means ot a greater counterpoile, and this employs more powder to raife it again. Delaguliers delcnbes a very excellent machine for railing water in a bucket by a man's llep- ping into an oppolite bucket, and defcending by his preponderancy. When he comes to the bottom, he ttei)s out, goes up a Hair, and finds the bucket return- ed and ready to receive him agam. This machine is extremely fimple, and perhaps the bell that can be con- trived ; and yet it ib one of the moll likely to be a very bad one. The bucket into which the man lleps mull be brought up to its place again by a preponderancy in the machine when unloaded. It may be returned fooner or later. It (hould arrive precil'ely at the fame time with the man. If fooner, it is of no ufe, and ■walles power in raifing a counterpoile which is need- lefsly heavy; if later, time is loll: Therefoie, the per- fection of this very fimple machine requires the judicious combination uf two maximums, each of which varies in a ratio compounded of two other ratios. Suppofe the man to employ a minute to go up Hairs 50 feet, which is very nearly what he can do fiom day to day as his only work, and Uippofc him to weigh 150 pounds, and that he adts by means of a fimple pulley — the maximum for a lever of equal arms woulu require him to raile about 60 pounds of water. But when all the other circumllances are calculated, it will be found that he mull raife 138 pounds (negleiiting the inertia of the machine). He Ihould raife 542 pounds 10 leet in a minute ; and this is nearly the moll exaft valuation of a man's work. There is the fame neceffity of attending to a variety of circumllances in all machines which reciprocate in the whole or any confiderable part of their motion. The iorce employed for bringing the machine into an- other working pofition, mull be regulated by the time neceffjiry for obtaining a new fupply of power ; and then the proportion of m to n mull be fo adjulled, that the work performed, divided by the -whole time of the working and returning ftrokes, may give the greatell quotient. It is Hill a difficult thing, therefore, to con- Itruft a machine in the moll perfedl manner, or even to lay what will be the periormacce of a machine already confluicled ; yet we fee that every circumllance is fuf- ceptible of accurate computation. Wiih refpecl to machines which acquire a fort of unitorm motion in general, although fubjedl to partial reciprocarions, as in a pumping, llamping, forging en- gine, it is alfo difficult to alUgn the rate even of this general uniform motion. We may, however, fay, that it will not be greater than if it were uniform througli- out. Were it entirely free from friflion, it would be exaflly the fime as if uniform ; becaufe the accelera- tioni during tlie advantageous (itualinns of the imptl- ling power would compenfate the retardations. But fiiition diminillies the accelerations, without diminilh- ing the retardations. We may conclude this article with feme obfervations tending to the general improvement of machines. Notning contributes more to the petfei5lion of a ma- chine, elpccially fuch as is mafiive and ponderous, than great uniformity of motion. Every irregularity of mo- tion walles fome of ihe impelling power; and it is on- ly the greatell of the varying velocities which is equal to that which the machine would acquire if moving uni- formly throughout ; for while the motion accelerate?, the impelling force is greater than what balances the relillance then aiflually oppofed to it, and the velocity is lefs than what the machine would acquire if moving uniformly: and when the machine attains its ^greatell velocity, it attains it becaufe the power is then not aiflng againft the whole relillance. In both of thefe filuations, therefore, the performance of the machine is lefs than if the power and relillance were exactly balan- ced ; in which cafe it would move uniformly. Every attention (hould therefore be given to this, and we Ihould endeavour to remove all caufe of irregu- larity. The communications of motion ihould be fo contrived, that if the impelled point bemriving uniform- ly, by the uniform prelfure of the pow-er, the working point Ihall alfo be m >ving uniformly. Then we may generally be certain, that the malfy parts of the ma- chine will be moving uniformly. When this is not done through the whole machine, there are continual returns of llrains and jolti : the inertia of(the different parts aifling in oppollt* directions. Although the whole momenta may always balance each other, yet the gene- ral motion is hobbling, and the points of fupport are drained. A great engine fo conftruifled, ccmmonly caufes the building to tremble ; but when uniform mo- lion pervades the whole machine, the inertia of each part tends to preferve this uniformity, and all goes imoothly. It is alio deferving of remark, tliat when the communications are fo contrived that the unilorm motion of one part produces uniform motion on the next, the prelTures at the communicating points remain conftant or invariable. Now the accomplilhing of this is always within ihe reach of mechanics. One of the moll ufual communications in machinery is by means of toothed wheeli adling on each other. It is of importance to have the teeth fo formed, that the prelfure by which one of them A urges the other B round its axis ihall be conllantly the fame. It can ea- lily be demonltrated, that when this is the cafe, the uniform angular motion of the one will produce a uni- form angular motion of the other ; or, if the motions are thus uniform, the prelTures are invariable. This is accomplilhed on this principle, that the mutual aflions of folid bodies on each other in the way of prelfure are perpendicular to the touching furfaces. Therefore let the tooth a pi efs on the tooth b in the point C ; and draw the line FCDE perpendicular to the touching fur- faces in the point C. Draw AF, BE perpendicular to FE, and let FE cut the line AB in E>. It is plain, from .33 Uniformi- ty of mo- tion throughout is of great advautagc 34 How to af- taiii thit. Bed formi for the teeth of wheels. Plate xxxiir. fig. I. MACHINERY. from the common principles of mechanics, that if tlie line FE, drawn in the manner now defcribed, always pafs through the fame point D, whatever may be the fitiiation of the a.5ting leeth, the mutual aftion of the ■wheels will always be the fame. It will be the fame as if the arm AU a-led on ihe arm BD. In the trea- tifes on the confli udion of mills, and other works of this kind, are man) inftruflions for the formation of the teeth of wheels ; and almofl every noted millwright has his own nollrums. Molt of them are egregioudy faul- ty in rcfpedl of mechanical principle. Indeed they are little elfe than inftrudtions how to make the teeth clear each otlier without (licking. Mr dc la Hire firft point- ed out the above mentioned principle, and juftly con- demned the common practice oi making the fniall wheel or pinion in the iorm of a lantern (v.lience it alfo took its n.ims), conlilting of two round difks, having a num- ber of cylindrical fpukes (tig. 2. J. The llightelt infpedion of this conllru<5lion (liews, that, in tLeddferent (ituations of the working teeth, the line FCE continually changes its interleiflion with AB. If the wheel B be very fmall in comparifon of the other, and if the teeth of A take deep hold of the cylindrical pins oi B, the line of aflion EF is fometimes fo diladvaiitageoully placed, that the prellure of the one wheel has fcarcely any tendency at EricYcloidi •'" '° ^"''" '''"^ other. Mr de la Hire, or Dr Hooke, rccom- was, we think, the firft who inveftigated the form of mended by tooth wliich procured this conftant aftion between the Deb Hire, wheels; and in a very ingenious dilfertation, publillied among the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Pa- ris 1668, the former of thefe gentlemen Ihews, that this will be enfurtd by foiming the teeth into epicycloids. Mr Camus of the fame Academy has publillied an ela- borate dili'ertation on t)ie fime fubjeil, in which he pro- fecutes the principle of Mr de la Hire, and applies it to all the variety of cafes which can occur in piaflice. There is no doubt as to the goodnels of the principle ; and it has another excellent property, " that the mu- tual adlion of the teeth is abiolutely without any fric- tion." The one tooth only applies itlell to the ether, and rolls on it, but does not flide or rub in the fmalleft degree. This makes them lall long, or rather does not allow them to wear in the leaft. But the conllrudion is fubjefl to a limitation which muft not be neglected. The teeth muft be fo made, that the curved part of the tooth b is aifled on by a flat part of the tcoth a till it comes to the line AB in the courl'e of its action ; after which the curved part c( a aiSs on a flat part of i ; or the whole aClion oi a on b is either completed, or only begins at the line AB, joining the centres of the V. .letrlb. ^(j Another form t f the teeth fecures the perfeiS nni- A better formity of a(f)ion without this limitation, which requires form. very nice execution. Let the teeth of each wheel be formed by evolving its circumference ; that is, let the aifling face GCH of the tooth a have the form of the curve traced by the extremity of the thread FC, un- lapped from the circumference. In hU- manner, let the acting face of the tooth b be formed by uniapping a thread from its circumference. It is evident, that the line FCE, wliich is drawn perpendicularly to the touch- ing furl'accs in the point C, is juft the dircTion or pofi- tion of the evolving threads by wliich the two ading faces ate formed. Tliis line mull therefore be the com- mon tangent to the two circles or circumferences of the 375 wheels, and will therefore always cut the line AB in the fame point D. This form allows the teeth to aft on each other through the whole extent of the line FCE, and therefore will admit of feveral teeth to be afting at the fame time (twice the number that can be admitted in Mr de la Hire's method). This, by divi- ding the prefiure among feveral teeth, diminilhes its quantity on any one of them, and therefore diminilhes the dents or imprelTions which they unavoidably make on each other. It is not altogether free from Aiding and frifiion, but the whole of it can hardly be faid to be fenfible. The whole Hide of a tooth three inches long, belonging to a wheel of ten feet diameter, afting on a tooth of a wheel of two feet diameter, does not amount-to ^V^h ot an inch, a quantity altogether infig- nificant. In the formation of the teeth of wheels, a fmall de- viation from thefe perteft forms is not perhaps of very great importance, except in cafes where a very large wheel drives a very fmall one (a thing which a good engineer will always avoid ) . As the conftruftion, how- ever, is exceedingly eafy, it would be unpardonable to omit it. Well tormed teeth, and a £;reat number of them atfling at once, make the communication of mo- tion extremely fmooth and uniform. The machine works without noife, and the teeth laft a very long time without fenfibly changing their fliape. But there are cafes, fuch as the pallets of clocks and watches, where the utmoft accuracy of form is of the greateft importance for the perieiftion of the work. When heavy ftanipers are to be raifed, in order to ,7 drop on the muters to be pounded, the wipers by which Maxim for they are lifted lliould be made of fuch a form, that the '•'e con- ftamper may be raifed by a uniform prefiure, or with a 1""^'"" motion almoft perle'tly uniform. If this is not attended "' "^'P" to, and the wiper is only a pin fticking out from the '' axis, the ftamper is forced into motion at once. This occafions violent jolts to the machine, and great ftrains on its moving parts and their points of fupport ; where- as when they are gradually lilted, the inequality of de- fultory motion is never felt at the impelled point of the machine. We have feen pilfons moved by means of a double rack on the pifton rod. A half wheel takes hold of one rack, and raifes it to the required height. The moment the half wheel has quitted that fide of the rack, it lays hold of the other (iJe, and forces the pifton down again. This is propoled as a great improvement ; cor- refting the unequable motion of the pifton moved in the common way by a crank. But it is far int'crior to the crank niotii-ii. It occalions fuch abrupt changes of motion, that the machine is fliaken by jolts. Indeed if the movement were accurately executed, the machine would be (h.iken to pieces, if the parts did not give way by bending and yielding. Accordingly, we have always obferved that this motion foon failed, and was changed tor one th.it was more fmooth. A judicious engineer will avoid all fuch fudden changes of motion, cfpecially in any ponderous part of a m.achine. When feveral Hampers, pillons, or other reciprocal movers, are to be raifed and deprelfed, cominon fenfe teaches us to diftribuie their times of aiSion in a uni- form manner, fo that the machine may always be equal- ly loaded with work. When this is done, and the ob- fervations in the preceding paragraph attended to, the machine may be made to move almoft as fmocthly as if there 37^ MACHINERY. there were no reciprocations in it. Nothing fhews the ingenuity of the author more than the artful yet limplc and ciTetlual contrivances for obviating thole difficul- ties that unavoidably aiiie from the very n.iture of the woric that muft be performed by the machine, and of the power employed. Tiie inventive genius and found judgment of Watt and Boulton are as perceptible to a {killed obferver in thefe fubordinate parts of fome of their i^reat engines, as in the original difcovery on which their patent is founded. In fome of ihofe engines the inafs of dead matter which mufl be put into motion, and this motion deftroyed and again reflorcd in every llrotc, is enormous, amounting to above an hundred tons. Tlie ingenious authors have even contrived to draw fome advantages from it, by allowing a great want of equilibrium in certain politicns ; and this has been condemned as a blunder by engineers who did not fee the life made of it. ,j Tliere is alfo great room for ingenuity and good The una- choice in the management of the moving power, when voidable it is fuch as cannot immediately produce the kind of inequalities jxiotion required for etfeding the purpofe. We men- of moving tioned the converfion of the continued rotation of an powrrniu ^ ^^.^ .^^^^ ^j^^ reciprocating motion of a pifton, and the fated by improvement which was thought to have been made on the con- the common and obvious contrivance of a crank, by ftrudion. fubftituting a double rack on the pifton-rod, and the inconvenience ariling from the jolts occafioned by this change. We have lisen a great forge, where the engi- neer, in order to avoid the fame inconvenience arifing from the abrupt motion given to the great fledge ham- mer of feven hundred weight, redlling with a tive-fold momentum, formed the wipers into fpirals, which com- municated motion to the hammer almoll without any jolt whatever ; but the refult was, that the hammer rofe no higher than it had been raifed in contadt with the wiper, and then fell on the iron bloom with very little effeiS. The caufe of its inefficiency was not guef- fed at ; but it was removed, and wipers of tlie common form were put in place of the fpirals. In this opera- tion, the rapid motion of the hammer is ablolutely ne- ceffary. It is not enough to lift it up ; it mull be tof- fcil up, fo as to fly higher than tlie wiper lifts it, and to Ilrike with great force the llrong oaken fpring which is placed in its way. It comprelfes this fpring, and is reiieiled by it with a conliderahle velocity, fo as to hit the iron as if it had fallen from a great height. Had it been allowed to fly to that height, it would have fallen upon the iron with fomewhat more force (becaufe no oaken fpring is perfe<ftly elaftic) ; but this would have required more than twice the time. -8 In employing a power whicli of neceOlty recipro- Great in- cates, to di ive machinery which requires a continuous tonvMiicn- motion (as in applying tlie fleam engine to a cotton or "*''^".''*^" a grill mill), theie ahb occur great diflrculties. The Bower. ^ necelTity of reciprocation in the firll mover waftes much power ; becaufe the inftrument which communicates iuch an enormous force muft be extremely ftrong, and be well fupported. The impelling power !s waded in imparting, and afterwards dellroying, a vaft quantity of motion in the working beam. The flvilful engineer will attend to this, and do his utmoll to procure the necef- fary llrength of this firll mover, without making it a vail load of inert matter. He will alfo remark, that all the flrains on it, and on its fupports, are changing their direifllons in every (Iroke. This requires particu- lar attention to the manner of fupporting it. If we obfervc the fleam engines which have been long eretfl- ed, we fee that they have uniformly lliakcn the build- ing to pieces. Tliis has been owing to the Ignorance or inattention of the engineer in this particular. They are much more judicioufly eretSed now, experience ha- ving taught the moll ignorant that no building can withlland their defultory and oppnfne jolts, and that the great movements muft be fupported by a frame work independent of the building of mafonry which contains it (b). The engineer will alio remark, that when a fingle flroke fteam engine is made to turn a mill, all the com- munications of motion change the direction of their prelfure twice every ftroke. During the working ftroke of the beam, one fide of the teeth of the intervening wheels is prefling the macliinery forward ; but during the returning Hoke, the machinery, already in motion, is dragging the be,im, and the wheels are afting with the other fide of the teeth. This occafions a rattling at every change, and makes it proper to fafliion both fides of the teeth with the fame care. It will frequently conduce to the good performance of an engine, to make the aftion of the refifling work unequable, accommodated to the inequalities of the im- pelling power. This will produce a more uniform mo- tion in machines in whicK the momentum of inertia is inconfiderable. There are fome beautiful fpecimens of this kind of adjuftment in the mechanifm of animal bodies. It is very cuftomary to add what is called a Flt to 39 machines. This is a hsavy difk or hoop, or other mafs Nature, o- of matter lalar.ced on its axis, and fo conneflcd with P"ation, the machinery as to turn brilkly round with it. This ^"'^"'^^ "' may be done with the view of rendering the motion of the whole more regular, notwiihftanding unavoidable inequalities of the accelerating forces, or of the refift- ances occafioned by the work. It becomes a Regu- lator. Suppole the refiflance extremely unequal, and the impelling power perfe«flly conilant ; as when a bucket wheel is employed to work one pump. AVhen the pillon has ended its working ftroke, and while it is going down the barrel, the power of the wheel being fcarcely oppofed, it accelerates the whole machine, and the pillon arrives at the bottom of the barrel with a con- fiderable velocity. But in the rifing again, the wheel is oppofed by the column of water now prefljng on the pillon. This immediately retards the wheel ; and when the pifton has reached the top of the barrel, all the ac- celeration is undone, and is to begin again. The motion of » Flt. (b) The gudgeons of a water-wheel fliould never reft on the wall of the building. It fhakesit; and if fet up foon after the building has been eredled, it prevents the mortar from taking firm bond ; perhaps by fliattering the calcareous cryftals as they form. When the engineer is obliged to refl the gudgeons in this way, they fhould he fuppoi ted by a block of oak laid a little hollow. This foftens all tremors, like the fprings of a whee carriage. This pradlice would be very ferviceable in many other parts of the conftrudion. M A C H I N E R Y. of fuch a macliins is virj hobbling : but the fuperplus of acceleratirijj force at the beginning of a returning (Irnkc v/ill not make fuch a chsnge in the motion of the machine if we connefl the Hy with it. For the ac- celeraciiig momentum is a determinate quantity. There- fore, if the radius of the fiy be great, this momentum will be attained by communicating a fmall angular mo- tion to the machine. The momtntum of the fly is as the fquareof its radius j therefore it refilfs acceleration in this proportion; and although the overplus of power generates the fame momentum ot rotation in the whole machine :is before, it makes but a fmall addition to its velocity. If the diameter of the fly be doubled, the augmentation of rotation will be reduced to one-fourth. Thus, by giv- ing a rapid mction to a fmall quantity of matter, the great acceleration during the returning (Iroke of the pifton is prevented. This acceleration continues, how- ever, during the whole ot the returning llrukc, and at the er.d of it the machine has acquired its greateft velo- city. Now the woiking ftroke begins, and the over- plus of power is at an end. The midline accelerates no more ; but if the power is juft in e<piilibrio with the refinance, it keeps tlie velocity whicii it lias acquired, and is llill more acccl;rated during the next returning Itrokc. But now, at the beginning of the fubfequent working flroke, there is anoverphu of reliltance, and a retardation begins, and continues daring the whole rife of the pillon ; but it is inconfiderable in comparifon of what it would have been without the fly ; for the fly, retaining its acquired momentum, drags iorward tlie rell of the machine, aiJiiig the impelling power of the wheel. It does this by all tlie communications taking ii t) cich other in the oppofite direction. The teeth of the intervening wheels are heard to drop from their former contaift on one tide, to a contaft on the other. By confidering this procefs with attention, we cafily perceive that, in a few llrokes, the overplus of power during the returning llroke comes to be lb adjullcd to the deficiency during the working llroke, that the acce- lerations and retardations exaftly delhoy each otlier, and every fucceeJing llroke is made with the fame velocity, and an cqiinl number of ftrokes is made in every fuc- ceeding minute. Thus the machine acquire? a general uniloimity with periodical inequalities. It is plain, that by fufficiently enlarging either the diameter or the weiv;ht of the fly, the irregularity ot the motion may be rendered as fmall as we pleafe. It is much better to enlarge the diameter. This preferves the fridion more moderate, and the pivot wears Ufs. For thefe reafons, a fly is in general a confidtrable improvement in machinery, by equalifing many exertions tiiat are na- turally very irregular. Thus, a man working at a com- mon windlafs, exerts a very irregular pretfure on the winch. In one of his pofitions in each turn he can ex- ert a force of near 70 pounds without fatigue, but in anntlicr he cannot exert above 25 ; nor mull he be loaded with much above this in gene rnl. But if a large fly be conne(!ted properly with the windlafs, he will ait with equal eafe and fpeed ag.iinll 30 pounds. This regulating power of the lly is without bound.s, Itiiuoow- ^°'' "")' ^'^ '"'^'^ '" rer.d.;r uniform a motion produced erful rcgu- by the mod defultory and irregular power. It is thus latur. that the moil regular motion is given to mills that are driven by a fingle flroke lleam engine, where for two or even three feconds there is no force ptefling round viuppL. Vol. II. the mill. The communlcaiion is made ihrougli a rr.if- iive fly of very great diameter, whirling with great ra- pidity. As foon as the impulfe ceafes, the fly, conti- nuing its motion, urges round the whole machinery witii almoll unabated fjieed. At this inllant all the teetii, and all the joints, between the fly and the fiiil mover, arc heard to catch in the oppulite diredion. If any permanent change Ihould happen in the im- pelling power, or in the refillance, the fly makes ni obftacle to its producing its full effedt on tlie m.iclrne ; and it will be obferved to accelerate or retard unilorin- ly, till a new general fpeed is acquired exai^tly corie- I'ponding witli this new power and refiftance. Many machines include in their conlli action move- ments which are equivalent with this intentional reguli- tor. A flour mill, tor example, cannot be better regu- lated than by its milllone ; but in the Albion mills, a heavy fly was added with great pri'ptiety; tor if the mills had been regul.iled by their niiUtonesonly, then at every change ol llroke in the lleam engine, the while train ot communii ations between the beam, which is the firft mover, and the regulating milllone, which is. the ve- ry laft mover, would take in tiie oppollte direiflion. Al- though each drop in the teeth and joints be but a trifle, the whole, added together, would make a confiderable jolt. This is avoided by a regulator immediately ad- joining to the beam. This continually prclfes the woi k- ing machinery in one direflion. So judicioully were the movements of that noble machine contrived, and fo nicely were they executed, that not the lejil noile was heard, nor the ilighteil tremor leit in the building. Mr Valoue's beautiful pile engine employed at Well- minller Bridge is anotlier remarkable inltance of thi regulating power of a fly.* When the ram is drc>p- ped, and its follower dilcngageJ immediately after it, the horfes would inllantly tumble down, becauie the load, againft winch they had been llrainiiig hard, is at once taken oft"; bat the gin is connected with a very large fly, which checks any remarkable acceleration, al- lowing the horfcs to lean on i: during the defcent of the load ; after which their draught recommences im- mediately. The fpindles, cards, and bibuiiis of a cot- ton mill, are alfo a fort of flies. Indeed all bulky ma- chines of the rotative kind tend to pielerve their mo- tion with fome degree of lleadinels, and their great mo- mentum of inertia is as ufelul in this refpeft as it is pre- judicial to the acceleration or any reciprocation when wanted. There is another kind of regulating fly, confilllng of wings whirled brilkly round till the refillance of the air prevents any great accelera'ion. This is a very bad one tor a woriing machine, tor it produces its etfed by renl/y ivaftin^ a part of the moving ptnver. Frequent- ly it employs a very great and unknown part of it, and robs the proprietor ot much work. It IlioulJ never be mtroduced into any machine employed in manufac- tures. Some rare cafes occur where a very different regula- tor is required ; wheie a certain determined vth'cily is found nccelf.iry. In this cat.' the michine is fiirnillieti, at its extreme mover, with a conical [lendiilum, onlill- ing of two heavy bilU hanging hy rod?, which move in very nice and Heady joints at tiie top ot a vertical axis. It is well known, that when this axis turns round, with an angular velocity fuitcd to the length of ihofo pcn- 3 B dulums, 37" "See PiLE- En^ine, En- cyd. 41 A had coii- (IructioQ of a fly. 41 \ cnnicat pcndulllin if t)ic- m«ll ptrfccl rc- guUior. 378 MACHINERY. dulums, the time of a revolution is detcrnjined. Tints, if the length of each pendulum be 39,' inches, the axis will make a revolulion in two lecnnds very neaily. It we attempt to force it more fwiftly round, the balls will recede a little from the axis, but it employs as long time for a revolution as before; and we cannot make it turn fwifler, unlefs the impelling power be increakd beyond all probability ; in which c.ilc the penduluiri will fly out from the centre till the rods are horizontal, af- ter which every increafe of power will accelerate the machine very fenfibly. Watt and Boulton have applied this contrivance with great ingenuity to their fteam en- gines, when they are employed for driving machinery for manufactures which have a very changeable relift- ancc, and where a certain fpeed cannot be much de- parted from without great iiuonveniencet They have conntfled this recefs of the balls from the axis (which gives immediate indication of an incteafe of power or a diminution of refii^ance) with the cock which admits the lleam to tlie working cylinder. The balls flying out, caufe the cock to clofe a little, and diminifii the fupply of fteam. The impelling power diminilhes the next moment, and the balls again approach the axis, and tlie rotation gc:es on as before, although there may have occurred a very great excels or deficiency of power. The fame contrivance may be employed to raife or low- er the feeding lluice i/t a water mill employed to drive machinery. 43 A fly is fometimes employed for a very different pur- A fly fome- pofe from that of a regulator of motion— it is employ- times col- gj as a colleBor of ponvsr. Suppofe all refillatice remo- kaspow- ^gj from the working point of a machine furnilhed with a very large or heavy fiy immediately connedled with the working point. When a fmall force is applied to the impelled point of this machine, motion will begin in the machine, and the fly begin to turn. Coiuinue to prefs uniformly, and the machine will accelerate. This may be continued till the fly has acquired a very rapid motion. If at this moment a refilling body be applied to the working point, it will be aded on with very great force ; for the fly has now accumulated in its circumference a very great momentum. If a body were expofed immediately to the aflion of this circum- ference, it would be violently ftruck. Much more will it be fo, if the body be expofed to the aflion of the working point, which perhaps makes one turn while the fly makes a hundred. It will exert a hundred times more force there (very nearly) than at its own circum- ference. All the motion which has been accumulated on the fly during the whole progrefs of its acceleration is exerted in an inflant at the working point, multiplied by die momentum depending on the proportion of the parts of the machine. It is thus that the coining prefs performs its office ; nay, it is thus that the blackfraith forges a bar of iron. Swinging the great fledge ham- mer round his head, and urging it with force tiie whnle Way, this accumulated motion is at once extin2,uilTied by impadl on the iron. It is thus we drive a nail ; and it is thus that by accumulating a very moderate force exerted during four or five turns of a fly, the wliole of it is exerted on a punch let mi a tliick plate of iron, fuch as is employed tor the boilers of fteam engines. The plate is pierced as if it were a bit of cheefe. This ac- cumulating power of a fly has occafioned many who think themfelves engineers to imagine, that a fly really adds power or mechanical force to an engine ; and, not underllanding on what its efficacy depends, they often place tl;e fly in a fituaticn wliere it only added a ufelefs burden to the machine. It Ihould always be made to move with rapidity. If intended for a mere regulator, it Ihould be near the firll mover. If it is intended to accumulate force in the working point, it flii-.uld not be far feparated from it. In a certain feiife, a fly may be faid to add power to a machine, becaufe by accumulating into the exertion of one moment the exertions of many, wc can fometimes overcome an ob- Uacle that we never could have balanced by the fame machine unaided by the fly. It is this accumulation of force which gives fuch an appearance of power to fome of our tirft movers. When a man is unfortunately catclied by the teeth of a paltry country mill, he is crufhed almcft to mummy. 'I'he power of the ftream is conceived to be prodigious ; and yet we are certain, upon examination, that it amounts to the prelTure of no more than fifty or fixty pounds. But it has been afting f r fome time; and there is a niilflone of a ton weight whirling twice round in a fe- cond. This is the force that crufhed the unfortunate man ; and it required it all to do it, for the mill (lop- ped. We faw a mill in the neighbourhood of Elbing- roda in Hanover, where there was a contrivance which difengaged the milllone when any thing got entangled in the teeth ot the wheels. It was tried in our fight with a head of cabh.ige. It cruflied it indeed, but not violently, and would by no means have broken a man's arm. It is hardly necelf.iry to recommend fimpliclty in the conflrudion of machines. 'I'his feems n.iw fiifhcienlly underllood. Multiplicity of motions and communica- tions iiicreafes fridions ; increafes the unavoidable lofles by bending and )ielding in every part; expofes to all the imperfeftions of workmanthip ; and has a great chance of being indillln(;tly conceived, and therefore conftrufled without fcicnee. We think the following conllruftion ot a capft.in or crab a very good example of tlie advantaues ot fimplicity. It is the invention of an untaught but very ingenious country tradefman. EAB IS the barrel of the capflan, ftanding vertically in a proper frame, as ufual, and urged round by bars fucli as EF. The upper part A of the barrel is 17 inches in diameter, and the lower B is 16. C is a ftrong pulley 16 inches in diameter, having a hook D, which takes hold of a hawfer attached to the load. The rope ACB is wound round the barrel A, palfes over the pulley C, and is then wound round the barrel B in the oppofite diredion. No farther defcription is neceflary, we think, to fhew tliat, by heaving by the bar F, fo as to wind more of the rope upon A, and unwind it from B, the pulley C muft be brought near- er to the capftan by about three inches for each turn of the capftan ; and that this fimple capftan is equivalent to an ordinary capilan of the fame length of b.ir EF, and diameter of barrel B, ccmbined with a i6 fold tackle of pulleys ; or, in fliort, that it is 16 times more powerlul than the comm. n capftan; free from the great lofs by fiiiftion and bending of ropes, which would abfoib a third of the po ver of a 16 f'lld tackle ; and that whereas all other engines become weaker as they multiply the power to a greater degree (unltfs they are proportionally more bulky), this engine becomes really 44 Simplicity of conftruc- tion recom- mended. F'g-3- 45 Example of a very fimple and powerful capftan. MACHINERY. really Ilronger in itfelf. Suppofe we wanted to have it twice as powerful as at prelent ; nothing is neceff^ry but to cover the p;irt B of the barrel with laths a quarter of an inch thick. In Ihort, the nearer the two barrels are to equility, the more powerful does it be- come. We give it to the public as an excellent cap- dan, and as fuggeftlng thoughts which an intelligent engineer may employ with great effeil. By this con- trivance, and ufing an iron wire inltead of a catgut, we converted a common eight day clock into one which goes for two months. We intended to conclude this article with fome ob- fervations on the chief clall'es of powers which are em- ployed to drive machinery ; fiich as water, wind, at- molpheric prelFure, gunpowder, and the force of men and other animals, giving fome notion of their abfolute magnitudes, and the efFeift which may be expeifled from them. We fiiould then have mentioned what lias been difcovered as to their variation by a variation of velo- city. And we intended to conclude with an account of what knowledge has been acquired concerning fric- ton, and the lofs of power in machinery ariling from this caul'e, and from tl)e ftiffnefs of ropes, and fome other caufes : But we have not yet been able to bring thefe matters into a connefled form, which would fug- gell tlie methods and means of larther information thereon. We mud endeavour to find another oppor- tunity of communicating to the public what we may yet leain on thofe fubjeds. We have new edablilhed the principles on which machines mull be conllrucTed, in order that they may produce tlie giealeft effe(ft ; but it would be improper to difmifi tlie fubjcd without dating to our readers Mr Bramah's new metliod of producing and applying a more confiderable degree of power to all kinds of ma- chinery requiring motion and force, than by any means at prefent pradifed for that puipofe. This method, for which on the 31ft of Marcli 1796 he obtained a patent, conlifts in the applicatitm of water or other denfe fluids to various engines, fo as, in fome inllances, to caufe them to aft with immenfe force ; in others, to communicate the motion and powers of one part of a machine to fome other part of the fame machine ; and, lallly, to communicate the motion and force of one ma- chine to another, where their local fituations preclude the application of all other methods of conneiflion. The firft and moll material part of this invention will be clearly underllood by an infpeiflion of fig. 4. where " A is a cylinder of iron, or other materi.als, fulH- ciently (Irong, and bored perfeftly fmooth and cylin- drical ; into which is fated tlic piflon B, which muil be made perfeiftly water-tight, by leather or other ma- terials, as ufed in pump-making. The bottom of the cylinder mull alfo be made fulhciently llrong with the other part of the furface, to be cap.ible of refilling the greatell force or llrain that may at any time be requir- ed. In the bottom of the cylinder is inftited the end of the tube C ; the aperture of which communicates with the infide of the cylinder, under the pillon B, where it is fliut with the fmall valve D, the fame as the fudlion pipe of a common pump. The oclier end of the tube C communicates with the fmall forcing pump or injeftor E, by means of which water or other denfe fluids can be forced or injeded into the cylinder A, under the pillon B. Now, fuppofe the diameter of the cylinder A to be 12 inches, and the diameter of the pillon of the fmall pump or injeftor E only one quar- ter ot an inch, the proportion between the two furfaces or ends of the faid pillons will be as i to 2304 ; and fuppofing the intermediate fpace between them to be filled with water or other denfe fluid capable of fufli. cient refillance, the force of one pifton will aft on the other juft in the above proportion, viz. as i is to 2304. Suppofe the fmall pillon in the injeftor to be forced down when in the aft of pumping or injcfting water into the cylinder A, with the power of 20 cwt. which could eafily be done by the lever H ; the pifton B would then be moved up with a force equal to 20 cwt. multiplitd by 2304. Thus is conftrufted a hydro-me- chanical engine, whereby a weight amounting to 2304 tons can be railed by a fun pie lever, thmugh equal fpace, in much lefs time than could be done by any apparatus conllrufted on the known principles of mechanics ; and it may be proper to oblerve, that the elieft of all other meclianical combinations is counterafted by an accu- mulated complication of parts, which renders them in- capable of being ufefully extended beyond a certain de- gree ; but in machines afted upon or conftrufted on this principle, every difficulty of this kind is obviated, and their power fubjeft to no finite reflraint. To prove this, it will be only necelfary to remark, that the force of any machine afting upon this principle can be increaf- ed ail iiifinitum, either by extending the propoition be- tween the diameter of the injeftor and the cylinder A, or by applying greater power to the Isver H. " ^'g- 5- reprefents the fcftion of an engine, by which very wonderlul effefts may be produced inllantaneoufly by means of comprelFed air. AA is a cylinder, with the pillon B fitting air-tight, in the fame manner as de- fcribed in fig. 4. C is a globular vellcl made of cop- per, iron, or other ftrong materials, capable of refilling immenfe force, fimilar to thofe of .lir guns. D is a llrong tube of fmall bore, in which is the Hop-cock E. One of the ends of this tube communicates with the cylinder under the pillon B, and the other with the globe C. Now, fuppofe the cylinder A to be tlie fame diameter as that in fig. 4. and tlie tube D equal to one quarter of an inch diameter, which is tlie fame as the injeftor fig. 4. : then, fuppofe that air is inj;fted into the globe C (by the common method), till it prelTes againft the cock E. with a force equal to 20 cwt. which can eafily be done ; the conlcquence will be, tha wjien the cock E is opened, the pilton B will be moved in the cylinder A A witli a power or force equal to 2304 tons ; and it is obvious, as in the cafe fig. 4. that any other unlimited degree of force may be acquired by machines or engines thus conllrufted. " Fig. 6. is a feflion, merely to lliew how the power and motion of one machine may, by means ot fluids, be transferred or communicated to anoilicr, let their di- (lance and local lituation be what they niiy. A and B are two fmall cjlinders, fm;H>th and rylindtical ; in the infide of each ot which is a pilton, made water and air tight, as in figs. 4. and 5. CC is a tube conveyed un- der ground, or othcrwile, from the bottom ol one cy- linder to the other, to form a communication between them, noiwithftandir.g tlieir dlftance be ever fo gieat; 3 B 2 this 379 tSo MACHINERY. this tube being filled with water or other fluid, until it touch the bottom of each pillon; then, by depreinng the pillon A, the pifton B will be railed. The fame efFeft will be produced -vice verfa : thus bells may be rung, wheels turned, cr other machinery pjt invifibly in motion, by a power being applied to either. '• Fig. 7. is 3 fcflion, fliewing another inftance of com- municating the aiSion and force of one machine to ano- ther ; and how water may be raifcd out of wells ot any depth, and at any dillance from the place where the operating power is applied. A is a cylinder ot any re- <]uired dimenfions, in which is the working pillon B, 3S in the foretfoing examples : into the bottom ot this cylinder is inl'ertcd the tube C, vviiich may be of lefs bore than the cylinder A. This tub: is continued, in any required diieftion, down to the pump cylinder D, fuppofed to be fixed in the deep well EE, and lotms a jun>51ion therewith above the pifton F ; which pifton lias a rod G, working through the ftuffing-box, as is ufual in a common pump. To this rod G is conneded, over a pulley or otherwife, a vv-eight H, fuflicicnt to overbalance the weight of the water in the tube C, and to raife the plft<in F when the pifton B is litted : thus, fuppofe the pifton B is drawn up by its rod, there will be a vacuum made in the pump cylinder D, below the jiifton F; this vacuum will be filled with water through the fudlirn pipe, by the prelfure of the atmofphere, as in all pumps fixed in air. The return of the pifton B, by being prtlfed downwards in the cylinder A, will make a ftroke of the pifton in the pump cylinder D, which may be repeated in the ufual way by the motion of the pifton B, and the aiflion of the water in the tube C. The rod G of the pifton F, and the weight H, are not nccelfary in wells of a depth where the atmnf. pheie will overbalance the water in the fuflion of the pump cylinder D, and that in the tube C. The fmall tube and cock in the ciltern I, are for the purpofe of charging the tube C." That thefe contrivances are ingenious, and may oc- cafionally prove ufeful, we are not inclined to contro- vert ; but wt muft confils, that the advantages of them appear not to us fo great as to their author. Why they do not, we need not explain to any man who, with a fufBcient degree of mechanical and mathematical knowledge, has perufed this article with attention. 71/r John Luccock, however, of Marley, near Leeds, thinks ib very differently from us on this fubjeift, that, on Mr Bramah's principle, he propofes to apply water or other denfe ftuids, lo as to make them fupply the place ot fteam in what is comm.'nly called the Jl^nr/i en- gine. He calls his engine the yi(Tri7i/ox;M/ maf/.)ini;; and lie got a patent f)r it on the 2t>th of Feliruaiy 1799, though it differs in nothing from Mr Bramah's ma- chine, reprefented by fig. 4. except that the tube C in the paradoxical machine is fupplied with water, not by means of a forcing pump, but from a ciftern elevated to fuch a height as, that the water defcending through the tube may produce its effeifl merely by its weight. Whether this variation, for it is no improvement, of Mr Bramah's machine intitled its author to a patent, it is not our bafinefi to inquire. Mac-In- tofh, II Macoketh, MAC MAC-INTOSH, a new county in the Lower dif- tricl cf Georgia, between Liberty and Glynn counties, on the Alatamnha river. — Morse. MAC-KENZIE'S River, in the N. W. part of N. America, rifes in Slave Lake, runs a N. N. VV. couile, and receives a number of large rivers, many ot which are 250 yards wide, and fome are 12 tathoms deep at the influx. It empties into the North Sea, at Whale Ifland in lat. 69° 14', between 130" and 135° W. long, after a courfe of 7S0 miles from Slave Luke. It has its name from Mr M'Kenzie, v.ho afcended this river in the fummer of 1789. He ereded a poll wi;h liis name engraven on it, on Whale Ifland, at the mouth of this river. He law there a number of men and canoes, alio a number of animals refemhling pieces of ice, fuppofed by him to be whales ; probably lea- horfcs, delcribed by Captain Cook. The tide was ob- ierved to rife ifi or 18 inches. In fome places the cur- rent of the river makes a hiffing noife like a boiling pot. It palfes through the Stony Mountains, and has great part of that range on the W. lide. The Indian na- tions, inhabiting the W. fide from the Slave Lake are the Stronabow, Mountain, and Hare Indians; ihofe on the E. fide, the Beaver, Inland, Nathana, and Quarrelers, Indians. No difcoveries W. of this river have been made by land. — it). M.ACOKETH, or Mocohetch, River, Great, empties into the MilfifTippi from the N. W. in N. lat. 42° 23'. Little Macokcih falls thiough the E. bank of the Mitfif- M A C fippi, about 45 miles above the mouth of Great Ma- Macspin, coketh, and oppofiie to the old Lead mine. — ih. II MACOPIN, a fmall river, which empties into the '^^^j'^''^''' Illinois, ficm the S. E. 18 miles from the Miftilllppi ; ^.^-^'^^^ is 20 yards wide, and navig.ible 9 miles to the hills. The Ihore is low on both fide^, clad with paccan, ma- ple, alh, button. wood, &c. The land abounds with limber, and is covered with high weeds. — ih. MACORIZ, a fmall river on tlie S. fide of the ifland of St Domingo; 16 leagues E. of the city of St Domingo. — ib. MACFHERSON (James Efq ;), was born in the parifh of Kingufie, and county of Invernefs, in the year 1738. His lather was a farmer of no great affluence ; and young Macpherfon received ih.e earlier part ot his education in one of the parifli fchools in the diftriifl called Badenoch. By an anonymous writer in the E- dinburgh Magazine, he is faid to have been educated in the grammar fchool of Invernefs j and he may, for ought that we know to the contrary, have fpent a year in that feminary ; but we rather think that he went di- reiftly from a country fchool to the univerfity of Aber- deen. At this our readers need not be furprifed ; for at the period to wl.ich we refer, fome of the paroch.ial fchoolmafters in Scotland, and more efptcially in the Highlands, were men eminent for talle and claffical li- terature. It was in the end of Oi5lobcr or the i ft of N;>vembeT 1752, that James Mac[berfon entered the King's Col. lege; MAC [ 3^'i ] MAC Macpher- lege ; where lie difplayed more genius than learning, fon. entertaining the fociety of which he was a member, and even diverting the younger part of it from their ftudie!^, by his humorous and doggerel rhinies. About two years after his admifCon into the univerlity, the King's College added two months to the length of its annual ftjfion or term ; which induced Macpherfon, with many other young men, to rem ve to the Marifchal College, where the felFion continued Ihort ; and it ib this circum- ftance which leads us to fuppofe that his father was not opulent. Soon after he left college, and perhaps before he left it, he was fchoolmafter of Ruthven, or Riven, of Badenoch ; and we believe he afterwards delighted as little as his great antagonilt ji hnlon in tiie recollection of that period when he was compelled, by the narrow- nefs of his fortune, to teach boys in an obfcure ichool. It was during this period, we think in 175S, that he publifhed The Highlander, an heroic poem in fix cantos, i2nio. Of this work, as we have never ieen it, we can fay nothing, liy the anonymous writer already quoted, it is mentioned as a " cillue of lullian and ab- furdity ;" whilll others, and they too men of learning and charaifler, have alFured us, that it indicated conii- dcrable genius in fo young an author. Soon after this publicatior, Mr Macpherfon quitted his fchool, and was received by Mr Graham of BaU gowan into his family as tutor to his fons ; an employ- ment of which lie was not fond, and to which he was not long condemned. In the year 1760 he fuiprifed the world by the publication of Frogments of jincient Poelry, colleileJ in the Highlands of Scotland, and Tranf- lated fioin the Gaelic or Erfe Language, 8vo. Tliele fragments, which were declared to be genuine remains of ancient Scottilh poetry, at their firll appearance de- lighted every readei ; and feme very good judges, and amongft the reft Mr Gray, were extremely w.Arm in their praifes. Macpheif>in had intended to bury them in a Scotch magazine, but was prevented Irom (o in- judicious a ftep by the advice ot a friend. He pub- lilhed them therefore in a pamphlet by themfelves, and thus laid the toundation ot his fuiure fortune. As other fpecimens were faid to be recoverable, a fubfcription was fet on foot by the Faculty of Advo- cates at Edinburgh, to enable our author to quit the family of Ualgowan, perambulate the Highlands, and fecure, if he could, th.e precious treafure. Reengaged in the undertaking, and was fucccfsful ; tor all who polTe/fed any of the long famed works, vied witli each other in giving or fending ihem to a m in who had ihewn himfclf fo capable of dring tliem juftice. Witii his colledlion of poems, and Iriigments of poems, he went to London ; and tapging tl:cm toge- ther in the form which he thought b.-ll, he publilhed, in 1762, Fingal, tin Ancient Efic Foeni, infix looks, tcgether with feveral other pcems, compoi'cd by OUjan the fon of Fingal, tranllatcd from the G lelic language, 4to. The fiibjecfl of this epic poem is an invalion of Ireland by Swaran king of Lochlin. Cuchullin, gene- ral of the Irifh tribes during the minority of Cormac king of Ireland, upon intelligence of the invafion, af- Maq)her- fembled his forces near Tura, a callle on the coaft of ,'i;?;_^ Ulfter. The poem opens with the landing of Swaran ; councils are held, battles fought, and Cuchullin is at lad totally defeated. In the mean time, Fingal, king of the Highlands of Scotland, whofeaid had been foli- cited before ihe enemy landed, arrived, and expelled them from the country. This war, which continued but fix days and as many nights, is, inducing the epi- fodes, the ftory of the Puem. The fcene, the heath of Lena, near a mountain called Cromlcoch in Uhl.er. This poem alfo was received with equal applaufe as the preceding Fragments. The next year he produced Tcmora, an ancient epic poem, in eight books ; together with feveral other poems comjJOled by Olliin fun of Fingal, 410, which, though well received, found the public fomewliat lefs difpofed to bellow the fame meafure of appku.'e. Tho' tliefe jioems had been examined by Dr Blair and others, and their authenticity alferted, there were not wanting f<ime of equal reputation for critical abilities, who either doubted or declared their difbclicf of tlie genuinenefs ot them. Into this quellion it would be fuperfluous to enter here particularly, as we have faid enough on it elfewheie. See Ossian, Encyil. Tliat any man lliould fuppofe Macpherfon, aftrr l.is tranilation ot Homer, the author of the pcems which he aicribes to Oilian, appears to us very extraordinary ; and it is little lefs extraordinary, that any one (hould, for a moment, believe in the exiitence of manufcripls of thele poems ot very high antiquity. Part of them he undoubtedly received in manufcript from Macdoiiald of Clanronald ; but we can atlirm, on the bell authority, that the faid manufcript was written at diffeient times by the Macvurich:, hereditaiy baids to that family. He may likewifc have received (hort manufcripts elle- whtie ; but every Highland gentleman of learning and of candour (and none clle have a right to decide on this quellion), declares, that by much the greater part of the poems had been preftrved in fragments and popular tongs from a very remrte age by oral tradition. To tliele fragments Macpherl'on and his alfociates (a) gave iorm ; and it was by uniting together fragments of dif- lerent ages, that he inadvertently furnirtied Gibbon and others wiih the opportunity of objaiSing, that the poems are fometimes inconfiltent with the truth of hif- tory. This, however, is no folid objeflion to their authenticity ; for every Weft Highlander lixtr years of age remembers to have heard, in his youth, great jiart of thofe piems repeated by old men ; and is con. lident that, many centuries ago, the names of Fiuit: Mackuil (Fing.il), and ot Olluin's other heroes and he- roines, weie as familiar to a Highland car, as the names of Agamemnon, Heflnr, Helen, S:c. were tea Gre- cian ear at the time when the poems of Homer were reduced into their prefcnt form. For the ttibflance of the poems, this is fuch evidence as none will rejCkl who does not prefer h'S own ccbweb theories to the united tcllimony of a whole people. With rcfpcCl to auiherfticity, the poems of O1II in have (a) We have bee» ainired that he had alTociates ; and that for the defcription of CuchuUin's chariot in par- ticular he was indebted to Mr Macpherfon of Snamazhie ; a man of calivc genius, and though not poflelled o£ very extcnltvc erudition, well acquainted with GacLc poetry. M A C [ 38 foti. have indeed been compared with the poems of Rowley ; but the comparifon is abfurd. The poeins of the Cel- tic bard were not found in an old chell, and prefenttd to a people who had never before heird cither of them or of tl'.cir author ; they were the popular fongs and traditions of ages collected together, and reduced into form, with additions occafionally made by the tranlla- tor. It is ridiculous to alk how thel'e fongs and (lories could be fo long preferved among a rude and illiterate people ; for it is only among fuch a people, whofe ob- jedtb of purfuit are too few ti> occupy all their atten- tion, that the exploits of their anccltors can be handed down by tradition ; and the moll ferious objeiflion which we have ever met with to the tranllator's account of the origin of the poems, arifcs from his having pretend- ed that he received the greater pait of them in old ma- nufcripts. After the publication of OfTian's poems, by which we have reafon to believe that he gained twelve hun- dred pounds, Mr Macpherfon was called to an employ- ment which withdrew him, for fonie time, botli trom the mufes and from his country. Captain Johnflone was appointed governor of Penfacola, and Mr Micpherfon accompanied him as his fecretary, being at the fame time made furveyor general of tlie Floridas. If our memory does not deceive us, fome difterence arofe be- tween the principal and his dependant, and they part- ed before their return to England. Having contributed his aid to the fettlement of the civil government of that colony, he vifited feveral of the Well India illands, and fome of the provinces of North America, and leturned to England in the year 1766, where he retained for life his falary as furveyor, which we believe was L.200 a-year. He foon returned to his (ludies, and in 1771 produc- ed An liitroduffion to the H'ljlory of Great Britain and Ireland, 4to ; a worlc which he fays, " without any ot the ordinary incitements to literary labour, he was in- duced to proceed in by the fole motive of private a- mufement." The fubjevJl of this performance, it might reafonably be fuppofed, would not excite any violent controverhal acrimony ; yet neither it nor its author could efcape from feveral mod grofs and bitter invec- tives, for fome of which he perhaps gave too great occafion. His next performance produced him neither reputa- tion nor profit. In 1773 he publifbed. The Jliad of Homer, tranflated in two volumes 4to ; a work fraught with vanity and felf-confequence, and which met with the molt mortiiying reception from the public. It was condemned by the critics, ridiculed by the wits, and neglefted by the world. Some of his friends, and par- ticularly Sir John Elliott, endeavoured to refcue it from contempt, and force it into notice. Their fuccefs was not equal to their efforts. About this time feems to be the period of Mr Mac- pherfon's literary mortifications. In 1773 Dr Johnfon and Mr Bofwell made the tour to ilie Hebrides ; and in the courfe of it, the former toot; fame pains to exa- mine into the proofs of the authenticity of OHlan. Tlie refult of his inquiries he gave to ihe public in 1775, in his narrative of the tour ; and his opinion was unfa- vourable. " I believe they {i.e. the poems, fays he}, never exifted in any other form than that which we have feen. The editor or author never could fhew the ori- 2 ] MAC ginal ; nor can it be (liewn by any odier. To revenge MicpW- reafonable incredulity by refuling evidence, is a degree ^J^iljl-^^ of infolcnce with which the world is not yet acquaint- ed ; and llubborn audacity is the laft refuee of guilt. It would be eafy to fhew it if he had it. Uut whence could it b; had ? It is too long to be remembered, and tlie language had formerly nothing written. He has doubtlefs iiilisrted names that circulate in popular ftorics, and may have tranflated fome wandering ballads, if any can be found ; and the names and fome of the images being rccoUefled, m.ikc an inaccurate auditor imagine that he has formerly lieard the whole." Again, he fays, '< I have yet fuppofed no impofture but in the publifher ; yet I am far from certainty, that fume tranflaiions have not been lately made, that may now be obtruded as parts of the original work. " Credulity on the one part is a llrong temptation to deceit on the other, efpecially to deceit of which no perfonal injury is the confequcncc, and which flatters the author with his own ingenuity. The Scotts liave fomething to plead for their eafy reception of an im- probable fiiflion : they are feduced by their fondnefs for their fuppofed ancellors. Neitlier ought the Englilh to be much influenced by Scotch authority ; for of tlie pall and prefent ftate of the whole Erfe nation, the Luwlanders are at lead as ignorant as ourfelves. To be ignorant is painful ; but it is dangerous to quiet our unealinefs by the delufive opiate of hally perfualion." Thefe reafonings, if realonings they can be called, might have been eafily anfweied, had not Macpherfon pretended to the polJefTion of at lead one manulcripc which certainly never exilted. He did not, however, attempt to anfwer them; but adopted a mode of pro- ceeding whicli tended only to convince the world that Johnfon's opinion had fome foundation, and that the editor ot Olllan had more imagination than found judg- ment. Prompted by his evil genius, he lent a mena- cing letter to his illuRrious antngonid, which produced the following brief but fpirited reply . " Mr James Macplierfon, No date. " I received your foolilh and impudent letter. Any violence that Ihall be offered to me, I will do my bed to repel ; and what I cannot do for myfelf", the law fhali do for me ; for I will not be hindered from expo- fing what I think a cheat, by the menaces of a ruffian. Wtiat! Would you have me retraift ? I thought your work an impofition : I think fo dill ; and, (or my opi- nion, I have given reafons, which I dare you to refute. Your abilities, fince your Homer, are not fo formidable ; and what I hear of your morality, inclines me to be- lieve rather what you fhall prove than what you fhall fay." Whether this letter fliewed to Macpherfon the im- prudence of his condudt, or that he had been made fenlible of his folly by the interpofition of friends, we know not ; but certain it is, we hear no more afterwards of this ridiculous affair, except that our author is fup- pofed to have alTided Mr Macnicol in an anfwer to Dr Johnfon's Tour, printed in 1779. This fuppofition we are inclined to confider as well-lounded, becaufewe have been told by a gentleman of veracity, that Mr Macnicol affirms, that the fcurrility of his book, which conditutes a great part of it, was inferted unknown to him, after the manufcript was fent for publication to London. Ja Macpher- fun. Mad. MAC [ 383 ] MAD In 1775 Mr MacpherCon publKhed The H'ljiury of of every favourable circumflance which arofe. The Macphcr- Great Britain from the Reflurat'wn to the AcceJJion of the reriftince of the Colonies called for tiie aid of a ready '""' Houfe of Hanover, in two volumes 410 ; a work in our writer to combat the arguments, of the Americdn?, and " opinion of great merit, though by <me party it has been to give force to the reafons which influenced the con- ■. induftrioully, and, we are forty to ndd, too fuccefbfully, duft of government, and he was lele^ed for the purpofe. -^— ried. A^ an hiftorian, our author could not indeed Among other things (of which we iliould be giad to ft^the attic elegance of a Robcrtfon, the fplcndour receive a more particular account), he wrote a pamph- leti which was circulated with much induftry, intitled. The Rights of deal Britain ajfertsd agaiv.fl the Claims of the Colonies ; being an Anjiuer to the Dechiration of the General Congrefs, 8vo, 1776, and of which m<.n-.- editions were publilhed. He alfo was the author or A fhort Hiftory of Oppofition during the laj S.fon of Parliament, Svo, 1779 ; a pamphlet which, on account of its merit, was by many afcribed to Mr Gibbon. But a more lucrative employment was conferred on him about this time. He was appointed agent to the nabob of Arcot, and in that capacity e}:£rted his talents in feveral appeals to the public in behalf of his client. Among others, he publifh=d. Letters from Mahommed Alt Chan, Ndbob of Arcot, to the Court of Direaors ; to which it annexed, a State of Facts relative to Tanjore, 'with an Appendix of Original Papers, ^to, 1777; and he was fuppofed to be the nuthor of The Hiflory and Management of the Eajl India Company from its Origin in 1 60Q to the prefent Times, vol. i. containing the af- fairs of the Carnatic, in which the rights of the nabob are explained, and the injullice of the Company proved, 4to, 1779. In his capacity of agent to the nabob, it was pro- bably thought requifite that he ftiould have a feat in the Britilh Parliament. He was accordingly in 1780 chofen member for Camelf ^rd ; but we do not recolleift that he ever attempted to fpeak in the Houfe. He was alio rechofen in 1784 and 1790. He h.id purchafed, we think before the year 1790, an ertate in the parilh in which he was born ; and chan- ging its name trom Relz to Behilk, built on it a large and elegant manfion, commanding a very romantic and pifturefque view ; and thither he retired, when liis health began to fail, in expectation of receiving benefit from the change ot air. He continued, however, to decline , and alter lingering fome time, died at his fe.Tt at BclviUe, in Invernefs, on the 17th of February decried bo; of a Gibbon, or the philofuphical profundity ot a Hume; but \\\iflyle, though it has fometimes been the avowed, ■was not the real, caufe of the coldnels with wiiich his hiftory was received. The writer of this fketch once faw a gentleman of rank, and of the Whig intereft, turn over one of Macpherfon's volumes, and heard him fay, upon Ihutting the bonk, " I cannot bear that work." He was alked if he thought the narrative falfe ? and lie replied, " No! It is too true; but I cannot bear it, becaufe it gives me a bad opinion of thofe great men to whom I have been accultomed to look back with reverence as to the faviours of my country." That it has been aI)horred by others on the fame ac- count, we have not a doubt; and yet language has no came too contemptuous for thofe who will not follow truth whithetfoever Ihe may lead them ; or who, on the abfurd pretence of having already made up their minds, will not ftudy the evidence on both fides of a difputed queilion in our national hillory. A man needs not furely difapprove oi the Revolution, or of the fub- fequent fettlements, though he Ihould rind complete proofs that Danby and Sunderland were crooked poli- ticians, that Marlborough was ungrateful, or even that King William hinifclf was not that upright and dihn- terctted chat after which from their infancy they have been taught to believe. It is no uncommon thing for Divine Providence to accomphfh good ends by wicked inllruments. Every Protellan: fuiely coniiders the Re- formation as one ot the moft bl;lfed events that have ta- ken place in the world lince the tirll preaching of the gofpel of Chrill ; yet he would be a hardy champion who fhould undertake to vindicate the motives which influenced the ccnduft ot the firlf reformers — ot Hen- ry VIII. for inftance, or even of Luther himlclf. And why may not the Revolution be conlidered as in the liighelf degree beneficial 10 the country, thougli the conJuft of fome i>f thofe who brought it about lliould be found to be fuch as Macphevfon reprefents it ? That author certainly adcd with great fairnefs ; as together with the hlifory he publilhed the proofs upon which his fa<Ss weic founded, in two c|uarto volumes, intitled. Original P.iperi, containing the Jtcrct Hijlory of Great Britain, from the Rcjloration to the Acccjfton of the Houje oj Hanover ; to -which are prefixed, Extracts frcm the Life of James II. as 'written by bimfef. Theie pa- pers were chiefly crllefted by Mr Carte, but are not all of equal authority. They, however, clear up many ob- fcuriiics, and let the ch tracers of many perfons in part times in a different light from that in which they have been ufually viewed. On this account we have no he- fitation to t ly, that he who is capable of facrificing pre- judice to truth, and wllhcs to underrt.ind the politics of the reigns of J.imes, and William, and Anne, Ihould ftudy with care the volumes of Macphcrlon. Soon alter this period, the tiJe of fortune flowed very rapidly in Mr Macpherfon's fivour, and his xx 1796. He appears to have died in very opulent circumftan- ces ; and by his will, dated June 1793, Rave various annuities and legacies to feveral perlons to a great a- mount. He alfo bequeathed L. 1000 to John Macken- zie of Figtree Court, in tlie Tcmj)le, London, to de- fray the expence of printing and publilhing Oflian \n the original. He dire.rted L.300 to be laid out in erefting a monument to his memory in fome confpicu- ous fituation at Belville, and ordered that his body fhould be carried from Scotland and interred in the Abbey Church of Weltminllcr, the city in which he had palled the bell part of his lite. His remains were accordingly taken frcm the place where he died, and buried in the Poets Corner of Wcllminfter church. M.'VCUNGV, a townfhip in Nithampton county, Pennlylvania. — Morse. MAD, a river, called alfo Piciawa Fori, a rapid branch of the great Miami, having a S. W. courfe. It is a beautiful llream, ]ialiiiig through a pleafant Ic- knti and induftry were amply fuflicicnt, to avail himfclf vcl country of the greatcll fertility. — H MADAME, M AD [ 384 ] MAG MaAame, MADAME, ^/r, forms the N. E. fiJc of the Gut of Thefc ifles have been fatal to many velTcls. The Mjjnjlcna B Canib, as vnu enter from the S. E. and is oppnfite to the chief of ihem are the Dead Man, Entry, and Rome:i II ^^liSjJ^l^ ealUru extremity cf N'uva-Scotia. T!ie north puint of ilhinJs. Seamen wilh to make them in fair weather, • ^J^^ ^' the ilUmi lies 14 miles foiitherly of S: Peter's harbour, as they fetve them to take a new departure ; but in ^>-v-^ ill C-ipc Bretoi^. iH.ind. The ifles de Mid-ime are de- fi>ggy weather or blowii:g weather ihey as ftudioully pendent (mi C^pe Breton ifland. — ii. avoid them. — /'/'. MADBURY, a townlhip in Strafford county, New- M AGD ALENA, Lu, one of the Marquefas Iflands Himpfnire, fituated between Dover and Duiham, in the South Sea ; about 6 leagues in circuir, and has n'jout 10 miles N. W. of I'.ircfinouth. It was incor- a harbnur under a mountain on its foulh fide neatly in porated in 1755, and has 592 inhabitants. — ii. lat. 10° 25' S. long. 138° 50' \V — ii>. MADDISON, a county of Kentucky, adjoining Macdalkna, a liver of Louiliana, which empiiesin- Fayette, Clarke, Lincoln, and Mercer counties. Chief to the gulf of Mexico, W. by S. cf Mexicano liver. town, Milford. — ii. — '/'• Maddison, a fmall town of Amherft county, Magdalena, a large river, the two piincipal four- Virqinia ; fituated on the N. fide of James's river, op- ces of which are at no gnat diftance from the city cf pnfite Lynchburg. It lies 150 miles W. by N. of Popayan, in Terra Firnia. Bclca/.ar, by going down Richmond. ib. this river, foimd a paflage to the North Sea. The MADDISON'S CAVE, the largeft and mod cele- river, after uniting its w.itcrs with the C.mce, takes the brated cave in Virginia, fituated on the N. fide of the name of Grande, and falls into tlie North Sea below- Blue Ridge. It is m a hill of about 200 feet perpendicu- the town of Madre de Popa. The banks of this great lar height, the afccnt rf which, rn one fide is fo Iteep, river are well inhabited, and it has a cruife of above lliat you may pitch a bifcuit from its fummic into the 200 leagues. Its mouth is much frequented by fmug- river which walhes its bafe. The entrance of the cave glert, and conveys to Carihagena the produdions of It ex- New Granada, viz. gold and grain. Among many the earth about 300 feet, branching into fub- other confiderahle places on its bank; caverns, fomclimes afccnding a little, but Teneriife, Talaygua, Monpo.v, Tamalamcque, &c. — ib. iks are Mal.imbito, is in this fide, about two-thirds of the way up. tends into ordinate caver , ^ _ _ ^ more generally defcending, and at length terminates MAGDALENE, Cape of, a promontory in the in two ditterent places, at bafons of water of unknown centre ot Canada, where there is an iron mine, which extent, and which appear to be nearly on a level with promil'es great advantages, both with regard to the the water of the river. The vault of this cave is of goocinefs of the metal and the plenty of the ore. — ib. folid lime-done, from 20 to 40 or 50 feet high, MAGEE'S Sountl, on the N. W. coafi of N. Ame- throu'h which water is cominually exuding. This rica, is fituated in Walhington's Iflands, or what the trickling down the fides of the cave, has incruHed them Biitifh call Edward's, or Charlotte's Ifles, fo called over in the form of elegant diapery ; and dripping by two diiferent captains on their firft falling in with from the top of the vauk, generates on that, and on them. Lat. 52° 46' N. long. 131° 46' W. This the bafe below, Italadtites cf a conical form, fimie of found is divided by Dorr's Ifland into two parts, leading which have met and lormed large mally columns. — ib. into one. The other port is called Poit Ptrkins — ib. MADERA, or il/tfo'<7>a, one of the largcfi branches MAGEGADAVICK, or Mngacjdava, qt Eajlern cf the famous Maranon or river of Ama/.ons, in S. Rrcer, tails into the bay of Paliamaquoddy, and is America. In 1741, the Portnguefe failed up this fuppofed to be the true St Croix, which forms part of llream, till they found themfelves near Santa Ciuz de the eaftern boundary line between the United States and la Sierra, between lat. 17° and 18'^ S. From the New-Btunfwick. This difputed line is now in train for mouih cf this river in lat. 3° 20' S. the Maranon is fettlement, agreeably to the treaty of 1794. — ib. known among the inhabitants by the name of the river MAGELLAN, Straits of, at the fouth extremity of Amazons ; and upwards they give it the name 01 the river cf Solimoes. At Loretto, the Madera receives two branches from the fiiuth. From Lortlto to Tri- nidad in lat. 15° S. its courfe is north : thence to its mouth its t;cneral courfe is N. E. by N. and N. — ih. of S. Ameiica, lie between 52° and 54" S. lat. and between 76" and 84° W. l.jigicude. Thefe flraits have Patagonia on the N. and the iflands of Terra del Fuego on the S. and extend trom E. to \\. iio leagues, but the breadth in fonie places falls fliort (f one. They MADRE DE POPA, a town and convent of were firll difcoveied by Magellan, or Magelhaens, a Terra Firma in S. America, fituated on the river Portuguefe, in the fervice of Spain, who, in 1520 found Grande, or Magdalena. The pilgrims in South out thereby a pafiage fmm the Atlantic to the P.M:ific America refpeft this religious foundation with zeal, or Southern ocean. He was the firfl: navigator who and refort to it in great numbers : many miracles failed rnund the world. — il. him" faid to have been wrought here by the Holy MAGELLANIA, or Terra MagcUanica, a vaft Virgin, in favour of the Spanilh fleets and their traft of land, extending from the province of Rio de la failois, who are therefore very liberal in their donati- Plata, quite to the utmolf verge of S. America, viz. ens at her fhrine. It lies 54 miles E. of Carthagena. N. lat. 10" 51', W. long. 76^ 15'. — ib. MAGDALEN IJles, a duller of ifles N. E. of the ifle of St John's, and N. W. of that of Cape Breton, in the gulf of St Lawrence; fituated between 47" 13' and 47" 42' N. lat. and in 61° 40' W. long. They are inl)abitcd by a few filhermen. Sea-cows ufed to frequent them ; but they are now become fcarce. from lat. 35" to 54" S. The river Sinfondo divides the W. part from the S. of Chili : the northern part of it alio borders on Chili, and Cuyo or Chicuito on the W. The South Sea bounds it, in parr, on the W. The N. ocean wholly on the E. and ftraitsof Magellan on the S. Magellan himfelf made no great difcovcries in this country, e.tcep: the two capes, of Virgins and Defire. The two principal nations difcovered by the tnilGonaries, MAG Magcl- lania. C 3^5 ] MAG midionaries, are, the Chunians and Hulllans ; the for- , mcr inh.tbit the continent, and feveral iflands, to the northward of tlie Huillans, who inliabit the country near Magellan Straits. The foil is generally barren, hardly bearing any grain, and the trees exhibit a dil'mal afpeft ; lb that the inhabitants live miferably in a cold, inhofpitable climate, 'i'he Huillans are not numerous, being hunted like wild hearts, by the Chunians, who fell them for flaves. The other nations are not Icnown, much lefs their genius or manner of living. The eall- ern coafts of Magellan are generally low, abounding with bogs, and have feveral iflands near the Ihore ; the mod remarkable of which is the Ifle of Penguins, fo Majma. called from a bird of that name, which abounds on it. ^-'""''^^ The iflands S. of the ftraits are Terra del Fuego ; as there is a vulcano in the largeft of them, emitting fire and fmoke, and appears terrible in the night. The Spaniards erefled a fort on this ftrait, and placed a garrifon in it ; but the men were all llarved. — ik MAGMA is properly the re/u/e of any fubftance which has been fubjeilcd to prelfure ; but, in chc- miftry, the term is fometimes ufed to denote a mix- ture of two or more bodies, reduced to tlie conGileucs of dough or palle. MAGNETISM, r "N natural philofophy. — Our intention in the prefent article was principally to give a more diftinfl ac- count of the theory of Mr jEpinus than is contained in the article Magnetism of the Encyclopedia, refer- ring for proof and illuftration to the many fads con- tained in that article : but, on m)re mature confide- ration, we concluded, that this meihod would fret and coiifufc the reader by continu il references, and leave but a feeble inipiefli >n at Lill. Wc have therefore pre- ferred the putting the whole into the form of a Ihort trcatile on magnetifm, fimilar to our fupplementary ar- ticle of EuhCTKiciTY. 'J'his, we hope, will be more perfijicui'us and i'iti-.ia>.^ory ; flill leaving to the reader the full life or all the information contained in the ar- ticle Magnetism of the Diiflionary. I The knowledge which the ancient naturalifts poflef- Rcafons f^j of ;[]is fuf>ji;i5t waj extremely imperfeiS, and affords, * ^ ^]^ we think, the llrongcfl proc f of their ignorance of the Wire ig- '■'"^ method of philofophihng ; for tliere can hardly be norant of named any objeift of phyfical refearch that is moie cu- natural rious in itfelf, or more likely to engage attention, than phjlorophy. the apparent life and activity of a piece of rude unor- ganiled matter. This had altraifled notice in very ear- ly times; lor Thales attributed the characfteriftic phe- nomenon, the attraiflion nf a jJiece of iron, to the agen- cy of a mind or foul refiding in the magnet. Philolb- phers, as they were called, feem to have been contented with this lazy notice i f a flight fuggelUon, unbecoming an ini|uirer, ami rather fuch as might be expe<5led from the moll incurious peafant. Even Ariflotle, the moll zealous and the moll fyltematic ftudent of Nature of whofe labours we have any account, has coUeifled no inlormatioii that is of any importance. We know that the general imperlec'lion of ancient phylics has been afcribed to the little importance that was attached to the knnwledge of the material world by the philofo- phersof Greece and Rome, who thought human nature, the adlive purfuits of men, and the fcience of public af- fairs, the only ol)je>5ls defcrving their attention. Mift ol the great philnfophcrs of antiquity ware alfo great aiflors on the llage of human life, and delpii'ed acquili- tions which did not tend to accomplilh them for this dignified employment ; but they have not given this reafun thcmlclvcs, though rone was more likely to be uppermod in their mind. Socrates dilfuades from the fludy of material nature, not becaufe it was unworthy of the attention of his pupils, but becaufe it was too Si;ppL. Vol. II. diflicult, and that certainty was not attainable in it. Nothing can more didindly prove their ignorance of what is really attainable in fcience, namely, the know- ledge ot the laius of nature, and their ignorance of the only method of acquiring this knowledge, viz. obferva- tion and experiment. They had entertained the hopes of difcovering the caufes of things and had formed their philolbphical language, and tiieir m de of refearch, in conformity with this hopelefs projecfl. Making little advances in the difcovery of the caufes of the "pheno- mena of material nature, they deferted this fludy for the dudy of the conduft of man ; not becaufe the dif- covery of caufes was more eaiy and frequent here, but becaufe the fludy itfelf was mote immediately intereft- ing, and becaufe any thing like fupeiior knowledge in it puts the polTtiror in the delir.ible fituation of an ad- vifer, a man of fuperior wifdom ; and as this fludy was clofely conneaed with morals, becaufe the fear of God is truly the beginning .-f wifdom, the charader of the philolopher acquiied an eminence and dignity which was highly flattering to human vanity. Their proce- dure in the mor.il and intelledual fciences is drongly marked with the fanie ignorance of the tiue method of philofophifing ; for we raiely find tliem f.rming gene- ral propolitions on copious indudions of faints in the condud of men. They always proceed in the fynt'ie- tic method, as if they were fully converfmt in the firll principles of human nature, and had nothing to do but to make the application, according to tlie eftablilheJ forms of logic. While we admire, therefore, the faga- city, the penetration, the candid obfervalion, and the happy illuflration, to be found in the works cf the ancient moralifls and writers on juril'prudcnce and politics, we cannot but lament tliat fuch gie.it men, Irequently engaged in public artuirs, and' therefore having the fined opportunities for deducing general laws, have done f > little in this way ; and tliat their writings, however engaging and precious, cannot he confldercd as any thing more relii.ed than the obfcrva- tioris of judicious and worthy men, witii all the dif- fufeiicls .md repetition of ordinary converfation. All this has arifen from the want of a juft notion of wh U is attainable in this department of fcience, namely, ihc laws of intclle^ual and moral nature; and of the only poffible method of attaining this knowledge, viz. oh- fervation and experiment, and the formation of gcner.il laws by tlic hidu.ilion of particular fa..^b. 3 C AVe 386 2 13r Gilbert wastheluft experimen- tal enquirer about niag- uetiiiu. MAGNETISM. We have been led into ihefe reflexions by the inat- eledlrical, while ferragineous fubftances alone can be tention of the ancients to the curious phenomena of made magnctical magnttifm ; which ni'-ift have occurred in conliderable It is nit laying too much of this work of Dr Gil- lad la- ben's to atlirm, that it contains almoll every thing that His treatife His unwearied diligence - J — view's of phihilophy wiih iiis noble countryman, pub- lilhed about the fame time his Phy/wlopa Nova, fiu Traddtus de Ma^rute et Co<porihus magntlids. In the introduaion, he recounts all the knowledge of the an- cients on the fubjea, and their fupine inattention to what was lb entirely in tlicir hands ; and the impoliibi- lity of ever adding to ihs ftocic ofulet'ul knowledge, fo long as men imagined themfelves to be philofophifing while they were only repealing a ie^v cant words, and the unmeaning phrafes of the Arillotelian fchool and entertaining variety to any pcrlbn who ken to the expeiimcntal method. And we have ha- we know about magneiilm. jri.s ui.weaiicu uiiigeiicc ^^^,y ji^. zirded thefe ftee remarks, expcding the acijuiefcence in fearching every wjiling on the fubjeft, and in get- coveries. of our reader^, becaul'e the fupcrior knowledge which ting information from navigators, imd his incelFant oc- we in thelc 1 iter days, have acquired of the mag- cupation in experiments, have left very few fafls un- n't'ical phenomena, were the tirll fruits of the true known to him. We meet with many things in the nie-hod of philofophiling. This was pointed out to the writings of pofterior inquirers, Ibme of them of high learned world in 1590 by our celebrated countryman reputation, and of the prelent day, which are publilhed Chmcellor Bacon, in his two great works, the Notum and received ai notable difcoveries, but are contained in Ore.inum Scentiarum, and D-- Argum:nth Sckiiliarum. the rich collcdion of Dr Gilbert. We by no means Dr Gilbert of Colchellcr, a philufophcr of eminence in afcribe all this to mean plagiarifm, although we know many relpeas, butxhicHy becaufs ne had the fame jult traders in experimental knowledge who are not free '■ '^'- - ■■•■'- from this chaige. We afcribe it to the general indo- lence of m_akind, wlio do not like the trouble of con- fulting originals, wheie things are mixed with others which they do not wairt, or treated in a way, and with a paiiitul minutcncis, which are no longer in falhion. Dr Gilbeit's book, although one of thofe which does the higheft honour to our country, is lei's known in Bri- tain ilian on the continent. Indeed we know but of two Britilli editions of it, which are bnth in Latin ; it and wc hive fecn five edition^, publiflied in Germany is ciiri'ourt") remark tlic almoft perfeft famenefs of Dr and H .Hand before 1628. We earneftly recommend Giloert's fentimcnts and language with thole of Lord it to the peiuial of the curious reader. He will (be- Bacon. Thev both charge, in a peremptory manner, fides the K.und philofophy) find more fafls in it than all thofe who' pretend to m:orm others, to give over in the two laige folios of Scarella. their dialedlc labour?, which are nothing but ringing After this moll deferved eulogy on the parent of changes on a few trite truths, and many unfounded magnetical philofophy, it i> time to enter on the fub- conjedures, and immediately to betake diemfelves to je«. experiment. He has purfued this method on the fub- In mechanical philofophy, a phenomenon is not to be 4 iedl of ma"netifin with wonderful ardour, and with conlidered as explained, unlefs we can ihew that it is j 'i^",^g* equal jreniu" and fuccefs ; for Dr Gilbert was poiielfed the certain refult of the laws of motion applied to mat- phenome- both of great ingenuity, and a mind fitted for general ter. It is in this way that the general propofitions in na. views of thing;. The work contains a prodigious num- pliyfical aftronomy, in the theory of macliines, in hy- ber and variety of obfervations and experiments, col- draulics, Sic. are demonllrated. But tlie phenomena lefled witli f.igacity from the writings of others, and called mjgi,eliciii have not as yet obtained fuch an ex- inftituted by himfelf with confiderable expence and la- planation. We do not fee their immediate caufe, nor hour. It would indeed be a miiaclc, if ill Dr Gilbert's can we fay with confidence that they are the etfeds of gmeral inferences werejull, or all his experiments accu- any particular kind of matter, aifling on the bodies ei- r.ite. It was untrodden ground. But, on the whole, ther by impulfion or prelfure. this performance contains more real information than All that can be done here is to clafs the phenomena any writing of the age in which he lived, and is fearcely in the moft dillinft manner, according to their genera- exceeded b^y any that has appeared fince. We may lity. In this we obtain a two-fold advantage. We hold it with jurtice as the firll fruits of the Baconian may take it for granted that the mod general pheno- or eiperimental philofophy. menon is the nearell allied to the general caufe. But, This work of Dr Gilbert's relates chiefly to the load- farther, we obtain by this method a true theory of all ftnne, and what we call magnets, thati;, pieces of fteel the fubordinate phenomena. For a jull theory is only which have acquired properties fimilar to thofe of the the pointing out the gener.il fact of wlvch the pheno- loidrtone. But he extends the term tangneii/m, and the nienon under confideration is a particular inftance. Be- epithet ma-rndk, to all bodies which are affcaed by ginning therefore with the phenomenon which compre- loadftones and magnets in a manner fimilar to that in hends all the particular cafes, v/e explain thofe cafes in which they affect each other. In the courfe of his in- (hewing in 'whitt manner they are included in the general veifigation, indeed, he finds that thefe bodies are only phenomenon, and thus we fliall be able to predia what fuch as contain iron in fome ftate or other : and in pro- will be the refult of p'ltting the body under confidera- ving this limitation, he mentions a great variety of phe- tion into any particular fituation. An<l perhaps we nomena whi:h have a confiderable refemblance to thofe may find, in them all, coincidences which will enable us whicli he allows to be magnetical, namely, thofe which to Ihew that they are all modificatinni ofa fact ftill more he called cUdrkal, becaufe they were produced in the general. If we gain this point, we fnall have eftablifli- fame way that amber is made to attrad and repel light ed a complete theory of them, having difcovered the bodies. He marks with c.ire the dillinaions between general faft in which they are all comprehended, thefe and tliecl.araaerifiic phenomena of magnets. He Should we for ever remain ignorant of the ca'jfe of this feems to have known, that ail bodies may be rendered gensral faft, we have ncvenhelefs rendered this a com- plete MAGNETISM. plete branch of mechanical theory. Nay, we may per- haps difcover fuch circumllances of refeniblance between this general fail and others, with which we are better acquainted, that we fliall, with ,^reat probability at lealt, be able to afiign the caufe dl the general fad it- lelf, by Ihewing the law of which it is a particular in- (lance. We fliall attempt this method on the prefent occa- fion . S The leadins faifls in magnetifm are the two follow- Firft lead- j^ . '^ ° Iron arrriii- '• ^^ *">' oblong piece of iroti, fuch as a bar, rod, or res itfelf in wire, be fo fitted, that it can alfuine any dire(f(ion, it a particular will arrange itfelf in a ceitain determinate direftinn yofition. ^vj^Ji relped to tile axis of the earth. Thus, if, in any part of Britain, an iron or fteel wire be tiirull through Plate a piece of cork, as reprefented in fig. i. fo as that the XXXIV. yvhole may fwim level in water, and if it be laid in the water nearly north-well and foutli-eall, it will llowly ch.iiige ita pofmon, and finally ietlle in a direftion, making an angle of about 25 degrees with the me- ridian. This experiment, which we owe to Ur Gilbert (fee B. I. ch. II.), is delicate, and requires attention to many circumitances. The force with which the iron tends toward this tii.al pofuion is eilremely weak, and will be balanced by very minute und uthei wife infenfi- ble refinances ; but wc have never lound it tail wlien executed as here directed. An iron wire of the fize of an ordinary (juill, and about eight or ten inches long, is very fit for the purpofe. It iliould be thrult ihrougli the cork at right angles to its axis ; and to adjullcd, by repeated tiials, as to fwim level or parallel to the hori- zon. The experiment mult alio be made at a great dillance from all iron ; thercfure in a bafon of fome other metal or earthen ware. It may iometimes require a very long while before the motion begin ; and if the wire has been placed at right angles to the diiedion which we have mentiontdas final, it will never change its pofuion : therefore we have direifled it to be laid in a direction not too remote, yet very fcnlibly different from the final diredlion. But this IS not the true pofition affeiJled by the iron rod. If it be thrult through a piece of wood or cork pcrfciflly fpherical, in fuch a manner that it pall'es thro' its centre, and if the centre of gravity coincide with this centre, and the whole be of fuch weight as to re- main in any part of the water, without either afcend- ing or defcending, then it will finally fettle in a plane inclined to the mcridi.iii about 25", and the north end will be dtpreifed about 73" below the horizon. Ail this is equiv.ilcnt with faying, that if any oblong piece of iron or fteel be very nicely poifed on its centre ot gravity, and at peri'edt libeity to turn round th.it centre in every diiCvTion, it will finally take the poll- tioii now mentioned. We have farther to obferve with regard to this ex- pcrinicnr, that it i^ indiirercnt whicli end of tiie rod lie pl.iccd toward the north in tlie heginiimg ol the expe- riment. Tint end will finally fettle tiw ird the norih ; and if the experiment be repeated with tlie fame rod, but with the other end north, it will finally fettle in this new attitude. It is, however, not always that we find p'cces of iron thus pcrfeiSly indifferent. Very fic- quently one end affects the northerly pofition, and we cannot make the other end alTume its place: the caufcs ot this difference will be clearly feen by and bye. The pofition thus affeifled by a rod of iron is called <> 3^7 by Dr Gilbert the magnitical position or dirf.c- " TiON. It is not the fame, nor parallel, in all parts ot ^^^j,^°"" the earth, as will be more patticulaily noticed alter- wards. 2. 'fhe other leading hii is this : When a p'ece of _ ^ iron, lying in the manneiicul pofition, or neaily fo, and \l^^ at perfea liberty to move in evciy direiTiion, is ap- iron at- proached by another oblong piece of iron, held nearly traiSts and in the (.ims pofition, it is attracled by it ; that is, the ifpeli iron. moveable piece of iron will gradually approach to the oiie that is prefented to it, and will at laft come into contaifl with it, and may then be llov.-ly drawn along by it. This phenomenon, although not fo delicate as the former, is Hill very nice, becaule the attrae^ion is fo weak that it is balanced by almoft infeiifible obftruc- lions. But the experiment will fcarcely fail if ccn- dudled as follows : Let a llrong iron wire be made to float en water by means of a piece of cork, in the manner already defcribed, ha\ ing one end under water. See fig. 1. B. Wlien it is neatly in tlie niagnetical pofition, bring the end of a pretty tjig iron rod, luch as the point of a new poker, within a quarter of an inch of its fuuthein end (iiolding the poker in a pofition not very dilleient from the magnetical pofition^, and hold it ihoie for fome time, not exa'tly fouthward Irom it, but a little to one fide. The floating iron will be obferved to turn to- wards it with an accelerated motion ; will touch it, and may then be drawn by it through the water in any di- reiftion. We Ihall have the fame refuk by approaciiing the northern extrtmity ot the floating iron with the upper end of the poker. The fime phenomenon may be obferved by fufpend- ing the firff piece of iron by its middle by a long and fiender hair or thread. The lufptnlion mull be long, otherwifc the fiiffnel's of the hair or tl.ieaJ may be fuf- fiticnl for balancing the very fm.iU foice with which the pieces of iron tend toward each other. The phenome- non may alio be obferved in a piece of inn wliich turns Ireely on a fine point, like the needle of the roa- riner'a compalV. In tliis, as in the former experiment, the ends of the pieces of iron are obferved, in general, to lie indifferent ; that is either end of the one will attract eiiher end of the other. It often happens, however, that the ends are not thus indifferent, and that the end of the move- able piece of iron, inllead ot approachmg the other, will be obferved to recede trom it, and appear to avoid it. We Ihall foon learn the caufe of tliis difference in the Hates of iron. It is fcarcely neceli'iry to remark, that we miifl in- .j., . ,. fer from thele expi.rimeius, that the aiftion is mutual ,„jit„ii "" between the two pieces ot iion. Either of them may be the moveable piece which approaches the other, mani. lelting the altradlion of that other. This reciprocity of action will be abundantly verified and explained in its proper place. Thele two faels were long thoucht to be peculiar to «• ' loadltoncsand attiticial magnets, that is, pieces of iron lurtonn?- which have acquired this property by certain treatment nets nr with loadftones ; but iliey wete difcovered by Dr lo!"lfto"c: 3 C 2 Gilbert {88 10 But, in iron, is in- difl'frcnt, and ni<»- nicntary, and in Inad- Aoncti it it fixed and drtfrmi- nice. II PoLtS. MAGNETISM. Gilbert to be inherent in all iron in its metallic (late ; their fubftance, nor tliat the poles of the fame name (o and were thought by him to be necefTary confequences conftantly repel each other ; for if a fmall or weak mag- of a general principle in the conftitution of this globe, net A have its pole brought near the fimilar pole of a Thcfe phenomena are indeed much more confpicuous large or ftrong nugnet B, tiiey arc often found to at- in loadftones and magnets; and it is therefore with traft when almoll toucliing, although at more confider- fuch tiiat experiments are beft made for learning their able diftances they repel each other. But this is not various modifications. an exception to the general propnfition ; for wlien the Bat there is another circumftance, befides the degree north pole of A is thus attracted by the north pole of of vivacity, in which the magnctifm of common iron B> it will be found, by other trials, to have all the qua- and lleel rcniarkably differs from that of a loadllone or lities of a fouth pole, while thus in the neighbourhood magnet. When a loadilone or magnet is fo fupportcd ot the north pole of B. as to be at liberty to take any pofition, it arranges it- The magnetic properties and phenomena are conve- felf in the magnetical direflion, and one dclermineJ eml niently diftinguiflied into th<ife of force and of pola- of it fettles in the northern quarter ; and if it be placed ritv. Thofe ot the fir(l clafs only were known to the fo that tlie other end is in that fituation, it does not re- ancients, and even of them their knowledge was ex- main there, but gradually turns round, and, after a few tremely fcanty and imperlcifl. They may all be claffed ofcillations, the fame end ultimately fettles in the north, under the following general propolitions. This is diliincftly feen in the needle of the mariner's i. The fimilar poles of two magnets repel each other compafs, which is jull a fmall magnet prepared in the with a force decreafing as the diftances increafe. fame way with all other magnets. The feveral ends of 2. The diflimilar poles of two magnets attraift each loadllones or magnets are thus permanently the north other with a force decreafing as the dillances increafe. or the fouth ends ; whereas we iaid that either end of a 3- Magnets ai range ihemfelves in a certain determi- piece of common iron being turned to the northern nate pofition with refped to each other, quarter, it finally fettles there. _ The firft objea of refearch in our fartlier examina- Itis this circunift.ince which has rendered magnetifm t'on of thefe properties is the relation which is obfer- fo precious a dilcovery to mankind, by furnifiiing us ved to obtain between the diftances of the ading poles with the cornpals, an inftrument by which we learn the and their force of a<ftion. This has accordingly occu- different quarters of the horizon, and which thus tells pied much attention ot thephilofophers, and numberlefs the direftion of a fhip's couife through the pathlcfs ocean experiments have been made in order to afcertain the (fee CoMfAss and Variation, Encycl.) ; and alfo law of variation, both of the attraflion and the repul- Ihews us the directions of the veins ancf workings in the fiou. A great number of thefe have been nanated in deepeft mines. It was natural therefore to call thofe the article Magnftism of the Encycl. from wjiicii it the north and fouth ends of the mariner's needle, or of appears that it has lieen a matter of great difficulty, and a loadflone or magnet, Dr Gilbert called them the had not been afceriained with certainty or precifion POLES of the loadftone or magnet. He had found it when that article was publifhed. It is obvious, from convenient for the propofld train of his experiments to the nature of the thing, tliat the determination is very form liis loadllones into fpheres, which he called ter- difficult, and the invelligation very complicated. We RELL^, from their refemlilancc to this globe ; in which can only obferve the finiultineous motion of tlie whole cafe the north and fouth ends of his loadllones were the magnet ; yet we know that there are four feparate ac- poles of the terrellse. He theref -re gave the n.inie p>k tions coexifliag and contributing In different direiftions, to that part of any loadftone or magnet which tlius and with different forces, to the fenfible effed. The turned to the north or foutti. The denomination was force which we menfure, in any way whatever, is com- adopted by all fubfequent writers, and now makes a pounded of four different forces, which w-e cannot fe- tcrm in the language of magnetifm. parate and nieature ap:irt ; for the north pole of A re- Alfo, when we approacli either end of a piece of pels the north pole of B, and attracts its fouth pole, iron A to either end of another B, thefe ends mutually while the fouth pole of A exerts the oppofite forces on attraift; or if either end of a magnet A be brought the fame poles of B. The attradicn which we obferre near either end of a piece of common iron, they mii- is the excefs of two unequal attr;iiflions above two un- tually attraift each other. But if we bring that end of equal repulfions. The fame might be faid of an obfer- a magnet A which turns to the north near to the y?;///'- ved repulfion. Nay, the matter is incomparably more lur end of another magnet B, thefe ends will not attra(ft complicated than this; becaufe, for any thing that we each other, but, on the contrary, will repel. If the know, every particle of A ads on every particle of B, two magnets are made to float on pieces of wood, and and is aiffed on by it ; and the intenlity of thife adions have their north poles fronting each other, the magnets may be different at the fame diftancei, and is certainly will retire from each other ; and in doing fo, they ge- different when the diftances are fo. Tims there is a nerally turn round their axes, till the north pole of one combination of an unknown number of aiftions, each of front the fouth pole of the other, and then they run to- which is unknown individually, both in direfticn and gether. This is a very notable diftinifiion between the intenfity. The precife determination is therefore, in magnetifm of magnets and that of common iron ; and all probability, impollible. By precife detern-iivition, whenever we fee a piece of iron fliew this permanent we mean the law of mutual adion between two mag- diftiniflion of its ends, we muft confider it as a magnet, nctic particles, or that precife fundinn of the diftance and conclude that it has met with fome peculiar treat- which defines the intenfity of the force ; fo tliat niea- ment. furingthe diftance of the acfling particles on the axis of It is not, however, (Iridly true, that the poles of a curve, the ordinates of the curve may have the pro- loadrtones or magnets are fo fixed in particular parts of portions of the attradions and repulfions. It II Magnetic FORCE and P0LAR1TY» 13 Similar poles re- pel, and diflimilar poles at- trucl.cack other. 14 The la\T of attrac- tion and rt- pulfion 19 of difficult invcftlga- tioii. MAGNETISM. It is almoft ncedlefs to attempt anjr deduflion of the law of variation from the numerous experiments which have been publiflied by different philofophers. An ample colleftion of them may be feen in Scarella's trea- tife. Mr Mufchenbroek has made a prodigious num- ber ; but all are (b anomalous, and exhibit fuch diffe- rent laws of diminution by an incrcafe of dilfance, that we may be certain that tlie experiments have been in- judicious. Attention has net been paid to the proper objects. Magnets cf moll improper Ihapes have been employed, and of moft ditfufc polarity. No notice has been taken oi a circumftance which, one (hould think, ought to h ive occupied the chief attention ; namely, the joint ^iflion of tour poles, of wliich the experiment exhibits only the complex rej'ult. A very flight reflec- tion might have made the enquirer perceive, that the attraflions or repulfions are nut the mod proper phe- nomena for declaring the precife law of variation ; be- caufe what we obferve is only the excefs of a fmall dif- ference of attradions and reijulfions above another fmall difference. Mr Hawkfbee and Dr Brook Taylor em- ployed a much better method, by obferving the devia- tions from the meridian which a magnet cccafioned in a compafs needle at different diftances. This is occa- fioned by the diflFerencc of the two turns of the fame forces ; and thii difference may be made a hundred times greater than the other. But they employed mag- ,^ nets of mod improper fhapes. Judiciouj We muft except from this criticifm the experiments expcri- of Mr Lambert, recorded in the Memoirs of the Aca- mcnt. br demy of Berlin for 1756, publilhed in 1758. This b rt ""'" "^^'^ fagacious pliilofopher (for he highly merits that name) placed a mariner's needle at various diftances from a magnet, in the direiflion of its axi;, and obfer- ved the declination from l;ie magnetic meridian produ- ced by the magnet, and the obliquity of the magnet to the axis of the needle. Thus, was the aiftion of the nugnet fct in oppofition and equilibrium with the natu- ral polarity of the needle. But the difficulty was to difcover in what proportion each of thofe forces was changed by their obliquity ot action on this little lever. No man excelled Mr Lambert in addrefs in devifing methods of mathematical invelfigation. Heobferved, that when the obliquity of the magnet to the axis of the needle was 30°, it caul'.d it to decline 15". When the obliquity was 75", the dillance being the fame, it declined 30°. Call the obliquity 0, and the declination (/, and let j be tliat fun^lion of the angle which is pro- portionable to the aflion. Alfo let p be the natural polarity of the needle, and m the force of the isagnet. It is evident that /) X / 1 5 = '« X /, 30 And f : m z= f, 'i,o : f, 15; for the ramereafun p i '"=/. 75 :/> i° Thereforcy^ 15 :/30 z=j, 30 :/, 75°. But it is Well known that Sine 15 : Sine 30 = Sine 30 : Sine 75. Hence Mr Lambert was led to conjciflure, that the fine was that fumftion of the angle which was proportional to the aflion fif m-ignctifm on a lever. But one expe- riment was infullicicnt for determining this point. He made a fimilar comparifon of feveral other obliquities and declinations with ihc fame dillaiiccs of the magnet, and alto with other dift.uices; and he put it pall all dilpute, that his conje<^ture was jull. 389 Had Mr Lambert's experiments terminated here, it mufl be granted that he has made a notable dlfcovery in the theory cfthe intimate nature of magnetifm. It com- pletely refutes all the theories which pretend to explain the action of a magnet by the impulfion of a dream of fluid, or by prelTure arifing from the motion of fuch a llream : for in this cafe the pretTure on the needle mufl have diminilhed in the duplicate ratio of the fine. The direiftive power with the angle 90 mull be 4 times greater than with the angle 30° ; whereas it was obfer- ved to be only twice as great. Mjgnetilm does not zQ. therefore by the impullion or preli'ure of a llream of fluid, but in the manner of a fimple incitement, as we conceive attraftlon or repulfion to aifl. Having afcertained the effedl cf obliquity, Mr Lam- bert proceeded to examine the effeft of dillance ; and, by a mod ingenious analyfis of his obfervations, he dif- covered, that if we reprefent the force of the magnet by f, and the diftance of the neared pole of the magnet from the centre cf the needle by i, and if a be a conllant quantity, nearly equal to two-thirds of the length of the needle, we have / proportional to d — a*. Mr Lambert found ihli hold with very great exael- nefs with magnets ten times larger, and needles twice as (hort. But he acknowledges, that it gives a very fingular refult, as if the a>aion of a magnet were exerted from a centre beyond itfelf. He attributes this to its true caufe, the dill great complication of the refult, ariling from the aiSlon of the remote pole of the mag- net. He therefore takes another method of examina- tion, which we Ihall underdand by and bye, when we condder the Jiredivs power of a magnet. We have mentioned this impenect attempt chiefly on account cf the unquedionable manner in which he has afcertained the effedl of obliquity, and the importance of this de- termination. We have attempted this invedigation in a very fimple manner. We got fome magnets made, confilting of two balls connefled by a llender rod. By a very particular mode of impregnation, we gave them a pretty good magnetifm ; and the force of each pole teemed to rcfide almod in the centre of the b.dl. This was our obje(fl in giving them this fliape. It reduced the examination both of the attractive and cf the diredlve power to a very eafy computati in. The refult was, that the force of each pole varied in the inverfe duplicate ratio of the dldance. The error of this hypothel'is in no cafe a- mounted to ^\\\\ of the whole. In computing lor tiie phenomena of the dlreilive power, the irregularities and deviations from this ratio were much fmaller. The previous knowledge of this funiffion would great- ly expedite and Ucilitate our farther invefligaticn : but we mud content ourfclves with a very impcikcl ap- proximation, and with arriving at the dcfired determi- nation by degrees, and by a very circuitous route. , It is a matter of experience, that when two magnets Attempt are taken, each of which is as nearly equal as pollible in to cx[>bin the ftrcngih of both poles, then, if they are placed with 'l^' phcno- their axes in one draight line, and the north pole of ""'"* *'''•*" one fionting the fou;h pole of the other, they attraet °']-^ j^,J'jJ^" each other with a force which diminilhes as tl.e dldance icdee of increafcs ; and this variation of force is regular, that this law. is, without any fudden changes of intenfity, till it be- comes infsnfible. No ir.dance has occurred of its break- ing fuddcnly off when of any fcnfiblc force, but it ap- pears 39<^ M A G N E T I S M. pe.irs to dlminifli continually like gravity. No inftance cccurs in which altraftion is changed into repulfion. But it is, moreover, to be particularly remarked, that, having made this obfetvation with the noith pole ot A fronting the louth pole of B, if the experiment be repeated with the Ibuth pole of A fronting the noith pole of B, the rcfults will be precifcly the fame. And, lalUy, it is a matter of unexceptcJ experience, that the fenlible a(5tion of A on B, meafured by the force which is necelFary for preventing the farther ap- proach of B, is precifcly ecjual to the aiflion of B on A. This is the cafe, however unequal the force of the two magnets may be; that is, alihough A may fup- port ten pounds of iron, and B only ten ounces. Now, the fimplell view we can take of this experi- ment is, by fuppoling the whole aftion of one end or pole of a magnet to be exerted at one point of it. This will give us tour actions ot A on B, accompanied by as many equal and oppofite adfions of B on A. It is plain that we may content ouifclves with the invelli^a- lion of one only ot thefe fets of aiSions. What we obferve is the excels of the attraiftions of the poles of A for the di!liniilar poles of B above the repullions of the fame poles of A ior the ilmilar poles ot B. At all diflances theie is fuch an excefs. The turn of the attradions exceeds the fum of the rcpuUicns competent to every dillance. Now this will really happen, if we fuppofe that the poles of a magnet are of equal llrcngth, and that however thefe difl'erent magnets ditfer in Itrength, tlicy have the fame law of diminution by an increafe of di- llance. The firll circumltance is a very polTible thing, and the lall is deraonllrated by the obf^-rved equality ot adion and readion. Every thing will now appear very plain, by reprefenting (as we did in Electricity, Siippl. n" 44, &c.) the intenhtiesof attra<rtion and repul- fion by the ordinates cf a curve, of which the abfciHa: reprcfent the diftancesof the adling poles. Therefore let A and B (fig. z.) reprefent the two magnets, placed with their tour poles S, N, s, n, in a Itraight line. In the llraight line Oq take O m. Op, O n, Oy, refpeiftively equal to Nj, N h, S s, & 11 ; and let MP5«QJje a curve line, having O q for its axis and aiiymptote ; and let the curve, in every part, be con- vex towards its axis. Then draw the ordinates m M, /> P, « N, 17 Q, to the curve. Thefe ordinates will re- prefent the intenfities of the forces exerted between the poles of the magnets, in fuch a manner as to fulfil all the conditions that are really obferved : For m M repre- fents the attraftion of the north pole N of the niagner, A for the fouth pole s of the magnet B ; /> P repre- fents the repulfion of N tor n; n N reprefents the re- pulfion cf S for s ; and j Q^reprefents the attraftion of S tor n. The diftance between rit and », or between p and q, is equal to the lengih of the magnet A, and mp, or n q, is equal to that of B. M m, ¥ p, and N«, Q^y, are pairs uf equidillant ordinates. It furely re- quiies only the infpeflion of the figure to fee that, in whatever fituaticn alung the axis we place thoie pairs of equidillant ordinates, the fum of M.m at»d Q^q will always exceed the fum of P p and N n ; that is, the fum of the attraflions will always exceed that of the repul- fions. This will not be the cafe if the curve, whofe or- dinates are proportional to the forces, have a point Z of contrary Hexure, as is reprefented by the dotted cu'.ve P'Z(^ For this curve, having Oq for its af- fymptote (in order to correfpond wish forces which di- minilli cc.ntinuaUy by an increafe of dillance, but do not abruptly ceafe) mull have its convexity turned toward this aiiymptote in the remote parts. But there will be an arch MPZ between Z and O, which is concave to- ward the aliymptoie. In wliich cafe, it is puQlble that M m + (^y Ihall be lefs than P /> 4- N /; ; and then the repulliuns will exceed the attractions ; which is con- trary to the whole train of obfeivation. It may be thought, that if the repulfion exerted be- tween two particles be always lefs than the attradlion at the fame dillance, the phenomena will be accounted for, although the law of aiflion be i;ot reprefented by fuch a curve as has been all'unied. Undoubtedly they will, while the dillimilar poles front each other. But the refults of fuch a fuppofition will not agree with the I)hcnomena while the nmilar poles front each other : For it is an uncontradifled taft, that when two fine hard magnets, whofe poles are neatly or exaiflly of equal vigour, have their fimilar poles fronting each other, the repulfions fall very little ihort of the attrac- tions at the fame dillances when their pcficion is chang- ed : When the dillances are confiderablc, fcarcely any difT.-rence can be obferved in the beginning of the ex- periment. The difference;', alfo, whicli are obferved at fmaller diftances, are obferved to augment by continu- ing the magnets in their places without changing their dillances ; and therefore feem to arife from fome change produced by each on the magnetilm of the other. And, accordingly, if we invert one of the ma;:;nets, we fhall find that the attradions have been diminillied as much as the repulfions. Now, the confequtnces of magnetic repulfion, being always weaker than attrac- tion, would be the reverie cf this. The ditFerences would appear moll remarkable in the greater diftances, and magnets might be found which repel at fmall dillances, and attrad at greater dillances ; which is contrary to all obfervation. From all this it follows, with fufhcient evidence for our prelcnt purpofe, that the function of the dillance which expreifes the law of magnetic adion muft be re- prefented by the ordinates cf a curve of the hyperbolic kind, referred to its aiiymptote as an axis ; and therefore always convex toward this axis. We think it alfo fuf- ficiently clear, that theconfequences which we have de- duced from the fimple fuppofition of four adling points, inllead of the combined adlion of every particle, may be adipted with fafety. For they would be jull, if there were only ihofe four particles ; they would be jull with refpefl to another four particles — therelore they would be jull when thefe are joined ; and lb on of any nuinber. Therefore the curve, whofe ordinates cxprefs the mean aflion of each pole, as if exerted by its centre of effort, will have the fame general form : It will be convex toward its affymptotic axis. ■ It will greatly aid our conceptions of the combined aflioni of the four magnetic poles, if we notice fome of the primary properties of a curve of this kind, limited by no other condition. i7 Draw the chords MQ, PN, MP, NQ; Bifefl them ^3^'^'^ in B, D, E, F, and join EF. Draw the ordinates E e {^^^^^^^ '" F/, and BD b (cutting EF in C). Draw P u parallel from the to the axis, cutting E «? in «. Draw alfo Q^/ parallel to plienome- the axis, cutting F/ in •?■. Alfo draw FfiL parallel '"• to MAGNETISM. 39 » to the axis, anJ P o t parallel to QN ; and draw PL /, and P If X, cutting M m in / and x. Let each ordinate be reprelented by tlie letter at its intcrfeflion with the 2xis. Thus, the ordinates M ;/; and Oq ma)' be leprefented by m and q, &c. Becaui'c MP is bifefled in E, M / is double of E i ; M / is double of EL ; M .v is double of E e. Alfo, be- caufe P/ is parail;! to QN, and P « to Qj, we have / a = Ni, From thefe premifes, it is eafy to perceive, that, 2 2. Di-^-^". 2 „ + g^P+„ 3- 2 4- Mu— m — p. 5- u 1 := n — q. 6. M / = m — p — n— q. n v.. "-^f. 8. 'FJ = 9. M / = w +p — » + q. m + p= n + q 10. EL = • CD = 12. CH = "'+/ — " + " 4 Thefe combinations will fugged to the attentive read- er the explanition of niiny modifications of tlie combi. ncd adllon of the four poles of two magnets. They are all comprehended in one propoiition, which it will be convenient to render familiar to the thought ; name- ly, if two pairs of equidillant ordinates betaken, the fum of the two extremes exceeds that of the interme- diate ones, m + q is greater than p + ii. Alfo, tlie dilTerence between the pair ncareft to O exceeds the dif- ference between the remote pair. Now, conceiving thefe ordinates to reprefcnt the mu- tual alliens of the magnetic poles, we fee tiiat their tendency to or from each other, or their fenfible atti ac- tions or repulfions, are expreffed by »/ + y — n+p; that is, by the cxcefs of the fum of the adtions of the nearcft and moft remote p :ks above the fum of the ac- tions of the intermediate diRant poles. It will alfo be fictiucntly convenient to confider this tendency as repre- fented by tn — p — n — q ; that is, by the excefs of the difTetence of the aftions of the nearcll pole of A on the two poles of B, above the dilTerence of the adions of its remote pole on the fame pcles cf B. I^et us now confider feme of the chief modifications of ihcfc a(flions. jjj 1. Let the diflimllar poles front each other. It is Kiplana- plain that m -^ q reprcfent attracff ioni', and that p -\- n lion of tlic rcprefent repulfions. Alfo ra -f y is greater than p+ n. obfcrvcJat- Therefore the magnets will attrai5l e.ciiothev. Tins tri<!iinii of „. ■ ,r ,- , , Bigncti alti action is aifo teprefented by tn — p — n — q. Now CT + y — p 4- n is evidently equal to M /, or to twice E 0, or to twice BD, or to four times CD. This ai-^ion will be increafed, 1. By increafing the ftrength of either of the map;- nets. The aflion of the magnets is the combined ac- tion of each ading particle of the one on each afting particle of the other ; and it is mutual. Therefore all the ordinates will increafcin the ratio of the ftrength of each magnet, and their funis and differences will increafe in the fame ratio. 2. By diminifhing the diftance between the magnets. For this brings all the ordinates nearer to O, while their diftances mp, p n, n q, remain as before. In this cafe it is plain, that M a, the difference of M m and P/, will increafe fafter than / « or N /', the difference be- tween N n and Qj]. Tlierefore M t will increafe ; thai is, the attraftion will increafe. 3. By increafing the length of A^ while the diftance between them remains the fame. For O m remaining the fame, as alfo m p and n y, while n q is only removed farther from mp, it is plain M u remains the fame, and that N /' and / u are diminiflied ; therefore M / mull in- creafe, or the attraflion mufl increafe. 4. By increafing the length of B, the diftance be- tween them remaining the fame. For this increafes mp and nq ; and confequeiitly increafes M u and t u. But M« increafes more than t u ; and therefore M/ is in- creafed, and the attradion or tendency is increafed. All thefe confequences of our original fuppofuion, that the magnetic aiflion may be reprefented by the or- dinates of a curve every where convex to an affymptotic axis, are ftridly conformable to obfervation. If we place the magnets with their fmiilar poles 19 fronting each other, it is evident that the ordinates -'^^'} °^ which e.'iprefled attrafli^ns in the former cafe, will now J- '"'■''-■P"'* exprefs repulliuns; and that the forces with which the magnets now repel each other, aie equal to tliof; with which tliey attraiJted when at the fame dillances. When the experiments are made with good loadft ones, or very fine magnets, tempered extremely hard, and having the energy of their pdes f.nlibly refiding in a fmall I'pace very near the extiemities, tlie refulls are alfo very near- ly conformable to this mathematic.il theory ; but there is generally a weaker adion. The magnets feldom re- pel as llroiigly as they altraift at the fame diftance; at leall when thefe diftances are fmall. If one or both of the magnets is foft, or if one of them be much more vigorous than the other, there are nbf^rved much greater deviations from this theory. The repulfions are confiileiably weaker than the attia(5lions at the fame di- ftaiice, and the law of vaiiation becomes extremely dif- ferent. When placed :it very confiderable dillances, they repel. As the magnet B is brought nearer to A, the rcpulfion increafes, agreeably to the theory, but not fo i.i(i. Bringing them Hill nearer, the repnllion ceafes to incrcale, then gradually diniinilhes, and frequently vanilhes altogether, before the magnets are in cmtaifl: and when brought ftill nearer, it is changed into at- But more careful obfervation flicws, that this ano- 20 maty does nrt invalidate the theory. It is found that Seeming the vigour of the magnets is permanently changed by "«?''•'»» this pioccfs. The magnets ad on each other in fucli ° ^'*" " a w.:y as to weaken cacli other's magnetifm. Nay, it frequently happens, that the weaker or the fofter ot the two has had its magn:iifm changed, and that the pole nearcll 39^ MAGNETISM. reared to the other has changed its nature. While prefs one half ot this force. Either of thefe eflimatinns they are lying in contaft, or at luch a dillance that they of this inoditicatinn of the mutual aftiou of the mag- attraa, although their fimilar pnles front each other, it nets, will he luirici>.nt for the objerts we have in view. is found that the pole of one of them is really changed j although it may fometimei recover its former Ipecies again, but never fo vigoroufly as when the other mag- net is removed. In ihort, it is obferved, that the mag- netifni is diminilhed in all experiments in which the magnets repel each other, and that it is improved in all e.Npeiiments in which they attraiil. \Vc have hitherto fuppofed the magnets placed with 21 DiRrc- TITC POW- EK explain' cU. ax It> niea- lurc. The directive power of A, and the polarity of 13, are ij increafed, Howin- 1. By increafing the (Irength of one or both of the "cafedand magnets. This is evident, dimmilhed. 2. By diminilhing the diftance of the magnets. For this, by increafing the fum of M m and !'/> more than the fum of N n and Qjf, mull increafe EL it M /. 3. By increafing the length ol A. For this, by re- thcir axes in one (Iraight line. If they are differently moving « and g farther from m and />, mull deprefs the placed, we car.not afcertain by this fingle circumllance points L and /, and incieafe EL, or IL, or M /. of the law of magnetic adion, whether they will attrad 4. By diminilhing the lengtli of B, while the dillance or repel we mull know fomewhat more ot the varia- N/ between the magnets remains the fame. For this, tion of force by a change of dillance. by bringing /> and q nearer to m and «, mud increafe If the magnet B be not at liberty to approach to- M m + P/> more than N n + Qjr. Or, by bringing ward A, or recede from it, but be fo fupported at its E^ and F/ nearer to Mm and N n, it mull increafe centre B that it can turn round it, it is very plain that EL and M /. it will retain the pofition in which it is drawn in the fi- If the dillance N n between the pole of A and the cure. For its fonth pole / being more aliraded by N remote pole of B remain the lame, the direftive force of than it is repe'iled by S, is, on the whole, atiraded by A, and polarity of B, are diminilhed by diminilhing the magnet A ; and, by this attradion, it would vibrate the length of B, as is calily I'een from what has been like a ijcndulum tliat is fupported at the centre B. In juft now laid. It is alio diminilhed, but in a very fmall like manner, its north pole n is more repelled by N degree, by diminilliing the length of B, when the di- ihan it is atlrai5led by S, and is, on the whole, repel- fiance between the centres of A and B remain the fame, led. The part B « would therefore alfo vibrate like a For, in this cafe, the ordinates 1 e and K/ retain their pendulum round B. Thus each half of it is urged into places ; but the points m and p approach to e ; and this the very pofition which it now has ; and if this pofition brings the interfeiftion E ot the ordinate and chord be deranged a little, the attraftion of s B toward A, nearer to I, and diminilhes EL, becaufe the point L is and the repullion of « B from it, would impel it toward not fo much deprelfed by the approach of F to K as E the p.fition / B ». . '^ deprelfed. This will be very evident, if we put the magnet B in- But in all cafes, the ratio of the direflive power of 24 to the pofition j'B;/', at right angles to the line AB. A to its attractive force, or of the polarity of B to its Circum- The pole /' and the pole n' are t^rged in oppofue, and tendency to A, is increafed by dlmimfhing the length of dances af- therefore confpiring, dii edlir ns with equal lorces, very B. For it is plain, that by diminilhing mp and n y, while ^'"'"K ^"e nearly at right angles to ri' s', it the magnet B be I'mall. 1 e and K/'kcep their places, the point is railed, and uf'th^Vt-" In any oblique pofition, the forces will be fomewhat the point L is deprefled ; and therefore the ratio of trai9ive tinequal, and account mull be had of the obliquity of EL to E 0, or of M / to M /, is increated. We even and direc- the aiflion, in order to know the precife rotative mo- fee that, by diminilhing the length of B continually ''^'= I'"™- mentum of the adlions. and without end, tlie ratio of M / to M / may be made "''" Dr Gilbert has given to this modification of the ac- to exceed any ratio that can be aihgned. tion of A on B, the name of vis disponiiNS j which we Now, lince diminilhing the length of B increafes the 25 may tranflate by directive power or force. Alfo, ratio of the diredive power ot A to its attrailive power. The polari- that modification of the tendency of B to or from A is while increafing the length of A increafes lo:li, and alfo ty^fafmall called by him the verticitas of B. We might call incieafes the ratio of EL to E (as is very e.ilily feen), "^^'S"" it the vtRTiciTY of B; but we think that the name and lince this increafe may be as great as we pleale, it „".^t while POLARITY is fufficiently exprellive of the phenomenon ; necelfarily follows, that if liic fame very fmall magnet B the attrac- and as it has come into general ufe, we fhall abide by it. be placed at fuch dillanccs Irom a large and llrong mag- tion is in- It is not fo eafy to give a general, and at the fame time net A, and from a fmaller and lefs vigorous one C, as f^^flble- prccile, meafuie of the direiElive power of A and pola- to have equal polarities to both, its tendency to A will '' ' ' ' be lefs than its tendency to C. It may even be lefs in any ratio we pleale, by lufBciently diminilhing the length ot B. Dr Gilbert obferved this ; and he exprefles his obfer- vation by faying, that the diredive power extends to greater dillances than the attrac'ling power. We muft jull conclude, that the Uft becomes injinftble at fmaller diftances than tiie firft. Tliis will l)e found a very im- ifig'. 2!), or by twice EL,'or by tour times CH. If' B portant obfervation. It may be of ufe to keep in mind. riiy of B. The magnet B niuft be confidered as a lever ; and then the force tending to bring it into its ultimate pofition lis dep'^nds both on the diliance of its poles from N and S, and alfo on the angle whicli tlie axis ot B makes with the line AB. When the axis of B co- incides with AB, the force afting on its poles , tendi ng to kip them in that fituation, is evidently m -f- /> — ~, and therefore may be reprefented by M / (in has the pofition ,.'B/, perpendicular to AB, let the or- that the directive p<.wer ot a magnet A on another mag- dinates E e and F/ cut the curve on 1 and K ; and net B, is the ditference of the fums of the actions of draw KL parallel to the axis (our figure caufes this line each pole ot A on both poles of B j and the attradive almoft to coincide v.-ith QL, and in all important c ifes power of A tor another magnet B, is the difference of it will be nearly the fame). In this cafe IL will ex- the differences of thefe adions. M A G N E T I S M. It may be alfo remarked juft now, that the dlre<ftive force of A always exceeds its attra(fHve force by the quantity 2 (/> — q). For their difference may be ex- prefl'ed by / /, which is equal to twice L. Now t e is equal to ?/■, or to ^; and i L is equal to ¥p — ¥/, or to P/> — Q^ — F <?, or to Pp — Qj? — >. There- fore L = P/i — Q_?, and / / = 2 (P /> — Q^?). = 2 (/> — ?)• By inlpefling this figure with attention, we obtain indications of many interefting particulars. If the lengths of the magnets A and B are the fame, the point n in the axis of the curve will coincide with />. As the length of A increafes, the part 7; y is removed farther from the part j/i p. The line P t becomes lefs inclined to the axis, and is ultimately parallel to it, when n is infinitely remote. At this time L falls on ir; fo that the ultimate ratio of the attradlion to the polarity is that of E f to E f, when the magnet A is infinitely long. It is then the ratio of the difierence of the ac- tions of the nearell pole of A on the two poles of B to the fum of thefe ai5lions. Hence it follows, that when A is very great and B very fmall, the polarity of B is vaftly greater than its tendency to A. It may have a great polarity when its tendency is infeiifible. The ratio of the polarity to the altraftion alfo in- creafes by incrcafing the diltance of the magnets while their dimenfions continue the fame. This will appear, by remarking that the chords MP and NQjnuft inter- fect in fome point w ; and that when the four points ;;/, />, H, and f, move off from O, keeping the fame di- ftances from each other, E will diminilli fafter than EL, and the ratio of EL to EO will continually in- creafe. Therefore when a fmall magnet B is placed at fiich a diftance from a great magnet A, and from a fmaller one C, as to have equ il polarity to both, its tendency to C will exceed its tendency to A. For the polarities being equal, it mull be faitherfrom the great magnet ; in which cafe the ratio of its polarity to its attradion is increaled. And this will alfo obtain if the magnets dlffir alfo in ftrength. For, to have equal polarities, B mull be Hill farther from the great and powerful magnet. For all thefe rcafons, a large and powerful magnet may exert a llrong directive power, while its attraiflive power is infenfible. 16 ^^'e have hitherto fuppnfed the magnet B to be plac- Pcculiari- ed in the direilion of the axis of A, and only at li- ticsof ob- berty to turn round its centre B. Bat let its centre tmnsoT'*' ^^'^ pla<:ed on the centre of A, as in fig. 3. it mull two mag- evidently take a pofition which may be called fiibcon- nets. trary to that of A, the nortli p..le of B turning toward the fouth pole of A, and its fouth pole turning toward the north pole of A. The fame thing mud happen when the centre of B is placed in B, any wherein the line AE perpendicular to NS. S altrafts n with a force « /-, while N repels n with a force no, fomewjiit Inialler than n />. Thefe two compofc the t'orce nd. In like manner, the two fi">rces J £■ and jf, exerted by N and S on the pole /, compofc the force / q. Now if the a\is ol the magntt B be parallel to XS, but the poles in a contiary pofi- tion, and it each niagi.et be equally vigorous in both poles, the magnet B will retain this pofition ; bee lul'e the forces »; i and / e arc cqujl, as alfo the forces n c SuppL. Vol. II. 39: and // Thefe mud corapofe two forces >i d and s y, which are equal, and equally inclined to ;; j ; and they will therefore be in equilibrio on this lever. Let us now place tjie centre of the fmall magnet in C, neitiier in the axis of the other, nor in the perpen- dicular AE. Let its north pole n point toward the centre of A. It cannot remain in this pofition ; fr.r N repels « with a force n c, while S attrads it with a force nb (fmaller than nc, becaufe the dillance is greater). Thefe two compofe a force nd confideraMy different from the direflion c n oi its axis. In like manner, the fouth pole s of the fmall magnet is aifted on by two forces / e and //, exerted by the two poles oi A, which compofe a force s q neaily equal and parallel to n d, but in a nearly oppolite dircflinn. It is plain that thee forces mull turn the fmall magnet round its centre C, and that it cannot rell but in a pofition nearly parallel to lid or s f. Its pofition is better reprefented by fig. 4. with its fouth pole turned toward the north pole of the other magnet, and its north pole in the of polae diredion. What the precife pofition will be, depends on that funilion of the dillance which is always proportional to the intenfity of the aifliim ; on the force cf each of the poles of A, and on the length of the magnet B. Nay, even when we know this funiffion, the probLm is Hill very intricate. There are mcihods by which we may approximate jj to the function with fuccefs. If the magnet B be in- Meaii> of definitely fmall, fo that we may confiJer the aftions on acquiring a its two poles as equal, the invelligation is greatly fimpli- J?""" "1'^^' fied. For, in this cafe, each pole of the fmall ma'.nc , ^ ° 15 (fig. 5.) may be conceived as coinciding wuh Us tion. centre. Then, drawing NB, SB, and takiu'^ Bi to- ward N, to repreitnt the force wiih which N attr.icls the fouth pole of B, and taking B c, in SB produced, to reprefent the force with which S repels the lame pole, the compound force a>rting on this pole is B d, the diagonal of a parallelo;;ram B b, d c. In like manner, we mull take B e, in N 1^ produced, and equal to B i>, to repiefent the repulfion of N for the noith pole of B, and 15/ equal to B 1 , to reprefent die atlracti ,n of S for this pole. The compound force will be B 7, equal and oppofite to B </. It follows evidently from this invelligation, that the fmall magnet will not reft in any pofition but i/_^. In tliis fuppolition, tlieiefute, of extreme minutencls of the magnet B, one of the paral- lelogiams is fuflicient. We may farther remark, that we have this approximation fecurc againll any error arifing from the fuppofition that all the aclion of each pole of B is exerted by one point. Although we fup- pofe it dilTufcd ever a confiderable portion of the mag- net, flill the extreme minutencls of the whole makes the action, even on its e.\treir.c points, very nearly equal. Hence may he derived a conilruclion for afcertainincr o the pofition of the needle, when ihe function in of the J.aw of ac- difiance is given, or for difcovering this function by ob- tion Invef- llrvation ot the pofition of the needle. tigat-J — Let NS (fij. 5. 11" 2 ) n eet the dirtflion of the "^oitric needle in K. Make BG = BN, and draw NF, GE, *■"'"'''• SH, perpendicular to BK. It is evident that 15 h is to Bf, or l/d, as the line (^( the angle HBS to the fine of KBN. Therefore, bccaiifc BG and BN are equal, we have Bi : Bf=GE: NF. 3 1^ Therefore 394 MAGNETISM. Therefore GE : NF = BS'" : BN" But SH : GE = BS : BN Therefore SH : NF= BS'H': BN"'+' And SK : NK=BS»=+■:BN'"^-■ If magnetic action be inverloly as the dilbincc, we "have SK': NK = BS= : BN', and B is in the clrciim- i'erence of a circle which palTes through S and N, and has 3K for a tangent, as is plain by elementary geo- metry, h' the aflion l>e invcrftly as (he fqiure tt the diftance, we have SK : MK = BS^ : BN', and B is in the circumfircnce of a curve of more diHicuU invcftiga- tion. But, as in the circle, the fum of the angles BSN and BNS is a ccnlUnt angle ; fo, in this curve, the fum of the cofines of thofc angles is a coiiHant quantity. This fuggeils a very fimple contlruiflion of the curve. I.et it pafs through the point T of the line AT, drawn from the centre of the magnet, perpendicular to its axis. Defcribe the fcmicircle SPQN, cutting ST and NT in P and Q^ Then, in order to find tl-.e point where any line tiB cuts the curve, let it cut the feini- circle in />, and apply the line N 7 = SP -f NQj— S/>, and prrduce it till it meet the line SB in B, winch is a point in the curve; f t it is evident that S/> and N q are the colincs of BSN and BNS. We hope to give, by the help of a learned friend, the complete conftruo- tion of curves for every value of m, in an Appendix to this aiticle. It will fo:m a new and curious clafs, ar- ranged by the funilions of the angles at N and S. But, in the nie.ui time, we have determined the pofi- tion of an indefinitely fmall needle, in rcfpeifl: ot a mag- net of which we may conceive the pol ir activity con- centrated in two points ; and we may, on the other hand, make ufe of the obierved politions if fuch a needle and m.agnet for difcovering the value cf w. For, fince SK SB"'+' .. , ■ ,. , Log. SK:NK = , It is plain that m = - — p ,,„ — ^,Tp, — i. NK NB"'+' Log. SB : NB Thus, in an obfervation which the writer of this article made on a very (mall needle, and a magnet having glo- bular poles, and S, inches between their centres, he found SB = 5 J, Nt5=:-'r, SK = 1 1,49, and NK= 3,37. This gives m = 1,97, which diflers from 2 only ~j,ih part. Finding it lo very near the inverfe duplicate ra- tio of the dillance, a circle VUZ was defcribed, the circumference of whicli is tlie locus of SB : BN = S ; 5,333. When the centre of the needle was placed any- where in the circumference of this circle, it fcarcely de- •viated from the point K, except when fo far removed from the magnet that its natural polarity prevailed over the direflivc power of the magnet, or fo near its middle that the adliun of the cylindrical part became very feu- f.ble. It is plain that the length cf the needle muft occa- fion feme deviatif n from the magnetic direftion, by de- ftroying the perfeift equality of acftion on irs two poles. He therclore employed three needles of -[, -f, and i ot^ an inch in length ; and by noticing the dilTerences of direction, he inferred what would be the direftion, if the forces on each pole were precifely equal. He had the pleafure of feeing that the deviation from the in- Terfe duplicate ratio of the dillances was Icarcely per- ceptible. Mr I^ambert's experiments on the diredive power cf the magnet, narrated in his feccnd diifertation in the 22d volume of the Memoirs cf the Academy cf Berlin, are the mud valuable cf all that are on record ; and the ingenious addrefs with which they are conduced, and tl'.e inferences are drawn, would have done credit to Newton himfclf We earneftly recommend the careful perufal of that ElFay, as the mofl inllrudive of any that we have read. The wiiter of this found himfelf obli- ged to repeat all his former experiments, mentioned iibove, in Mr Lambert's manner, and with his precau- tion of keeping the needle in its natural pofition ; a cir- cumlfance to which he had not fufficiently attended be- fore. The new refults were lliU more conformable to his conjeolure as to the law of variation. Mr Lambert clofes his diifertation with an hypothefis, " that the force of each tranfverfe element of a magnet is as its dillance from the centre, and its aiflion on a particle of another magnet is inverfely as the fquare of the di- llance." On this fuppnfition, he calculates the pofiti- on of a very fmall needle, and draws three of the curves to which it Ihould be the tangent. Thcfe are very ex- aiflly coincident with f<ime that he obferved. We tried this with fevcral magnetic bars, and found it very con- formable to obfervation in fome magnet? ; but deviating fb far in the cafe of other magnets, that we are convinc- ed that there is no rule for the force of each tranfverfe element of a magnet, and that the magnetifm is differ- ently difpofed in different magnets. It was chiefly this which induced us to form the magnets employed in this refearch tf two balls united by a flender rod. Lich- tenberg, in his notes on Erxleben's Natural Philofophy, fays, that there is a MS. of the celebrated Tobias Mayer in the library of the Academy of Gcttingen, in v.hich he alfumes the hypothefis abovemenliopLil, and gives a conllruction of the magnetic curves fouucecl on it, making them a kind of catenaria. The interior cuives do indeed refemble the catenaria, but the exte- rior are totally unlike. But th«re is no occafion for much aigumeiit to convince us, that the firfl part of this hypothefis is not only gratuitous, but unwarranted by any general phenomena. We know that a magne- tical bar may have its magnetifm very differently difpo- fed ; for it may have more than two poles, and the in- termediate poles canricl have this difpolition of the mag- netifm. Such a difpolition is perhaps poflible; but is by no means general, or even frequent. We are dif- pofed to think, that permanent magnetifm mufl have its intenfity diminilhing in the very extremity of the bar. The reader may gucfs at oui reafons from what is faid in ELEcraiciTY, Sup/)!. n° 222. The following very curious and inftruiflive phenome- 29 nnn was the firtt thing which greatly excited the curi- Primarv ofity of the writer c f this article, and long puzzled him *"^/y '^q^' to explain it. Indeed it was his endeavours to explain s,'j,ple it, which gradually opened up to him the theory of the and com- mutualaflion of magnets contained in thefe paragraph?, pound and firfl gave him occafion to admire the fagacity of <:"""• Dr Gilbert, and to fee the conntfling principle of the vaft variety of obfervations and experiments which that philofopher had made. It feems owing 10 the want of this conncifling principle, that a book fj rich in fa-fts ifiould be fo little read, and that fo many of Dr Gil- bert's obfervations have been publifhed by others as new difcoveries. Amufing himfelf in the fummer 1758 with magnetic experiments, two large and flrong magnets A and B (fis;. G. ), were placed with their difilmilar poles front- ing each other, and about three inches apart. A fmall needle, M A G N A T I S M. needle, fupported on a point, was placed between thenn at D, and it arranged itfelf in the lame manner as the great magnets. Happening to fet it oj to a good diflance on thj table, as at F, he was futprifed to fee it imme- diately turn round on iti pivot, and arrange itfelf near- ly in the oppollte direflion. Bringing it back to D reftored it to its former pofition. Carrying it gradu- ally out along DF, perpendicular to NS, he obierved it to become fenfibly more feeble, vibrating more flow- ly ; and when in a certain point E, it had no polarity whatever towards A and B, but retained any pofition that was given it. Carrying it farther out, it again ac- quired polarity to A and B, but in the oppofite direc- tion ; for it now arranged itfelf in a pofition that was parallel to NS, but its north pole was next to N, and its fouth pole to S. This fingular appearance naturally excited his atten- tion. The line on which the magnets A and B were placed had been marked on the table, as alfo the line DF perpendicular to the former. The point E was now marked as an important one. The experiments were interrupted by a friend coming in, to whom fuch things were no entertainment. Next day, williing to repeat them to fame friends, tlie magnets A and B were again laid on the line on which they had been pla- ced the day before, and the needle was placed at E, expei5>ing it to b« neutral. But it was found to have a confidcrable verticity, turning its north pole toward the magnet B ; and it required to be taken farther out, toward F, bet'ore it bjcame neutral. While ftanding there, f .mething chanced to joggle the magnets A and B, and they inftantly rufhed together. At the fame inftant, the little magnet or needle turned itfelf brilkly, and arranged itfelf, as it had done the day before, at F, quivering very brifkly, and thus fliewlng great verticity. This naturally furprifed the beholders j and we now found that, by gradually withdrawing the magnets A and B from each other, the needle became weaker — then became neutral — and then turned round on its pi- vot, and took the contrary pofition. It was very amuf- ing to obferve how the fiinply fcparating the m-ignets A and B, or bringing them together, made the needle af- fume fuch a variety of pofitioDs and degrees of vivacity in each. The needle was now put in various fituations, in re- fpeifl to tlic two great magnets : namely, oflF at a fide, and not in the perpendicular DF. In thcfe fituations, it took an inconceivable variety of pofitions, which could not be reduced to any rule ; and in moft of them, it re. quired only a motion of one of the great magnets for an inch or two, to make the needle turn brilkly round on its pivot, and alfume a pofition nearly oppofite to what it liad before. But all this was very puzzling, and it was not till af- ter fcvcral months, that the writer of this article, hav- ing conceited the notion of tlie magnetic curves, was in a condition to explain the phenomeii.i. With this adiftance, however, they are very clear, and very in- ilruiflivc. Notliiiig hinders us from fuppofing the magnets A and B peifcclly equal in every refpci.t. Let NHM, NEL, be two magnetic curves belonging to A ; that is, fuch that the needle arranges itfelf along the tangent of the curve. Tlicn the magnet B has two curves SGK, SEI, peifei'lly equal, and fimilar to the other 395 two. Let the curves NHM and SGK interfect in C and F. Let the curves NEL and SEI touch each other in E. 'I'lie needle being placed at C, would arrange itfelf in the tangent of the curve KGS, by the aiftion of C alone, having its north pole turned toward the fouth pole S of B. But, by the aflion of A alone, it would be a tangent to the curve NPIM, having its north pole turned away from N. Therefore, by the combined ac- tion of boih magnets, it will take neither of thefc pofi- tion;, but an intermediate one, nearly bifefting the angle formed by the two curves, having its north pole turned toward B. But remove the needle to F. Then, by the aftion of the magnet A, it would be a tangent to the curve FM, liaving its north pole toward M. By ths aflion of B, it would be a tangent to the curve KFG, hav- ing its north pole in the angle MFC, or turned to- \\-ard A. By their joint action, it takes a pofition nearly bifeifting the angle GFM, with its north pole toward A. Let the needle be placed in E. Then, by the ac- tion of the magnet A, it would be a tangent to the curve NEL, wiih its noith pole pointing to F. But, by the adion of B, it will be a tangent to SEI, with its north pole pointing to D. Thefe aflions being fup- pofed equal and oppofite, it will have no verticity, or will be neutral, and retain any pofition that is given to it. The curte SEI interfcfls the curve NHM in P and Q^ The fame reafoning Ihews, that vhen the needle is placed at P, it will arrange itfelf with its north pole on the angle SPH : but, when taken to Q, it will (land with its nonh pole in the angle EC^I. From thefe fafts and reafonings we ni.ilt infer, that, for every dillance of the magnets A and B, there will be a feries of curves, to which tlie indefinitely fliort needle will ahvays be a tangent. They will rife Ironi the adjoining poles on both fides, crolCng diagonal, ly the lozenges formed by the primary or simple curves, as in fig. 6. Thei'e may be called compound or SECONDARV magnetic curves. Moreover, thefe fe- cond iry curves will be of two kinds, according as they pafs through the Hrll or fecond interftflions of the pri- mary curves, and the needle will have oppcfite pofiiions when placed on thoni. Thefe two fets of curves will be feparated by a curve GEH, in the circumference of which the needle will be neutral. This curve palL-s through the points where the primary curves touch each other. We may call this the lux of mmralUy or inac- tivity. We now fee diflinclly the effufl of bringing the mag- nets A and B nearer together, or feparating them far. iher from each clher. By bringing ihcni nearer to each other, the point E, which i^ now a p.^int of neii- tiality, may be found in llieyJa/f^/ interfedion (fucli as F) of two magnetic curves, and the r.cedle will lake a fubcontrary pofition. By drawing them farther trrm cacli other, E may be in llie fi'fi interfeiftion if two magnttic curves, and the needle will take a pofition fi- milar to that of C. If the magnets A and B arc n 't placed fo a-; to form a ftraight line with iheir four pole.s, but have their axes making an angle with each other, the contains ard interfe<ftions of tlieir attending curves may be veiy dif- 3 D 2 ftrci.t 39^ MAGNETISM. Secondary curvcjof rcjiuliiun. ferent from thofe now reprefenteJ ; and the pofitions ven time by the force of terreftrlal magnetifra. He of tht nesdle will differ atordingly. But it is plain, then placed it on the middle of a very fine and large from wli.u has been fnid, tint it we knew the law ot m.ignet, placed wiih its poles in the magnetic meridian, allien, and confcquently the form of die primary the north pole pointing fouth. In this lituation he curves, we lliould always be al)le to fay what will be the counted the vibrations made in a given time. He then piifuion of the needle. Indcod, the cunlideiation of raifcd it up above the cenue of the large magnet, till the fimple curves, although it wM) tlie mean of fnggell- tlie dillance of its poles from thole of the great mag- ing to the writer of this ariicle the explanation ot thofe net were changed in a certain proportion. In this fitu- more complicated phenonuni, ib by no means necelfary ation its vibrations were again counted. It was tried for this purpofe. Having the law of magnetic aiftion, in the fame way in a third (ituation, conliderably more ve mull know each of the eight forces by which the remote from the great magnet. Then, having made needle is alfedted, both in refpcifl of diretSion and in- tlie proper reduflion ot the forces correfponding to the tcnfity ; and are therefore able to afcertaiii the tingle obliquity of their aftion, the force of the poles of the foice arifmg fi om their compolition. great magnet was computed Irom the number of vibra- When tlie fimilar poles of A and B are oppofed to tions. To (late here the circumllances of the experi- each other, it is eafy to fee, that the pofition of the nient, the necelfary reduiftions, .md the whole compu- needle mull be extremely different from what we have tations, would occupy feveral pages, and to an intcUi- hecn defcribing. When placed anywhere in the line gent reader would aiifwer little purpofe. Mr Lambert's DF, between two magnets, wiiofe north poles tront excellent dilFertation in the 22d vol. of the JlTim. de each other in N and S, its north pole will always point P Acad. Jc Berlin, will fhew the prolixity and intricacy away from the middle point D. Tliere will be no neu- of this inveftigaiion. Suffice it to fay, that thefe ex- tril point E. li the needle be placed at P or Q, its periments were the mod conlillent with each other of north pole will be within the angle EPH, or i'QJ^. any made by the writer of this article, with the view of This Dofiiion of the magnets gives another fet of fecoii- afoerlaining the law of magnetic adion ; and it is chief- dary curves, which alfo crofs the primary curves, paf- ly from their refilt that he thinks himfelf authorifed to fing diap-onally through the lozenges formed by their fay, with I'ome confidence, that it is inverfely as the interfeclion. But it is the other diagonal of each lo- fquare of the dillance. Thefe experiments were firft zenge which is a chord to thofe lecondary curves, made in a rough way in 1769 and 1770. In 1775, They will, therefore, have a form totally different oblerving that Mr ./Epinus feemed to think the adlion from the former fpecies. inverfely as the dillance (fee his Tentam. Theor. EhCir. The confideration of tills compounded magnetifm is et Magii. § 301. S:c.), they were npeated with very important in the fcience, both fur explaining complex great care; and to thefe were ad.led another fet of ex- onthiiin- pljenomcna, and for advancing our knowledge of the periments, made with the fame magnet and the {^vae. veftigation. ^^^^^ defidefatum, the law of magnetic adtion. It needle, placed not above the magnet, but at one fide ierves this purpofe remarkably. By employing a veiy (but always in the line through the centre, perpendicu- fmall needle, the points of neutrality afcertain very near- lar to the a;!is, fo that the anions of the two poles ly where the magnetic curves have a common tangent, might be e(iual). I'his difpofition evidently I'lmpllfies and Ihews the pofition of this tangent. By |-l.icing the the procef? exceedingly. The rel'tilt of the whole was two magnets fo as to form various angles with each ftiU more fatisfai-tory. This conclufion is alio confirm- other, we can, by means of ti.ele neutral points, know ed by the experiments of Mr Coul-imb in the Memoirs the polition of the tangent in every point of tiic curve, of the Academy of Sciences at Paris for 1786 and and thus can afcertain the form of the curve, and the 1787. It would feeni therefore to be pretty well ella law of aiflion, with conliderable accuracy. The wri- ter of this article took this method ; and the refult con- firmed him in the opinion, that it was in the inverfe duplicate ratio of the dillances. The chief (perhaps_ 30 Remarks the only) ground of error feemed to be the difiiculty ot procuring iarge .magnets, having the action of t ich pole very much concentrated. Large magnets inull be em-^ ployed. He attempted to make fuch, conuiting of two fphcrical balls, joined by a flender rod. But he could not give a ftrong magnetifm to magnets of this blllhed. Another method, which feems lufceptible of conliderable accuracy, Itili remains to be tried. It will be mentioned in due time. Such then are the general laws obferved in the mu- tual ajftion of magnets. We think it fcarcely necelfary to enter into a f irther detail of th„ir confeqaences, cor- refpi)nding to the innumeiable varieties of pofitions in which they may be placed with refpeifl to each othtr. We are confident, that ilie fenfib'.e actions will always be found agreeable to the legitimate confcquences of form, and was forced t^o make ufe of common bars, the the general propofitions which we have ellablifhed in poles of which are confiderably diffufed. This diffu- the preceding paragraphs. We proceed therefore to lion of the pole renders it very difficult to felecl with confider fome pliylical fafts not yet tai<en notice of> propriety the points from which the dillances are to be •which have great influence on the phenomena, and ellimated, in the invelligation of the relation between greatly affill us in our endeavours to underltaiid fome- the forces and dillances. thing of their remote caufe. He tried another method for afcertaining this fo Magnetifm, in all its modifications of attraiflion, re- .•^t much dellred lav.-, which had alfo the fame reiult. Ha- pulfion, and direftion, is, in general, of a temporary or Magnctifiii ving made a needle confilling of two balls joined by a perilliing nature. The bell loadllones and magnets, '* '^J^j''""" flender rod, and having touched it with great care, fo unlel's kept with care, and with attention to certain J^ffffj" ^'" that tlie whole ftrength of its poles feemed very little circumftances, are obferved to diminilh in their power. removed from the centies of the balls, he counted the Natural loadllones, and magnets made of fteel, temper- number of horiiiontal vibrations which it made in a gi- ed as hard as pollible, retain tl.eir virtue with greateft obQjnacf MAGNETISM. obfllnacy, and feldom lofe it altogether, unlefs in fitua- tions which our knowledge of magnetifm te<iches us to be unfavourable to its durability. Magnets of temper- ed fteel, fuch as is ufed for watch-fprings, are much fcioner weakened, part with a greater proportion of their force by (imple kecpintj, and finally retain little or none. Soft fteel and iron lofe their msgnetifm al- rnolt as foon as its producing caufe is removed, and cannot be m ide to retain any fenfible portion ot it, unlefs their metallic ftate fufier fome change. I. Hurt by j_ Notliing tends {o much to impair the power of a improper niagnet as the keeping it in an improper pofition. If ' its axis be placed in the magnetic diredion, but in a contrary pofiticu, that is, with the north pole of it where the fouth pole tends to fettle, it will grow weak- er from day to day ; and unlefs it be a natural load- Hone, or be of hard tempered fteel, it will, after no very long time, lofe i.s power altogether. a. By heat; ^- This difllpation ol a ftrong magnetic power is cfftas nf greatly promoted by heat. Even the heat of boiling thunder water alllfls it fcnfibly ; and if it be made red hot, it andele(5lri. i5 entirely defti05cd. This laft fa^ has long been " '■ known. Dr Gilbert tried it with many degrees of violent heat, and tound the confequences as now ftated ; but having no thermometers in that dawn of fciencc, he could not fay any thing precife. He only obfei ves, that it is dellroyed by a heat not fufficient to make it vifible in a dark room. Mr Canton found even bailing water to weaken it ; but on cooling again the greatelt part was recovered. 3. By vio- 3. What is more remarkable, magnetiim is impaired lent treat- by uny rough ufage. Dr Gilbert found, that a inag- mcnt. jjet which he had impregnated very Itrongly, was very much impaired by a lingle tall on the fioor ; and it has been obferved fince his time, tint falling on Itoncs, or receiving any concullton which caufes the magnet to ring or found, huits it much more than beating it with any thing foft and yielding. Grinding a natural load- llotle with coaife plwder^, to bring it into (h.ipe, weak- ens it much; and loadrtones Ihould therefore be reduc- ed into a fliape as little disFeient from their natural form as polTiblc ; ar.d this ihould be done brilkly, cut- ting them with the thin diftts of the lapidary's wheel, cutting off only what is necelFary for leaving their moft aflive parts or poles as near their extremities as we can. All thcfe caufes of the diminution of magnetifm are more operative if the magnet be all the while in an im- proper pofition. 4. Brother 4' -Laftly, magnetifm is impaired and deftroyed by Biagneta. p'acing the magnet near another magnet, with their li- milar poles fronting eacli other. We have had occa- fion to remark this already, when mentioning the ex- periments made with magne;s in this jiofition, for afcer- tdining the geneial laws or variations of their repulficn. We there obferved, that mapnets fo fituated always weakened eacji other, and that a powerful magnet often changed the fpecies of the ncareft pole of one lefs powerlul. Tills change is recovered, in part at Icaft, when it has taken pl.ice in a loadilone or a in^ignet of hard (loel ; but in fpriiig tempered fteel the change is generally permanent, and almoft to the full extent of its condition while the magnets are together. It is to be reuarkcd, that this change is gradual ; aaJ is expe- 297 dited by any of the other caufes, particularly by heat or by knocking. jj On the other hand, magnetifm is acquired by the Maguctirm fame means, when fome other circumftances are at- "^*y ^'^ ^'-- tended to. quired, 1. A bar of iron, which has long ftnod in the mag- i. By n u;^ netic direiftion, or nearly fo, will gradually acquire ""'cal p» magnetifm, and the ends will acquire the polarity cor- ''"""i rcfpondlng to their filuation. In this country, and the north of Europe, the old fpindles of turret vanes, old bars of windows, &c. acquire a fenfible magnetifm ; their lower extremity becoming a north pole, and the other end a fouth pole. Gilbert fiy, that this was firft obferved in Mantua, in the vane fpindle of the Au- guftine church — " Vento fexa (fays he) di prompta, et apothecario cuhLim conccjfa, attrahehat ferrea ranieiila, vi p.rquam injigni." The upper bar of a hand rail to a ilair on tlie north fide of the higheft part of the fteeple of St Giles's church in Edinburgh is very magnetical ; and the upper end of it, wlicre it is lodged in the ftone, is a vigorous fouth pole. It is worth notice, tint the parts of ftich old bars acquire the ftrongeft magnetifm when their metallic ftate is changed by expofiire to the air, becoming foliated and friable. It would be worth while to try, whether the aethiops martiali.-, produced by fteam in the experiments for decompofing water, will acquire magnetifm during its produiflion. The pipe and the wires, which are converted into the fliining aethiops, (hould be placed in the magnetic diret^ion. 2. It a bar of fteel be long hammered while lying in 4. By ham- the magnetic direiftion, it acquires a fenfible magnetifm n-erins; (See Dr Gdbeit's plate, rrprefenting a blackfmith ham. mering a bar of iron in the magnetic direction). The points of drills, efpecially the great ones, w.hich are urged by very great prell'ure; and broaches, worked by a long lever, fo as to cut the ircn very faft, acquire a ftrong magnetifm, and the lower end always becomes tlie north pole {Pkil. Trcnif. xx. 417.). Even driving a hard fteel punch into a piece of iron, gives it magnet- ifm by a fingle blow. In Ihort, any very violent fqjeeze given to a piece of tempered licL-l renders it magnetic, and its polarity corrcfponds with its pofition during the experiment. We can fcarcely take up a cutting or bor- ing tool in a fmith's (hop that is not magnetic.il. Even fott fteel and iron acquire permanent magnetifm in this wav. Iron alfo acquires it by twifting and brt-'afcing. It is therefore din-.cult to procure [lieces of iron or fteel totally void ot determinate and permanent magnetifm ; and this frequently mirs the ex(;eriments mentioned in the firft paragraphs of this article. The way therefore to enfiire fuccefs in thcfe experiments is to deprive the rods of their accidental magnetiim, by fome of the me- thods mentioned a little ago. Let them be heated red hot, and allowed to cor] while lyirg in a direifliop. pir- pendicular to the magnetic direiflion (nearly E. N. E. and W. S. W. in this coiiniry). 3. As heat is obferved to deftroy magnetifm, fo it 3. By heat,- may alfo be employed to induce it on fubllances that ing; are fufccptible of magnetifm. Dr Gilbert makes this obfervalion in m.iny parts of his work. He fays, that the ores of iron which are in that particular metallic ftate which he coiilidcrs as moft fufceptible of magnet- ifm, will acq lire it by long continuance In a red heat, if l.ud in the magnetic direiftion, and that their polatiiy 398 MAGNETISM. is conformable lo their pofition, th:it end of ilic mafs wliich is next the north becoming the north pjlc. He ahb made many expciimcnts on iron and Heel l);i:s cx- poled to lliong heats in the magnetical diroiSion. Sucii experiments have been made fnice Gilbert's time in great number. Dr Hocke, in 16S4, made experiments on rods of iron and Heel one-filth ol an inch in diame- ter, and feven inches long. He found them to acquire pcrnunent magnetifm by expcfurc to llrong heat in the ni.ignetic dire(!lion, and if allowed to cool in that direc- tion. But the magnetifm thus acquired by (Iccl rods ■was much ftrongcr, and more permanent, il they weie fiiddcnly quenched with cold water, fo as to temper them very hard. He lound, tint the end which was next to the nortli, or the lower end of a verticil bar, vas always its peimanent north pole. Even quench- ing the upper end, while the reft w.is fullered to cool gradually, became a very fenfible fouth pole. No mag- netifm was acquired if this operation was performed on a rod lying at right angles to the magnetical dire»flion. In thcle trials the polarity was always eftimated by the a<;lion on a manner's needle, and the intenlity of the magnetifm was eftimated by the deviation cauied in this needle from its natural pofuion. Dr Gilbert made :i very rtmatkable obfervation, which has lince been re- peated by Mr Cavallo, and publilhed in the I'hilofophi- cal Tranfdflions as a remarkable difcovery. Dr Gil- bert fa) s, p. 69. " Bacillum ferrtum, vaiiJc ignilum ap- porta •virforio (xcito ; Jlat verjorium, nic ad tale ferrum convcrt'ttur : fed Jiat'im ul primum de candor c aliquant u- lum remiferil, cmJJuit ilUco." In feveral other parts of his treatife he repeats the fame thing with different cir- cumftances. It appears, therelore, iliat while iron is red hot, it is not llu'ceptiule of magnctiim, and that it is during the cooling in the magnetic direiflion that it acquires it. Gilbert endeavoured to mark the degree of heat moft favourable tor this purpofe ; but being un- provided with thermometers, he could not determine any thing with precifion. He fays, that the vcrforium, or mariner's needle, was moft deranged from its natural pofition a little while alter the bar of iron ceafed to Ihine in day-light, but was ftill pretty bright in a dark room. Hut there are other expeiiments which we have made, and which will be mentioned by and bye ; by which it appear,-, that although a bright red or a white heat makes iron unfufccptible ot magnetifm while in that ftate, it predifpofes it for becoming magnetical. When a bar ot Heel was made to acquire magnetifm by tempering it in the magnetical diredlion, we found that the acquired magnetitm was much ftronger when the bar was made firft of all very hot, even although allow- ed to come to its moft magnetical ftate before quench- ing, than if it had been heated only to that degree ; nay, we always found it ftronger when it was quenched when red hot. We offer no explanation at prefeut ; our fole bufinefs jull now being to ftate fafts, and to generalize them, in the hopes of finding fome fa<51 which Ihall contain all the others. A. By iux- '\' ^ '"■' '""'^ diftinft acquifitions and changes of mag- tapoCtion netiini aie by jnxtapofition toother magnets and to iron. As the magnetifm of a loadftone or magnet is weaken- ed by bringing its pole near the nmilar pole of another magnet, it is improved by bringing it near the other pole ; and it is always improved by bringing it near any piece of iron or foft fteel. catcd. But this ailion, and the mutual relation of magnets and common iron, being the moft general, and the moft curious and inftrudlive of all the phenomena of mag- netilm, they merit a very particular conlideration. Of ikc ctmmunicallon of Magnetifm. The whole may be comprehended in one prcpofition, 33 which may be faid to contain a complete theory of mag- Communl- netilm. """^J" ^"^ Fundamental propofition. niagnc am. Any piice of iron, •mhtn in the ndghloHrhcod of a mag- net, is a magnet, and its polarity is fo difpofed th^t the magnet and it muutally atirad each other. The phenomena which refult from this fundamental principle are infinitely various, and v.e muft content outfelves with defcribing a llraple cafe or two, which will fulHciently enable the reader to explain every other. Take a large and ftrong magnet NAS (fig. 7.), of 34 which N is the north, and S the fouth pole. Let it be Attraflivc properly fupported in a horizontal pofition, with its l'"^^"" . poles free, and at a diftance from iron or other bodies. ^°"'"''""' Take any Imall piece of common iron, not exceeding two or three inches in length, fuch as a fmall key. Take alio another piece of iion, fuch as another fmaller key, or a bit of wire about the thicknefs of an ordinary- quill. 1. Hold the key horizontally, near one of the poles, (as ihewn at n° r.), taking care not to touch the pole with it ; and then bring the other piece of iron to the other end of the key (it is indifferent which pde is thus approached with the key, and which end of the key is held near the pole). The wire will hang by the key, and will continue to hang by it, when we gradually withdraw the key hoiizontally from the magnet, till, at a certain diftance, the wire will drop from the key, be- caufe the magnetifm imparted from this diftance is too weak. That this is the fole reaibn of its dropping, will appear by taking a ftiorter, cr rather a flenderer, bit of wire, and touch the remote end of the key with it: it will be fuppoited, even though we remove the key ftill farther from the magnet. 2. Hold the key leloiv one of the poles, as at n° 2. or 3. and touch its remote end with the wire. It will be fufpended in like manner, till we remove the key too far from the magnet. 3. Hold the key above the poles, as at n° 4. or 5. and touch its adjacent end with the wire (taking care that the wire do not alfb touch the magnet). The wire will ftill be fupported by the key, till both are removed too far from the magnet. Thus it appears, that in all thefe Ctuatinns the key has fhewn the charaflerilHc phenomenon of magnetifm, namely, attraiftion for iron. In the experiment with the key held above the pole, the wire is in the fame fituation in refpeil to magnetifm as the key is when held below the pole ; but ilie a<flions are mutual. As the key attrafts the wire, fo the wire attrafts the key. If the magnet be fuppoited in a vertical pofition, as in fig. 8. the phenomena will be the fame ; and when the key is held dirciffly above or direftly below the pole, it will carry rather a heavier wire than in the ho- rizontal polnion of ihe magnet and key. Inftead of approaching the magnet with the key and wire, we may bring the magnet toward them, and the phenomena will be ftill more palpable. Thus, if the bit MAGNETISM. 3' . Alfo a di- reflivc power. 16 Th; attrac- tion of iron is owinj; to the difpofi- tion of Its bit of wire be lying on the tabli-, and we touch one end of it with the key, they will Hiew no connexion what- ever. While we hold the key very near one end of the wire, bring down the pole of a magnet toward the key, and we (hall then fee the end of the wire rife up and Aick to the key, which will now fupport it. In hke manner, if we lay a quantity of iron tihngs on the table, and touch them with tlie key, in the ablence ot the magnet, we find the key totally inaftlve. But, on bringing the magnet any how near the key, it imme- diately attraifts the iron tilings^ and gatheis up a heap of them. In the next place, this vicinity of a magnet to a piece of iron gi»es it a dirccIHe power. Let NAS (fig. <)•) be a magnet, and BC (n"^ i.) a key held near the north pole, and in the diredliion of the axis. Bring a very fniall mariner's needle, fiipported on a iharp point, near the end C of the key which is faitlied from N. We iliall fee this needle immediately turn its fonth pole towards C, and its north pole away from C. Tliis po- fition of the needle is indicated at c, by marking its north piile with a dart, and its ibuth with a crofs. Thus it appears that the key has got a dircif)ive power like a magnet, and that the end C is pei forming the office of a notth pole, attracting the foulh pole of the needle, and repelling its north pole. It may indeed be laid, that the needle at c arranges itfelf in this manner by the dircflive power of the magnet; for it would take the fame poluion ahliough tlic key were away. Eut if we place the needle at i, it will arrange itfelf as there reprefcnted, (hewing that it is influenced by the key, and not (wholly at leall) by the magnet. In like man- ner, if we place the needle at a, we (hall fee it turn its north pole toward B, nntwitbtlanding the aifiion or the magnet on it. This afliou evidently tends to turn its north pole quite another way; but it is influenced by B, and B is performing the ofiice of a foutli pile. In like manner, if we place the key as at n" 2. we fhail obfervc the end B attrai.1 the fonth pole of the iieedii placed at a, and the end C attraifi the north pole of a needle placed in i. In this fitu.nion of the key, we fee that B performs the office of a north pole, and C performs the ofiice of a fonth pole. Thus it appears that the key in both fituations has become a magnet, pofFtfTcd of both an atiractive and a direflive power. It has acquired two poles. Laftly, the magnctifm of the key is fo difpcfed, that the tw-o magnets NAS and BC nuifl mutually attract each other; for their diCIniilar pol.-s front each other. Now, it is a matter of unifurm and uncontradi^fted ob- lervation, that when a piece of iron is thus placed near a magnet, and the difpoi'uicn of its magnetifm is thus examined by means of a marinei's needle, the difpofl- tion is fuch that two permanent magnets with their poles fo difpofcd mult attrad each other. The piece of iron, th«retore, Ii.iving the fame rii.ignetic relation to the magnet that a fimilar and (imilarly difpofcd magnet has, mull be alfeiflcd in the lame manner. V/e cannot, by any knowledge yet contained in this article, give-any prccife intin^ation in what way the polarity of the piece of iri'n will be difpoled. This depends on its fhape as much as on its pofition. By dcl'cribing two or thiee exampki, a notion is obvioully enough fiiggelled, which, although extremely gratuitous, and parhaps erroneous, 399 isof fcrvice, becaufe it has a general analogy with the obferved appearances. It one end of a flender rod or wire be held neai the north pole of the magnet, while the rod is held in the direiftion of the axis (like the key in fig. 7. n" i.), the near end becomes a foutli, and the remote end a north pole. Keeping this louth pole in its place, and turn- ing the rod in any diredion from tl.ence, as from a centre, the remote end is always a north pole. And, in general, the end of any obhmg piece of iron which is neareff to the pole of a magnet becomes a pole of the oppofite name, while the remote end becomes a pole of the fame name with that of the magnet. If the iron rod be held perpendicularly to the axis, with its middle very near the north pule of the magnet, the two extremitits of t!ie iron become north polej, and the middle is a fouth pole. If the north pole of a magnet be held perpendicular to the centre of a round iron plate, and very near it, this plate w 111 have a fouth pole in its centre, and every part of its circumference will have the virtue of a north pole. If the plate be (hapcd with points like a fUr, each of thefe points will be a very diflinfl and vigorous north pole. Something like this will be obferved in a piece of iron of any irregular fliape. The part immediately ad- joining to tlic north pole of the magact will have the virtue of a fouth pole, and all the remote protuberances will be north poles. The notion naturally AiggeRed by thefe appearances is, that the virtue of a north pole leems to reGde in fomething that is moveable, and that is prolrudsd by the north pole of the magnet toward the remote parts of the iron ; and is thus conilipated in all the remote edges, points, and protuberances, much in the fame manner as eleiflricity is obferved to be protruded to the remote parts and protuberances of a conduifting body by the pretence of an overcharged body. This notion will greatly afllfl the imagination ; and its confequences very much refemble what we obferve. As a faither mark of tlie complete communication of every magnetic power by mere vicinity to a magnet, we may here obfervc, that the wire D, of tig. 7. n" 2. and 3. will fupport another wire, and tliis another; and fo on, to a number depending on the ftrength of the mag- net. The key has therefore become a true magnet in every refpeit ; for it induces complete magnetifm on the appended wire. Thaflhit is not the lame operation of the great magnet (at leaft not wholly lb), appears by examining the magngtilVn cf D with the needle, which will be feen to be more influenced by D than by A. This fact has been long known. The ancients Ip^rak of it : They obfervc, that a loadftone caules an iion ring to carry anotlrer ring, and that a third ; and fo on, till the firing ot rings ajipears like a chain. What lias now b:en fuid will explain a feeming ex- ception to the univcrfality of the propofitinn. If the Exception, key be held in the fituntic n and pofition reprelented by cxplaincj. tig. 10. the bit of wire will not be altrafled by it ; and we may imagine that it has acquired no magiietifm : But if we bung a mariner's needle, or a bit (>f wire, near to its remote end B, it will be flrongly attraded, aiid (licw B to be a notth pole. The needle held near 37 400 MAGNETISM. to C will alfo fhew C to be a foutli pole. Alfo, if held near to D, it will (liew D to be a north pole. Now the ends C, both of the key and of the wire, being fouth pcilcs, tliey cannot altraf^ each other, but, on the contrary, tticy will repel ; and theretore the wire will not adhere to the key. And if the key of lig. 17. n" 4. with ihe wire hanging to it, be gradually carried out- ward, beyond the north pole of the magnet, and then brought down till its lower end be letel with the pole, the wire will drop off. There is, however, one exception to the propofition. If the key in fig. 7. with its appending wire D, be gra- dually carried from any of the fuuatinns 2, 3, 4, or 5, toward the middle of the magnet, the wire will drop oJT whenever it arrives very near the middle. It we iup- pofe a plane to pafs through the magnetic centre A, perpendic\ilar to the axis (which plane ib very properly called the magnetic equitorial plane by Gilbert), a flen- der piece of iron, held anywhere in tliis plane, acquires no lenfible magnetifm. It gives no indication ot any polarity, and it is nol attralled hy the magnel. It is well known, that tlie adivity of a loadllone or magnet re- lideschieHy in two parts of it, which have been called its poles ; and that thofe aic the bed magnets or load- lloiies in which this a>aivity is leall dilTufcd ; and that a ceitain circumt'ercnce of every loadllone or magnet is \vh(.lly inaaive. When a loadllone or magnet of any Ihape is laid among iron filings, it collefls them on two parts only of its fuiface, and between thefe there is a Ipace all round, to which no filings attach themfelves. We piefume th it the reader already explains this ap- pearance to himfelf. Many things Ihew a contrariety of aiflion of the two poles of a magnet. We have al- ready obfet vcd, that the north pole of a (Irong magnet will produce a llroiig northern jjolarity in the remote end of a fmall Heel bar; and, if it be then applied near to that end in the oppofite dirciTlion, it will deflroy this polarity, and produce a fouthern polarity. In what- ever thefe aiftions may confift, there is fomething not only different but oppofite. They do not blend their effeili, as the yellow and blue making rays do in pro- dticing green. They oppofc each other, like mechani- cal prelfures or impuKions. W'e have every mark of mechanical adion ; we have local motion, though iin- feen, except in tiie gradual progrefllon of the magneti- cal faculties along tiie bar ; but we have it diftinetly in the ultimate efl'tift, the approach or recefs of the mag- nets : and in thefe phenomena we fee plainly, that the forces, in produciig their etTcds, at'l in oppolite direc- tions. Whatever the internal invilible motions may be, they are compofed of motions whofe eqviivalents are the fame with the equivalents of the uliimate, external, fen- I'sble motions ; therefore the internal motions are oppo- fite and equal if the fenfible motions are fo, and con- verfely. Adopting this principle, therefore, that the actions of the two poles are not only diiferent but oppofite, it follows, that il they are alfo equal and afl fimilarly, each muft fnvcrit the adlion of the other ; and that there will be a mechanical equilibrium — it may even be called a magnetical equilibrium. Therefore if every part of a ilender rod, or of a thin plate of iron, lie in the plane of the magnetic equator, the magnetic ftate (in what- ever it may confift) cannot be prodaced in it. It will ex- hibit no magnetifm ; have no polar faculties ; and we can fee no reafon why it (hould be atlraiHed by the magnet, or Ihould attract iron. We mull not forget to obfcrve in this place, that iron in a lUte of incandefcence ac- quires no magnetifm by juxtapc-fition. We have al- ready remarked, that iron in this flate does not aSeit the magnet. If a bar of red hot iron be fct near a ma- riner's needle, it does not afleS it in the fmallefl degree till it almoft ccafes to appear red hot in day-light, as has been obftrved by Dr Gilbert. All actions that we know are accompanied by equal and oppilitc re-adions ; and we fliould expert, what really happens in the pre- fent cafe, namely, that red hot iron Ihould not be ren- dered magnetical and attrai51.ible. There is a very remarkable circumflance which ac- .18 companies the whole of this communication of magne- Magnetifia tifm to a piece of iron. It does not impair the power """"^P*"'- 01 the magnet ; but, on the contrary, improves it. 1 his ,nuiiica- {nA was obferved, and particularly attended to, by l)r tioii. Gilbert. He remarks, that a magnet, in the hands of a judicious phllofopher, may be made to impart more magnetifm th/in it p iflcfle; to e.'ich of ten thoufand bars of Heel, and that il will be more vigorous than when the operations began. A magnet (fays he) may be fpoiled by injudicious treatment with other magnets, but never can touch a piece of common iron without being im- proved by it. He gives a more direifl proof. Let a magnet carry as heavy a lump of iron as pofllble by its lower pole. Bring a great lump of iron clofc to its upper pole, and it will now carry more. Let it be loaded with as much as it can carry while the lump of iron touches its upper pole. Remove this lump, and the load will inftantly drop off. But the following ex- periment fliews this truth in the mod convincing man- ner : Let NAS (fig. II.) be a magnet, not very large, nor of extreme hardnefs. Let CD be a ftrong iron wire, hanging perpendicularly from a hook by a fhort thread or loop. The magnet, by its action on CD, renders D a north pole and C a fbuth pole, and the polarity of D's magnetifm fits it for being attrafled. Let it alTume the polition C e, and let this be very carefully marked. Now bring a great bar of iron j B o near to the other end of the magnet. We (hall inllant- ly perceive the wire C e approach to the f ;uth pole of the magnet, taking a pofition C/. Withdraw the bar of iron, and C/ wdl fall back into the pofition C e. As we bring the iron bar gradually neaier to the magnet, the wire will deviate farther from the perpendicular, and when the bar B touches tlie magnet CD, will (lart u great way forward. It is alfo farther to be obferved, that the larger the bar of iron is, the more will CD de- viate from the perpendicular. Now this mull be afcribed to the aflion of the bar on the magnet. For if the magnet be removed, the bar alone will make no fenllble change on the polition ot the wire. We know that the bar of iron becomes magnetical by the vicinity of the magnet. If we doubt this, we need only examine it by means of a piece of iron or a mariner's needle. This will fliew us that s has become a fouth, and n a north pole. Here then are two magnet> with their difTimilar poles fronting each other. In conformity with the whole train of magne- tical phenomena, we mull conclude that they attract each other, and mull improve each other's magnetifm. This is a moll inipon.-int circumftance in the theory of MAGNETISM. 39 Therefore notJiiiig is transfer red. 40 Objc(Sions ■anfwereJ l)ya curious faa. of magnetirm. For it Oiews us, that, in rendsrinji; a piece of iron magnetic, there is no material communica- tion. There is no indication of tlie transference of any fub.^ance refiding in the m2gnet into the piece of iron ; nor is there even any tr.ansferenee of a power cs qua- lity. Were this the cafe, or if the fubllance or quality which was in A be now transferred to B, it can no longer be in A ; and therefore the phenomena refulting from its prefence and agency muft be diminifhed. We niuft fay that the magnet has excited powers inherent, but dormant, in the iron ; or is, at lead, the occafion of this excitement, by difturbing, in fome adequate man- ner, the primitive condition of the iron. We mull alfo fay, that the competency of the magnet and of the iron to produce the phenomena, is owing to the fame cir- cumftances in both ; becaufe we fee nothing in the phe- nomena which authorifes us to make any dlflinflion be- tween them. Whatever therefore caufes one magnet to attr,\(fl another, is alfo the reafon why a piece of iron in the neighbourhood of a magnet attracts another piece of iron ; and we mulf fay that the caufe of pola- rity, or the origin of the direiflive pi)wer, is the fame in both. Now we undcrlland perteiliy the direftive power of a magnet, as exerted on another magnet. We lee that it arifes from a combination and mechanical compof.lion of attractions and repullions. It mull be the fame in this magnetil'in now inherent in the iron. The piece of iron dircifls a mariner's needle, as a mag- net would direift it ; therefore, as there is fomething in a piece of iron which iiow attraifts fnmething in another piece of iron, fo there is fomething in the lirft which re- pels fomething in the laft. It may indeed be faid that it is not a piece of iron, but a mariner's needle, or magnet, that is thus direded by our in>n magnetifed by vicinity to a magnet. This obje<5Hon is completely removed by the moft curious of all the fads which occur in this manner of producing magnetifm. Taiie a piece of common iron, falliion it, and tit it up precifely like a mariner's needle, and care- fully avoid every treatment that can make it magneiical. Set it on its pivot, and bring it near the north pok of a magnet, placing the end, made like the foush pole of the needle, next to the north pole of the magnet. In ihort, place it by hand exH<ftly as a real mariner's needle would arrange itfelf. It will retain that polition. Now carry it round the magnet, along the circumference of a magnetic curve, or in any regular and continuous route. Tiiis piece of iron will, in every fituation, aflume the very fame pcfition or attitude which the real mag. netical needle would alfume if in the fame place, and it will ofcillate precifely in tlie finie way. Rere then it is plain, that there is no didinftion of power between the magnelifm of the iron and of the real needle. To complete the pro(»f: Inllead of approaching the magnet with tliis iron needle, bring it into the vi- cinity ot a piece of iron, which is itfelf magnetical only by vicinity to a magnet, it will arrange itftlf jull as the real needle would dn, with the f.ile difT.-rence, that it does net indicate the kind of polarity exilling in ihc extremities ol the iron, becaufe either end of it will be attra>fted by them. And tliis circumllance leads us to the confideraiion of the only dillinaion between the magnetifm of a loadftone or magnet and that of common iron. The magnetifm of common iron is momentary, and SuppL. Vol. II. 401 ii durable and deter- minate. therefore inJilTercnt ; v.hereas that of a mapnet is per- 4t manent and determinate. When iron becomes magne- M^gn'f'fi" tic in the way now mentioned, it remains fo only ?" " ■ 1 , ' .... , , , .■' tranfitorT while tlie magnet remains in its place j and v;hcn that is andindiflc- rtmoved, tlie iron exhibits no figns of magnetifm. rent ; but Tlierefore when the north pole of a magnet has produ- that of ccd a fou'.h pole in tlie nearelt end of an iron wire, and f^^S"^,", a north pole at its remote end, if we turn the magnet, '' and prefent its fouth pole, the nearell end of the wireir.- " ftantly becomes a north pole, and the other a fouth pole ; ' and this change may be made as often, and as rapidly, as we pleafe. This is the reafon v.-hich made us direcft the experimenter on the iron needle to begin his opera- tion, by placing the end marked for a fouth pole next to the nnrth pule of the magnet. It becomes a real fouth pcle in an inllant, and afts ^s fuch during its pe- regrination round the magnet. But in any one of it.s fituatinns, if we turn it half round with the finger, the end which formerly turned away from a pole of the magnet, will now turn as vigoroully toward it. There- fore, in.i:arrying ilie iron needle round the magnet, we diretTed the prcgrefs to be made in a crntinuous line, to avoid all chance of miftaking th; polarities. For all the reafons now adduced, we think outfelves 4* obliged to fay, that the magnetifm produced en com- ^'■*'^'"- ° . , ' . ,P. ' . T I s M o » mon iron by mere juxtapolition to a magnet, is gene- ijjnuc. rated without any communication of fubftance or faculty, tion. The power of producing magnetical phen.mena is not Jlareclhetween the magnet and the iron. We Ihallcall it INDUCED MACNtTISM; MAGNETISM BY INDUCTION. We have faid that induced magnetifm of common iron is quite momentary. Tliis mull be underllood with careful limitations. It is llricSly true only in the cafe of the fined and pureft foft iron, fiee of all knots and hard veins, and therefore in its moft metallic ll.ite. Iron is rarely found in a (late fo very pure and metallic ; and even this iron will acquire permanent and determi- nate magnetifm by induflion, if it has b;en twilled or hammered violently, although not in the magnetic di- reiflion ; alfo the changes produced (we imagine) on the pureft iron by tlie aiflion of the atm^fpherc make it fufceptible of fixed magnetifm. But the magnetifm thus inducible en good iron is fcarcely fenlible, and of no duration, unlefs it has lain in the neighbourhood of a magnet for a very long while. Wii it has now been faid of common iron, is alfo true of it when in tlic ftate of foft fteel. But any degree of temper that is given to fteel makes 43 a very important change in this refpcd. In the firft Tempered place, it acquires magnetifm more llowly by induiftion ^''^^ ''^' than an equal and fimilar piece of common iron, and 1"'"' "" r n • 1 /- r,-,, • ,..Y- ,-, r;ible iiur- hnally acquires lels. Ihele d;ftereiices are e.dily exa- nctilin. mined by the deviations which it caufes in the mariner's needle from the m.ignetic meridian, and by its attrac- tion. Wlien the inducing magnet is removed, fome mag- netifm remains in the Iteel bar, which ret.iini the pola- rity which it had in tile ne'ghbourhood of the magnet. Steel tempered to the degree fit fir watch fp iiigs acquires a ftrong m ignetifm, whi:h it exiiibits imme- diately on the removal of the magnet. But it dillipates very faft j and, in a very few minutes, it is redu,.cd t > Icfs than one-halt (■£ its intcnfny while In c -ntact with the magnet, and not two-thirds of what it was imme- di.4tc'ly on removal from it. It continues to difljp ate for 3 E feme 4© 2 MAGNETISM. fnme days, though the bar be kept with care ; but the diflipation diminiflies fad, and it retains at Icnft onc- tliirj of its greatell power ior any lengtli of time, uii- lefs c:irelef?ly kept or iiijiidicioully treated. Steel tempered for llroiig cutting tools, fuch as chifeU, punches, arid drills for metal, acquires niagnetifm lliU m.ire flowly by indiKHion, and acquires Icfs of it while in contift with the mapnet ; but it retains it more hrni- ly, and finally retains a greater proportion of what it had acquired. Steel made as hard as pofflble, Is much longer in ac- mutual attraiflions of the difllmilar poles exceeds the fum of the rcpullions between the fimilar poles, and tiiat therefore the two niagiiets lend to each other. This is evidently equivalent to fuylng, that a piece of unmagntlic iron is always attr,i(fted by a magnet. No exception has ever been obferved to this faft ; for Pliny's Qory of a Theamedcs, or loadllone, whicli repels iron, is allowed by all to have been a fal)le. We think ourfelves authorifed to f^y tliat this attrac- tio-.i of the loadllone for iron, cr this tendency of iron to the loadllone, is a fecondary phenomenon, and is the quiring all the magnetifm which fimple juxtapolition ^o/T/'cyucntv of the proper dilpofition of tlie induced mag can give to it. It acquires lefs than the former ; but it retains it wiih great Hrmnefs, and finally retains a much greater propoition. Such ores of iron as are fufceptible of magnetifm, are nearly like hard fled in thefe rcfpefls ; that is, in the lime necelFary for their greahjl impregnation, and in the durability of the acquired magnetifm. They differ exceedingly in refpeifl to the degree of power which they can attain by mere juxtapolition, and the varieties feeni to depend on heterogeneous mixture. We mud obferve, that few ores of iron are fufceptible of magnetilra in their natural (late. The ordinary ores, confilling of the metal in the (late of an oxyd, and com- bined with fulphur, are not magnetizable while remain- ing in that llatc. Moft ores require roalling, and a lort cl cementation, in contaifl with inflammable fubllances. This matter is not well underdood ; but it would feeni that complete metallization is farfrom being the mofl fa- vourable condition, and that a certain degree of oxyda- tion, and perhaps fome otlier compofition, yet unknown, make the bell loadllones. ]3ut all this is extremely obfcure. Tiie late Dr Gowiu Kniglit made a compofi- tion which acquired a very llrong a:id permanent mag- netifm, but the fecret died with him. Dr Gilbert fpeaks of finiilar tonipofulons, in which fcrrnglr.enus clays were miredients ; but we know nntliing of the (late of the metal in them, nor their mode of acquir- ing wiagnetlfm. It is of peculiar importance to remark that the ac- quifition of maenetllm is gradual and i rotrreQive, and lifin s pra- gradation is tlie more perceptible in proportion dull and ^^ '^^ ^^^^ '5 cif a harder temper. When a magnet is proffcfTive. brought to one end of a bar of common iron, its remote extremity, unlefs exceedingly long, acquires its utmuft jnignelilni immediately. But wlien the north pole of a magnet is applied to one end of a bar of hard Reel, the part in coiitafl immediately becomes a fouth pole, and the far end is not yet affcdled. We obferve a north j)ole formed at fonie diftance from the contad, and be- yond tins a taint fouth pole. Thefe gradually advance nlong the bar. The remote extremity becomes firft a faint fouth pole, and it is not till after a very long while ^if ever) that it becomes a fimple, vigorous, north pole. More frequently it remains 3 diftiifcd and feeble north pole : nay, if the bar be very Ion?, it often liap- pens that we have a fucceQlon of north and fouth p.des, which never make their way to the far end of t e bar. This phenomenon was firfl obferved (we think) by Dr Iron is at- Brook Tajlrr, who gives an account of his obferva- traacdon- tions in the Philnfifkical Tranfa3ior.s, n" 344. |y bccaufe From the account we have given of thele phenomena It become* ^f induced magneiifin, it appears that the temporary i^g""'- niagnetifm is always fo difpofed that the fum of the <4 Indiivllion nctifni. The proofs already given of the compound nature of this phenomenon, namely, tliat it ariles from the excels of two attra<flions above two repulfions, need (we imagine) no addition. But the f Uowlng conlider- ations place the matter beyond dcubt : 1. The niagnetifm of the two poles is evidently of an oppofite natuie; the one repelling what the other at- tracts. It the one altrails iron, therefore, the other fliould repel it. But each pole, by inducing a magne- tl(m oppolite to its own, on the neareft end of the Iron, and the fame with its own on the leniote end, and its acllon dlmlnlflilng with an increafe of dlllance, there mull always be an excels ot attra<flion, and the iron mu(l be attraded. 2. Each of the magnets A and B, in either of the pofitions reprefented in tig. ii. would alone attradl the piece of common iron C. But when placed together, the fouth pole of A tends to render the upper end of C a north pole ; while the north pole of B tends to make it a fouth pole. If their aiSions be nearly equal, the weight of C cannot be fupported by the magnetifm induced by any difference ot aiflion that may remain. While C is hanging by B alone, let A be gradually brooght near; It gradually dellro; s the afllon tl tlie north pole of B, fo that C gradually lofes it magnetifm and polarity, and its weight prevails. 3. Ill all thofe cafes where the induiftlon of magnet- ifm is flow, the attraiTion is weak in proportion. This is particularly remarked by Dr Gilbeir. If we take pieces of common iron, and of llccl of different tempers, but all of the fame fize and form, we fhall find that the iron is much more llrongly attracted than any of the rell, and that the attraftion for each of them is weaker in proportion as they are harder. This diverfity is fo accurately oblerved, that when the piece is thoroughly fufceptible of magnelifm, we can tell, with conliderable precKii.n, what degree will be ultimately acquired, and how much will be finally retained. Alfo, the attrac- tion of the magnet for any of thofc pieces ol Heel in- creafes exactly m proportion as their acquired magnet- ifm increales. 4. An ore of iron incapable of acquiring magnelifm is not attrafled by a magnet. But we know that, by cementation with charcoal dud, they may be rendered fufceptible of magnetifm. In this date they are attraft- ed. It is an univerfal fiift, ihat any fiibdance that is attra>aecl by a magnet may be rendered magnetlcal, and that none elfe can. We have already cbferved that red hot iron i^ not attraifled ; nor does it ac<|ulre any directive power while in ihat date. From all this we mult conclude, that the previous induilion of ma-jnetlfm is the mean of the obferved cttraftion f)f m.igaets tor iron, and that tins is not a primary fail in magnetifm. Thefe M A G N Thefe obfervations alfo complete the proof that mag. retic attraifkion and lepulfion are eqiul at the fame di- ftance, and follow the fame law. Dr Gilbert feems to think that the repulfion is always weaker than the at- iradion ; and this is alnioll the only millake in concep- tion into which that excellent philofopher has fallen. But it onlv requires a fair comparifon of fafts to con- vince a good logician, that fince, in every cafe, and at every diftance, either pole of a magnet attradls either end of a piece of common iron, it is inipoirible that one of thefe forces can exceed liie other. It might be fo, were it not that induced magnetifm is durable in proper fubflances. And if we lake magnets wliicli have been made fuch by induflion, and prelent them to each otber with their fimilar poles fronting each other, they never fail to repel each other at conllderable dlftances, and even at very fmall diftances for a few moments ; and this is the cal'e whichever poles are next each otlier. Tliis cannot be on any other luppofiiion. C.ifes would occur of polarity without attr;iftion, cr of attra<flion with^jut polarity. Such havo never been feen, any more than the 'I'lieamedes, always rtpelling iron. 46 Let a great number ot fmall obhing pieces of iron be Phcno»ie- lying very near each other on the fuiface ot quickfilver. na of iron luring a.llrong magnet into the midll of (iicm. It im- ftrcdsand ,„t.jjatg]y render^ them all magnetic.il by indtiftion. ' The one nearell the north pole ot tlie magnet immedi- ately turns one tnd toward it, and the other end away from it. The fame effect is prodticed on the one that is juft beyond this neareft one. Thus the remote end of the firft becomes a north pole, and the nearelt end of tlie fecond becomes a fouth pole. Thefe, being very near each other, mull mutually attraift. The fame thing nijy be faid of a third, a fourth ; and fo on. And thuj it a|)pear', that not only ib magnetifm induced on them all, but alf , that the magnetifm of each is fo dif- pofed, that both ends of it are in a llate of attraftion for the ends of fonie of its neighbors ; and that they will therefoie iirrange ihcirifelvei by conklcence in feme particular manner. Should a parcel of them chance to be llatiding with their centres in a magnetic curve, with their heads and points turned in any ways whatever, the moment that tlie magnet is brought among them, and fet in the axis of that magnetic curve, the whole pieces of this row will inllantly turn towards each other, and their ends will adhere together, if they are near enough ; othcrwile they will only point toward each other, forming a fet of tangents to the magnetic curve, reaching from one pule of the magnet to the other. Or, fuppofe a vail number of fm.iU bits of iron, each (haped like a grain of barley, a little oblong. Let them be Icattered over the furface nf a table, fo near each other as jull to have roum to turn round. Let a mag- net be placed in the midll ot them. They will all have magnetifm induced on them in an inllant; and fuch as arc not already touching others, will turn round (be- caufe they reft on the table by one point only), and each will turn its ends to the ends ot its neighbours ; and thus they will arrange themftlves in curves, which will not differ greatly from true magnetic curves (be- caul'e each grain is very lh<irt), ilfiiing from one pole of the magnet, and terminating in tlie other. Does not this fuggcll to the rcfliifting reader an ex- planation of that curious arrangement ot iron filings rouud a magnet, which has fo long entertained and 40J E T I S M. puzzled both the philofophcrs and the unlearned, and whicii has given rife to the Cartefian and other theories of magnetiim i The particles of iron filings are httle ragi of foft iron torn off by the file, and generally a little oblong. Thefe muj} have magnetii'm induced on them by a magnet, and, while falling through the air from the hand that flrews them about the magnet, they are at perfe<ft liberty to arrange themfelves magnetical- ly; and mnjl therefore fo arrange thcmjdves, forming on tiie table curves, which differ very litle indeed from the true magnetic curves. Suppofe them fcattered about the table before the magnet is laid on it. If we pat the table a little, fo as to throw it into tremors, tliis \i\\\ allow the particles to dance, and turn round on thtir points of fuppoit, till they coalefce by their ends ia the manner already defcribed. All this is the gentiine and inevitable confequence of what Dr Gilbert has taught us of induced magnetifra. It mull be fo ; and cannot be otherwiie. This curious arrangement of iron filings round a magnet is therefore not a primary fait, and a foundation for a theory, but the rclult of principles much more general. Mod of our readers know that "this difpofition of 47 iron filings Jias given rife to the cliicf mechanical tlieo- ''■«"|5^' ries which have been propofed by ingenious men for the ""."'/^ '. *" I r 11 1 1 ' ^. ones by im- explanation of all the phenomena < t magnetilm. An puliiou. invifible fluid has been fuppofcd to circulate through tlie p3ies of a magnet, running along its axi?, ifTuiug from one pole, fbeaming round the magnet, and enter- ing again by the other pole. This is thought to be in- dicated by thofe lines formed by tlie filings. The llream, running alfo through ihem, or around them, ar- ranges them in the dire(flion of its motion, jull as we obferve a ftream of water arrange the flote grafs and weeds. It would require a volume to detail the difi'e- rent manners in which thofe mechanicians attempt to account for the attradllon, repullion, and pclatity of magnetic bodies, by the mechanical inipulfion of iliis fluid. Let it fuffice to fay, that almoll every Hep of their theories is in contradidion to tlie acknowledged laws of inipulfion. Nay, the whole attempt is againft the firll rule of all pliilofophical difcullion, never to ad- mit for an explanation of phenomena the agency of any caule which we do not know to exift, and to ope- rate in the very plienomcnon. We know of no fuch fluid ; and we can demonllrate, that the genuine ef. fefls of its impullion would be totally unlike the phe- nomena of magnetirm. But the proper refutation of thefe tlieories would fill volumes. Let it fuffice (and to every logician it will abundantly fuflice) tore- mark, that tins phenomenon is but a I'econdary faifl, depending on, and lel'uking from, principlos much more general, viz. the induiaion oi magnctiim, and tlie attraiftion of diirimilar, and rcpuliion of fimilar, poles. Tlie above explanation of the curious dilpofuion of iron filings round a magnet, occurred to the writer of this article while lludying nitural philofophy, on tee- ing the Profelfor exhibit Mr Hentliaw's beautiful expe- riiiiciit in proof rf terreltrial magnetifm*. He at that • See Vx- time imagined himlelf the author, and promifed him- hivtiok, felt fonie credit for the thought. But having feen the ^'-y-'- Phyfwlogia Nova ile Magnele by Dr Gilbert, he found P" ^"* tlial it liad not elcaped the notice of that I'agacious phi- lofopher ; as will appear paft difpute from the following palfage, as well as fome others, lefs pointed, in that 3 E a work: 404 MAGNETISM. work . " Magnetica frufta (that is, fubftances iufcepti- treraely fmall in proportion to its direftlve power, m -\- p ble of magnetifm) bene ct ccnvenienter intra vires pofi- — n ^ q. And we obferve tli.it the accumulation of ta, nuuuo coherent. Fcrramenta, prcfeine magnste j|,g tiiingb round the poles of the magnet is fo much (etiamli magnetem non attingant), concurrunt, folicuc ^jjj (]ower as the filings are finer. fe inutuo quxrunt, ct amplexantur, et, conjun(5la, quad jj- ^ paper be laid abore the magnet, and the filings 49 ferruminantiir. Scobs ferrea, vcl in pulverem redafla, jj^. fj,rlnkled on it, we obferve iheni to conftlpate along ^^'""'^ fiftulis impofita chartaceis — fupara lapidem meridion- its edges, while none remain immediately above its fub- aliter locata, vel propius tantum admota, in unum Q^mce; they are all beyond, or on the outfide of its coalefcet corpus ; et fubito tam multa; partes concref- outline, and they are obl'erved not to be lying flat on the cunt et cfinibinantur ; ferrumque aliud alFcftat conju- paper, bat to be ftanding oblitiuely on one point. They rat'irum turnia etatttaliit, ac fi unum tantum et intc- move rC from the paper immediately above the magnet, ,crum ellet ferri bacillum ; dirigiturquc fupra l.ipidem bccaufe ihey repel each o-.her. They ftmd obliquely in feptemtriones et meridiem Sed cum longius a mag- f,,,^, t],g jjges liecaufe that is the direiflion of a mag- nete removcantur (tanquim foluta rurfus) fcparaniur, ^jjij meridian at its parting from the pole. If the et diffluunt fingula corpufcula." IJ. ii. c. 23. magnet be at fome dillance below the paper, then tap- Mr ./Epinus alfo had taken the fame view of the fub- pjpg jjig paper will caufe the filings to move away from »5jjr (J jeft*. It is alfo very clearly conceived and exprefTed the magnet laterally. This fuigular and unexpc<5led ap- by the celebrated David Gregory, Savilian ProfelTor of pgar^nce is owing to tlie combination of gravity with allronomy in the Univerfity of Oxford, in a MS. vo- jj^g magnetic action. A particle, fuch as ns (fig. 13.), lume of notes and commentaries, written by him in reds on the paper by the point n, which is a temporary 1693, on Newton's Piindpia, and ufed by Newton in north pole (S being fuppofed the fouth pole of the improving the fecond edition. The M. S. is now in the magnet). The particle takes a pofition n/ nearer to library of the univerfity of Edinburgh. Gregory's the horizon than the pofition n 0, which it would take vords are as follow : " Mihi femper dubium vifum eft jf \^^ centre of gravity I were Aipported. The pofition rum ma-'nccica virtus mechanicc, ». ^. per impulfum, [s inch, that its wv-ight, afting vertically at A, is in equi- proJucatur. Minim eft, eflluvia, qujc terrum agitare ijbiio with the magnetic repulfion / d, exerted between valent, bracteas aureas inlerpojilas ne vel minimum a g .„^j j_ When the paper is tapped, it is beaten down, loco movere. Lucretii et Caitefii theoriam, de fugato ^^ withdrawn from «, and the particle of iron is left for iiiterniedio acre, refutal expciimentum infra aquam in- ^ moment in tiic air. It therefore turns quickly round ftitutum. Sulci in limalurafsrri, magnfli in piano cujuf- ^^ ;„ order to alfume a pofition parallel to no, and it '.•is miriiliani circumpnfta, iwn fiiint ab effiuviis fecundum meets the paper, as that rifes again after the flroke, ijlos canales motii, fid ex ituL; quod ipfa ramaila, mag- ;„ ^ point farther removed fnm the magnet, and again Kttice excitala, fffi fecutidum longiludinon el f.cundiim po- Jefcends by its weight (turning round the newly fup- los difponunt. Ex altera vcro parte cxinde quod vis ported point n), till it again takes a pofition parallel to magnetica, intervenientetlammaautcalore,interrumpa- „^^ but farther ofl", as teprefented by the dotted line, tur, quod virgaferrea, vel diuturiio fitu perpendicu'.ati, Thus it travels gradually outwards from the magnet vel in eo fitu'frigefcendo, virtutem magneticam a tel- appearing to be repelled, although it is really attra^led lure acquirat, ut n^ s docet perfpicaciffimus Gdbertus. hy it. If the magnet be held above the paper, at a Ouod mallei fuper incudem ii.^u torti ad altcrum ex- little dillance, the filings, when we repeatedly pat the Iremum, virtutcm acquirat magneticam; quod it^u torti p., per, gradually colleft into a heap under it. Tliis will vel faltem fortiori ad altcrum extremum poli permu- appear very plainly to one who confiders the fituation taiuur, ut qui prius feptemtriones ref))icieb.'.t nunc of a particle in the manner now explained, jiuflrum relpicit ; quod iiltu forti ad medium, virtutein tIic curve lines formed by very fine filings approach so illam piorfus amittat. Haec inquam, et fimilia, meiha- yj^y nearly to the form of the primary curve which in- Filings ar- nicam ejus qu.ilitates orlum arguunt. Hugeiiius pix- dicates the law of magnetic aflion in the way already ""ge"! icr giavitatem, etiam magneticam, et eleftricam virtu- explained. If the magnet be pl.rced under w.iter, and '^y*^"""^ icm, aliafque plurcs experimento novit vires naturales, if fili .^gs be fprinkled copioudy on the furface of it from ut mihi ipfi lurravit hac eftate anni 1693. Quahs ut a gauze fearce, held at fome diftance above it, the refill- hxc forfiian quod cymba papyracea, prope la'ua vdhs aj,j.e to their motion through the water gives them aquam, ciii innatet, contiiientis, pofita, labrum viciniili- time to arrange ihemfelves magnetically before they mum contlnuo, et cum inipetu petat (a)." Nat. MS. peach tlie bottom, and the lines become more accurate. in Prop. 23. ii. Prin. But they were fo much deranged by any method that „ Not only the mere arrangement of the filings in curve ^^e could take for rcmovitig the water, and meafiiring Filings arc 1'""'^=* follows of nccclfity from the ptopeitles of induced them, that we were difappointed in our expeaations of weakly at- magnetifm, but all tlie fubordinate circumllances of this obtaining a very near approximation to the law of ac- fraficd. phenomenon are included in the fame explanation. By tion. continuing to tap the table, and throw it into tremors, -We took notice of fome very fingular phenomena of ^j the filings are obferved :o approach gr.idually, but very g compafs needle in the neighbourhood of two magnets, Alfo in flowly, to the poles of the magnet. Each panicle is a ^^^ ^,^ obferved that, in this cafe alfo, the needle was feeondary Tcry fmall temporary magn et. The attraftive power ai^^-ays a tangent to a curve of another kind, and which curves, of the great magnet, m — p — « — q, is therefore ex- we called faondary and compound magnetic curves. Thefe are (a ) Perhaps It may be proper to obferve, that Dr Gregory expreffes his differing in his opinion from Newton about magnetifm. Newton, in this propofition, thinks, th.it the law of magnetic a.;iion approaches to the in- Tetfe triplicate ratio of the diftances. Dr Gregory invalidates the nrgument ufed by Newton. MAGNETISM. are produced in the fame way, by flrewing iron filings round the nnagnets. Many reprelentations have been given of thefe curves by different authors, particularly by Mufchcnbrock, in his EJfa'u d.e Ph^ique ; and by Fufs in the Comment Petropolit. Great ufe has been made of thefe arrangements of filings by two magnets in the theories of magnetifm propnfed by thofe who infift on explaining all motion by impulle. When the diQimilar poles of two magneto A and B (fig. 14.) face each other, the curves formed by the filings confiderably re- femble thofe which furround a ftnglc magnet, and give the whole fomewhac of the appearance of a magnet with very diffufcd poles. The arranging fluid, which ftreams from one pole of a magnet, is iuppofed to meet with no obflru<ftion to its entry into the adjoining pole of the other magnet, but, on the contrary, to be impel- led into it ; and therefore (fay the propofers) it circu- lates round both as one. magnet, and by its vortex brings tlie magnets together ; which phenomenon we call the attradion of the magnets. But when the finiilar poles front each other ; fur example, the poles from which the arranging Huid iilues, then the two ftreams meet, obllrud each other, accumulate, and, by this accumu- lation, caufe the magnets to recede irom each other ; which we call the rcpuUkni of the magnets. This is the only explanation of this kind that can make any preten- lions to probability, or indeed that can be conceived. For how the free circulation in the former cafe can bring the two magnets together, no perf m can form to him- felf any conception. We fee nothing like this produc- ed by any vortex that we are acquainted with. All fuch vortices caufe bodies to feparate. But even this explanation of magnetic repulfion is inadmilFible. It will not apply to the repuHinn of the receiving poles; and the phenomena of the filings are inconliftent with the notion ot accumulation. The filings indeed accu- mulate, and they look not unlike two Itreams which op. pofe each other, and detleft to the fides (S.e fig 15.) : But, unfortunately, by lapping the p.iper gently, the filings do not move off fioni the magnets, but approach them much f.-.ller than in any other experiment. The phenomenon receives a complete and palpable explana- tion from the principles we have eltablifhed. Both mag- nets concur in giving the fame polarity to every particle of the filings. Thus, il the fronting poles are north poles, each particle has its neareft end made a vigorous fouth pole, and its remote end a north pole ; and it is therefore llrongly attraiffcd towards both magnets while it is ar- ranged in the tangent tothe fecondary curve of thatclafs, which crolfes the others nearly at right angles. 5i Since it is found, that tlie njagnetifm, evenofnatu- Magnets ral loadllones and h.nrd fieel, and dill more thofe of Ibf- mullaffcd ter tempered ffeel, are continually tending to decay; and lince we find that it may be induced by mere ap- proach to a magnet ; and lince we know that magnets may oppofe, each other in pioducing it — it is reafonable to fuppoli:, that when a piece of iron has acquired a 405 flight, though permanent magnetifm, by the vicinity of a magnet, a magnet appliedintheoppofitedirtiftionwiUde- ftroy it, and afterwards produce the oppofite magnetifm. Accordingly, we may change the poles of fuft mag- nets at pleafure. Farther ; fince we find that loadftones and hard tem- pered Iteel bars are diftinguiflied from foft ones only by the degree of obftinacy with which they retain their prefent condition, we fliould alfo expeift tliathard mag- nets will even affecf each other. It mult therefore hap- pen, that a powerful magnet applied to a weak one, lb that their fimilar poles are in contaiff, Ihall weaken, dc- ftroy. and even change the the magnetifm ot the weaker. Dr Knight's famous magazine of magnets enabled him to change the poles of the greateft and the flrongeR na- tural loadftone, or artificial magnet, that could be given him, in the fpace of one minute. We now fee clearly the reafon why magnetic repul- fion is weaker than attraction at the fame dillance. When magnets are placed with their limilar poles front- ing each other, in order to make trials of thtir repul- fion, they really do weaken eacli other and are not in the fame magnetical condition as before. For fimilar reafons, we lee how experiments with magnets altra<3- ing each other rather improve them, and make their attraftive powers appear greater than they are. All thefe effeifts muft be moil rcmaikable in foft magnets, efpecially when long. We alfo fee, that the obferved law of attraflion and repulfion between two magr.els muif be different from the real law of magnetic action. For, in the experi- ments made on attraciinn at difierent dillances, begin- ning with the greateft diftance, the magnetifm is con- tinually increaling, and the attra(f>ion will appear to in- cieafe in a higher rate than the jull one ; the contrary may happen, if we begin with the fmaller diftances. The relults of experiments on repulliun muft be flill more erroneous ; becau.e it is eafier to dimiiiilh any ac- cumulation which required an exertion to produce it, than to pufii it ItiU farther. We have now a complete explanation of the remark- able fait, that the induflion of magnetifm does not weaken the magnet employed ; but, on the contrary, improves it. The magnetifm induced on the iron c<iufcs it to a<5t on the magnet employed in the very fame man- ner that a permanent magnet of the fame Ih.ipe, fize, and ftrength, would do. Nay, it will have even a great- er elfeifl ; for as it improves the magnet, its own induc- ed nugiietilm will improve ; and will therefore Hill farther improve the magnet. Hence it is, that, in whatever manner a m'ignct touches a piece of iron, it improves by it. It may be hurt by a magnet in an improper pofition; but it always puts common iron into a llate which increafes its own magnetilm. This has been known as long as m.igne- tilm itfelf ; and the ancients conceived the notion, that the magnet fomehow fed upon the iron (b). Wc 53 Attradion mull ap- pear to ex- ceed rcpul- CuD. Si The ob- feived law differs from the true. Msgiietiftn improves by ii:duc- iiig it oa iron. J6- (b) So Claudian. " Nam Icrronuiunt vit.uii, ferrique vigore Vtlcitur, hoc dulces cpulas, hoc pabula novit Hinc propiias reiiovat vires, hiiic lufi per artus Alpera fecretum fervant alimcnta vigorem Hoc abfente peril trilU morientia toipcnt Membra fame, venal'que fitis confumit apertas." Pliny fays, " Sola hxc materia (ferrum) vires ab co lapide, accipit retinetque longo tempore, aliud apprc- hendens ferrum, ut annulorum catenn fpc<fictur interduni, quod imperitum vulgus ferrum ajpellui vivuni. 4o6 MAGNETISM. We think that thcfe obfcrvations authorife us to Uy, moveable matter. Tliis is nearly all that we know of that in reducing a loiidllone into a convenient Ihape, as it ; and by iliefe faifis and notions we rouft judge of the much as pollible ot' the operation Ihould be perlurnied propriety and elTect oi all the procifles lor magnetifiiig by grinding them wiih emery, in cavitici made in large bodies. blocics oi hammered iron. The niagnctilhi induce J on The moft fimple method of magnetifmg a ftcel bar, the iron mull be I.ivourable to the tor.l'ervation of that is to apply the noiih pole of a magnet to that end ill the loadllone ; which, we are perfuaded, is rapidly wliich we wilh to render a i()uth pole. Attention to ditlipatcd by the tremors in'.o which thi^ very ehftic the effeds of this application is very inltruitive. Have lublUnce is thrown by the grinding with coarfc powders in readiuefi u very lm;ill conipals needle, turning on its in any mould but iron. We imagine, that the cutting pivot. It Ihould not exceed half an inch in length, off lliccs by the lapidaries wheel has tlie fame bad ef- and Ihould be as hard tcnijcred as pollible, and Urong- itSt. ly impregnated. Immediately afier the application of 57' Not only will a magnet lift a greater lump of iron the magnet, carry the needle along the fide of the bar. by its north pole, when another lump is applied to its If the bar be long, and very liard, we liiuU obferve a f«uth pole, but it will lift a gi eater piece of ii on I roni an fouth polarity at the place if contaft ; a north polarity anvil than from a wooden table: for the magnet indu- at a fniall diltance Irom it; beyond this a weak fouth ces the properly difpofed polarity, not only in the iron polarity ; then a weak and ilill'ulcd north polarity, &c. ; which it lifts, but aifo in the anvil, or any piece of iron toward the remote end the pohsrity will be found very immediately beyond it. This is fo difpi fed as to in- uncertain. The fame thing may be difcovered by lay- creafe the magnetifra of the piece o( iron between them ; ing a llill' paper on the bar, and fprint:ling iron filings and therefore to increafe th.eir attraclion. The mag- over it, and then gently tapping the paper, to make netifm induced on the anvil ii alio in part, and per- them arrange tlierafelves in curve lines; vhich will haps chiefly, induced by the intervening iron. Thcfe point out the vaiious poles, and lliew whether ihey are experiments aie extremely v.iriabls in their rcfults. — difiufed cr conlUpatcd. It is very anivifing and inliruc- ijonietimes a fmall magnet will pull an iron wire from a tlve to obferve the progtefs of this inipitgnalion. la large and flrong one. Sometimes this w ill be done evtn a few minutes alter the tirll application ol the magnet, by a piece of unm^gnetic iron ; and the refults appear we Ihall perceive the Itate of magnetilm very fenlibly quite capricious. But they are accurately fixed, depend- changed. The north pole will be farther from the mag- ing on the induced compound magnetifm. Mr jKpi- net, and will be more dillin<fl ; the fouthcrn polarity will nus has Itated fonie of the more limple cafes, in which alio be protruded, and may appear for a moment at the we can tell which magnet Ihall prevail. But the un- remote extremity. The chatjge advances ; but the pro- folding even cf thefe cafes WL.uld take a great deal of grefs is moie flnw, and at Lift is inlenlible. When tlie bar room, and mult be omitted here. Belides, we are too is not harder than the temper of a cutting tool, the pro- imperfeiSlly acquainted with the degree of magnetifm cefs is loon over ; and il the b.n is but fix or eight inches induced on the various part* of an iron rod, and the de- long, the remote end thews the north polarity in a very gree of magnetilm inherent in the variotis parts of the few minutes. When the bar is very li.ird, the progrefs magnets, to be able to lay, v>\\\\ certainty, even in thole of impregnation is greatly expedited b) linking it fo as fimple cafes, on which fide the fuperiority of attraftion to make it found. If it be fulpended by a Uiing in a will remain. vertical pofition, and the magnet applic;d to its lower S%. We may now proceed to deduce from this theory end, the llriking it with a key will rnake it rii g ; and Making of (for fo it may jultly be called, lince all is reduced to in this way make the pr(>grefs of mat/netization very artificial Q^g fV^^^ t[,g procefs for communicating magnetifm to quick : but it does not allow it to acquire all the mag- bodies fitted for receiving and retaining it; that is, the netifm that can be given it by a very ftiong magntt. method of making artificial magnets. We Ihall not But this is a bad way of impregnation. It is leldom employ much time on this, becaufe the molt appro- that unilorm magnetilm, with only two poles, and thofe ved methods have been delivered at length in the ol equal llrength, can be given. Even when there are article Magnetism cf the Encyclopedia ; and there- but two, the remote pole is generally diffufed, and tore we Ihall juft make fuch oljl'ervations on them as therefore feeble. It is much improved by employing ferve to ccnfiim, or to perfeiftthem by the theory. We two magnets, one at each end. And if the bar is not acknowledge, that we do not know the internal procefs more than fix cr eight inches long, and good magnets by whicn magnetifm is induced, nor even in what this are employed, the magnetifm is abundantly regular. magnetifm confifts. All that we know is, that the This, accordingly, is praclifed for the impregnation of bringing the pole of a magnet near to any magnetifable dipping needles, which mull not be touched, left we matter, produces a magnetifm of the kind oppofite to dilturb the centre of gravity of the needle. But in all that of the pole empl >yed. We kn.-.w that this is the cafes, this method is tedious, and does not give ftrong cafe with both piles, and that it obtains at all the di- magnetilm. Ilances where magnetifm is oblcrved. We know that The method which was ufually pradifed before we the aiition ot one pole is contrary to that of the other; had obtained a pretty clear knowledge of magnetifm, that is, it cmir.teradls the other, prevents it from pro- was to apply the pt-le ol a magnet to one end of the ductng is e2'e»!t, and dellroys It when already produced: bar, and pals it along to the fther end, prelTing mo- and we know, tha: the prcduiflion of thefe effeds re- derately. This was repeated feveral times on both fides ienibles in its refult the protrufion of fomething fluid of the bsr, always bei^inning the ftroke at the fame end thioagh the pores of the body, conllipating it in all re- as at firll, and, in bringing the magnet back to that mote parts ; as il the virtue of a pole refided in this end, keeping it at a diftance from the bar. The effect inaguets. of M A G N E IM S M. 407 of this operation wis to leave the enil at which we be- gan the Itroke polled of the polarity of the pole em- ployed. A general notion of the proccfs may be given as fol- lows, cibferving, however, that there occur very many grtf.it and capricious anomalies. When the north pole N (fig. 16 ) of the magnet A is fet on the end C of the ')ar CBD, a fouth pole is produced at C, and a north pole at D, when the length of the bar is mode- rate. As the magnet advances flowly along the bar, the fouihern polarity at C firtt incrcales, tlien diminifhes, and vanillies entirely when N has arrived at a certain point a ; after which, a northern polarity appears at C, and increafes during the whole progrefs of the magnet. In the mean time, ihe northern polaiity firll produced at D increafes till the magnet reaches a certain point e, then diminifhes, vanifhe^ when the magnet reaches a cerfain point/; after wliich, a fouthern polarity ap- pears at D, which increafes till the magnet reaches D. Mr Brugmann, wjio firll attended minutely to tliefe par- ticulars (for Gilbert fpeaks of them pointedly), calls a and / polrtli 0/ iiiiJiJfeicn.e, and f the culminating point of the pole D, and i tlie culminating point of the pole C. Hardly can any general rule be given for the fitua- tion of thefe points, nor even for the order in which they (land ; fo great and capricious ate the anomalies in an amazing feries of experiments narrated by Biug- mann and by Van Swindcn. Repeating the operation, and beginning at C, tlie nottherii polarity there is wea- kened (fometimes delhoyedj, then reflored, and conti- nually increafed diiriiy the relt of the llrol;e. The fouthern polarity at D i» alio tiift weakened, and fome- times dellroyed ; then reltored, and finally augmented. The points i, a, e,f, change their fituations, and fre- quently their order. Van S\%inden has attempted to deduce fome general laws from his imme.ife lill ol experiments, avoiding every confideration ot a liypothelis, or the leail conjec- ture by what means ilicl'e faculties ate excted. But though we hav; perufed his iiivelligatinn with care and candor, we mull utknowUdge, that we have not deri- ved any kiiowldgc which can lielp us to predi.ft the re- fult of particular modes of treatment wiili any greater precifion than is fuggelled by a fort ot comm n fenfe, aided (or pcrhap> perveited) by a vague notion, that thefe energies rcfide in fomething, wliich avoids the pole of the fama name, carrying along with it this di- itinrtive energy or polarity. This conception tallies periedly with thefe oblervations of Biugmann and Van Swinden ; and admits ot all the anomalies in the iitua- tion of Brugmann's indifferent and culminating points, if we only fuppole that this motion is obflruifled by the particles of the bidy. We mull leave this to the re- fleiftion of the reader, who will gutfx how, when the magnet is between C and i, this fubllance, avoiding the pole N of the magnet, efcapes below it, and goes to- ward the taithcr end. As the masjnet advances, it drives fome of this back again, &c. &c. This is gra- tuitous ; hut it aids the lancy, which, without f imc con- ceptlun of this kind, has no objeiS of lleady contempla- tion. We have no thought when we Ipeak of the ge- nerating at C, or a, or e, a faculty of fome kind, by the exertii n of the fame faculty in N. The conception is too abftrafted, and much too complex. We mull con- tent ourfelves with kaowing, that N produces a fouth pole immediately under it, and a north pole everywhere elfe, or endeavours to do fo. It is unnecelfary to infill long-r on this method: Common fenfe fhews it to be a very injudicious one. This method was greatly improved by beginning the fridion at the centre. Apply the north pole at the centre or middle of the bar, and draw it over the end intended for the fouth pole. Having done this feveral times to one end on both fides, turn the magnet, ap- plying its fouth pole to the middle of the bar, and draw- ing it feveral times over the end intended for the north pole. It was ftill more improved by employing two mag- nets at once, placed as in fig. 17. on the middle B of the bar, and drawing them away from each other, over the ends of it, as (hewn by the direfling dart^, and re- peating this operation. It is plain that, as far as we underdand any thing of tliis matter, this procefs mud be much preferable to either of the former two. The magnets A and E certainly concur in producing a pro- perly difpoled magnetifm on all that lies be'.wcen them ; and therefore on the whole bar at the end of each (Iroke. The end C mull become a north, and D a fouth pole. Still, however, as the ftroke goes on to the point of inditference, each magnet tends to weaken the polarity ot the parts lituated beyond it. This method ci ntinued to be piavftifed till about the year 1750. Mr Canton, availing hinifelf of the expe- linientb of Mr Mitchell of Cambridge, publillied his me- thod by the double touch as it is calkd. &it Mondi'y Revit'w for 1 785. We need not repeat what has been detailed in the 59 Encyclopedia, Magnetism, p. 440, &c. and (hall rnl\ Method of make lonie oblervations on the peculiar advantages of """'j'"= this procefs, as prefcribed by Mitchell, Canton, and im- proved by Mr Antheaunie, in his m<:mou fur les ^i- mani Arlificicls 1766, v«.hith was crowned by the Aca- demy ot Sciences, i See alfo dilTertations tn the fubjeft by Lc Main and Du Hamel, 1745). There is an evident propriety in the arrangement in- vented by Mr Mitchell, reprtfented in fig. i8. The magneulm induced on the two pieces ot loft iron AD and BC is an excellent method i^T fecunng every accef- fion of magnetifm to either of the bar<. A good deal depends on the proper fize and length of ihcfe pieces ; and our ignorance of the interior procefs obliges us to have recoiirfe to experiment alone for afcertaining this, Wiiatever circumftances induce the ftrongell magnetifm on thofe pieces of iron, will caufe them to produce the greatell elTeft on the (leel bars ; and this will be indica- ted by a greater attraction. Therefore th it dillance will be the bell which enables two bjrs AB and DC to lift the greatefl weight hung on the piece .■\D or BC. When we impregnated b.irs whole breadtli was about one-tenth of their length, and their thicknef~ ab.iut one- half of their breadth, we (bund, that if AD was about one-fourth, or nearly one third, of AB, they carried more than if it was either much longer or much Ihort- er. Mr Antheaume's addition of the two great bars of iron li and F makes a ("cnlible improvement of the if- p;nm'n^ of ilie impregnation, when very weak magnets are employed ; but did not feem to us to be of any far- ther fetvice on the tabic. This is agreeable to any theory which can be ellablilted by what we have faiJ hitherto. The 4o8 MAGNETISM. The method of emplcyin;; the magnets A and E (fig. 19.), prefcribed by Mitchell and Canton, is e.^- treir.cly judicious. The meeting of th: dilllmllar poles at top increafes the niagnetilm ot'each. The two dil- liniiiar poles F and G, certainly tend to give a regular and proper magnetiim to the pirt FG of the bar which lies between them ; and this is the cafe on wli.itcver part of the bar they are placed. But each pole tends to dertroy the prcfcnt magnetifm of what lies betw-en it and the pole of the bar on that fide. But mark — they tend to produce the delired magnetifm on w!;at lies b'.tweenj them with the fum of their forces ; while each tends to deilroy the magnetifm of the p.irt with- out it by the dijj'crcnce only of tlieir forces. Therefore, on the whole, as they are moved to and fro along the b.ir, and the foremoft one even made to pafs over the er.d of it a little way, they always add to the magnetifm already acquired. This confideration feems to enjoin fetling F and G extremely near each other ; for this feems to incroafe the fum, and to diminidi the difference of their av'>ion. But it may be :i queflion, Whether we gain more by llrongly magnetifing a very fmall part during the very fiiort while that the magnets pafs over it, or by aiHing on more of the bar at once, and conti- nuing a weaker adion for a longer while on this larger portion. Mr vEpinus adds another confidcration de- pending on his notion of the internal procefs ; but we defer this to another opportunity. The iiit^ direction I'ecms to be, to place tliem at the dillance which ena- bles them to lift the greatell weight. They are then undoubtedly a<fling with the greatefteffetS. Mr Antheaume direfts to place the touching magnets as in fig. 20. for a reafon to lie mentioned afterwards. Mr iEpinus alfo recommends it for reafons founded on his own hypotliefis. Wc mull Ay, that, in our trials, we have found this method very fenfibly fuperior, efpe- cially in the Litter parts of the operation when the re- iillance to farther impregnation becomes nearly a ba- lance for the accumul.iiing power ot the magnets ; and we conlider this as no inconfidevable argument for the juflice of Mr vEpinus's hypoihefis. The great adv.intage of this method is the regularity of the magnetifm wnich it produces. We never find more than two poles ; and when the bars are hard, and of uniform texture, the polarity is very little dlfFufed, and feemingly confined to a very fmall fpace at the very extremitias of the bar. This is indeed a prodi- gious advantage in point of ftrength. It is no lefs fo in order to fit the magnets for experiments on the law of magnetic adion ; for the latitude which the diffufed condition of the poles gives in the feledtion of the points from which the dilfances are to be computed, has hi- therto hindered us from pronouncing on the law of magnetic aiflion with the precilion of which we think it fully fufceptible. This meth.od alfo is the only one by vhich we have been able to impregnate two bars joined end to end, confidering them as one bar. We havefometimes (though very rarely) fucceeded in this ; lo that when filings were llrewed over them, the ap- pearance could not be dillinguilhed from a fingle bar. — N, B. Yet even in this cale, in one experiment with two bars of fix inches long, treated as one, when it could not be dillinguilhed, either by the appearance of the filings, or by going round it very near with a com- pafs needle, a very fmall compafs needle difcovered a neutral point, and a revcrfion of polaiity fimilar to fig. 14. at F, (hewing tliat it was really a<fiing as two bars. Pcihaps it mull always be fo ; and this quellion is of confiderable importance in the ellabldhment of any theory of the internal procefs. It diferves remark, that, in order to fucceed in this attempt, a very confiderable pnfl'uie is neccdary. We were obliged to clt-an the ends of the bars very careful- ly, and to force the frame of bars and foft pieces of iron flrongly together by wedges, in the mnnner of a f )rm of types. We thought that wetting the ends of the bars with pure water aided the experiment; and wears very certain that oil not only greatly obllrufled it, but even fenfibly impeded the common procefs. W^e had put a fingle drop of oil on a pair of bars which we were touching in the common Cantonian method, that the magnets might be more ealily drawn along them; but wc were furpiifed at finding that we could not give a llrong impregnation. The oil undoubtedly prevents the clofe contaifl. We found the finell gold leaf pro- duce the fame cfFedl in a great degree ; as alio talc, of which a fquare inch weighed ^ jth of a grain. We do not infer any thing like obflruflion to the pail'age of fomething material, but rather afcribe it to mere di- fiance ; although we are of opinion, that in the impreg- nation of two contiguous bars, fo that the magnetifm (whatever it is) is dxiytoitd pncifdy as in one bar, tliere is a material transference. But we Ihall fpcak of tliis in its due place. It is not unworthy of remark, that we found bars to acquire more powerful magnetifm when pretty well po- liflied than when rough. But we alfo found, that bars confiderably rough acquired the firfl degrees of it much more expcditioufly than thofe \\'hich are fmooth ; al- though we never could bring them to that high degree of magnetifm that the fame bars acquired after they had been poliflied. We think it probable, that the tremors, occafioned by the rough and harfh futfaces of the hard Ueel, are the caufes of this phenomenon. Some moreobfervations on this method of the double touch will be made afterwards, w-hen we confider the hypothefis of Mr .£pinus : and wc conclude the pre- fent fubjefl, by attempting to explain feme puzzling appearances which frequently occur in making artificial magnets. A bar touched by a very llrong magnet has been 60 faid by Mufchenbroek to be impaired by going over it Difficulties with a weaker magnet. If it had been made as ftrong, esplaincJ- as poffible, the weaker magnet, when parted over it in the way pracflifed by Mufchenbroek, rrfad firjl deftroy part of this magnetifm ; and having done fo, it is un- able to ralfe it anew to the fame degree of vigour. Yet (fays Mufchenbroek with furprife) a large bar of common iron has greatly improved the magnet. A very large piece of iron tniijl do this (efpecially if fha- ped like a horfertioe, and applied with both heels), if the bar be not already at its maximum. It was thought wonderful, that, in the method of double touch, not only was the magnetifm of the mag- nets employed not impaired, but, beginning with two magnets, whofe power is almofl infeniible, and repeat- ing the operations in the preclfe manner defcribed by Mitchell or Canton, not only the bars intended to be made magnetlcal, but alfo the magnets employed, may be brought to their highsft poffible ftate of magnetifm. This MAGNETISM. 6i Explana- tion of the beginning of Saver)', Canton, and An- thcaume'i jiroccfi. 6z Gilbert's tcrrcftrial DiagnctUro This is in evident conformity to the general fa <5ls of in- daced magnetifm, and affords the ftrongeft proof that nothing is communicated in this operation, but that powers refiding in the b;irs are excited, or brought into a<5tion. The manipulation merely gives occafton to this action, as a fpark of fire kindles a city. There liill remain fome circumftances of this method, as praflifcd by Savery, Canton, and Antheaume, which are extremely curious and important. Mr Savery had obferved a fniall bit of fteel acquire very fenfible magnetifm by lying long in contaft with the lower end of a great window bar. Telling this to a friend, he was, for the fir II time, infornud ihat this had been long obferved, and ihat Dr Gilbert had made fome curious inferences from it. Mr Savery wanted fome magnets, and was at a diftance from town. Re- fleeing, like a philofopher, on what he had liejrd and obierved, he law here a fource of magnetifm which he could increafe, in the manner commonly praCtifed in making magnets. He placed the bar AB (fig. 21.) 10 be magnelifcd between two great bars of common iron C and D, placing all the three in the magnetical diredlion. He took another bar EF, and put two little pieces of iron, like the armour of a loadllone, on its ends ; and with thofe ends he rubbed the bar AB, rub- bing the upper halt of it with the end F, and the lower with the end E. The refult of this was a very briik magnetifm in a few minutes, which, by various well de- viled alternations, he brought to its higheil degree. His numerous exjteriments publillied in the Philofophi- cal Tranfaiflions in 1746, contain much curious irifor- mation, highly deferving tlie attention of the philofo- phers. Mr Canton, proceeding on the fame princi- ple, that bars of iron, which have been long in a verti- cal pofition, acquire an efficient magnetifm, begins his operations by placing his lleel bar on the head of a kitchen poker, and rubs it with the lower end of a pair of kitchen tongs. Mr Antheaume adheres more ftricl- ly to the inferences from the principle of terreftrial magnetifm, and repeats precifely the previous difpofi- tion of things pradifed by Mr Savery, placing his little fteel bar AB (fig. 22.) between two great bars C and D of common iron, and arranging the whole in the magnetic direiflion. Then, proceeding moft judtciouf- ly on the fame principle, he gieatly improves the pro- cefs, by employing two bars EF and GH inr the touch, holding thcin about an inch apart, inclined a- bout 15" to the bar AB. It is plain, that the lower end of each of thefe five bars is a north pole, and the upper end a fouth pole. Therefore the poles F and G con- cur in giving the proper magnetifm to the portion FG ot the Heel bar which is between them ; and by rub- bing it with thefe poles up and down, overpafling each extremity about half an inch, he mull foon give to the bar AB a regular magnetifm ; weak, perhap";, but to be afterwards increifed in the Cantonian method, on a horizontal table. In this manner did Mr Antheaurno make magnets of very great llrcngth in 1766. See his Dijjlrlalion already quoted. Thcfe obfervations naturally bring us to the Phvsio- LociA Nova de Magnet et corporibus Magne- Ticis of Dr Gilbert ; a difcovery which the fagacious Kepler clalfes among the greateft in the aimals of fcience. SupPL. Vol. II. It could not be that a phenomenon fo general, and fo interelling and important as the natural polarity of magnetic bodies, would be long known without cxci- ting curiofity about iis caufe. Accordingly the philo- fophers of the 16th century fpeculated much about it, and entertained a variety of opinion, if that can be called an opinion which can hardly be faid to exprefs a, thought. We have in Marfigli Ficino a fhort notice of many of thefe opinions. Some maintained that the needle was direded by a certain point in the heavens, as if that were faying more than that it always pointed one way. Others, with more appearance of reafoninj;, afcribed the diredion to vail magnetic rocks. But all this was without giving thcmfelves the trouble of try- ing to afcertain what lituation of fuch rocks would pro- duce the diredlion that is obierved. Fracallori was, if we millake not, the fii II who thought this trouble at all necelfary ; and he obfcrves very fenfibly, tliat if thofe rocks are fuppofed to be in any place ye: vifited by na- vigators, and it they aft as loadllones do(acircuin(l,ince which he fays mull be admitted, if we attempt to ex- plain), the direiflion of the needle will be very different from what we know it to be. He therefore places thtm in tlie inacceQible polar regions, but not in the very- pole. Norman, the difcoverer of the dip of the mari- ner's needle, or of the true magnetic diredion, was na- turally led by his difcovery to conceive the direding caufe as placed in the earth ; becaufe the north point of the needle, in every part of Europe, points very far be- low the horizon. But although he calls the treatife in which he announces his difcovery the Nf-iv Attraa'tve, he does not exprefs himfelf as fuppofing the needle to be attraded by any point within the earth, but only that it is always diieded to that point. It is to Dr Gilbert of Colcheller that we owe the opinion now univorlally admitted, that magnetic pola- rity is a part of the conllitution of this globe. Nor- man had, not long before, difcovered, tliat if a Itecl needle be very exadly balanced on a horizontal axis, like the beam of a common balance, fo that it would retain any pofition given it, and if it be then touched with a magnet, and placed on its axis in the magnetic meridian, it is no longer in eqnilibrio, but (at London) the north point of it will dip 72 or 73 degrees btlow the horizon. He did not, however, pulilith his difco- very till he had obtained information how it ftood in other parts of the world. The differences in the va- riation in different places naturally fuggefted the neccf- fity of this to him. Being a maker ot mariners com- pali'es, and teacher of navigation in London, he had the fiirell opportunities that could be defired, by furniftiinij dipping needles to fuch of the navigators, his fcholars, as he knew moll able to give him good information. And the accounts which lie received made his difco- very, when announced to the world, a very complete tiling; for the commanders of fhips engaged in long voyages, and particularly to China, informed him that, in the vicinity of the equator, his dipping needles re- mained parallel to the horizon, but that in commg to- waid the north pole, tl.c n !tth end of the needle was deprelied, and that the h uth end dipped in like man- ner at the Cape rf Good Hope, and in the Indian O- cean ; that t! e needle gradually approached the hori- /untal pofition as the lhi;> approached the equator, buc 3 1' that 409 4IO MAGNETISM. lli.it in comint; to ilie north of it at li.uavia, the north and perfedl roundnefs of this axis, that it fliall remain point again dipped, and at Canton was feveral degrees in any pofition that is given it. Add to this, ihat .t below the hori/on. grain of dull, invifiblc to tiic nicert eye, getting under On thefe autiiorities, Norman boldly f.tid (hat, in the one fide of tiiis axis m^y be fuHicicnt for making it tqiiatoreal rc<.'ions, the neciUe was horizontal, and iliat aliume another polititn. It mull alfo be a diflieulc either end dipped regulaily as it approichcd cither nutter to prefeivc this delicate thine, lb as that no pole; and that In the poles of the earth, the needle was change can happen to it. Belidts, all this mull be perpendicular to the horizon. Ho therefore anuoun- performed on a piece of tempered lleel which we are eed this as a difcovery, not i nly (ingularly cuiiius, but certain has no niagnetfm. Where can this be got, or alfo ol immenfc importance ; lor by means of a dijiping what can infure us againll magnetil'm ? Nor is there Icfs needle the latitude of a thip at fea may be found with- difficully in making the ubfcrvatioos without great rilk out feeing the fru) or liars. cferrtr. If the needle, moveable only in a vertical Dr Gilbert, comp iring this pnfition of the crmp.ifs plane, be not fct in the plane of a magnetic meridian, it needle with the politions which ho had obferved fniall will always dip too much. At I^ondon, where the needles alfume in his numerous experiments in rdaticn magnetic direiflion is inclined 73" to the horizon, if it to a magnet, as we have deicribed at grt.it length, was be in a plane 20° from the magnetic meridian, it will naturally led to the notion of the earth's being a great (land alrnod perpendicular ; for it is cafy to fee, by the loadllone, or as containing one, and that this arranged mechanical relolution of forces, that it will take the po- the dipping, or, in general, the mariner's needle, in the fiiioir which brings it noarell to the true magnetic di- fime manner as he obferved a great m.ignet arrange a rciftioD. This, we think, is confirmed by foveral of finall needle p ifod on its pivot. Ho theref ire compo- Norman's and other old obfervations of dip. They are much greater than they have been fince found in the fame places. Mr Daniel Bernoulli lias given a very ingenious 63 principle, by which we can make a dipping needle Daniel Bcr- which will give a very accurate obfervation on Ihore ; "P" P" and being fo eafily executed, it deferves to be generally jj''^""' known. Let a dipping needle be made in the bell fed his Phyfiokgia Nova di Ma^ntli; et i/c Tdlure m/i^- no JVIaj'tte; in which he notices f) many points ol re- lembliiice to the diredtive power of a iiKiL'tiet, tint tlie point foems no longer to admit of any doubt. Dr Gil- bert's theory !r..iy be thus exprcfled ; All the phenomena of natural magnetifm are analo- gous to what we llioulJ obferve, if the earth were a great magnet, having its poles near the poles of the manner that can be done by a workman of tl e place < LMtth's eiiuiior, the noith pole not far fn m Callin's and balanced with fome care before impregnation, fo ;Bay, and the fouth pole nearly in the opp' lite part of that we may bj certain that when touched it will take • the globe. A dipping needle, under the inlluence of neatly the true dip. Touch it, and obierve the dip. thisWeat magnet, mult arrange iti'elf in a plane which Defttoy its magnetilhi, and tllen alter its balance in fuch jidfe^s ihrru-rh the pole, of the m.ignet, the pofition of a manner that, without any magnetifm, it will arrange which plane is indicated (at leall nearly) by the ordi- itfelf in the inclin.ition of the obfei ved dip. N'^w touch nary compafs needle ; and it will bo inclined to the ho- it again, giving it the fame poles as before. It is plain rizonfo much the more as we receilc troin the equator that it will now approach exceedingly near indeed ti> of the great magnet. the true dip, becaufe its want ol pa fed equilibrium de- This opinion of Dr Gilbert was not lcf» ingenious ranged it but a few degrees frcnr the proper diiciftion. than important ; and if firmly eftablilhed, it furnilhes a If this fecond obfervation of the dip ih<iuld differ feve- tomplete theory of all the phenomena cf m.igneiifm. But obfcrvatini were neither fuificiently numerous in the ti<Tie cf Dr Gilbert, nor fulBciently accurate, to ral degrees from the firil, by the inaccurate fir II forma- tion of the n.'edle, it will be prop;r to repeat the ope- ration. Very rarely indeed will the third obfervation enable that great genius to affign the pofition of this of the dip vary from the truth h.^lf a degree, great mas^net, nor the laws of its action. The theory Mr Bernoulli make.-, thi* limple contrivance f.nfwcr was chielly foui^ded on the phenomena of the dipping the purpofe of an univerfal inftrument in the following needles phonoincna which might have been unknown ingenious manner. A very light brafi graduated circle for ages, had the firll notice of them fallen into any EFG (fig. 23.) is fixed to one fide of the needle, con- iither hands lh..n Norman'.-. Tiiey ate not, like thoie centric with its axis, and the whole is balanced ab nicc- lif variation, which might be made by any failor. They ly as pofiible before imptegnation. A very ll.;ht index require for their exhibition a dipping needle, and the CD is then fitted on the axis, fo as to turn rather ftilBy attention to circumliances which can occur only to a on it. This will dellioy the equilibrium of the needle, ni ithematician. A dipping needle is to this day, not- If tlie needle has been made with per lefl accuracy, and withltanding all our improvements in the arts, one of perfeflly balanced, the addiii n of this index wouhl the moll delicate and difliicult talks that an inftrument canle it always to fettle with the index perpendicular to maker can take in hand, and a good one cannot be had the horizon, v^hatever degree of the circle it may chance for lefs than twenty guineas. We are confident that to point at. But as this is fcarcely to be expeeled, fet fuch as e^en Norman could make were far interior to the index at various degrees of the circle, and note what are now made, and qu'te unfit for ufe at fea while what inclination the uumagnetis needle takes for each the Ihip is under fail, although they may be tolerably place of the index, and record them all in a table. Sup- tiaa for an obfervahon of tlio dip in any port ; and pofe, for example, that when the index is at jo, the we picfume that it was fuch oblervuicns only that neeole inclines 4<j'' from the horizon. If in any plice Norman confided in. Our readers will re-idily conceive we obferve thai the needle (rendered magnetic by lying the dilB'.-uhy of poifing a needle with fuch a pcrfert between two llrong mignetsi, having the index at 50, foincidencs of its centre of gravity and axis of motion, inclines ifi° ^ we may be certain that this is the dip at ^ that M A G NM : T 1 S M. 41 l: that place ; for the reeole is net deranged by the imc- netil'm from the pofilion which {gravity alone would give it. As we generally know fometliing of the dip Miat is to be expefted in any place, we mull fet the in- dex accordingly. It ilic needle does not Ihew the e» pe£led dip, alter the pofition of the index, and again obferve tlu dip. See whether this fecond pofition ot the index and this dip form a pair which is in the table. If they do, we have get the true dip. If not, we muft try another pofition of the index. Noticing whether the agreement of this laft pair be greater or lefs than that of the former pair, we learn whether to change the pofition of the index in tl;e fame direflion as before, or in the oppofite. The writer of this article has a dip- ping needle of thi; kind, made by a perfon totally un- acquainted with the makingof philofophical indruments. It has been ufed at Lsith, at Cronftadt in RulFia, at Scarborough, and at New York, and the dip indicated by ic did not in any fingle trial differ i { degrees from other tri lis, or from the dip obferved by ihe iinell in- (Irunients. He tried it himfelf in Lcith Road>, in a rough fea ; and does not think it inferior, either in cer- tainty or difpatch, to a needle of the moll elaborate conllruiflion. It is worthy of its moll ingenious au- thor, and of the public notice, becaufe it can be made for a moderate e.vpence, and therefore may be tlie means of multiplying the obfervaiions of the dip, which are of immenfe confequence in the theory ot magnetifm, and for giving us an accurate knowledge of the magne- tical ronllitution of this globe. , This knowledge is dill very imperfeiS, owing to the ODinioiu wsnt of a very numerous cone(5tion of obfervations of concerning the dip. They are of more importance than thofe of the great the horizontal deviations from the meridian. All that we can f ly if, that the earth ai5ls on the mariner's needle as a great loadllone would do. But we do not think that the appearances referable the effedls of wliat we would call a good loadft one, having the regular magne- tifm of two vigorous poles. The dips of the needle in various parts of the earth fcem to be fuch as would re- fult from the a<flionof an extremely irregular loadllone, liaving its poles exceedingly ditfufed. The increafe of the dip, as we recede from thofe places where the needle is horizontal, is too rapid to agree with the fuppofition of two poles of conftipated magnetifm, whether we fup- pofc the magnetic aflion in the invcrfe flmple or dupli- cate ratio of the dillances, unlcfs the great terrellrial magnet be of much fmaller dimenfions than what fome other appearances oblige us to fuppofe. If there be four poles, as Dr Halley imagined, it will be next to impofTibie to .ifcertain the politions of the dipping needle. It will be a tangent to one of the fecondary magnetic curve?, and thefe will be of a very intricate fpecies. We cannot but conlider the difcovery of the magnetic conftitution of this globe as a point of very great importance, both to the philofiplier and to fo- ciety. We have confidereil it with fome care ; but hi- therto we have not been able to form a lyftematic view of ilie appearances which gives us any fatiifiiftion. Tl;c well informed reader is fenfible, that the attempt by means of ihe horizontal or variation needle n ex- tremely tedious in its application, and is very unlikely 10 fucceed ; at the fame time it mull be well underllood. The two dlir.Ttations by Eulcr, in the 13th and 22d volumes of the Memoirs of the Royal i\cadtmy at 13cr- magnet contained ill this Klobc> lin, ,-trc moll excellent performance;, and give .1 tiue notion of the difficulty of the fuljeiS. Ytt, even in thefe, a circumftance is overlooked, whicfi, ftiT any thinjj we know to the contrary, may have a very great effefl. If ilie magnetic aiis be far removed from tlie axis of revolution, as far, for example, as Mr Chuichman places it, the magnetic meridians will be (generally) mt;ch in- clined to the horircn ; and we Ihall err very far, if we fuppofe (as in Euler's calculus) that the dipping needle will arrange itfelt in the vertical plane, pafling througli the dircclion of tl;e hoiizontal or vari.iiion needle ; or if we imagine that the jioles of the great magnet arc in that plane. We even prefume to think that Mr Euler's af- fumption cf the place cf his fisflitious jmles (namely, where the needle is vertical), in order in t btain a ma- nageable calculus, is erroneous. The introduftion of' this circumllance cf inclination of the magnetic meri- dians to the hori/on, complicates the calculation 10 fjcli a degree as to make it almoft unmanageable, except in. fome felefled fituations. rortuiiately, they are im.port- ant ones for alcertaining the places of the poles. But the invelligaiion by the pofitior.s cf the dipping needle is incomparably more fimple, and mcie likely to give us a knowledge of a multiplicity of poles. The confi- deration of the magnetic curves (in the fenfe ufed in the prefent article), teaches us that we are n: t to ima- gine the poles immediately under thofe parts of the iurface where the needle Hands perpendicular to the ho- rizon, nor the magnetic equator to be in thofe place? where the needle is horizontal ; a notion commonly and plaullbly entertained. Unfortunately our mod nnniercus obfljrvations of the dip are n ^t in places where they arc the mod indruflive. A fi:iics (hould be obtained, ex- tending from New Zealand northward, acrofs the I'aci- fic Ocean to Cape Tairweather on the wed coad 1 f North America, and continued through that part v{ the continent. Another feries fhould extend from the Cjf e of Good Hope, up along the well coal! of Africa m the tropic of Capricorn ; from thence acrcfs the inte- rior ot Africa (where it would be of great importance to mark the place of its horiz<>nlality) through Sicily. Italy, Dalmatia, the ead of Germanv, the Gulph ot Bothnia, Lapland, and the wed pomt r f Greei.land. This would be neaily a plane palling througli ilie pro- bable fituatirns of the poles. Anotlier feries Ihoiild be made at right angles to this, forming a fmall circle, crolfing the other near Cape Fairweather. This wi tild pafs near Japan, through Borneo, and the wed end of New Holland ; alfo near Mexico, and a ("tw degree; wed of Eader Ifland. In this place, and at Borneo, the inclination of the magnetic plane to the hoiizoii would be confiderable, but we cannot find this out. k may, however, be difcovered in other points of tliis circle, where the dip is confiderable. We have not room in this fhr-rt account to iUudrate the advantages derived from thefe feriefes ; but the reflefting reader will be very fenfible of them, if he only I'uppofes ilic great magnet to be accompanied by its magnetic curves, to which tlic needle is alwav: a tangent. He will then fee that tlie lird (tries from New Zealand to Cape Fair- weather, ard the fecond from Cape Fairwealher round the other fide of ihc globe, bein;; in one plane, and at very dlflferent didanccs from ilie magnetic axis, mud contain very induiitive pnluions of the needl;. But wc llill conlefs, that when we compare the dips already ; F ; known ■^rc > 111, ATlOX, 413 M A G N E T I S M. 65 And con- cerning the fitu^ioii of iti pi>lc). Ct. known with the variations, they appear fo irreconcile- able with the refiilis of an uniform regular niagnetifm, that we deipair of fuccefs. Every tiling fcems to indi- cate a muUiphcity of poles, or, what is IliU more ad- vcrfe to all calculation, an irregular magnelifm with Tery diffufeil polarity. Much iiillrn'lion rray furely he cxptiflcd from the fibfciTaticmsorthe RulFian acadcmiciansanj tiicircleveF, who are employed in Airveying tliat valt empire ; yet we do not meet with a finglc i.bfcrvation of the dip of the needle in a'l the bygone publications of that acade- my, nor indeed .ire there many of the variation. For want of fuch information, philofopliers are ex- tremely divided in their opinions of the fuuation of the magnetic poles of this globe. Profellbr Krufft, in the 17th volume of the Peterfburgh Commentaries, places the north pole in lat. 70' N. and long. 23" W. from London ; and the fouth pole in lat. 50° S. and long. 92° E. \^ ilcke of Stockholm, in his indication chart [Sw.d. Mim. tom. xix. p. 218), places the north pole in N. Lat. 75", near Biffin's Bay, in the longitude of Cali- fornia. 'l"he louth pole is in the Pacific Ocean, in lat. 700 S. Churchman places tlie north pole in lat. 59° N. and long. 135° W. a little way inland Irom Cape Fairwea- ther ; and the fmlh pole in lat. 59° S. long. 165" E. due fouth fr'im New Zealand. A planiiphcre by the Academy of Sciences at Paris for I 786, places the magnetic equator fo as to interfeft the earth's equator in long. 75", and 155° from Ferro Canal y Ifland, with an inclination of 12 degrees near- ly, making it a great circle very nearly. But we are not informed on what authority this is done ; and it does no; accord with many oblervations of the dip ■which we have cnlleded from the voyages of fevcral Britilh navigator-, and from fome voyages between Stockholm and Canton. Mr Churchman has given a feetch of a pl.inilphere with lines, which may be called parallels of the dip. Thnfe parts of each parallel that have been afcertained by obfervation are marked by dots, fo that we can judge of his authority tor the ■whole conftrudi -n. Ii is but a fketch, but gives more fynoptical inform ttion than any thing yet publilbed. The magnetic equator cuts tlie eartli's equator in long. 15", and 195° E from Greenwich, in an angle of nearly 17 degrees. The circles of magnetic inclination are rot parallel, being confider^.bly nearer to each other on the Ihort meridian than < n its oppofite. This circum- llance, being tounded on obfervatiun, is one of the ItrongeR argumcn's for the exrftcncc of a magnet of to- lerable regularity, as the caiife of all the pofitions of the compafs needle j for fuch mujl be the pofitions of the circles of eq':al dip, if the axis ot this magnet is far re- moved from the axis of rotation, and does not inter- fea it. N)\v, if the fuuation of the poles be any thing near the average or medium of thefe determinations, and if we form all our notions by analogy, comparing the po- fitions of the coiiipafs needle in relation to the gieat terrefttial magnet, v.'ith the pofitions affiimed by a (mall needle in the neiglibourhood of a magnet, we muft con- clude, that the migneiical conftitution of this globe has little or no referei^.ce to its regular external form. The axis of the magnet is very far removed from that of the globe (at leall 1500 miles), and is not nearly parallel to it, nor in the lame plane. It required the fagacity and the fkill of a Euler to fubjctft fuch anomalous mag- netifm to any rules of computation; .rnd every pcrfon qualified to judge of the fubjeft mull allow his dilferta- tion ill the 131I1 volume of the Berlin Memoirs to be a work of wonderful telearch. It is a very agreeabl; thing to fee fuch a conformity between the lines which exprefs the regular magnctilm of Euler's dtifcrtatiun, and the lines drawn by Dr Halley from obfervation, and which appeared to himfelf fo capiicious, that he defpaiied (notwitliftanding his confummate fkill in geo- metry) of their ever being reduced to a mathematical and precife iyftem. Wiilicut detraifling from the merit of Dr Gilbert, we may prefurr.e to fay that his notion of the earth's being a great magnet was not, in his mind, more than a fagacious conjcifure, foimed from a very general and even vague coniparifon. Yet the comparifon was fulfi- cicntly good to give him great confidence in his opinion that the adion ot this great magnet, in perfe(5l confor- mity to what we obferve in our experiments with mag- nets, is the f lurce of all the magnetifm that we obferve. If there was nothing elfe in proof of the juftnefs of his theoiy, it is abundantly proved by the be.iutiful experi- ment of Mr Hcnfliaw, mentioned in the article Varia- tion, Eiicycl. p. 621. col. 2. An iron bar held nearly upright, attracts the fnith end of a compafs needle with its lower end ; and if that end of the bar be kept in its |)lace, and the bar turned round till it becomes the upper end, the fouth point of the needle immedi- ately turns away from it, and the north end is now attra(51ed. Tliis experiment may be perfeflly imitated with artificial magnetifm. Having fupportcd a large magnet SAN (fig. 24), fo that its ends are detached from furrounding bodies, place a fmall needle B (poifed on its pivot) about three inches bel< w the north pile N of the magnet, and in fuch a fituatlon that its polarity to tlie magnet may be very weak. Take now a fni.ill piece of common iron, and held it in the pofition npreleiited at C. Its lower end becomes a north pole, uttrafling the fouth pole of the needle. Keeping this in its place, turn round the piece of iron into the pofilioE D j the ft uth pole of B will UAW avoid it, and the north pole will be attraiflcd. We direiSed tlie needle to be fo placed, that its polari- ty, in relation to ihe magnet, may he weak. If it be ftrong, it may ad on the entl of C or D like a magnet, and counteract the magnetiini induced on C or I) by vicinity to A. An anonymous writer in tlie Philofophical Tranfac- tions, N" 177. Vol. XV. lelates feveral obfervations made during a voyage to the Eall Indies, which are quite conformable to this. A tew leagues northwefl from the illHud Afcenfion, the fouth point of the compafs needle hardly iliewed any tendency to cr from the lower end of an iron bar. It fecmed rather to avoid the up- per end ; it was not in the leaft afTcfled by the middle of the bar ; but when the bar was laid horizont.il, in the magnetic diredl:on, its two ends afFcifled the diffi- milar ends of the compais needle very ftrongly ; but when horizontal, and lying at right angles to the mag- netic diredlicii, its polarity was altogether indiiTeient. As the other phenomena of induced artificial mag- netifm have the iarae refemblance to tlie phenomena of natural 67 Confirma- tions of Ur Gilbert's phyfiolegy. MAGNETISM. natural magnetifm, a bar which has remained long in thevicinityof a magnet acquires magnetirm( permanent) in the fame way, and modified by the fame circumRan- ces, as in natural magnetifm. Hammering a bit of com- mon iron in tlie immediate vicinity of a magnet, gives it very good magnetifm. Eipofing a red hot bar to cool in the neighboufhood of a magnet has the fame cf- fe&. Alio quenching it fuddenly has tiie fame elFeit. Quenching a fmsU red hot fteel bar between two mag- nets, was found by us to communicate a much ftronger matjnetifni than we could give it by any other method. Its form indeed was very unfavourable for the ordinary method of touching ; for it confilled of two little fpheres conneded by a flender rod, and could fcarcely be im- pregn:ited in any other way than by placing it for a very long while between magnets. In all thefe experi- ments, the polarity acquired is precifely fimilar to that acquired by the fame treatment in relation to this fup- poled great terrclbi.il magnet. In (hort, in whatever manner we purfue tliis analogy in our experiments, we find the refemblance moll pei teift in the phenomena. We cannot but think, therefore, that this new phy- fiology of the magnet by l)r Gilbert is well eftablilh.d ; and we think ourfelves authoriled to alfume it as a pro- pofuiou fully demonllrated, that the earth is a great magnet, or contains a great magnet, the agency of which produces the direction of the magnetic needle, and all the magnetifm which iron acquires by long continuance in a proper pofition. It is this which made us fay, in the beginning of this a: tide, that attra.Sion and pola- rity wtre not confined to magnets, but were properties belonging to al! iron in its metallic ftate. We nov/ fee the rcafon why any piece ot iron brought very near to another piece will attraiS it — both become magneti- cal, in confequence of the agency of the great magnet ; and their magnetifm is fo difpofed, that their mutual attra<5tions exceed their repulfions. Alio, why an iron rod, placed nearly in the magnetical diredion, will fi- nally arrange itlelf in that direction. Alio, why the terrellrial polaiity of common iron is indifferent, and either end of the rod will fettle in the north, if it have nearly that polition at firft. The magnetifm induced by mere momentary pofition is (o feeble as to yield to any artificial magnetifm. As a moment was fulhcient lor injparting it, a moment fufnces for deflroying it ; and anutlier mi ment will impart the oppofite mignet- ifni. But artificial magnetifm requires more force for its produflinn, and fonie c-f it remains when the pro- duci^'g caufe is removed, a. id it does not yield at once to the contrary magnetilm. That there is no farther difference appears from this, that long continued poli- tion givei determined and permanent magnetifm, and that it is dcllroyed by an equally ling continuance in the contrary poiUion. It ftcms to be very generally true, that a magnet will carry miire by its north ih.m by its foulh pole. It Ihould be fo in this part of the woild, becaul'e the tcrrellrial magnetifm induced on the iron conlpircs with the magnetifm induced by the north pole of a magnet, but counteracts the magnetifm induc- ed by the fouth pole. The propriety of Mr Savery's, Mr Canton'r, and Mr Antheaume's procelTcs for beginning the impreg- nation of hard ftetl bars is now plain, and ilic fpcriiT cfTcdl of the two great bars (it common ir. n m the pro- pofed method of Mr Aniheaume. AVc cannot but take 413 this opportunity of paying the proper ti'Ibute of praife to the ingenuity of Mr Savery. Every cireumllance of his procefs was felefted in confequence of an accu- rate conception of magnetifm, and the combination of this fcience with Dr Gilbert's theory. His procefs is the fame with Antheaume's in every refpeft, excejit the cireumllance of the double touch borrowed from Mit- chell and Canton. Thefe obfervations do not detraifl from the difcernmsnt of Mitchell and Canton, who faw in thole experiments what had efcaped the attention of hundreds of readers. But there occurs an objeaion to this theory of Dr 68 Gilbert, wliich was urged againft it with great force. Stfminjr We obferve no tendency in the magnet or compafs j''|f'^'^" needle toward this fuppofed magnet. An iron or lleel f,.o^7hc bar is not found to increafe its tendency downwards, want of that is, is not fenlibly heavier, when its fouth pole is up- fcnfiblc at-, permofl in this part of the world. A needle fet aHoat traaion. on a piece of cork ai ranges itfelf quickly in the proper direction ; but if continued ever fo long afloat, it has never been obferved to approach the north fide of the velfel. This is quite unlike what we obferve in the mutual aetions of magnets, or the a.5lion of magnets on iron. This obje>.ti(pn appears to hive given Dr Gilbert fome concern; and he mentions many experiments which have been tried on purpofe to difcoverfome niagneiical tendency. He guts rid of it as well as he can, by fly- ing, that the diredive power of a magnet extends much farther than its attrai5tive power. He confirms this by feveral experiments. But Dr Gilbert had not ftudied the (Imultaneous aclions of the f lur poles, nor exphined, by the principles of compound motion, how thefe pro- duced all the poffible poluions of the needle. Indeed, the compofition of mechanical forces was by ni means familiar with philofophers at the end of tlie i6th cen- tury. We fee it now very difliniflly. The polarity of the needle, or the force with which it turns itfelf into the magnctical pofition, depends on the difference be- tween tlieyi.mj of the anions of each pole of the mag- net on botii the poles of the needle ; whereas its ten- dency towards the magnet depends on the difference of the c/^rcwf/ of thofe atftions (fee n" 22, 25.). The firll may thus be very great when the other is almoll infenfible. We fee, that coarle iron filings heap about the magnet very fill, and that very fine filings approach it very llowly. Now, the largell magnet that we can employ, when compared with the great m igr.et in the earth, is but as a particle of the finell filings that can be conceived. This furely diniiiiilhes e.vceedingly, if it does not entirely annihilate the objciflion : but as we liave heard it urged by many as an improbable thing, that a long ni.ignet, kept aHuat for many months {which has been done) fhall not lliwthe ^J <;///// ten- dency towards the pnle of the terrelirial m.igi.er, we th nk it del'erves to be con:i-itred wi:h accuracy, and the qucllion decided in a way which will admit of no doubt. Let the very fmall magnet C ^fig. 35.) be placed 69 near a great magnet A, and then near a ima'der mag- Thisc.nn- net B, in fuch a manner that its polarity to both fhall l'l"'-"'y »n- be the fame ; and then let us determine tlie proportion '"*'''■''' between the attraclions of A and B for the fmall mag. net C. Thi.- will evidently dtpeud on the law of magnetic ailion. I'or greater limplicity of invciligation, we fhall COUlCUtL 4'4- MAGNETISM. content ourfelves with fuppofing the aftion to be iii- verfsly as the iliftance. Let AN, = AS, = a ; BN = i ; Cn = c, AC = d, BC = J' ; and let the abloUite iorce ot A be to that ot B at the fame dillance as m to i . The mHsnctic aition being Uippofed proportional to we have, I . Adlion of AN onC s- d—a — AN on C nrr- AS on C / = AS on C n = d — a 4- e m it -J- a — c m J. The whole a£l!on =" %m a c i fore when the needle, when placed near a magnet, vi- bratcs by its polarity as faft as it does by njtural mag. netifm, its tendency toward that magnet mud be aho- getlicr inlenliblc ; tor the dilproportion is incomparably greater than that ot" i to 1000, in the largcft magnets with which wc can make experiments. Obferve alio, that we have taken the cafe where the attiadions are the llrongcft, viz. when ilie magnet C is placed in the axis of A or B. In ihe oblique pofitions, tangents to the magnetic curves, tlic attradions arc I'mallcr, almoll in any ratio. We took the invcrfe ratio of the diftances for the law of aftion, only becaufc the analyfis was very fimplc. It Is very evident, that the difproportion will be Itill more rcmarkalile it the a(flion be inverfcly as thefquare of the diltanic. The obje(5lion therefore to the origin of llie polarity of the corapal's needle, and of all otlier m.igiiets, name- ly, the aiftion of a great magnet contained in the earth, appears plainly to be of no force. We rather thinlc that 6. Iff whole aflion of A is very nearly = 7. And the tendency of C to a^ — a ib, in like manner, The direaive powers of A and B are at their maxi- mum ftate when C is placed with its aiis at right an- gles to the lines AC or BC. In which cafe we have, 8. The diredlive power of A: II. <f = 12. / d' — a + c ' X d^ — ^ — c be very fmall in comparifon with a or b, the the want of all fenfible atlraftion, where there is a briflc polarity, i» a proof of the juftnefs of the conjeifture ; for if the compafs needle were arranged by tlie aftion of magnetic rocks, or even extenfive (Irata, near tlic fur- face of the earth, the attradioiis would bear a greater proportion to the polarities. We have even obl'erved this. A confiderable mafs of magnetic ftratum was found to derange the needle of a furveyor's theodolite at a confiderable diftance all around (about 140 yards). The writer placed the needle on a thin latli, which juft floated it on water in a large wooden difh, and fet it in a place where it was drawn about 15 degrees from the magnetic meridian. It was left in that lituation a whole night, well detended from the wind by a board laid on the di(h. Next morning it was found applied to that I'ide of the dilli which was nearell to the di- llurbiiig rocks. It had moved about fix inches. This was repealed three times, and each time it moved in the fame direiflion (nearly), which differed confiderably from the direflion of the needle itfdf. It is now plain that we may, with confidence, aflume Dr Gilbert's tlieory of tervelfrial magnetilm as fufii- ciently ellablilhed. And, fince we mull certainly call that the nortli pole of the great majnet wliich is fitua- ted in the northern parts cf the earth, and fince thofe poles of magnets which attrafl each other have oppo- The direftive power of B - 4 m a 4* 9. . ^._^. When thefe direaive powers arc made equal, by pla- cing C at the proper dillances from A and B, we have, ^ ^ 1 /» 10. J^ m a : ^ h, OT m a : b - d' — a* : ^ — i And m a ■'' — m a b^—b d' — b a' ma r-b (d^'—a^) + m a b^ b {<''—"! + *■'• i^)^b'. Let the attraaions of A and B for the very fmall (itg polarities, we mull fay, that what we call the north magnet C, when its polarity to both is the fame, be- expielfed by the fymbols « and ^. We have. ..,=,?4^if4i.:T4^. -hich, by -(d'—a^Y S{d'—a')c_d^ 8(.f'- -b')c,r _ _^ 10. rs J- pole of a mariner's needle, or of any other magnet, has the fouthern polarity. We may now venture to go farther witl) I)r Gilbert, 70 and to fay that all the magnetilm whicli we obferve, Tlie great whether in nature or art, is either the immediate or the ""gpft i« J' i" remote eflFea ot the aaion of the great magnet. As the fourcc of all natu- =bd '3 ma J; that is, ''^'t l'^" ^0°" acquire a tranfient magnctifrn ; as hard ra|""magne. I ' Attr"'of A : attr" o( B = b d : m a J: bars, after long expofure, acquire a fenfible and perma- tifm. A^' an example of this comparifon let us fuppofe the nent magnetifm— we mult infer, that ores of iron, which -reat terrellrial magnet to be a thoufand times larger are in a Hate fit for impregnation, inuft acquire a fen- and ftronger than the magnet whole attraaion we are lible and permanent magnetifm, by continuing, for a fe- comparins; with that of terrellrial magnetifm. Let us ries of agef, in the bowels of the earth. And thus the alfo fuppofe the dillance from the pole of the great magnetifm of loadllones, which. iiU the dilcovery of net to be fmall, fo that its attraaion may be con- the natural magnetrfm acquired by polition, were the fources of all our magnctical phenomena, is now pro- ved to be a necelfary confequence of the eiiftence and agency of a great magnet contained in the bowels of the earth- mag r fideriUlc. Let Us make</= t200, a being = icoo, and b= I. Thefe are all very reafonable fuppofitions. Subltituting thefe values in the formula, we have attr" of A : atlr^ of B =: 1 : loco very nearly; and there- It MAGNETISM. It Ct:m% to refult from this theory, that, in thefe northern piits of the world, that part of every natural ■ loadftone that is at the extremity of the line drawn through the (lone in the mignetic direction Ihould be its pole ; and that the loadllone when properly poffed, (hould at itfelt' aifume the very pofition which it had in the mine. Dr Gilbert complains of the inattention of miners fiuJn hominum genus, tucro fot'tus quam phyjim conjukntts) to this important circumftance. Once, how- ever, he had the good i'ortuneto be advertifed of a great magnetic niafs lying in its matrix. He repaired quick- ly to the mine, examined it, and marked its points which were in the extremities of the magnetic line. When it was detached from its matrix, he had the plea- lure ot linding its poles in the very places heexpcded. The loaddone was of conliderable fue, weighing about 20 pounds. — Mr Wilcke gives in the Swediih Com- inentiries feveral inllances of the fame kind. 15ut lliould this always be tlic cafe ? By no means. There are many circumltances wliich may give the inag- i'.e:ifm of a loaddone a very different direflion. We have found, th-it fimple juxtapofiticn to a magnet will fomctimes give a fucceUion of poles to a long bar of hard fteel. The fame thing may happen to an extenfive vein of magnetifable matter. The loaJfione taken out of this vein may have been placed like that of a foft bar placed in the magnetic line, if lying in one part of the vein J if taken from another part ot it, its polarity may bt the very rcverfe ; and in another part it may have no roagnetifm, although completely fitted for acquiring if. It may have its poles placed In a direction different from all thefe, in confequence ot the vicinity of a great- er kiaJllonc. As loadilones pt iFclfid ot v gorous mag- netifm aie always found only in fmall pieces, anj in pie- ces ot Vdrii us fizes and force, we mull expe-fl eveiy po- faion ot their poles. The only tiling that we can ei- pecl by theory is, that aiijnining loadllones will have tlitir iiiendly poles turned toward each cthei, aid a general pievalence ct or ter.dency to a polarity lymme- trical with that of the eanli. The reader w;ll find fome more oblervations to this purpofs in the aiticle Vari.vtion, Eucycl. p. 623. as alio in Gilbert's tieatife, U. III. c. 2. p. 121. Nor fhonld all ilrata or malTes of iron ore he magne- lical. We know that none are fufceptible of induced magnetitm, but Inch as are, to a certain degree, in the metallic lla'e. Such ores are not abundant. Nay, ev;n i.ll of I'uch (Irata do not necelFarily acquire mai;ne- lifni by the action of the great m.i^net. If their prin- cipal dimcnfions lie nearly perpendicular to the magne- tic direflion, they will not acquire any fcnfible quanti- ty. A (Iraium ia thi> country, rifmg aliout 17 degrees to the N. N. W. will tc'rfrcelv acquire m^fgnetiim. It nay alto happen, that the influence of the great mag- net is cout.tttadcd by that of fome exLcnIive (iratum inaccffllblc to man, by icalonof us great depth. Tliu'- we lie, that xU the appe.irances of the otigioal niagaetifin of loadflonss are perttdly confillcnt with the notion that they are eflfeifls of one general cofmical caufe, tlie aflion cf the great magnet coniained in the earth, ar.tl llat there is no cccafun tn fu|)poie this great magnet to d ffer, in its conftituiion or manner of at^ion, from the fmall riialfes ol fimilar matter called loaJUore. The only difiiculiy tiiat prefcntt, itfelt is ;hc gieat (iipc- riority of magnetic icrce obfervable in foixis loadlloncs 415 over other maffes of ores circumjacent, which are not dillinguilhable by us by any other circumftance. We acknowledge curfelves unable to folve this difficulty ; for the magnetifm of fuch pieces is fometimes incom- parably ilronger than what a bar of iron acquires by po- fition ; yet this bar is much more fufceptible than the ores which are fit for becoming hiadllrnes. Perhaps there is fome chemical change which obtains gradually in certain matTes, v/hich aids the impregnation, in the fame way that we know that being red hot dellroys all magnetifm, whether in a metal bar or in on ore. This feems to be confirmed by what we fee in fome old iron ftanchions, which acq\nre the (Irongetl magnetifm in thole parts of their fubllance which are conibininj; thenifelves with ingredients floating in the atmofphere. That part which is cafed m the flone, and extVliates and fplits with ruft, being converted into fjmething like wliat is called finery-cinder, becomes highly and permanently magnetic. Such peculiarities as thefe, ope- rating for ages, may allow a degiee of mjgnetical im- pregnation (in whatever this may ccnfift) to tale pl.KC, to which we can fee no rcfemblance in our experiments. It would be worth while to place iron wires in a tube in the magnetic diredlion, which could be kept of a proper red heat, while it is converted into rethiops l)y lleam. It is not unlikely thst it would acquire a f;n- iible and permanent magnetifm in this way. It may be, that the little atoms, as they arrange themfelves in, a tort of cryftaline or fynimetncal form, may alio ar- range fo as to favour magnetifm. Were this tried in the vicinity of a flrong magnet, the effeft might be more remarkable and precife. Perhape, tOLi, wliile iron is precipitated in a metallic form from its ioliitlons by another metal, fomething of the lame kind may hap- pen. We know, that proper ores of iron, expufed to cementation in a low red heat, in the magnetic direc- tion, becomes magnetic. Notice has been taken in the Encycl. art. Varia- tion, of the attempts of ingenious men to explain the change which is obferved in all parts cf the gl'be, on the direflion of the mariner's needle, the gradu.il change of the variation. The hypothefis of Dr Halley, that the globe which we inhabit is hollow, and inclofes a magnetic nucleus, moving round anoilier axis, is not inconfillent with any natural law, if he did n' t luppofe the interval filled up with fome fluid. The aftiou cf the nucleus and Ihell on the intervening fluid wtnild gradually bring the two to one oimmcn m^ tion of ro- tation, as may be inferred iVom the reafonings employ, ed by Newton in iiis remarks on the Cartelian v itices. Leaving tut this circurnflance, thcie is only another caufe which can aircifi, and mull affctf, the rctatir;, •^f both ; nanuly, the mutual aclion ot the magnetic nu- cleus, and the mafles of magnetic matter in the fliell. If the axis of rotatii n of this nucleus be difFeicut from the line joii>.,g its magnetic pjles, thefe poles will have a motion relative to the lliell ; and this moti'in miy ea- fily be conceived fuch as will produce ihe changes of magnetic direiltion which we oblervc. It may even, produce a motion of ihc northern magnetic p' le in one dirtftion, and of tlie fouthein pole in the oppofite di- reftion, and this with the appearance of dilferciit periods of rotation, a- fopprfed by Mr Churchman. Wc uiajr- heie oblervc, by the way, that the change of magnciic diredicn in this country is not nearly fo gre.it as is, iomnacijlj' 73^ Natural CLufes <d the change* of the mag-, nctic <iiIe^,-^- tion. 4iC> MAGNETISM. cnmmnnly imagined. The horizontal needle lias (liift- ed its polition iibout 35" at London lince 1585 ; but the point ot' the dipping needle his not ciianged 10". We may alfo cbierve, that when the pole ot the cential magnet changes its place, the magnetii'm ot an exten- iive (Itatum, influenced by it, may fo alter its difpofi- lion, as to change the polition of the compafs needle in the oppofite direftion to that of the change which the central magnet aline would induce on it. But as motions have not yet been afilgned to this nu- cku5, whicii quadrate with the obfcrved politions of the needle, and as the very exillence ol it is hypothetical, it may not be amifs to examine, whether futli a cliange of variation may not be explained by wliat we know ot the laws of magnetifm, and ot the internal conllitution of this earth ? I. It is pretty certain, that the veins in wliich load- flones are tound are not parts of the great magnet. This appears from their having two poles while in the mine, and alfi) from the very fmall depth to which man has been able to penetrate. When we compare the politions of the dipping needle with thofe of a i'mall needle near a magnet, we mud infer, that the poles are very far be- low the furfacc. Yet we know, that there are magnelifable ftrata of very great extent occupying a very confiderable portion of the external covering. Though their bulk and abfo- lute power rnay be fmall, when compared with thofe of the great magnet, yet their greater vicinity to the needles on which obfervalions are made, may give them a very fenfible influence. In this way may a great deal of the obferved irregularities of the politions of the needle be accounted for. In the Lagoon at Teneriffe, FeuiUce obferved the variation \l° 30' well in 1724, while at the head of the ifland it vras only 5''. Tiie dip at the Lagoon was 63" 30', greatly furpafllng what was ob- ferved in the neii;hbour!iood. Mullcr found, in the mountains of Bohemia, great and defultory differences of declination, amounting fometimes to 50*'. At Man- tua, the variation in 1758 was 12° ; while at Bononia and Brixia it was nearly 18°. Great irregularities were tibllrvtd by Gotte in the Gulpii of Finland, efpecially near the illand of Sulfari, among fome rocks : on one of thefe, the needle thewed no polarity. Captain Cook snd Captain Phipps obferved differences of 10°, extend- ing to a confiderable diftance, on the well coafts of North Ameiica. In the neighbourhood of the ifland ILlba in the Mediterranean, the polition of the needle is greatly atfefled by the iron (Irata, in which that ifland fo much abounds. In this country, there are alfo ob- ferved fmall deviations, which extend over confiderable tufts of country, indicating a great extent of ftrata that are weakly magnetic. Since fuch ftrata receive their magnetifm by induction, in a manner fimilar to a bar of hard fteel, and lince we know that this receives it gradually, it may very probably happen, that a long feiies of years may elapfe before the magnetifm attains its ultimate difpolition. Here, then, is a neceffary change of the msgnetic di- reftion ; and although it may be very different in diffe- rent places, according to the difpofition and the power ot thofe ftrata, there muft be a general vergency of it one way. 2. It isvvell known that all metals, and particularly iron, are in a progi efs of continual produiSion and de- metallization. The veins of metal?, and more particu- larly thofe ot iron, are evidently of pofterior date to that of the rocks in which they are lodged. Chemiftrjr teaches us, by the very nature of the fubftances which compote tlicm, that they are in a l^ate of continual change. This is another caufe of change in the magne- tic direflion. Nay, we know that fome of them have fuddenly changed their fituation by earthquakes and volcanoes. Some of the ftreams of lava from Vefuvius and iEtna abound in iron. This has greatly changed its fituation ; and if the ftrata from which it proceeded were magnetical, the needle in its neighbourhood muft be alfedled. Nay, lubtenancan heat alone will effeifl a change, by changing the magnetilm of the ftrata. Mr Lievog, royal aftronomer at Belfelledt in Iceland, writes, that the great eruption from Hecla in 1783, changetl the direflion of the needle nine degrees in the immedi- ate neighbourhood. This change was produced at a milt's dillance from the frozen lava ; and itdiminiflied to two degrees at the diftance of 2 \ miles. He could not approach any nearer, on account of the heat ftill re- maining in the lava, alter an interval of 1 4 months. All thefe caufes of change in the diredlion of the maiiner's needle muft be partial and irregular. But there is another caufe, which is cofmical and univerfal. Dr Hallcy's fuppofition of four poles, or, at leaft, the fuppolition of irregular and diffufed poles, feems the only thing that will agree with the obl'ervations of de- clination. We know that all magnetifm of this kind (that is, difpofed in this manner) has a natural tendency to change. The two northern poles may have the fame or oppolite polarities. If they are the fame, their ac- tion on each other tends todiminifh the general magne- tifm, and to caufe the centre of effort to approach the centre of tlie magnet. If they have oppolite polarities, the contrary etfeft will be produced. The general mag- netifm of each will increaie, and the pole (or its centre of effort) will approach to the furface. In either of thefe cafes, the compound magnetifm of the whole may- change exceedingly, by a change by no means confider- able in the magnetifm of each pair of poles. It is difH- cult to fubjedl this to calculation ; but the reader may- have very convincing proof of it, by taking a ftrong and a weaker magnet of the fame length, and one of them, at leaft, ot fteel not harder than fpring temper. Lay them acrofs each other like an acute letter X ; and then place a compafs needle, fo that its plane of ro- tation may be perpendicular to the plane of the X. Note exaiftly the pofition in which the needle fettles. In a ttw minutes after, it will be found to change con- fiderably, although no remarkable change has yet hap- pened to the magnets tliemfelves. — I W i W Wr. flatter ourfelves, that our readers will grant that the preceding pages contain what mty juftly be called a theory of magnetifm, in as much as we have been able to include every phenomenon in one general faft, the indudion of magnetifm ; and have given fuch a de- fcription of that faft and its modific.itions, that we can accurately predict what will be the appearances of mag- nets and iron put into any defired fituation with refpetft to each other. If our notions of philofophical difqui- fition (delivered in aiticle Philosophy, Encycl.) be juft, we have explained the fubordinate phenomena, or have given a theory of magnetifm. But 74 Specula- tions about the origin of magne- tifm. Hjr- p'ottiefis of .Xpinua. MAGNETISM. But it is not eafy to fatisfy human curiofity. Men that men, who have a reputation to lofc, nioiilj ever have even inveftigated, or fought for caufei of llie per- hazard fuch crude and iinniecliaiiic;il dreams btf(re ihe feverance of matter in iis preftnt condition. We have public eye. Tiie mind of man cannot conceive the pol"- liot been contented with Newton's theory of llie celef- iibihty of their formation ; and if they are really form- tial motions, and liave fouglit for the caufe of that mu- ed, the efFe(fts fhould be the very oppofite of thofe that tunl tendency which he called gravitation, and ol which are obferved : the llream Ihould mo\e thofe bodies leaft all the motions are particular inftances. which afford ready channels for its pallij^e. If a rag Philofophers have been no lefs inquifitive after what of iron filings be arranged by the impulfion of fuch a jnay be the caufe of that mutual attrat'lion of the diUi- llream, it fnould be carried along by it ; and if it is h/i- ITiilar poles, and the repullion of the fimilar poles, and pelUd toward one end of the magnet, it fhouid be ini- that faculty of mutual impregnation, or excitement, pelledy'rom the other end. Since we now knou-, that which lb remarkably diftinguiih iron, in its various ftates, each particle of filings is a momentary magnet, we mule from all other fubftances. The adion of bodies on each allow a fimilar llrearn whirling round each. Is that an other at a diltance, has appeared to them an abl'urdity, explanation which exceeds all power of conception ? and all have had recourfe to fome material intermedium. But has it ever been ihewn, that there is any impul- The phenomenon of the arrangement of iron filings is lion at all in thefc phenomena ? Wiiere is the impeilinj; extremely curious, and naturally engages the attention, fubdance ? The only argument ever oflered for iis ex- It is hardly pothble to look at it without the thought ifleuce i>, that we are refolvtd that the phenomena of arifing in the mind of a fiream ilfuing from one pole of magnetifm fliall be produced by impulfion, and the ar. the magnet, moving round it, entering by the other pole, rangement of iron filings looks fomewhat like a fiream. and aLjain iffuing from the furmer outlet. Accordingly, But enough of this. We trufl that we have fhewn the 417 this notion has been entertained from the eailiefl times, and different fpeculatifls have had different ways of con- ceiving how this (tream operated the etfcds which we obferve. way in which this arrangement obtains in the cleaieit manner. Every particle becomes magnetic by induc- tion. This is a faft, which fets all realcining at defi- ance. The polarity of each rag is fo difpofed, that The fimpleA and mofl obvious was jufl to make it their adjoining ends turn to eacli other. This is ano- ad like any other Ifream of fluid matter, by impulfion. ther uncontrovertible facf. And thei'e two fads cuolain Impulfion is the thing aimed at by all the fpeculatills. the whole. The arrangement of iron tilings, therefore, is They have a notion, that we conceive this way of com- a fecondary fad, depending on principle^ more general : municating motion with intuitive clearnefs, and that a and therefore cannot, confiftently «ith jufl logic, be af- thiiig is fully explained when it can be fhewn that it is fumed as the foundati( n of a theory, acile of impulfion. We have confidered the authority Had magnetifm exhibited no phenomena befides the of thele explanations in the ailicle Impulsion of this attradion and repullion of magnets, it is likelv that we Supplement, and need not repeat our reafons tor refufing Ihould not have proceeded very tar in our theories, and it any pre-eminence. But even wlien we have fhewn would have contented ourfelves with reducing thefe tlie phenomena to be cafes of impulfion by fuch a fiream, phenomena to their mofl general laws. But the com- the greatefl difTiculty, the molt curious and the moll munication of magnetifm leems a gieat mylUry. Tlie embarrafTing, is to afcei tain the fources of this impuifive fimple approachof a magnet ce^nimunicates theie powers motion of the fluid — How, and from what caufe docs it to a piece of iron ; and this without any diminution of begin ? What forces bend it in curves round the magnet ? its own powers. On the contrary, beginning with mag- Thole philofophers, whofe principle obliges them to ex- nets which have hardly any fentible power, we can, by plain gravitation alfo by impulfe, mufl have another a proper alternation of the manipuLti ins, communicate ftreani to impel this into its curves. Admg by impul- the flrongeft magnetifm to as many hard fleel bars as fion, this magnetic ftream mult lofe a quantity of mo- we pleafe ; and the original magnets fhall be brought tion equal to what it communicates. What is to re- to their highefl degree of magnetifm. We liave no Aore this ? What direds it in a particular courfe thro' notion of powers or faculties, but as qualities of fome the magnet ! And what is it that can totally alter that fubllances in which they are inherent. Yet here is no courfe — in a moment — in all the phenomena of induced appearance of f'omeihing abllr.ided from one body, and magnetifm? How does it impel? Lucretius, cither communicated to, or fhared with another. The pro- of himf If, or fpcaking after the Greek philofophers, cefs is like kindling a great fire by a hmpL* fpark ; here makes it impel, not the iron, but the furrouiiding air, is no communication, but only odajhn given to the ci- fweeping it out of the way ; and thus giving occafion ertion of powers inherent in the combuliible matttr. It for the turrounding air to rufh around the magnet, and appears probable, that the cafe is the fame in magne- to hurry the bits of iron toward it. There is, perhaps, ti:m ; and that all ihat is performed in making a magnet more ingenious refinement in this thought than in any is the excitement of powers already in the fleel, or the of the impuifive theories adopted fince Jiis day by Dcs giving occafion for llieir exertion ; as burning the thread Cartes, Euler, arid other great piiilofophers : But it is whicli ties togeilier the t«o ends of a bjw, allnws it to fagacioufly remarked by D. Gregory, in his MS. notes unbend. This notion did not efcape the lagacity of on Newton, that this theory of Lucretius falls to the Dr Gilbert ; and he is at much pains to Ihcw, that the ground; becaule the experiments fuccced jiill as well cou'to magnrl'ua is a quality inherent in all m.ignctical under water as in the air. As to the explanations, or bodies, and only requires the proper circum.lancc for its defciiptions, of the canals and their dock gates, open- exertion. He is not very Ibttunate in his attempts to ing in one diredion, and Ihutting in the other, conllruc- explain bow it is developed by the viciiiit . of a instr- tions that are changed in an iullant in a bar of iron, by net, and how this faculty, or adual eie tion of this changing the podiion of the magnet, we only wondtr power, becomes permanent in one bod), while io SuppL. Vol. II. 3 Q ai.o htr 4iS 74 liypclhil'ij of ^piiiu^ MAGNETISM. another it rei]uires the conftint prcfence of tlie mag- net. It is to MriEpinus, of the Imperial Academy of St Petersburg:, that we are indebted fcr the firft really philcfophical attempt to explain all thele mylleries. We mentioned, in the article El£ctricity, Sappl. the circurnllancc which luggcllcd the tird hint of this the- ory to ^pinui, viz. iho refcmblance between tlie at- tractions and rcpullions of the tourmaline and of a mag- net. A ni;iterial caufe of the elcjlric piienomcna had lung been thouglit familiar to the philoibphers. They l.nd attributed tliem to a fluid wiiich they called an elec- tric fl lid, and wiiich tliey conceived to be Ihared among bodies ill dirf'erent proportions, and to be transferable from rne to another. Dr Franklin's theory cf the Ley- den phi^l, whidi led him to think that thefaculty of pro- ducing the ekflrical plienomtna depended on the defi- ciency as well as the redundancy o! this fluid, ccmbin. ed with the phenomena of induced eleflricity, fuggefl- ed toiEpinus a very perfpicuous method of ftating the analogy of the tourmaline and tlie magnet; which he publilhcd in 1758 in a paper read to the academy. Reflefting more deeply on thefe things, Mr ^pinus came by degrees to perceive the perfcft fimilarity be- tween all the piienomcna of eledricitj- by polition and thofe of inagnetifni ; and tliis led him to account for them in the fame manner. As the phenomena of the l,eyden phial, explained in Fianklin's manner, fliews that a body may appear eledrical all over, by having lefs than its natural quantity of the cleflric fluid, as well as by liaving more, it feemed to follow, that it may alfo be fo in refpeft to different parts of the fame body ; and therefore a body may become eleifiritied in cppo- fite wavs at its two extremities, merely by abllracling the fluid from one end, and condeiifing it in the other ; and thus may be explained the phenomena of induced electricity, where nothing appears to have been commu- nicated ttrm one body to the other. If this be the cafe, the two ends of a l)ody rendered eleiftric by induction ihould exhibit the fame diltiniftions of phenomena that are exhibited by bodies wholly redundant and wholly deficient. The redundant ends (hnuld repel each other ; fo (liould the deficient ends ; and a redundant part ihould afraiS a deficient. All thefe refuks of tlie con- jecture tally ex.iiftly with obfervaiion, and give a high degree of probability to the conjeiflure. The liniiianty {.t ihefe phenomena to the attractions of the diilimilar poks ijf a magnet, and the repulfunsot the fimilar poles, is fo ftriking, th.it the fame mode of explanation forces ilftlf on the mind, and led Mr ^Epinus to think, that the faculty of producing the mignetical phenomena be- longed to a niJgnetical fluid, reUding in all bodies fuf- ceplible of magnetifm ; and that tiie exertion of this fa- culty required nothing but the abllraiflion of the fluid from one end of the magnetic bar, and its conflipation in the other. And this conjeiSure was confirmed by obferv- ing, that in the induction of magnetil'ni on a piece of iron, the power of ihe magnet is no: diminithed. All liiefe circumftances kd Mr jEpinus to frame the following hypothefis : 1. There exifts a fubllance in all magnetic bodies, which may be called the magnetic fluid ; the particles cf which repel each other with a furce decreafing as the dillance increafes. 2. The particles of magnetic fluid attiadl, and are attraifled by the particles of iron, with a force that va- ries according to the fame law. 3. The particles of iron repel each other according to the fame law. 4. The m.ignetic fluid moves, without any confide- rable obftruciion, through the pores of iron and foft ileel ; but is more and more obftruded in its motion as the Ileel is tempered harder ; and in hard tempered ftcel, and in the ores of iron, it is moved with the greatell difficulty. In confequence of this fuppofed attra^ion for iron, the fluid may be contained in it in a certain determinate quantity. This quantity will be fuch, that the accumula- ted attraction of a panicle for all the iron balances, or is equal to, therepulfion of all the fluid which tlie iron con- tains. The quantity of fluid competent to a particle of iron is fuppol'ed to be fuch, that the repulfion exerted between it and the fluid compttent to another particle of iron is alfo equal to its attrndtion for that particle of iron : And therefore the attra<51ion between the fluid in an iron bar A for the iron of another bar li, is juft equal to its repulfion for the fluid in B ; it is alfo equal to the repulfion of the iron in A for the iron in B. Tliis quantity of fluid refiding in the iron may be called its NATURAL QUANTITY. In confequence of the mobility through tlie pores of the iron, the magnetic fluid may be abllraifled from one end of a bar, and condenfed in the other, by the agency of a proper external force. But this is a violent ftate. The mutual repulfion of the particles of condenfed fluid, and the attraflion of the iron which it has quitted, tend to produce a more uniform dilhibu- tion. If we refled on the law of aiflion, we (hall clear- ly perceive, that fomewhat of this tendency muft ob- tain in every Hate of condenfation and raiefadion, and that there can be a perfeil equilibrium only when the fluid is diffufed with perfed uniformity. This, there- fore, may be called the natural state of the iron. If the refinance oppofed by the iron to the motion of the magnetic fluid be like that of perfert fluids to the inotion of folid bodies, ariling entiiely from the com- munication of motion, there is no tendency to uniform diflTufion fo weak as not to overcome fuch reuftance, and finally to produce this uniknm diftribution. But (as is more probable) it the obftruftion refembles that of a clammy fluid, or of a foft plailic body like clay, feme of the accumulation, produced by tlie agency oi an ex- ternal force, may rema'n vrhen the lotce is removed ; the diffiifion will ceafe whenever the equalifing force is jull in equilibrlo with the obllrodion. All the preceding circumllances of the hypothefis are fo perleifHy analogous to the hypothefis of Mr jE- pinus for explaining the eleiSrical phenomena, which is given in detail in the article Electricity of this Sup- plement, that it would be fuperfluous to enter into a mi- nute difculTion of their immediate refults. We there- fore beg the reader to perufe that part of the article Eleftricity where the elements ot jEpinus's hypothefis are delivered, and the phenomena of induced electricity explained (viz. from n° 11. to 60. inclufive), and to fuppofe the difcourle to relate to the magnctical i^a\6. Let N, S, «, /, be confidered as the overcharged and undercharged p.iits of a m,ignetical body, or the poles of a magnet, and ol iron rendered magneiical by induc- tion. We fliall confine our obfervaiions in this place to MAGNETISM. fit! to ihofe circumftances in >^h!ch the mechanical pheno- mena of magnetifm arehmited by thecircumllance, ihac magnets ;ilways contain thtirnatural quantity ol liuid ; fo iliat iheir adion on Iron, and on each other, depends entirely on its unequable diftribution ; as is the cale willi induced el.<5tricity. -5 Let the magnet NAS (fig. 26.), having its north Magiictifin pole NA overcharged, be fet near to the bar n B j of how iiidu- common iron, and let iheir axes form one ftraight line, ccd on iron ■p'jjg,^ ^35 jj, (),j jafe of eleftrics) the overcharged pole by juxtaro- ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^,^^ g ^^j^ ^^ means of the redundant fluid which it contains. For that portion of its fluid, which is juft fufficient for faturating the iion, will repel the fluid in B, juft as much as tiie iron in NA attraifts it ; and therefore the fluid in B fullains no change from this portion of the fluid in NA. In like manner, tiie pole SA afls on B only in confequence of the iron in SA, which is not faturated or attended by its equiva- lent fluid. If the fluid in B is immoveable, even (he redundant fluid in NA, and redundant iron in SA, will pro- duce no fcnfibh etFeft on it : For every particle of iron in B is accompanied by as much fluid as will balance, by its repullions and attra(51ions, the attraiflions and re- pullions of the equidiftant particle of iron. But as the magnetical fluid in I» is fuppofed to be eafily moveable, it will be repelled by the ledundaiit fluid in AN toward the remote extremity «, till ilie redllance that it meets with, joined to its o\sn tendency to uniform difFuiion, juft balances the repultion of AN. This tendency to uniform difiufion obt.tins ai foon as any fluid quits its place ; as has been fuflicienily explained in the Supple- meiitiry article Electricity, n" iCi. 17. &c. But, at the fame time, the redundant iron in AS at- traifls the fluid in B, and would abftracft it from B n, and condenfe it into B /. This attraction oppofes the repulfion now mentioned. But, becaufe AS is more remote fri m every point of B than AN is from the fame point, the repuUions of the redundant fluid in AN will prevail ; and, on the whole, fluid will be propelled toward n, and will be rarefied on the part B s. But as to what will be the law of diftribution, both in the re- dundant and deficient parts of B, it is plain that no- thing can be faid with precifion. This muft depend on the dilhibution of the fluid in the magnet NAS. The more diffufed that we fuppnfe the redundant fluid and matter in the magnet, the farther removed will the cen- tres of effort of its poles be from their extremities ; the fmaller will be the action of AN and AS, the fm.iller will be their difference of aflion ; and therefore the fmaller will be the condenfaticn in B «, and the rarc- faftion in Y> s. Hence we leirn, in the outfet of this attempt to explanation, that the a(5tion of a magnet will be fo much the greater as its poles are more concentra- ted. This is agreeable to obfcrvation, and gives fume credit to the hypi>lhc(ls. We can ju(l fee, in a very general manner, that tlie fluid will be rarer than its na- tural flate in /, and denfer in n ; and that the change of dtnlity is gradual, and that the dcnflty may be le. prelented by the orJinates of fonie line c b d ^fig. 27), while the natural denlity is reprcfentcd by the ordinates to the line C bY), parallel to j n. There will be fi.mc point B of the iron bir, where the fluid will hi of its natural denlity, and the ordinate B b will meet the line cbd'xa. the pomt of its interfct^ion with CD. All this aftion is internal and imperceptible. Let us inquire what will be the fajib.'e external aflion. There is a fuperiority of attraftion towards the magnet : For flnce the m.agneiic adiou is fuppofed to diminiih continually by an increafe of diftance, the curve, whofe ordinates reprcfent the forces, has its convexity toward the axis. Alfo, the force of the poles AN, AS are equal at equal diftinces: For, by the hypothefis, the attraflinn and repulfion of an individual particle are equal at equal dillances ; and the condenfa'.ion in AN is equal to the deficiency in AS, by the fame hype the- fts ; becaufe NAS ftill contains its natural quantity of fluid. Therefore the aftion of both [loles may be ex- preffed i)y the ordinates of the f.ime curve, and they will difier only by rcafon of their diftances. We may there- fore ex, icfs the anions by the four ordinates M ;/;, Py, Nn, (^7, ol fig. 2.; of which the piopeny (deduced fiom the fuigle ciicumilance vi its being convex to- ward the axis) is, thut M 7n -f. Qjj is greater than P/> -f N It. There is therefore a furplus of attraflion. It is only this furplus that is perceived. The fluid, move- able in B, but retained by it fo as not to be allowed to efcape, is prelFed towards its remote end n by the ei- cefsP/- — i^q of the repulfion of the redundant fluid in AN, above the attradion of the redundant iron in A&. This excefs on evei y panicle of the fluid is tranf- mitted, by the common laws ot hydroftaiics, to the ftratum immediately incumbent on the extremity n, and B is thus prefled away from A. But every particle of the folid matter in B is attracted towards A by the ex- cefs Mm — N/; of the attradion of the redundant fluid in AN above the repulfion of the redtindant iron ■ " AS ; and this exc efs is g reater tliat the other; for w -<- y is greater than /> 4- n. The piece of common iron n B/ is therefore attraft- ed, in confequence of the fluid in it having lieen pro- pelled towards its remote extremity, and diftiibutcd in a manner fomewhat refembling its diftribution in NAS. Now, in this hypothefib, magnetifm is held to depend entirely on the diftribution of the fluid. B has there- fore become a magnet, has magnetifm induced on it, and, only in confequence of this induvftion, is .atracled by A. Had we fuppofed the deficient, or fotith pole of A, to have been neareft to B, the redundjr.t matter in AN would have attrafled the moveable fluid in B more than the remoter redundant fluid in AS repels it ; and, on this account, the magnetic fluid wouKi have been con- ftipated in B s, and rarefied in B n. It would, in this cafe alfo, have been diftributed in a manner finnlar to its fituation in the magnet. And B would therefore have been a momentary magnet, having its redundant pole fronting the deficient or diflimilar pole of A. It is plain, that there would be the fame furplus of attrac- tion in this as in the former inftance, and B would (on the whole) be attrafled in confequence, and only i:i con- fequence, ol havin;; had a properly difp.)fed magnetifm induced on it by juxtapofition. 'I he ienlible attrac- tion, in this cafe, is a confequence of the diftribution now defcribed ; bccauf;, (ince the fluid coniiipated in tlie end next to A cannot quit B, the tendency of this fluid toward A muft pi els the i'oliil matter of B in this di- reaion (by hydioftatical laws) more than this folid matter is repelled in the oppolitc dire^ion. Thus it appears, that the hypothefis tallies ptecifely 3 G 2 with 419 420 MAGNETISM. wiih die iridudlion of magnetifm. We do not call this terwards ; at prefent, the hyfoihefit is, that it does not an explanation of the phenomenon ; fur the fad is, that tl'cape. it ii tlie hypothcfis lluc is explained by the phcnomc- If the key and wire have the pofition fig. lo. n" i. ):nn : 'i'hat is, if any pi;rfon be told tliat induced mag- the fluid is expelled from the parts in contaft, and is neiifm is produced by the a<flion of a fluid, in conle- condenfed in the remote ends. So far from attrafting quence of its liLuation being changed, he will find, that each other, the key and wire mull repel. They are ill order to agree with the attraction of diffimilar, and temporary magnets, having their finiilar poles fronting the repulfion of fimilar polts, he mull accommodate each otlier. They mud repel each other, if prefented the fluid to the phsnomena, by giving it the proper- in a fimilar manner to the fouth pole of the magnet, tiei afli^ncd to it by j^Epinus. If they be prefented as in n" 2. fig. to. where the But die agreement with this fimplefl pofllble cafe of adions ot both poles of the magnet are equal, the Hate the moll fimple example of induced magnciifm, is not of the fluid in them will not be affefted. The redun- enough to make us adept the hypothcfis'as adequate to dant pole of the magnet repels the moveable fluid in liypoUiefn ji^g explanation of all tlie magnetic phenomena. We ' ■•'• •'-- '•— ' •'— -- -' -'-- ' with A vaft ^^^^ confront the hypothefis with a variety of obfeiva variety of ^ whether til-, coincidence will be without exception. When ihe key CD, i« fig. 8. is brought below the conllipited norih pole N oi the magnet SAN, its own 76 Couformi ty uf the phcnomc' na. 3Ut We both the key and the wire toward the upper end^ ; but the deficient pole afls equally on it in the oppofite di- reiftion. It therefore remains uniformly dillnbuted through their fubllance ; and therefore they can exhi- bit no appearance of magnetifm. But il the key and wire be prefented to tiie /am: moveable flu'd ia propelled from C towards li, and is part ot the magnet, but in another poliiion, as (hewn ilifpoied in CB nearly alter the fame manner as in SAN. in fig. 8. n" 3. the fluid of the key will be abftrafled Theiefore the redundant fluid in the lower end of the from C, and condenfed in B, by the joint aclinn of key lepels the iiiOv;a; le fluid in the wire BD more both poles of the magnet. The lame tiling will liappen than the redundant matter in the upper end C attracts in the wire BD. Here, theretore, we iiave two mag. it • and thus the fluid is rarefied in the upper end of nets, with their drflimilar poles touching. They will at- the wiie BD, and condenled m its lower end D. CB traft each other ftrongly ; and if earned giadually to- and BD therefore are two temporary magnets, having ward the upper or lower end ol the ma,;net, they will iheirdifljniilar poles in contaift, or nearefl to each other, feparale belore the point li arrives abiealt of N or S. This is all that is required for their attradion. This For fimilar reafons, ti:e pieces of iron pitfen:ed to the tSciX is promoted by the a>flion of N on the wire BD, middle of the magnet, as in fig. 10. will have one fide alfo propelling the fluid toward D ; and thus incrtaling a weak north pole, and the other fide a weak fouth the mutual attraction of CB and BD. In like man- pole; but this will not be confpicuous, unlefs the pieces ner, when the key CB is held above the magnet, the be broad. moveable fluid in it is more attraifled by the redundant This experiment fliews, in a very perlpicuous man- matter in SA than it is repelled by the more remote ner, the competency of the hypothelis to tlie explana- redundant fluid in AN. The fame thing happens to tion of tlie phenomena. Wlien the fliid is not moved, the fluid in the wire BD. Tlietefore CB and BD magnetifm is not induced, even on the moll fufcej^tible jnull aitrad eacli other ; and the key will carry the fubllance. wire, although the magnet is below it, and alfo atcia&s Wlien a piece of iron A (fig. 10), nearly as large as it. This Angularity proceeds fiom the almoft perfecfl the magnet can carry, hangs at either pole, a hr'^e piece mobility of the fluid in the two pieces of common iron, ot iron B, brought r.ear to the pole on the other fide, which tenders their poles extremely conftipated ; where- fliould caufe it immediately to fall. If S be the defi- as the liardnefs required for the fixed magnetifm ot the cient pole, it caufes the fluid in A to afcend to ihe top, niaenet prevents this complete conllipation and rare- and A is aitrafted : bu', tor the fame reafon, it c lufes faction. This can be ftriiftly demonllrated in the cafe the fluid in B to accumulate in its lower end. This of flender rods of iron; but we can fhew, and expe- redundant fluid mull cvidenily conntera<fl the redun- lience confirms it, that in other cafes, depending on the dant matter in S, in the induftion of the magnetic Hale fhape and the temper of the pieces, the wire will not on A. Being more remote from A than S is, it can- adhere to the key, but to the magnet. not wholly prevent the accumulation in the upper end In the various fitualions and poGtions of the key and on A ; but it renders it fo trifling, that the remaining wire reprefenied in fig. 7. the aiflions of fome of tlie attradlion thence arifing cannot lu] port the weight of poles on the moveable fluid in the iron are oblique in A. This is a very inltruiflive expeiiment regard to the length of the pieces ; but, lince the move- able matter is fuppofed to be a fluid, it will ftiU be pro- pelled along the pieces, notwithftanding their obliquity, in the fame manner as gravity makes water occupy the lower end of a pipe lying obliquely. If indeed the But if, on the contrary, we bring a large piece of iron C below the heavy key A, this piece C will have its fluid accumulated in its upper end, both by the ac- tion of A on It, and by the action of the magnet. The atlraftion of the magnet for A Ihould therefore be aug- magnetic fluid coulJ efcape from the iron without any mented ; and a mignet Ihould carry a heavier lump of obflruflion by the prcpulfion of the magnet, it couM iron when a great lump is beyond it. And it is clear produce no attraftion, or fenfible motion, any more (we think), for fimilar reafons, that the magnetifm of than light does in a tranfparent body. What is demon- the magnet itfeli in fig. 11. ihould be increaied by ftrated of the eleflric fluid in the Supplemental article bringing a great lump of iron near its oppofite pole : Electricity, n° 133. is equally true here. Why the for the magnet differs from common iron only in the fluid does not efcape when it is fo perfciflly moveable, degree of the mobility of its fluid. is a qusftion cf anathei kind, aad will be confidered af- When a compafs needle is placed oppofite to the re- dundanc M A G N dnndant pole N of a magnet AN (fig. 28.), it arranges itfelf magnetically. If a piece of common iron be now prelented laterally to the near point of the needle, the redundant niaiter in the adjoining parts of the needle and the nor. (hould make them repel ; but if prefented to the remote end, the redundant matter in the iron fhould attrait the redundant fluid in that end of the needle, and that end (hould turn toward the iron. A parcel of (lender iron wires, carried by the pole of a magnet, as in fig. 29- (hould avoid each other. If N be the redundant pcle, the fluid in each wire «ill be driven to the remote end, where it muil repel the fimi- larly iituated fluid of its neighbour. The Came exter- nal appearance mufl be exhibited by pieces of wiie hang- ing at the deficient pole of the magnet. The redundant pole of a magnet A (fig. 30.) being held vertically above the centre of two pieces nf com- mon iion, moveable round a (lender pin, renders the middle of each deficient, and their extremities redun- dant; therefore they (hould repel each other, and fpread out. The lame efl'ed (hould be produced by the un- der charged pole of A. The redundant pole of a magnet A being applied to one branch of the piece of forked iron NCS (fig. 31.), fhould drive the fluid into its remote parts C, and then the branch NC lliould be able to induce the magnetic ftate on a bit of iron D. But if the deficient pole S of another magnet B be applied to ihe other branch, thefe two aflinns (hould counter.i(fl each other at C, and the iron Ihnnld remain indilferent, and fall. — Yet tlie magnet B alone would equally caufe C to carry the piece ot iron. It IS fuiely unnecefTiry to demonftrate, that the con- fequence of this hypothelis mult be, that when a mag- net puts any pi;ce of iron into the magnetic ftate, its own magneti(m is improved. For the induced magne- tifm o( the iron is always lb dllpofed as tn give the fluid in the magnet a greater conllipation where already con- denfed, and to a:ll'-difl mote fluid from the parts alrea- dy deficient. If roHgncilfm be produced by fuch a fluid, a magnet muil always improve by lying any how among pieces ot iron. But the cafe may be very d^flperent when magnet' are kept in each others neighl)i>iiihoo I. When the overch ir- ged poles of two magnets are placed (Von'i .g each o- ther, the redundant fluid in e.ich repels ihat in ihe uher more than it attraiffs the lemoter reJundant iron The magnets mull therefore repel each other Msifeover, in rendcting them magnetical, the repulfi in of redun- dant fluid, or the attraiSion of redundant matter o( fome other magnet, had been employed ; and when the mag- net was removed, forae of the conftlp.cted fluid over- came the obftruftion to its uniform diffufio", and efca- ped into the deficient pole ; what remains is withheld by the obrtrucfli. n, and the rell'iring forces are juft in eqiiilibrio with this obllruflion. If wc now add to them the repullion of redundant fluid, directed t iward the deficient pole, I'ome mote i^f the co:;lVipated fluid mud be driven that way, and tie magnet muH be weak- ened. Nay, it may be de(\royel, and even revcrfed, if one of the magnets be very poweiful. and have its own niagnetifm very fixed ; that is, if its iluid be very redundant, and meet with very great oblhticlinn to its motion. Hence it alfo iTiould follow, that the repul- fion obfcrved between two magotU (hould be weaker 421 ?7 E T I S M. at the fame diltance than their attraflion, and fhiuld follow a different law. For, in the courfe of the expe- riments, the fituaiion of the fluid in the magnets is con- tinually changing, and approaching to a (late of uni- form diSufion. Let us now examine into the fenfible effeifl of this fluid on a magnet which cannot move from its pbce, ExpUna- but can turn on its centre like a compafs needle. This ^^° "' '"* fcarcely requires any difculTion. We (hould only be re- ^^^^ ^„^ peating, with regard to the redundant fluid and redun- of polarity, dant matter, what we formerly faid in regard of north pole and fouth pole ; the little magnet mul^ arrange it- lelr nearly in the tangent of a magnetic curve. But it requires a more minute invelligation to determine what the fenfible phenomenon (hould be when the fluid ot the little magnet is perleftly moveable. Suppofc therefore a particle C (fig. 32.) of magne- tic fluid, at perfec'l liberty to move in every direftion, and a(5led on by the redundant and deficient poles of a magnet NAS. The redundant iron in S attrafts C in the direflion and with the force CF, while the redun- dant fluid in N repels it in the direilion and with the force CD. By their joint action it muft be urged in the direction and with the force CE, the diagonal (f the parallelogram CDEF, which muft be accurately a tangent to a magnetic curve. If this particle of fluid belong to the piece of iron n C /, which lies in that very diredion, it will unqueftionably be puihcd towards the extremity n. The fame muft happen to o her parti- cles. Hence it apnears that a piece of common iron in this lituation and pofition muft become a magnet, and mull retain this pofition ; i nlv the mechanical energy of the lever miy change the equilibrium of the magne- tic forces a little; becanfe when the piece of irun nC/ has any fenfib'e magnitude, the aiflion on its different points will be a litt'e unequal, and may compofe dia- gonals which divide a little from the tangent. Should the iron needle chance not to have the exaft pofition, but not deviate very far from it, it is alio cleai that the fluid, not being ;;ble to efcape, will prefs on the fide toward which it i> impelled ; and thus will caufe the needle to turn on its pivot, and finally arrange itfelf in magnetical and mechanical equilibrium, devii- ting fo much the lefs from a tangent to a magnetic curve as the piece of iron is fm^Ucr. Any piece of common iron, held in the neighbourhood of a magnet, will become more overcharged at one end and under- charged at the other, in prop Ttion as th:: pofition of its length comes nearer to the tangent of a magnetic curve. A (lender wire held perpendicular to thi; pofition, that is, perpendicular to the curve, (hould not acquire any fenfibli; magnetifm, cither attraftive or dircdive. ?8 We (urely need not now emjloy many words to Hxplma- fhew that a parcel of irnn filings, ftrewcd round a mag- "°" net, (hould arrange themfelvcs in the primary magnetic formed by curves, or that when ftrcwed round two magnets tliey iron fiUngi (hould fiirm the fecondary or compofite curves. 79 Let us now cnquiemore particularly into the modi- Erplnm- fications of this accumulation of macnetic fluid which """ " may rehilt Irom the n.mire ot the piece of iron, as it 1^ ^^ „f p^. pvit into the magnetic ftate. The propelling force of manf nt A afts againft the mutual repulfion of the particles of magnctlfni^ fluid in B, and alfo againft the obllru-Sion to its motion ^'^ "f '" through the pores o\ li. 'I'he greater this rhftru<flion, E»- the (mailer will be the accuiDulation which fufiices, in different a»id dcicr- conjundior. ougnetL'b 42fi MAGNETISM. conjunflion with the obllrudion and the attraflion of the ileferted iron, to balance the propullive force of tlie rediindant fluid in the overcharged pole of A. This circumllance tlicrelore mull limit the iiccumulition that can be produced in a given time. Thertfore the mag- iietifm produced on foft Heel or iron Ihould be greater than that produced in hard ftcel at the fame diltance. Hence the great advantai^e of foft poles, or of armour, or of ciippiiijr, to a loadllone, or to a bundle of hard bars. The beA form and dimeulions of this armour is certainly determinable by mathematical principles, if we knew the law of magnetical aiHinn, and the difpofi- tion of the magnetifm in our loadllone; but thefe are too impeife-ftly known in all cafes tor us to jiretend to give any exact rules. We mull decide expcriinciually by making the caps large at firft, and reducing them till we find the loadflone carry leis ; then make them a finall matter larger. The chief tilings to be minded arc the purity, the uniformity, and the loltnefs ot the iron, and the dofell pollible contaft. If the obllruilion rcfemble that to motion through a clammy iluid, the final accumulation in hard ileel may be nearly equal to that in iron, but will require much longer time. Alfo, becaufe fuch obftrudion to the mo- tion of the fluid will nearly balance the propelling force in p.irts that arc far removed irom tlie magnet, the ac- cumulation will begin thereabouts, while the bar beyond is not yet affedted. A redundant pole will be formed in that place. This will operate on what is mmed'iauly beyond it, driving tiie fluid farther on, and occafioning another accumulation at a fmall dillance. This may produce a fimilar etled in a Hill fmaller degree farther on. Thus the Heel bar will have the fluid alternately condenfed and rarefied, and contain alternate north and fouth poles. This Hate of diftribution will not be per- manent ; fluid will be gradually changing its place ; thefe poles will gradually advance along the bar, the re- moter poles becoming gradually more difFule and faint ; and it will not be till after a very long time that a re- gular magnetifm with two poles will be produced. To ftatc mathematically the procedure ot this niechanifm ■would require many pages. Yet it may be done in fonie limple cafes, as Newton has llated the procefs of aerial undulation. But we cannot enter upon the talk in this limited difiertation. What is faid in the Supple- mentary article Electricity {n° 217, 218.) on the diftribution of the eleflric fluid in an imperiedi infula- tor, will affift the reader to form a notion of the Itate of magnetifm during its induclion. That fuch alterna- tions proceed from fuch mechanifm, we have futficient proof in the intlances mentioned in the former part of this article. The wave, or curl, produced on the furface of a clammy fluid, is a phenomenon of the fame kind, and owing to fimilar caufes. When the magnet which has produced all thefe chan- ges is removed, it is evident that a part of this accu- mulation will be undone again. The repulfion of the condenfed fluid, and the attraftion of the deferted iron, will bring back fome of the fluid. But it is very evi- dent, that a part of the accumulation will remain, by jeafon of the obdrucflion to its motion in returning: and this remainder muft be fo much the greater as the obllruflion to the change of fuuation is greater. In Ihort, we cannot doubt but that the magnetifm which remains will be greater in hard than in fpring tempered (tecl. Thus have we traced the hypothefis In a great variety .'° of circumllances and (iiuationb, and pointed out what * '""^ " Inould be tlie eitcinal appearance in each. We did ^f,, f^^ not, in each inllance, mention the perfecfl coincidence m:iking ot thefe confequences with what is really obferved, but magneti. left it to the recoUciffion of the reader. The coinci» dence is indeed fo complete, that it feems hardly pof. fible to rcfufe granting that nature operates in this or fome very fimilar manner. We get fome confidence in the conjeiilure, and may even proceed to explain com- plicated phenomena by this hypothetical theory. We might proceed to fhew, that the efFedls of all the me- thods praiftifed by the artills in making artificial mag- nets are eafy confequences of the hypoihclis ; but this is hardly necelfary. We lliall jull mention fome fafts in thole proccHes which have puzzled the naturalifts. 1. A ftrong magnet is known to communicate the greateft magnetil'm to a bar of hard Heel ; but Mufchen- broek frequently found, that a weak magnet would communicate more to a foft than to a hard bar. Exfthtnat'wn. When the magnet is (Irong enough to impregnate both as highly as they are capable of, the hard bar mull be the llrongell ; but if it can fatiirate neither, the fpring-tenipered bar mufl be left the moft magnetical. 2. A llrong magnet has fometimes communicated no higher magnetifm than a weaker one ; both have been able to faturate the bar. 3. A weak magnet has often impaired a ftrong one by limply pafling along it two or three times ; but a piece of iron always improves a magnet by the fame treatment. Explanation^ When the north pole of a weak but hard magnet is fet on the north pole of a llrong one, ic mud certainly repel part of the fluid towards the other end, and thus it mull weaken the magnet. When it is carried forward, it cannot repel this back again, becaufe it is not of itfelf fuppofed capable of making the mag- net fo ftrong. But the end of a piece of iron, always acquiring a magnetifm opp fite to that of the part which it touches, muft increafe the accumulation o£ fluid where it is already condenfed, and mull expel more from thofe parts which are already deficient. 4. All the parts of the procefs of the double touch, as praftifed by Melfrs Mitchell and Canton, are ealily ex- plained by this hypothefis. A particle of fluid p (fig. 33.), fituated in the middle between the two magnets, is repelled in the direflion/if by the redundant pole of the magnet AN, whofe centre of efl;ort is fuppofed to be at C. It is attrafted with an equal force in the di- reftion p d toward the centre of effort of the deficient pole of AS. By thefe combined aflions it is impelled in the direftion />/. Now it is plain that, although by increafing the diftance between N and S, the forces with which thefe poles aifl on p are diminilhed, yet the compound force ^/ may increafe by the diminution of the angle dp e. If the a<5lion is as -p, pf will be great- elt when — , / - is a maximum, or (nearly) wlien Sin. • Jpf X Cof. dpf\% a maximum : but this depends on MAGNETISM. Si Probabi li- ty of the exiftence of a mag- netlcal £uiJ. on the place of the centre of effort. We can, however, gather from this obfervation, that the nearer we fup- pofe the centres of effort of the poles N and S to the extremities of the magnets, the nearer mull they be pla- ced to eacli other. But we mud alfo attend to another circunillance; that by bringing the pole^, nearer toge- ther, although we produce a greater a(5lion on the in- tervening fluid, this action is exerted on a fmaller quan- tity of it, and therefore a lefs effe<ft may be produced. This makes a wider pofiticn preferable ; but we have too imperfe<5t a Icnowledge of the circumftances to be able to determine this with accuracy. The unfa- vourable aftion on the fluid beyond the magnets mull alfo be confidered. Yet all this may be alcertained with precifion in fome very fimple inftances, and the deter- mination might be of fervice, if we had not a better method, independent of all hypothefes or theory ; name- ly, to place the magnets at the dillance where they are ohjtriied to lift tiie heaviefl bar of iron ; then we are certain that their action is moll favourable, all circum- fiances being combined. We alfo fee a fufficient reafon for preferring the po- rtion of the magnets employed by Mr Antheaume (and before him by Mr Servington Savery), in his pro- cefs for making artificial magnets. The form of the parallelogram dp ef\% then much more favourable, the diagonal />/ being much longer. We alfo fee, ni general, that, by the method of double touch, a much greater acctmiulation of fluid may be produced than by any other known procefs. And, ladly, fince no appearances indicate any diffe- rence between natural and artificial magnetifm, this hy- pothefis is equally applicable to the explanation of the phenomena ot natural magnetifm ; fuch as the pofition of the horizontal, and oi the dipping needle, and the impregnation of natural loaddones. Having fuch a body of evidence for the aptitude of lliis Jiypothefis for the explanation of phenumena, it will furely be agreeable to meet with any circumfiances which render the hypothecs itfelf more probable. Thefe are not wanting ; although it muft be acknowledged that nothing has yet appeared, befides the phenomena of Bwgnetiini, to give us any indication of the exiftence of fuel) a fluid ; but there are many particulars in their appearance which greatly refcmble the mechanical pro- perties of a fluid. Heating a rod of iron, and allowing it to cool in a pofition perpendicular to the magnetic direiflion, de- ftroys its m.igneiifm. lion is expanded by heat. If the particles of the magnetic fluid are retained between thofe of the iron, notwiilillanding the forces which tend to diflul'e them uniformly, they may thus efcape from between thefcrrugineous pai tides which withheld them. For fimilar reafons, magnetifm lliould be acquired by heating a bar and letting it cool in the magnetic di- retSion. But, bi-fides this evident mechanical opporlu- nily of motion, the union of fire (or whatever name the nenlogills may choole to give to the caufe of ex- panfion and of heat) with the particles of iron may to- tally change the aiEtion of ihofe particles en the parti- cles ot fluid in immediate contad with them ; nay, it may even change tlie fenlible law oi adion between magnet and magnet. Of this no one can doubt wlio undcrltands the a;ipllcatian of mathematical fcience to ccrpufculur attraction (See Boscovich, Stiff'-) A 423 change may be produced-in the aflion between m:?gnets without any remarkable change happening in the ac- tions within the magnet, and it may be jull the reverfe. I'he union of fire with tlie magnetic fluid may iiicreafe the mutual repulfion of its parts, as it does in all atrial fluids or gafes. Tliis alone would produce a diiripati(m of fome magnetifm. It may iocrcafe the attraiflion (at infenfible diltances) between the fluid and the iron, as it does in numberlefs cafes in chemlftry. It is well known that violently knocking or hammer- gj ing a magnet weakens its force, and that hammering a Fanhtr piece of iron in the magnetic direciion will give it fome grounds magnetifm. By this treatment the parts of the iron "'^ ''"•''"^^" are put into a tremulous motion, alternately approach- ing and receding from each other. In the inilanis of their recefi, tlie pent-up panicles of the fluid may make their efcape. A quantity of fmall fhot m^y be uni- formly mixed with a quantity of wheat, and will re- main fo for ever, if nothing difturb the veil'el ; but con- tinue to tap it fmartly with a flick for a long time, and the grains of fmall (hot will efcape from tlieir confine- ments, and will all go to the bottom. We may con- ceive the particles ot magnetic fluid to be affeded in the fame way. The fame effeifl is produced by grind- ing or filing magnets and loadflones. The latter are frequently made woithlefs by grinding them into tl>e proper fliape. This (hould be avoided as much as pof- fible, and it fhould always be done in moulds made of fofc iron and very maflive ; but this will not always pre- vent the dilCpation ofjlrong magnetifm. As a farther reafon for afligning this caufe for the diillpation in fuch cafes, it mull be obferved (Mufchenbroek tikts notice of it), that a magnet or loadllone may be ground at its neutral point without much d<image. But we had the following mod dillinifl example of the procefs. A very fine artificial magnet was fufpended by a thread, with its fouth pole down. A perlon was employed to knock it incelfantly with a piece of pebble, in fuch a manner as to make it ring very clearly, being extremely hard and elaftic. Its magnetifm was examined from time to time with a very fm„ll compafs needle. In three quar- ters of an hour, its magnetifm was not only deftroyed, but the lower end fhevved figns of a north pole. The fame m ;gnet was again touched, and made as flrong as before, and was then wotmd about very tight with wetted whipcord, leaving a fmall part bare in the mid- dle. It w.is again knocked with the pebble, but c.^uld no longer ring. At the end of three quarters of an hour its magnetifm was fllU vigorous, and was not near gone alter two hours and a quarter. We difcharged a Ley- den jar (coated with gold leaf) in tiie fame way. It Hood on the top of an axis ; and while this was turned round, the edge w.is rubbed with a very dry cork filled with rofm, and faftci-.ed to the end of a glafs rod. This made tlie jar found like the glafs of a liarmonica. One of them was Iplit in this operation. A fmall bar of Heel was heated red hot and temper- ed hard between two llrong magnets lying in fliallow boxes filled with water, and v/as more Itrongly impreg- nated in this way than in any other that we could tliiuk of for a bar of that Ihape. It has not yet been alcer- tained in wliat temperature it is moft fufceptible of mas- nelifm, but it was confiderably hotter than to be jull vifible in a dark place. It is ro objection to our way of conceiving m.ignctlfm, that the fluid is in:inoveable or 4-4 MAGNETISM. 83 WTiy mag' nets have always more than ■" pole. or ina>aive when the iron is red hot. Either of thcfe, or bolh of them, may refult from Uie union witi> the caufe of heat. Evtn a particular degree of expanfion may fo charge the law ci| ;ifli< n as to make it iwtnove- able ; or ilie union with caloric m.iy render it i>.ai!?;Ti? at all lenfibie dillances. Wc cannot but think, that fome very inllruifiive fafls might be obtained by experiments made on iron in the moment of its produ^ilion, and changes in various chemical procelfcs. All niagnetifm is gone when it is united wiih fulphur and aifenic in the greaiell number of ores ; and when it is in the ftate of an ochre, rull, aihiops, or folution in acids ; and when united with allringentfubllances, fuch as galls. When, and in what (late, does it become magnetic ? And whence comes the fluid oi iEpinus ? It were worth while to try, whether magnets have any influence in the formation or cryftallization of the martial falts ; and what will be their effetfl on iron when precipitated Irom its folutior.6 by another metal, &:c. &c. There remains one remarkable laiit to be taken no- tice of, which, in one point of view, is a confirmation of the hypotheiis, but in another prefents confiderable diiEculties. It is well known, that no magnet has ever been feen which has but one pole ; that is, on the hy- pothelis of ^pinus, which is wholly redundant, or w holly deficient. If all magnetifm be either the imme- diate or the remote etfeft of the great magnet contain- ed in the earth, and if it be produced by indudion, without any communication of lubdance, but only by changing the difpoluion of the fluid already in the iron, we never fliould fee a mugnet with only one pole. It rnuft be owned, that we never can make fuch a magnet by any of the procefles hitherto delcribed ; but theex- iltence of fuch does not feem impoflible. Suppofing a magnet of the moft regular magneiifm, having only two poles ; and that we cut it through at the neutral point, or that we cut or break off any part of it — the ia<5t is, (for the experiment has been tried ever lince men began to fpeculate about magnetilrn), tint each jiart becomes an ordinary magnet, with two poles, one of which is of the fame kind as before the feparatlon. The queftion now is. What fhoulJ happen according to the theory maintained by ^pinus : — Tentam. Thior. Eletl. et Magmii/mi, p. 1 04, &c. Let NAb (hg. 34.) be a magnet, cf which N is the overcharged pole. Let the ordinates of the curve DAE exprefb the difference between the natural denfi- ty of the fluid, in a ftate of uniform diffufion, and its denlity as it is really difpofed in the magnet. The area/i n ND will there exprefs the quantity of redun- dant fluid in the part n N, and the area q ES m expref- Ics the fluid wanting in the part S m. The interfe(5lion A marks that part of the magnet where the fluid is of its natural denfity. Suppole the pan N n to be fepa- rated from the reft, containing the redundant fluid ND p n. The tendency of this fluid to efcape from the iron with whiih it is conne(5ted will be greater (Mr ./Epiuus thinks) than before ; becaul'c ics tendency to quit the magnet formerly was reprell'ed by the attrac- tions of the redundant matter contained in AS. This is certainly true ot the extremity N ; nay, perhaps of all the old external furface. Fluid will therefore efcape. iSuppole that fo much has quitted the iron that the point n has the fluid of its natural denfity, as is repre- lented iu n° 3. there is ftill a force operating atn, tend- 84 ing toefcipc, anfing from tlie rfpiilfion of all the re- dundant fluid n DN. If tiiis be fufficient for overcom- ing the obftrudion, it will really efcape, and the iron will be lelt in the ftate reprelented by 11° 4. with an overcharged part/N, and an undercharged part/n. In like manner, the tendency of the magnetic fluid furrounding the magnet tu enter into its deficient pole, will be greater when it is feparated from the other, not being checked by the repullion of the redundant fluid in that other. Mr iEpinus relates fome experiments which he mada on this fubjed. The general refult of them was, that the moment the parts were feparated, each had two poles, and that the neutral point of each magnet was much nearer to the place of their former union than to their other ends. In a quarter of an hour afterward, the neutral points had advanced nearer to their middle, and continued to do fo, by very fniall ileps, for fome hours, and fometimes days, and finally were ftationary in their middles. We acknowledge, that this reafoning docs not alto- gether latisfy us, and that the gradual progrefs of the ^'.Vj^on. neutral point toward the middle of each piece, although jng. agreeable to what Ihould lefult from an efcape of fluid, is not a proof of it. We know already, that the in- duiflion of magnetifm is a progrelfive tiling ; and we ftiuuld have expedcd this chanj^e of the fitualionof the neutral point, whatever be the nature of magnetifm. There is fomething fimilar to this, and perhaps equal- ly puzzling, in the immediate recovery of magnetifm which has been weakened by heat; it is partly reco- vercd on cooling. But our chief difficulty is this : At the point A (fig. 34.) every thing is in equilibrium before the frac- ture. The particle A is repelled by the redundant fluid in AN, and attrafted by the redundant matter in AS , yet it does not move, for the magnetifm is fup- pofed to have permanency. Therefore the obftruiftion at A cannot be overcome by the united rcpuliion of AN and attraiflion of AS. Nor can the obftrudioii at N be overcome by the difference of thefe two forces. Now fuppofe AS annihilated. The change made on the ftate of things at A is furely greater than that at N, becaule the force abftraiftcd is greater, the diftance being lefs. It does not clearly appear, therefore, that the removal of AS fhould occafion an efflux at N. This, however is not imp ffible ; becaufe the fluiil may be fo difpofed, by great conftipation near N, and no great excefs of denfity near A, that a fmaller change at N may produce an efflux there. But fiirely the tendency to efcape at A muft now be diminiflied, inftead of be- ing greater after the fraiffure. And if any efcape from N, this will ftill more diminilh that tendency to efcape from A. It does not therefore appear a clear cinfe- quence of the general theory, that the conftipated fluid Ih uld efcape ; and m >re particul 11 ly, that A Ihould become deficient. And with refpedf to the entry of fluid into the other fragment, and its becoming (over- charged St ?/i, the reafoning feem^ ftill hf's convincing. The Iteps of the phyfical prorefs in the two p;'ris of the original magnet are by no means convertible or counterparts of each other. There is nothing in the part AS to refemble the force of repuliion really exert- ing itfelf in the correfponding point of AN. There would be, if there were a particle of fluid in that place ; but MAGNETISM. 425 but there is not, Tlie tendency therefore of external terfeflion of the fcconilary curves, fne wing that the bars fluid to enter there, does not rcfcmble the tendency of were really two magnets, and not one. the internal fluid to expand and diffipate. It is true, On the other hand, when a piece is broken fff frorri indeed, the dil'courfe fhould be confined to points of a magnet, the fucceflion and elafiic tremor into which the furface. But the internal motion mud alio be con- the parts are thrown, and even the bending previous to fidered ; and the great objcdion alv.ays remains, name- the fraifhire, may give opportunity to a diflipaiion, ly, that the obftiuiflion at A (n° i.) or at n (n" 3.) which could not other wife happen. The parts ihculd is fufficient to prevent the palTage of a particle of fluid be feparated by coirolion in an acid, and the gradual from the pole AN into the pole AS, when urged by change ofmagnetil'm fhc uld be carefully noted. The the repulfion of the fluid in the one and the attra<51iou writer of this article has made fonie experiments of this of the iron in the other; and yet will not prevent the nature, the refults of whicli prtfent (ome curious obfer- efcape of a particle v.hen one of thofe caufe^ of motion vations : but they are not yet brought to a concluficn is removed. Add to this, that the whole hypothefis that is fit to be Isid bifjrc tlie public. alfumes as a principle, that the rellllance to efcape from Mr Prevot of Geneva, in a dill'^rtation on the origin *> any point is greater than the obftruflion to motion of magnetic forces, endeavours to give a theory which ^ij""','" through the poies. This is readily granted; foi how- obviates the only difficulty in that of iEpinus ; but it " ever great we fuppofe the attr;i(51ion, in the limits of is incomparably more complex, employing two fluids, phyfical contact, it will be no obftru<51ion to motion which by their union conipofe a third, which he calls through the pores, becaufe the particle is equally af- combined fluid. There is much ingenuity, and evea fefted by the oppofite fides of the pores ; whereas, in mathematical addrefs, in adjufting the relative pr(>per- cjuitting the body altogether, there is nothing beyond ties of thofe fluids. But fonie ot them are palpably in- the body to counierad the attraflion by which it is re- comp^itible ; ex. gr. ihe particles of each attraci each tained. other, but thofe of the other kind moll llrongly ; yet There feems fomething wanting to accommodate this they are both elaftic like air. This is fuie'.y incon- beautiful hypothefis of Mr ^pinus to this remarkable ceivable. — Granting this, however, he fuits his dif- phenomcnon ; and the coincidence is otberwife fo com- ferent attra<fiion5, fo that a llrong elcilive attraction of plete, that we are almoll obliged to conclude that it is the combined fluid for iron deccinpofcs part of the fla- merely a deficiency, ariling trom our not having a fuf- id in the iron, and each of its ingredients occupies op- ficient knowledge of the law of magnetic aflion. This pofite ends of the bar : then will the bars approach or is quite fufficient : For it may be ftriifily demonftrated, recede, according as the near ends contain a dilTerent that if the m.ignetic adion decreafes in higher ratio or the fame ingredient. All this is operated without than that of the fquares of the diflances, the permanen- repulfion. cy of the fluid in any particular difpofition has fcarcely But the whole of this is mere accommodation, like any dependence on the particles at any fenfible diftancc, ^pinus's, but fo much more complex, that it re- and is affecfted only by the var'hUiotii of its denfity (See quires very intenfe contemplation to toUow the author Electricity, Suppl.w° 217. for a cafe fomevvhat fi- through the confequcnces. Add to this, that his attrac- niilar). Therefore, if the fluid be fo difpofed, that its tions are operated by another fluid, infinitely more fubtle denfity may be reprefented by the ordinates of fuch a than either of thofe already mentioned, every particle curve as is drawn in fig. 34. having its two extremities of thefe being, as it v/ere, a world in comparilon of concave toward the axis, and a point of contrary flex- thofe of the other. In Ihort, he adopts all the cxtra- tire at A, the tendency to efcape at A will be the great- vagant fuppofitions of Le Sage cf Gcnev.i, and every eft poflTible ; and when the magnet is broken at A thing is ultimately impulfion. Nor is ihe contrivance (n° I.), or when the fluid has taken the arrangement re- for obviating the difficulty (fo often mentioned) at all prefented by n° 3. it cannot flop there, and miij} become clear and convincing ; and it is equally gratuitous with deficient in that part. Now, it mutl be acknowledged, the reft. We cannot think this hypothefis at all inti- that we are not abfolutely certain that the magnetic tied to the name of f.x^/.j;w//a/;. aifiion is in the precife inverfe duplicate ratio of the di- This mull; ferve for an acct unt of the hypothefis of td ftance. All that we are certain of is, that it is much iEpinus. The philofophical reader will fee, that how- Rcnurkt nearer to it than to either the ii'.verfe fimple or inverfe ever exactly it may tnlly with every phenoii'.cncn, it "" hypo- triplicate ratio. We own ourfelves rather difpol'ed to cannot be called an explanation of the pheniniena ; be- " afcribe the prefent difficulty to our ignorance of fome caufe it is the phenomena which expl.iin the h)pothe- circumftance, purely mathematical, overlooked, or mif- fis, or give us the cliaracf^ers of the magnetic fiaid, if taken, than to think a coiijeiflure unfounded, which tal- fuch fluid exills. But wc are not obliged to admit this lies fo accurately with fuch a variety of phenomena. exiUcnce, as we admit tint to be the true decyphe- We may here obferve, that we are not altogether fa- ring of a letter which makes (enfe cf ir. In tliat tisfied with ./Epinus's form of the experiment. He did cjfe we know bulh parts of ilie fubjecl — tile chara>5lers not break a magnet ; he fet two fieel bars end to end, and tiie founds ; but are ignorant which corrcfponds to •and touched them as one bar, making the magneiifrn which. Did we fee a fiiiid abftradled ironi one part pfrfedllv regular ; he then feparated them, and found of a bar and conflipated in anmher, and perceire the that each had tv.'o poles. But was he certain that, abllr.iiilion and conltipition always accompanied by the when joined, they made but one magnet? We luve orferved attiaflions and repullions, the rules c f philo- fomctimes fuccccded in doing this, as we tliought, by fophical difcuffion, nay, the conftitntion of our owq the curves ot iron filings ; but on putting the needle mind, would oblige us to atllgn the one as the cai'fe or with which we were examining their polaiity into pro- occafion of the other. But this important circumllance per fituations, we fomeiimcs found it in the fccond in- is wanting iu the prcfcnt cafe. Wc think, SuppL. Vol. II. 3 H hov.ever, that A'-(i MAGNETISM. The pre- ceding the- ory it not : hjrpotheCs. that it nKrits a ctofe attention ; and we entertain great liopes of its being one day completed, by including this lingle exception. At tlic lame time, it mnfl be owned, that it gives no extenfion of knowledge ; for it can have no greater ex- tenliou than the phen'<mena on which it is toiinded, and cannot, without rilk of error, be applied to an untried cafe, of a kind dilliniilar in its nature to the phenomena on which it is founded. We doubt not but that its in- genious author would have faid, that a bit brol<en off from the north pole of a magnet would be wholly a north pole, if he had not known that the fad was other« ife. But this hypothefi; greatly aids the imagination in concei iug the piocefs of the m ignetical phenomena. The more we lludy ihem, the more do they appear to refenible the protrulion of a Huid tluough the p.irts of an oblhuvliiig l)iidy. It proceeds gradually. It mjy be, as it were, overd Mie, and regorges when the propel- ling caule is removed. The motion is aided by what we know to aid other (ibllruiJled motions. As a Huid would be conftipated in all protuberances, fo the facul- ty of producing the phenomena is greater in all foch I'l- tuatior. , &c. &•. This, joined to the impollibility of Ipeaking, witli clearnef'i of conception, of the propaga- tion of powers without the protrufion of fomeihing in which they inhere, gives it a hold of the imagination which is not cafily Iliaken off. To fay that nothing is explained when the attrac- tion of the fluid is not expliined, and that this is the main quefli:)n, gives us little concern. AVe offer no ex- planation of tliis atlraiflion, more than of the attraction of gravity. There is nothing contrary to the laws of human intellect, noiiiiiig inconfillent with the rules of reafoning, in faying, that tilings are f) conftituted, that when two particles are together, they feparate, although we are ignorant of the immediate caufe of their f;paration. Thofe who think that all motion is performed by impuHion, and who explain magnetifni by a ftream of Huid circulating round the magnet, nvjft have another fluid to impel this i^aid into its cur- vi'incal path ; for they infift, that the planets are fo imjjelied. Then they mud hive a third fluid to de- Jlj>ft the vertical iiuitions of the fecond, and fo on with- out end. This is evident, and it is abfard. Bat we hi\e faid emugh in tlie article Impulsion, Supf>l. to Jhew th.it all hypolhefes framed on purpofc to explain ac- tion (• lUjLiiii by inipnllion are illogical ; beciufe im- pulliir.i requires exphination as much as the other, and neitiier the one nor the other will ever be refolved into any thing but the fiat of the AUwife Author of the univeife. We conclude with defiring the reader to remark, that the explanation which we have given o' the magnetical phenomena is independent of the liypothefis of jEpi- nus, or any h) pnthef;s whatever. We luve nariated a variety of very di(linguilh,ible f iff-, and have marked their dillinft on^. We have bewi ab'e to reduce them to geneial clafi'es ; and even to groupe thofe clad'es into others Ihll more generil; and at laft, to point out one whicli is difcoverable in tlieni all. This is giving a philoff.pl.ical theory, in the llriflell fcnfe of the word ; bccaufe we Uicw, in every cafe, the modification of the general fail which allots it this or that particular place in the clafljfication. Thus we have Ihewn that the polarity or direi5live power of magnets is d^ly^mtv- dification of the general faiS of attraflion and repulfion. Dr Cilberi's theory of terreflruil magnetifm is indeed a hypothefis, and ve en unced it as fucli- It only claims probability, and we apprehend that a very high degree of credit will be given lo it. We hope that many of our readers will have their curiofity excited by the account we have given ot .Aipi- nns's theory. To fuch we earnellly recommend the fe- rious perufal of his b<'Ok Tenlamen Thtorix EleBricitalit el Magncl'ifmi, yluH F. ALpino, Pelropoll, 1759. Van Swinden has included a very good abllraifl of it in his 2d volume Sur I'EUflric'ni, written by ProfeiTor Stcig- lehner of Ratifbon or Ingolftadt. The mathematic il part is greatly fimplified, and tlie whole is prefenied in a very clear and accurate manner. Mr Van Kwiuden is a profefi'ed foe to all hypothcfes ; but he !< not mode- rate, and we wifii that we could fay that he is candid. He attacks every thing ; and tafees the opportunity of every analogy pointed out by jEpinus between magne- tifm and eleiflricity to repeat the firll fentence of his dilFertation, namely, that magnetifm and electricity are not the fame ; a thing that iEpinus alfo maintains. But he even charges jEpinus with a millake in his funda- mental equations, which invalidates his whole theory. He fays that iEpinus has omitted one of the acfling forces affumed in his hypotlielis. This is a moft ground- lefs charge : and we own that we cannot conceive how Van Swinden could fall into fuch a mirtake. We are unwilling to call it intenticnal, for the mere purpofe of raifing a man of ftraw to knock liini down again. Abbe Hai-iy of the French Academy has alfo publilhed an abridgment of iEpinus's theory, with many excellent remarks, tending to clear the theory of the only defeft that has been found in it. This work was much ap- proved of, and recommended by the Academy. We have not had the good fortune to fee a copy of it. The reailer cannot but have remarked the clofe analo- S8 gy between the magnetical phenomena andihofeof indu- Analogy of ced ele<5lric!ty ; indeed, all the phenomena of attracftion migiietifm and repulfion arc the fame in both. Tlie mechanical "!' "'™''" compofition of thofe aiflions produces a dirc'ftive power and a polarity, in electrical as well as in magnetical bo- dies. We can make an electric -1 needle which will ar- range itfelf, with refpeifl to the overcharged and under- charged ends of a body eleflritied by mere pofiiion, jull as a conipafs needh is arranged by a magnet. We can touch a liick or Jealing wax ui the manner of the double touch, fb as to give it poles of confidcrable force and durability. As a red hot Heel bar acquires permanent poles by quenching it near a magnet, fo melted wax acquires them by freezing in the neighbourhood of a pofitive and negative elecTric. Some have inferred a famenefs of origin of thefe two fpecies of powers from thofe various circumflances of refemblance ; but the original ciufes feem to be difliuft on many accounts. Ele(flricity is common to all bodies. The caufe of magnetifm can operate only on iron. Although lights ning or an eleftrical fliock gives polarity to a needle, we need not infer the identity of the ciufe, becaufe the polarity which it gives ia always the fame with that gi- ven by great heat ; and there is always intenfe lieat in this operation. The phenomenon which looks the moft like an indication of identity of the origin of eledirlcity and magnetifm is the diredion of the rays of the aurora borealis— MALJXF.TISM , Pl^ATIi XXXIV. M \l.\l' 1 ISM I'l VI ':\XV; 3N..5. MAGNETISM. 8? They are not, how- borealls — they converge te the fame point of the hea- vens to which the elevated pole of the dipping needle diredts itfelf. But this is by no means a fufficient foun- dation for eRablilliing a fimenefs. Ele<3ricity and magnetifni may, however, be icl.utd by means of fome powers liitherto unknown. But we are decidedly of opinion, that the elsflrlc and magnetic fluid are totally different, although their mechaiiical aiflions are fo like that there is haidly a phenomenon in the one which has not an exad counterpart in the other. But we fee them both operating, with all their marks of diftinc- ticn, in the fame body ; foi iron and loadftones may be eledlritied, like any other body, and their magnetifm fuffers no change or modification. We can fet thefe two toices in i>ppofition or compofition, juft as we can oppofe or compound gravity with either. While the iion filings are arranging themfelves round a magnet, the mechanical aflion ot eleiftricity may be employed either to promote or hinder the airangement. 'I'hey are therefore diftindl powers, inherent in different fubjefts. But there are abundance of other phenomena which fhcw this diverfity. There is nothing in magnetifm like a body overcharged or undercharged in Mo. There is T.i,''^/ ' nothing which indicates the prefence of the fluid to the caufc. other lenfes — nothing like the ipark, the fnap, the vi- lible diffipation ; becaufe the magnetic tluid enters into no union with air, or any thing but iron. There is no- thing refemblingthat inconceivably rapid motion which we ke in elcAricity ; the quickell motion oi magnetilm feems inferior (even beyond comparifon) with the llow- ell motion along any elefltic conductor. Therefore there is no pofljbility of difch.irging a magnet as we difcharge a coated plate. Indeed, the refemblance be- tween a magnet and a coated plate of glafs is exceed- ingly flight. The only refemblance is between the magnet and an inconceivably thin ftratum of the glafs, which llratum is p jfitive in one fide and negative in the other. The only perfeft refemblance is between the induced magnetifm of common iron, and the induced eleiflricity ot a conduflor. The loUowing feem the mofl inftruftive dilfertations on magnetifm, either as valuable colledlions of obferva- tions, or as judicious realbnings from them, or as the fpeculations of eminent or ingenious men concerning the nature of magnetifm. Gilbertus de Magncte, Lond. 1600, fol. .^pini Tentamen Theorix Magn. et Eleflr. Eberhard's Tentam. Theor. Magnetifmi, 1720. Differtalions fur I'ainianr, p.ir du Fay, 1728. Mufchenbroek Dilfcrt. Phyfico Experimentalis de Magnete. Pieces qui ont emportcle prix del'Acad. des Sciences a Paris fur la meilleure conllruflion dcs Bouffoles de de- clination. Recueil dcs pieces couroun^es, torn. v. Euleri opufcula, torn. iii. contineiis Theoriam Mag- netis, Berlin, 1751. iEpini Oratio Academica, lyjii. jiipini item Comment. Petrop. nov. torn. x. Anton. Brugmanni tentam. Phil, de materia Magne- lica, Prancqucrx, 1765. There is a German tr,(iiflation of this work by Ei- fenbach, witli many very valuable additions. Scarella de Magnete, 2 torn. fol. Vaa Swinden Teiicamina Magnetica, 4to. Van Swinden fur I'Analogie entre les phcnomcae; Eledtriques et Magneiiques, 3 tom. 8vo. Differtation fur les Aimans artificiellcs par An- theaume. Experiences fur les Aimans arlificielles par Nicholas, Fufs, 17S2. Effai far I'Origine des Forces Magnetiques par Mr Prevoft. Sur les Aimans artificielles par Rivoir, Paris 1752. Dilfertatio de Magnetlfmo par Sam. lUingenlliet et Jo. Brander, Holm. 1752. Defcriptioa des Courants Magnetiques, Strafbourg, '753- Traite de I'Aiman par Balance, Amft. 16.S7. Befides thefe original works, we have feveral dilferta- tions on magnetical vortices by Des Cartes, BeincuUi, Euler, Du Tour, Sic. publilhed in the coUtdions of the woiks of thnfe au;hors, and many dilfertations in the memoirs of different academies ; and there are many popular treatlfes by the traders in experimental philo. fophy in London and P.iris. Dr Gown Knight, the perfon in Europe who was mofl eminently Ikilhd in the knowledge ol the phenomena, alfo publilhed a differta- tion intuled, j4ri atlemfit lo explain the Phenomena of Natun ly fwo principles, AuraP.ton and RepulJIon, Loud. 1748, 4to, in which he lias included a it.eory of magnetifm. It is a very curious work, and Ihould be fludied by all thofe who have rccourfe without fcruple to the agency ot invilible fluids, when they are tired of patient thinking. Tliey would there fee what thought and combination are neceffary before an invifible fluid can be really fitted lor performing any oflice we choofe to affign it. And they will get real inllrucllon as to what fervices we may expect <f fuch agents, and from what talks they muft be excluded. The Doflor's theory of magnetifm is very unlike the reft of the performance ; for he does njt avail himfelf ol the valt apparatus of propolitions which he had ellablilhed, and adopts with- out any nice adjullment the moft common notions of an impullive vortex. Biith the produclion and m iinte- nance of this vortex, and its mode ot operation, are ir- reconcileable with the acknowledged laws of impullion. Si quid ncaijli rcSius ijlii, candidus impctli—Ji iion — his ulere mecum . 437 A P P E N D I X. We have been favoured with the following inveflig.i- inTcfliw- tion ol the curves, to which a needle of indefinite mi- tion of iht nutenefs will be a tangent, by Mr Piayfair, Profelfor of magncik Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinb,.:rgh. curve. Two magnetical pole; being given in pofition, the force of each of which is fuppofed to be as tlie mth power of the diftancc from it reciprocally, it is required to find a curve, in any point (i which a needle (indefi- nitely fhort) being placed, its direction, when at lell, may be a tangent to the curve ? I. Let A and B (rig. 35.) be the poles of a macnet, C any puint in the curve required ; then we mav fup. pofe the one of thefe poles to ,i.;t on the needle only by repulfion, and the other only by attra^ion, and the di- re^ion of the needle, when at fell, will be the diagonal 3 H 2 of A2S MAGNETISM. cT a parallelogram, the fiJes of which reprefent thefe forces. Tlierefore, having joined AC and BC, let AD be drawn parallel to BC, and make — — : -— ^ : : AC : AD ; jr>in CD, then CDF will tnuch the curve in C. 2. Hence an expreflion for AF may be obtained. AC"'+' For, by the conrtru<Sion, AD = — : AD we have AF = , and fince BC liC" : BF: FA, and BC — AD : AD : : AB : AF, AB_x AC"+' BC "+'— AC'"^' 3. A fiiixionary exprelFion tor AF may alfo be found in terms of the angles CAB, ABC. In CF take the indefiniteU fin.iU part CH, diaw AH, BH, and from C draw CL perpendicular to AH and CK to BH. Draw jlfo BC and AM at right angles to FH. Let the angles CAB = <p, and CBA = 4; then CAH = 9, and CBH = — 4 ; alfo CL = AC x ^, and CK =.- — BC X 4. Now HC : CL : : AC : AM = AC= X » ,r .L.r. r..-,.rr_ BC'xi HC Therefore fince AC» X i BC X 4- and for the fame reafon BC = AF : FB : : AM HC BC, AF : FB X J. HC fin. 4» — a <t Cm HC <? — fin. qj^ 4 4'- and AF: AB :: fin. 4^ <p: — wherefore if AB = a, AF = 4 fin. <?' + « fin. 4* 4. If this value of AF be put equal to that already found, a fliixionary equation will be obtained, by the intent al ion of which tlie curve may be conftruft- AB X AC^t' ed. Becaufe AF = AC = n fin. and fince fin fin. ^<f + 4) a fin. 4'"t' fin. l<? + 4) have by fubftitulion AF = — ._JL.'.l!.']li! . Hence, fin. ♦= X 4 iin- 4"+' + 4 fin. I?' + » fin. 4- i fin. 4'"1-J = — fin. 4' X <pfin. -f-'t" + ^ fin. 4" + -, •and therefore 4 fin. 4 """' = — f fin. .f"-' ; and alfo, /4 fin. 4'"-' +y~9 fin. f "'-' = C. 5. Thefe fluents are eafily found when m is any whole pofitive number. if m z= I, we have 4 -|- <? = 0. m = 2, m = 3, m = 4, Alfo 4 fin. 4 + ■1' ''"^- <? = "• 4 fin. 4' + <p fin. <?.'=: a. 4 fin. 4^ + 9 fin. <p' = 0, Sec. Therefore, &c. 9 + 4 = C. cof. <f = cof, 4 = C. — fin. 2 <f-|-2 9 — lin. 24 + 24— C. cof. 3 <p — 9 cof. <f +cof. 3 4 — 9 if >« r= I, 9it z= 2, m = 3, m = 4, cof. 4 = C, fee. &c. The firll of the above equations belongs to a fegment of a circle defcribed upon AB, which therefore would be the curve required if the magnetical force were in- verfely as the dirtances. If the magnetical force be inverfely as the fquare of the diftance, that is, if m := 2, cof. t + cof. 4 is equal to a conflant quantity. Hence if, befide the points A and B, any other point be given in the curve, the whole may be deftribcd. For inltance, let the point E (fig. 36.) be given in the curve, and in the line DE which bife^s AB at right angles. Defcribe from the centre A a circle through E, vi/.. QER ; then AD being (he coline of DAE to the radius .-VE, the fum of the colines ot <? X 4 ^*''" he everywhere (to the fume radius) = 2 AD = AB. Therefore to find E', the point in which any other line AN, making a given angle with AB, meets the curve, draw from N, the point in wliich It meets the circumference of the circle QliR, NO, perpendicular to AB, f.> that AO may be the co- line ot NAO, and fiom O toward A take OP = AB, then AP will be the cofine of the angle ABE'; fo t-j find BE', draw PQ^perpendicular to AP, meeting the circle in Qj j'.ln A(^, and draw BE' parallel to AQ__, meeting AE' in E', tlie point E' is in the curve. In tliis way the other points of the curve may be found. Tlie curve will paCs through B, and will cut AB at an angle of which the coline = RB. If then E be fuch, that AE = AB, the curve will cut AB at right angles. If E" be more remote from A, the curve will make with AB an obiufe angle toward D; in other cafes it will make with it an acute angle. A condruiJtinn fomewhat more expeditious may be had by deJ'cribing the leniiciicle AFB, cutting AE in F, and AE' in N, and delcribing a circle round A, with the dillance AL =: 2 AF, cutting .AE' in i. If AG be applied in the feniicircle AFB=Ni, AG muft cut AN in a point E' of the curve, becaufe AN -}- BG = 2 AF, and AN and GB are coJines of the angles at A and B. As the lines AN and BG may be applied either above or below AB, there is another fituation of their interfe.ftion E'. Thus An being applied above, and B^ below, the interfeifliou is in c'. The curve has a branch extending below A ; and if D 1^ be made = DE, and B If be drawn, it will be an alfymptote to this branch. There is a finiilar branch below B. But thefe portions of the curve evidently Ibppol'e an oppofite di- rei5lion of one of the two ni.ignetic forces, and there- fore have no connexion with the pofition of the needle. We omitted the infeitingin its proper place, n" 65. Additionto a hypothefis of the cekbratLd aftronomer Tobias Mayer n° 65. of Gottingen, by which the diredlim of the mariner's needle in all parts ot the earth may be determined. He fuppofes that the earth ctintains a very powerful mag- net of inconfiderable dimenllons, which ariaiiges the needle according to the known laws of niaenetifm. The centre of this magnet was dillant from the centre of the earth about 480 Englilh miles in 1756, and a line joining thefe centres interfered the earth's furface in a point lituated in 17" N. Lat. and 183" E. Long, from London. The axis ot the magnet is perpendicu- 1 ir to this line, and the plane in vvhicJi it lies is inclined about 11° to the plane ot the meridian, the north end of the axis lying on the eait fide of that meridian. From thefe data, it will be found that the axis of this magnet cuts the fisrface of the earth about the middle of the eallern Ihure of B^fhn's Bay, and in another point about 800 miles S. S. W. of the fouthern point of New Zealand. Profelfor Lichtenberg of Gottingen, who gives this extrad from the manufcript, fays, that the MAGNETISM. Adilition to n°. 64. the hypothefis is accompanied by a condderable lift of Tariations and dips calculated by it, and compared with obfervation', and that the agreement is very rcmnrk- able. He gives indeed a dozen inftances in very diffe- rent regionb of the eartli. But we fulpeft that there is fome error or defcdl in the data given by him, becaufe the annual changes, which he alfo gives, are fuch as are incoiififtent with the data, and even with each other. He fays, that the diltance from the centre increafes about four miles annually, and that licnce arifcs an an- nual diminution of 8 minutes in the latitude and 14 in the longitude of tliat point where the ftrait;ht line join- ing the centres meets (he furface. It can have no fuch confcquence. He fays alfo, that the above mentioned inclination 1 f the planes increafes 8 minutes annually. The compound force of the magnet is faid to be as the fquare root ot tlie dillance inverfely. We are at a lofs to unclerlland the meaning of this circumllance ; becaufe Mayer's hypiuheiis concerning th^ law ot magnetic ac- tion is exceedingly ditferent, as rel.ued by Mr Lichten- berg from ihe (amc m.iiuifcript. But it was our duty to communicate this notice, though imperrcifl, of the fpeculations of this celebrated mathematician. See Extiben't Elim. of Nat. Phil, publilhed by Lichten- berg 1784, p. 645. Addition to n° 64. Let HZOF (fig. 37.) be the plane of a magnetic meridian, H »' O the pl.ine of tiie horizon, and NS the poficion of the magnetic needle in any place, when it is at liberty to fettle in the true magnetic direftion. The angle HON is the inclination or dip of the needle. Let Z n F be a vertical circle, in which a well cor.llrucfled dipping needle can freely play up and down. This needle cannot place itfelf in the magnetic direction, be- caufe it ean only move in a vertical plane. Its north point is impelled in the diredion no, and its fouth point in the direiflion s p, both of which are parallel to NS. By the laws of mechanical equilibrium, it cannot reft, except in fuch a pofition that the forces no and sp are in a plane perpendicular to the plane Z n F. In any other polition, there would be a force impelling the needle toward that fide on which n makes an acute angle with the tangent rtit of the vertical circle. Tiierefore the fphcrical triangle N n F is right angleJ in /;, and Cof. NF n : R = Tan. n F : Tan. NF, = Tan. HN : Tan. n' n. Theretore Tan. HN 429 Tan. n nz= ■ = Tan. HN x Sec. H n' . Cof. H«" Therefore, in any place, the real inclination of the mag- netical dirciftion to the horizon is different from what is pointed out by a dipping needle when it is in a plane which declines from the magnetic meridian ; and the tangent cf the obieived dip cf the needle exceeds that of the inclination of the magnetic direftion in the pro- portion of radius to the coiine of the deviation HC «', or the proportion of the fecant of this angle to the ra- dius. If tiierefore the dipping needle play in a mag- netic eaft and welt circle, it will Hand perpendicular to the horizon. MAI MAGUANA, St John of, a canton and town on the S. fide of the ifljnd of St Djmingo, is fituated on the left fide of the river Neybe. The capital of the ancient Indian kingdom of Maguana, ftood where the town St John of Maguana is lituated. The nncieiit capital dil'appeared with the untl<i lunate prince Anaco- aiia. This canton was pillaged by the Eiiglilh priva- teers, in 1543. In I/64 the diftri(5l of the new parifb contained 3600 peribns, of whom 300 were capable of bearing arms. Its pojjulation amounts now to more than 5000 fouls. — Morse. MAHACKAM.'\CK, a river which falls into the Delaware from tile N. E. at the N. W. corner of the State of New-Jsrfey. — W. MAHONE BAY, on the coaft of Nova-Scotia, is feparated from Margatst's bay by the promontory on wliich is the high land of Afpc.tagoen. — ib. MAHONING, a townlhip on Sufquehannah river, in Pcnnfylvanii. — ib. MA MONO Y, a tovvnfliip on Sufquehannsh river, in Pennfylvaiiia. — ib. MAIDENHEAD, a fmall neat village in Hunter- don county, New jL-rfey, having a Prefbyterian chutch, hall way between Princeton andTrciron, on the prc.it polkroad from New- York to Phllad;lphia ; fix miles from each. The townfhip of Maidenhead contains 1032 inhihirant>, including 160 llaves. — ib. M.AIDSTOI-E, a towntbip in EHex county, in Ver- monr, on Coune..'tic«i river, containing 125 inh.ibit- ants . — a. MAI MAINE, District of, belonging to MafTachufetts, is fituated between lat. 43° and 48-' 15' north, and between long. 64" 53' and 70° 39' weft ; bounded' north by Lower-Canada, eaft by the piovince of Xcw~ Brunfwick, foulh by the Atlantic Ocean, weft by New- Hampfliire. The Diftiiifl of Maine is in length, oa an average, 200 miles, and its average breadth 200 miles : containing 40,000 fquare miles, or 25,6co.ooo.- acres. It is divided into 5 cc unties, viz. York, Cum- berland, Lincoln, Hancock, and WaiTiirgton ; thefe are iubdiviJed into near 200 incorporated tcwnlhips and plantations ; inhabited by 96,540 free people. The cliief towns are Portlanil the metropolis of ih.e Diftriift of Maine, York, Pownalborouph and Wifcalfet. Hal- lowell, Bath, Waldoborcugh, Penobfcot, and Machi- as. The laft m-.-ntioned is the only incorporated town in Walhington county, tlie other fettlements being only plantations. The chief rivers aie Penobfcot, K::nnebcck, Saco, Androfcoggin, St Croix, ^c. bs- fides a vaft number if fmall rivers. The moft noted lakes are Moofelicad, Scoodic, Sebacook, and Umba- gog. The chief bays arc thofe of Cafco, Penobfcot, M.chia.', Saco, and Palfimaquoddy. The moft re- markable capes .nre the fe of Nedd'ck, Porpoifc, Eliz.i- bcth, Small Puint, Pemaquid, and Petit M.inan. The Dillrid of Maine, though an elevated tract ot county, cannot be called mountainous. A great propoitica of the lands are arable and excecdmgly fertile, parti- cularly between Pern 'bfcot and Kenncbeck livevs. On fomc paits of the fta-coaft, the lands arc but inJi.Ter-. SBt.. Maine. MAL C430] MAL ent. The lands in iliis Diftriifl may be confidered in Cod, in M.iirachufett;, about 8 miles S. by W. N. three divirioiis: xhcfirjl c(.mprehendi:ig the tradl lying lit. 41" 33', W. lor.i;. from Greenwich 70° 3'. — ib. E. of I'enobfcot river, of about 4,500,000 acres ; the MALAMIUTO, a town in ihe provii ce oi Cartha- feconj, and bell tract, of about 4,000,000 acres, lyiiij; pena, in Terra Fiini.i, about 60 miles ealterly of Car- betwecn Penobfcot and Kennebeck rivers; the third, tiugena, and on liie W. iidc of the liver Magdalena. fiill fettled and nioft populoos at prcfeni, well ol Ken- — ib. iiebeck liver, containing alfo about 4,000,000 acres. MALDEN, a town in Middlefcx county, Maflachu- The foil of this country, in general, w.iere it is pro- fetts, on the e.illcrn poll-road, 4 miL-s north of Uofton, perly ti;ti.d to receive the feed, appears to be very containing 1.033 inhabitants. It is conneded with friendly to the growth of wheat, rye, barley, oats, Charlcftown by a biidge over Myflic river, built ia peas, lienip, and fla.t, as well as lor the produiflion of 1787. — ib. •aimod all kinds of culinary roots and plant<, and lor MALDONADO, a bay in the river La Plata, eaft- Englifh grafs j and alfo for Indian corn, efpccially if ward ol Uuenos Ayrcs, in S. America, and 9 leagues the feed be procured from a more northern climate, from Cape SaiUa Maria. — ib. Hops are the fpontaneous growth of this country ; and MALESHERBES (Clirillian William de Lamoig- it alfo uncommonly good lor grazing, and large lloeks nDn) was born December the 6th 1721. At the age of neat c^ittle mav be fed botli funimcr and winter. The of 24 he became a counfellor of Parliament, and fix natural growth of this Diftri(fl ccnfills of white pine and years afterwards chief prefident of the cour des aides. fpruce trees in large quantities, fuitable for m.ills. He remained in that important fituafion during a pe- riod ot 25 years, and difplayed on many occafions proofs of rttmnefs, eloquence, and wildom. When the prince of Ccnde was fent by the king in 1768 to filence the magillrai.es v. lio oppofed the taxes. boards, and fliingles ; mapl;, beech, white and grey oak, and yellow birch. 'I'lie low lands produce fir, vhicli is neither fit for timber nor fuel, but yields a bal- fam ih.it is highly prized. Alraoll the whole coall N. E. oi Portl.ind is lined with ifliiids, among which vel- Malefherbes leplied to him, " Truth, Sir, mull indeed fels may generally anchor wiili fafety. The principal be formidable, lince fo many efforts are made to pre- ciports of this country are various kinds of lumber, as rent its approach to the throne." About the fame time pine boards, Ihip timber, and every Ipecies ol fplit that he became prefident of the cour des aides, he was lumber manula^ftured frcjm pine and oak ; thefe are ex- appointed by his father, then chancellor of France, fu- ported from the various ports in immenfe quantities, perintendant ol the prefs ; an office ol the greateft im- A fpirit ol improvement is increafing here. A charter portance, of which the principles which Maleflierbes had lor a college has been granted by the legidature, and imbibed Irom D'Alembert rendered him very ill quali- live academies incorporated and endowed with hand- fied to difcharge tlie duties. He was what the French fonie grants of public lands. Town fchools are gene- called ■». fhilofopher ; a term with them of the fame im- rally maintained in moll cif the towns. The Common- port with a naturalifl, who openly denies revealed re- wealth ot Milfachiifetts polfefs befveen eight and nine ligion, and has no adequate notions ot the moral attri- million acres in this Dillriifl, independent of what they butes of God. The confequence was, that when the have Ibid or contrai^led to fell, which brings into the authois of impious and immoral hooks were brought ireafury the neat fum of £i(n)fio^ : 8 : 7 currency ; before him in his otlicial capacity to undergo examina- ;ind betides about two million acres between St Croix tion, he appeared to them as adviling, ailifting, and pro- and Palfamaquoddy in dil'pute between the U. Slates teifling them, againll that very power which was veftcd and the Britilh nation. Exclufive of the lands fold, in h.imfelf; and they were commonly difmiffed with about 385,000 acres have been granted for the encou- this fenlelefs obfervation, that all books of whatever ragement of literature and other ufeful and humane tendency fliould be conlidered merely as objeds of coni- purpofes. Attempts were made to fettle this country merce. Had it not been for the proteifting intiuence of as early as 1607, o" t^^ ^^ ■ '"Je of Kennebeck river ; Malelherbes, ilie Encyclvpcdie, of which the publication but they proved unfuccefsful, and were not repeated was frequently fulpended (fee Diderot in this Supple- till between 1620 and 1630. In 1635, the wellern mf«^), would probably have been altogether fuppielfed ; part ot it was granted to Ferdinando Gorges, by the and the works of Routleau and Raynal, which i'o power- Plymouth Company, and he firll inllituted government fully contributed to that revolution in which he was in this province. In 1652, this province came under overwhelmed, would certainly not have fpread fo rapid- the jurifdl(5lion of Malfacliufetts, and was, by charter, ly over the kingdom of Fiance. It was he, faid D'A- incorporated with it, in 1 69 1. It has lince increafed lembert, \s\\<i broke the Jlmckks of literature. to upwards of 100,000 inhabitants, and will, it is ex- In vain will it be replied, that he left tlie fame liber- peded, fhortly be eredled into a feparate State ib. ty to the religious as to the impious writers ; for that MAIRE, Le, a ftrait between Terra del Fuego and was not always llriiflly true. The Abbe Barruel has Staten-Ifland, in S. America. — ib. brought the tetlimony of D'Alembert himfelf to prove, M AISY, Cape, is the eafternmoft point of the ifland that it was much againll his will that Malelherbes fuf- of Cuba. — ih. fered works refuting the fophifters to appear; and, as M.AJABAGADUCE, in the Diftrift of Maine, at he very properly obferves, what a minilter allows with the ra. uih of Penobfcot river, on the eall fule. — ib. relud^iiice, he finds abundant means of preventing. M.-\KEFIELD, Upper and Lower, townthips in In 1775 he refigned the c.lice of chief prefident of liuck's county, Ponnfylvania. — il. the cour des aides, and was appointed miniller and fe- MALABAR, Cape, or Satidy Point, a narrow flrip cretary of (late in the place (>f La Vrilliere. Thus of land projeiSing out from the fouth-eaft part of Cape placed in the centre of a frivolous yet brilliant court, Malelherbes M A L [ 431 ] M A L Male- Maleflierbes did not in the lead deviate from his former flicrbei. fimpllcity of life and manners ; but, in lieu of comply- '"""^'"^^ ing with the eftablilhed etiquette which required ma- gilirates, when they became minillers of (late, to ex- change their fable habit and head drefs for a coloured fuit, bag-wig, and fword, he retained his black coat and magilleriiil pauh ! This is recorded by a panegy- rlft to his lionoiir ; but we perceive not the honour which it reflcifls on him. It furely requires no great powers of abllra>flion to difcover, that a coloured coat, bag-wig, and fword, are not in themfclves more frivo- lous or contrary to nature, than a black coat and eiior- mous peruke; and if the manners of a country have appropriated thefe different dreffes to different ftations in life, the individual muft be afluated by a very ab- furd kind of pride, who fets up his own caprice againft the public opinion. As, when inverted with the power to reftrain within jurt limits the freedom of the prefs, it was his chief aim to encourage and estenil that freedom ; lb, v^hen raifed to an oflice which gave him the unlimited power of if- fuing /if//r« ck cachit, it was their total fupprelTion that became the earlieft objeiS of his vioji urilent zeal. Till that lime letlres dc cachit, being ci nlidered as a part of the general police, as well as of the royal prerogative, were ilFued not only at the will of the minifter, but even at the pleafure of a common clerk, or perfors ftill more inlignificant. M.ilefiierbes began by relinqnifhing himfelf this abhird and iniquitous privilege. He dele- gated the right to a kind of tribunal, compofed of the moll upright magillrates, whole opinion was to be una- nimous, and founded upon open and well ertablifhed fa<Ss. He had but one mere objcfl to attain, and that was to fubflitute a I'^gal tribunal in tlie place of that which he had ellabliflied ; and this object he was upon the point of accomplifh'ng, wlien the intrigues of the court procured the diimiflion of Turgot ; and Malefher- bes, in cinfequence, religned on the 12th of May 1776. For this part of his conduifl he is intitled to praiie, which we feel not ourfelves inclined to with- hold from his memory. Even M. Barruel admits, that he had many moral virtues, and that he difplaycd real benevolence when alleviating the rigours of impiifon- ment, and remedying the abufe of lettres dc cachet ; but France, fays he, iTiall neverlhelefs demand of him her temples that have bctn deflroycd ; for it was he who, above all other minill^rs, abul'od his authority to eila- blifh in thai kingdcni the reign of inip-.ety. Afitr this epoch he undertook Icveral journeys into di(F;rent p.'.rts of France, Holland, and S'.vif/erland, where he collcifted with zeal and taftc objeiftN ot every kind interertirg to :irts and fcicncc;. As he travelled with the fmiplieity and economy of a man of letters, who had emerged from obfcurity for the purpofe of making nblisrvalions and acquiring knowledge, he by tliat means was enabled to rel'erve his fortune for im- portant occafions, in which it might procure hini in- formation on intending fubjci^s. He travelled flowly, and lreqiietitl> on foot, tha' hi' obfervations might be the more miaute; and employed part of his ti;:ie in fuilabl) arranging them. Title (ibfervati> iis formed a valuable collei^lion of intcrefting matter relative to the arts and Icicnces, but which has 1>:en ahnull totally dc- flroyed by the fury ot" rcvolutionifls, who have doae as Mate- Dicrbci. much prejudice to the interefts of fcience as of huma- nity. Returning from his travels, Malefherbes for feveral ^^'^ ^ years enjoyed a philofophic leifure, which he well knew how to direfl to ufeful and important objeiSs. The two treatifes which he compofed in the years 1785 and 1786 on the civil (fate of the proteftants in France are well known. Tlie law which he propofed in thefe, was only preparatory to a more extenlive reform ; and thefe treatifes were to have been followed up Ijy another work, the plan of which he had already laiJ down, when affairs growing too diilicult to be managed by tho:e who held the reins of government, they v.'ere ccmpelled to call him to their council?. They did not, however,, allign him the direc'fion of any department, and intro. duced )iim merely (as fnbiequent events have Ikewn) to cover their tranf.iiflions under a popular name, and pafs them on the world as adls in which he had taken pirt. Malefherbes accepted their overtures mer;ly to fatibfy the difire he felt to reveal fbme ufeful truths ; but i: was not for that purpofe that they had invited him to their councils, i'liofe who prilided at them took um- brage at his lirfl efforts to call their attention to the voice of truth and wifdom ; and fucceeded fo well in their oppolition, that he was reduced to the neceffity of deiivcrmg in v/riting the counfel which he wilh:d to of- fer. Such was the origin of two treatifes relative to the calamities of France, and the means of lepairing them. He tranfmicted thefe treatifes to the king, who never read them ; ror was he ever able to obtain a pri- vate audience although a minifter of (late. Such i< the account of his lail conduct in office which is given by his friends ; and as we have not read Ijis treatifes on the calamities of France, we have no right to controvert it. Frcin his krown principle?, fiowever, we are intitled to conclude, that his pi ins ot reformation were (imilar to thofe of Nickar, the ofT- fpiing rather of a head teeming wiih vifi mary '.heoties, than of the enlightened mind of a praftical llatefman,. or the corrupt heart of a Jac( bin confpirator. Perceiving the inutility of his endeavours, difgurted with what he thought the repeated errors of tlie go- vernment, and deprived of every means of expoling them, or preventing their fatal effi;ifls ; after frequent fo- licitatioU', he at length obtained leave to retire, lie repaired to his ellate at Malcnicibes, and from that mo- iiicnt entirely devoted his time to thofe occupations that had ever I'ormed the chief plsafure of his life. He palled tiie evenings and a great part of the night in reading and lUidy. In this tranquil llate he was paQjng the evei.ing of his days amidrt his woi^di and fields, when the horrors of the Revolution brought him again to Paris. During the whole of its progrefs, he had his eyes c<.nrtantly fix- ed on his unhaipy fovcrcign, and, fubduing his natural fondnefs of retirement, went regularly to court every Sunday, to give him prools ol his relpeil and attach- ment. He impofcd it as a duty on him(elf to give the ininillers regular intnrmation ot the def;gns of the regi- cide facTion * ; and when ic was deternnned to biing ' Srrtmihl the king to trial, he vnlur.tarily oflcred to be the de- Mimmii, fender of his m.ilkr, in his memorable letcr of tlie i i;h ■»"' '"• of Dectmocr 179^, that eternal inonunieni of his loy- '■"''IV 3^- ally and aff.-flion.. His odcr was accepted ; and he Ijleactd. M A L [ 432 ] M A L fhcrbcs • Chryi ij8— 196. pleaded ihi cnufe of the mon.irch with a n.ren;u,th of ar- gument that nothing could have refilled hut the blood- ihirlly minds of a den of Jacobins. " What French- nun (f.iys a valuable writer), what virtuous man, ff any country, can ever forget that affcfling fccne, when the refpefl.ible old ra.m, penctralini;, for the lirll time, in- t ) the prifon of tlie Temple, nielted into tears, on find- inj; hinifelf prelfed in the arms of his king ; and that (till more affcfting fccne, when, cntrufted with the mod agoni/ins; commiltion iliat a fulijccfl could pollibly have to his fovereign, he threw liimfeif at the feet of the in- nocent viflim, while, fuffocated witli liis fobs, his voice, till re-animated by the courage of the virtuous Louis, was inadequate to announce the lata! fentence of deatli*. Having difcharged this painful and hazardous duty he once more returned to his country refidence, and re- fumed his tranquil courfe of life. But this tranquillity was of fhort duration. About a twelvemonth after- wards, in the month cf December 1793, three worthy members of the Rcvolutioniry Committee of Paris came to rcfide with him, his fon in-law, and his daughter, and apprehended the two latter as ciiminals. Left alone with his grandchildren, Malellierbes endeavoured to confole the rell of liis unfortunate family with the liopes which hchimfelf was far from entertaining, when, the next day, the new formed guards arrived to appre- hend him, and the whole of his family, even the young- eft inftnts. This circumftance I'pread a general con- fternation throughout the whole department ; for there was hardly a man in France, a few ex-jeluits excepted, who did not revere the mild virtues of the laft friend of tlie unfortunate king. In this Calamity Malelherbes prefervcd the undlfturb- ed equanimity of virtue. His affability and good hu- mour never forfook him, and his converfation was as ufual ; fo that to have beheld him (without noticing his wretched guards), it feemed that he was travelling tor his pleafure with his neighbours and friends. He was conduced the fame night to the prifon of the Madelo- uette with his grandfun Louis Lepelletier, at the fame lime that his other grandchildren were feparated into different prifons. This feparation proving extremely afflicling to him, he earneftly folicited againll it ; and at length, on his repeated entreaties, they all met together once more at Port Libre. They remained there but a ifiort period. The fon-in-law of Maleflierbes, the vir- tuous Lepelletier Rafambo, the firit of them who was arrefted, was ordered into another prifon, and facrificed a few days after. Malefherbes himfelf, his daughter, his grand-daughter, and her liulband, were foon after all brought to the gullotine. They approached it with fortitude and lerenity. It was then that his daughter addreffcd thefe pathetic words to Mademoi- felle Sonibreui', who had faved the life of htr own fa- ther on tlie 2d of September : " You have had the ex- alted honour to preferve your fither — I have, at leaft, the confolation to die with mine." Maleflierbes, (lill the lame, even to his lafl moments exhibited to his relations an example of fortitude. He conveifed with the perfons that were near him without beflowing the leaft attention on the brutalitiea of the wretches who tied his hands. As he was leaving the M»Igaf- zary, Malphag- hiuo. prifon to afcend the fatal cart, he flurr.bled againft a ftone, and made a falfe ftep. "See (faid hefmiling), how bad an omen ! A Roman in my fituaiion would have been fent back again." He palled through Pa- ris, afcended the fcaffold, andfubmitted to death with the fame unlhakcn courage. He died at the age of 72 years, 4 months, and 15 days. He had only two daughters, and the fon of one cf them alone remains to fucceed . From this account of Malelherbcs'b behaviour at his laft moments, we are inclined to believe that his intentions were better than fome parts ol his prai^ical conduct ; and we know, that having difpelled the vain illufions of pliilofojihifin, he acknowledged his paft er- rors ; exclaiming, in the accents of grief, " That falfe philofophy (to which I cunfcfs I was myfclf a dupe) iias plunged us into the gulph of deftruiflion, and, by an inconceivable magic, has fafcinated the eyes of the nation, and made us facrifice reality to a mere phantom. For the fimple w>.rds political liberty, France has loft x.\\il facial freedom which (he poffelfed in every rerpe(5f, in a higher degree, than any oiher nation ! How tiuly great did the king appear in his laft moments ! All their efforts to degrade him were vain ; his unfliakea virtue triumphed over their wickcdnefs. It is true, then, that religion alone transfufes fufficient courage into the mind of man, to enable him to fupport, with fo much , „ dignity, luch dreadful trials.' f Mcmch,, MALGUZZ A RY, in the language of Bengal, chap. 40. payment of revenue ; the revenue itfelt. MALPHAGHINO (John), otherwife called John de Ravenna, from the place of his birth, was born in the year 1352, of a family dillinguilhed neither by riches nor nobility. His father, however, committed him to the care of Donatus the grammarian, an intimate friend of Petrarch, who at th:it time taught the Latin tongue with great applaufe at Venice. Donatus thought he dif- covered fuch happy difpofitions in young Malphaghir.o, that he recommended him to Petrarch, not only as an excellent affillant to facilitate his labours, by reading or tranfcribing for him, but as a youth of the moft pro- mifing talents, and worthy of being formed under the infpedtion of the greateft man ot the fourteenth century. It appears from fome of Petrarch's letters, for it is from thefe chiefly we can obtain information refpe<5ling John de Ravenna, that he fully anfwered the expeda- lions formed of him ; and that he even gained the fa- vour and affe(5lion of his patron fo much, that he loved him and treated him as if he had been his own fon. In a letter to John de Certaldo (a), Petrarch highly ex- tols him, not only for his genius and talents, but alfo for his prudent and virtuous conduft. " He poffcffes (fays he) what is very rare in our times, a great turn for poetry, and a noble defire to become acquainted with every ufeful and ornamental part of knowledge. He is favoured by the Mufes, and already attempts verfes cf his own ; from which one can foretel, that, if his life be fpared, and if he goes on as hitherto, fome- thing great may be expeifled from him." Not long, however, after this panegyric was written, young Malphaghino conceived an infuperable defire to fee the world ; and, not«ithftanciing all Petrarch's re- monftrances, perlifted in his refolution of quitting him. Petrarch's (a) Better known under ilie name of Boccaccio or Boccace, Certaldo was the place of hit birth. M A L [ 433 ] M A L {ktalphag. Petrarch's paternal care and regard for his pupil appear, hino. on this occafion, in the naoft favourable Hght, as may ^^"^'"^^ be feen in his letters to Donatus ; and his whole beha- viour, though the young man infifted on leaving him, without alTigning a fufficient reafon for his precipitate and ungrateful conduft, does as much honour to his head as to his lieart. The precipitation with which John de Ravenna car- ried his plan into execution was not likely to make it anfwer his expeflations. He departed without taking with him letters of recommendation which Petrarch of- fered him to his friends. He, however, piirfued his journey over the Appenines, amidll continual rain, gi- ving out that he had been difmilTed by Petrarch ; but, though he experienced fiom many a compaffion to which he was not entitled by his conduiTt, he now began to awaken from his dream. He proceeded therefore to Pifa, in order to procure a veilel to carry him back to- wards Pavia ; but being difappointed, while his money wafted »s much as his patience decreafed, he fuddenly refolved to travel back ac^ofs the Appenines. When he defceiidcd into the Ligurian plains, he attempted to wade through a river in the diftrid of Parma, which was much fwelled by the rains ; and being carried by the force of the ftream into a whirpool, he would have loll his life, had he not been faved by fome people wlio were accidentally paffing that way. After efcaping this danger, he arrived, pennylefs and familhed, at the houfe of his former patron, who happened then not to be at home ; but he was received and kindly entertain- ed by his fervants till their mafter returned. Petrarch, by his intreaties and paternal admonitions, retained the young man at his houfe for about a year, and prevented him from engaging in any more romantic adventures ; but, at the end of that period, his defire for rambling again returned, and as Petrarch found that all attempts to check him would be fruitlefs, he gave him letters of recommendation to two of his friends, Hugo de St Severino and Francifcus Brunus, at Rome. To the former of thefe, Petrarch fays, " This youth of rare talents, but ftill a youth, after propofing to himfelf various plans, has at length embra- ced the nobled ; and as he once travelled, he is now de- firous of doing fo again, in order to gratify his ihirft of knowledge. He has, in particular, a ftrong inclination for the Greek language ; and entertains a wifh which Cato firft conceived in his old age. This wlih I have ' endeavoured lor fome years to fubdue ; fometimes by intreaties, at other times by admonition ; fometimes by repreL'nting how much he is ftill deficient in the Ro- man language ; ard i'oriictimes by laying before him the difliculties which mull attend him in his journey, efpe- cially as he once before left me, and by want was ob- liged to return. As long as that unfortunate excurlion was frefh in his memory he remained quiet, and gave me hopes that his relllcfs Ij.lrit could be overcome and relhalncd. But now, fince the remembrance of his misfortunes is almoft obliterated, he again fighs after the world ; andean be retained neither by force nor pcrfuafion. lixcitcd by a dcfire which betrays more SuppL. Vol. H. ardour than prudence, he is refolved to Isavehis country, Malphag friends, and relations, h's aged father, and me whom *"""■ he loved as a father, and whofe company he preferred to a refidence at home, and to haften to you whom he knows only by name. This precipitation even has an appearance of prudence. The young man firft wilhed to vifit Conftantlnople ; but when I told him that Greece, at prefent, is as poor as it was formerly rich in learning, he gave credit to my aifertion, and at any rate altered his plan, which he could not carry into execu- tion. He is now dcfirous oi traverfing Cakbria, and the whole coaft of Italy, diftinguiftied formerly liy tlie name of Magna Graccia, becaufe I once told him that there were in that quarter feveral men well (Trilled in tlie Greek language, particularly a monk, Barlaam, and one Leo, or Leontius, with whom I was intimately acquaint- ed, and of whom the firft had been fome time my fcho- lar. In confequence ot this propofal, he begged mc to give him a recommendatory letter to you, as you have conJlderable influence in that part of the country. This requeft I granted, in hopes that the young man, by his genius and talents, will afford you fatisfadtion equal to the fervice which you may render to him." In his let- ter to Brunus, Petrarch expitlfes himfelf as follows r " He is a young man who wilhes to fee the world as I formerly did ; but I never refleift on it without horror. He is defirous of feeing Rome ; and this defire I cannot condemn, as I rnyfclf have fo ( fcen vifited that city, and could ftill revifit it with pleafure. I ful'pect, however, that he will venture on a more extenfive ocean, and that he imagines to find a fortune where he will, perhaps, meet with a fhipwreck. At any rate, he is defirous he fays, of putting his fortune to a trial. I willi it may be favourable ; ihould it be adverfe, he is ftill at liberty to return to my peaceful, though fmall, haven ; for I hang out a liglit, during the day as well as the night, to guide ihole who quit me through youthful foll\, and to enable them to find their way back. The ardour by which he is impelled mull not be afcribed fo much to him as to his age, and is in itfelf commendable. If I am not much deceived, the young man loves me and XJrtue in general. He is unfteady, but niodeft ; and de- ferves that all good men Ihould contribute to his pro- fperity as far as they can." From the letters of Petrarch, there is reafon to be- lieve, that John de Ravenna lived with him only about three years in all ; and that he had not attained to the full age of manhood when he left him. It appears alio, for this circumllance is very obfcure, that alter he quit- ted him, he wandered about a C' nfiJeiable time before he was fo fortunate as to meet with a prote(5tor and pa- tron, at whofe houfe, as he wrote to Petrarch, he at lall found a permanent afyluni. How long he remaineil with his patron, whom feme believe to have been Car- dinal Philip, and what happened to him till the deatii of Petrarch in 13741 and for f 'me years after, is un- known. The literary monuments ot the fourteenth and fiftienth centuries fay nothuig fai ther cf him till his ap. pearance at Padua; where, according to the teilimony of Sicco (b), one of the moll celebrated of liis fchol.'r^, 3 I he (b) Adolcfcens tum ego poetas, et inftituta Tullii audiebam. Legebat tunchac in civitate Padua, liieraruiii nutrice, 'Johannes Ravennas vir et famftimonia morun), et lludio -fto excellcns, aique fi poteft fine invidia, dici ce- teris, qui magiftri artis hujus in terra Italia ufquam degerent et doftiffimi habercntur, quantum rtcordari vidcor. M A L [ 434 ] M A L M.:lphag- he notcnljr taught the Roman Eloquence, but alfo the hiao. fcience of moral philofcphy, with fuch fuccofs and ap- pl.iuli:, and improved his Icholars fo much by his life and example, that, according to univerf.il opinion, he tar ex- celled all the profelTors of thufe fciences who had ever before appeared. That ho was here of confiderable ler- vicc in revivinj; the lludy of the Latin language, and of the works of the ancient Romans, was acknowledged by all his fcholars, and is conlirmed by the following telli- mony of Blondus (c). " About the fame period, Ravenna produced that learned grammarian antl rhetorician Joh.uines, of whom Leonardus Areiinus ufed to fay, that he tirll intrudu- ced into I'.aly, after a Ir.ng peiiod of baibarilm, liie Audy of the Latin language and eloqncnce, nowfo flou- rilhing ; a circumitance which dcfctves to be enlarged on in the prtfent work. Thole well acquainted with Roman literature know, iliat after the periods of Am- brofe, Jcrom, and Augulline, there were none, orveiy few, who wrote with any elegance, niilefs we add to thefe g(-od writers, St Gregory, the venerable Bede, and St Bernard. Francis Petrarch was thefiill who, •with mi:th genius, and llill greater care, rec.dled from the dull the true art of pcetiy and of eloquence. He did liH attain to the tl>:>uers of Ciceronian elc<iiience, with which many are adorned in the prefent century ; but this was owing rather to a want of books than of talents. Thougli he biuifted of having found at Ver- celli Cicero's letters to Lentulus, he was unacquainted with the liooks of that great Roman D: Oratorc, Q^in- tilian's luftilutes, the Orator, the Brutui, and other writings ol Cicero, John dc Ravenna was known to Petrarch both in his youth and in his old age. He was not more converfint with the ancients than Pe- farch ; anil, as fir as I know, left no works behind him. By his excellent genius, however, and, as Leo- nardus Aretinus fays, by the particular d;fpenfation of God, he was the preceptrr of this I^eonardus, of Pe- trtis Paulus Vergerius, of Annebonus de Padua, of Ro- bert R' Gi, of James Argc'i of Ilorence, of Poggius and G'larinoot Verona, of V^iftorinus, Sicco, and other men of lei's note, whom he incited to the lludy oi bet- ter knowledge, and to imitate Cicero, it he could not ibrm them or inllruci them completely. " .About the fame time, Manuel Chryfoloras, a man as virtuous as learned, came from Conilantinople to Ita- ly, and indru>:led in the Greek language, partly at Ve- nice and partly at Florence and Rome, all the before mentioned fcholars of Jolm de Ravenna. After he had continued this inllruftion for fome years, thofe unac- quainted with the Greek language, and the ancient Greek writer', were confidered in Italy as more igno- rant than ihofe unacquainted with the Latin. A great ni:-.ny young men and you.hs were inflamed with an en- thuliallic delire fnr the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans. At the time of the council of Conllance, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, many of my coutitrymen endeavoured, byfearching the neighbour- ing cities and convents, todifcover fome of tlie Roman Malphagt manufcripts which had been loll. Poggias firll difco- *'"">• vered a complete copy of Quintilian, whicli was foon foil- wed by the letters of Cicero to Atticus. As our youth applied to the ftudy of tliefc works with the utmolt diligence, that celebrated grammarian and rhe- torician Calparinus de Bergamo, opened a fchool at Venice, I'upcrior to the former, and in which yjung per- fons weic encouraged to Ihidy the ancient languages and writers. About the fame time fiourilhed Petrus Piulus Vergerus, Leonardus Aretinus, Rcjbert Roffi, James Anueli, Poggius, and Nicolaus de Medici, v/liom Aretin had long inltiuiSed. Guarinus alfo had begun to inftnii^l many at Venice, and Viiftorinus at Mantua, when Philip III. Duke of Milan, recalled Calparinus ashis luhjeCl, from Venice to Paoua and Milan. The increallng lludy of ancient literature was much promo- ted by Gerard Landriano bifhop of Lodi, difcovering under fome ruins an old copy ot Cicero, written in cha- rjiflers fcarcely legible, which, among otlier rhetoiical writings of that great Roman, contained the whole bookj Dc Oratorc, with his Brutus and Orator. This faved Calpaiinus the trouble ol fupplying the books of Cicero £);? Orntorc, as he had attempted to fupply the works ot Quntilian. As no one was found in all Mi- lan who could read this old manufcript of Cicero, an ingenious young man ot Verona, named Cafmus, was fo fortunate a« fiift to tranfcribe the books Z)t' Oralarc, and to fill all Italy with copies of a work v»!iich v/as univerlally foUEht for with the utmcft avidity. I n.y- felf, in my youth, when I went to Milan on the buli- nefs of my native city, iranfcribed, with as much ar- dour as fpeed, the Brulus of Cicero, and fent copies of my tranfcripti' n to Guarinus at Verona, and to Leo- nard Juftiniani at Venice; by which means this work was foon difperfed all over Italy. By thefe new works eloquence acquired new fire ; and hence it happen--, that in our age people fpeak and write better than in the time of Petrarch. The iludy of the Greek language, belides the abundance of new and ufetul knowledge which It difclofed, was attended with this great advan- tage, that many attempted to tranilate Greek works inli, Latin, and thereby improved their ftyle much more than they could have done without that praiftlce. Af- ter this period, fchools for teaching the ancient langua- ges increafed in It.ily, and flourilhed more and moie. Mofl c.'.ies had fchocls of this kind ; and it gives one ]ilcafure to obferve, that the fcholars excelled their ma- ilers, not only when they left them, but even while they were under their tuitlcn. Of the fcholars ot John de Ravenna, two of the oldeft, Guai inns and Victorinus, the former at Venice, and t)je latter at Mantua, Vero- na, Florence, and Ferrara, irilliu(5ted animmenfe num- ber of pupils ; and among thefe, the Princes of Ferrara and Mantua. George of Trebifonde, when he ledtared at Rome, had for his auditors, befides Italians, many French, Spaniards, and Germans, amorg whom fome- times there were men of rank and eminence. F'rancifc cus rmni'.tm judlcio proeferendus. Hoc namque a prasceptore non eloquentia modo, quam ex ord'ne legerit, fed mores etiam, ac quidam bene honefteque Vivendi ratio cum docTiina turn exemplis difcebatur. — S'icco Pakntonus, Ap. Meliu', 1. c. p. 139. (c) Blondi Flavii Forliviecfis Italia illuftrata. Das, 1559. ftl. p. 346. M»Iphag- hino, Mile. M A L [ 435 J M y\ L ens Philelphus, who had been taught at Con[lantiiiop)e making, together witli fome valuable obfeivations on hy Chryloloras himfelf, inftrufled a great many young malt by Mr Richardfon of Hull. In a late edition of men and youths in the Greek and Latin languages at this latter gentleman's Thnretic Hints on I!r.<wing, we .Venice, Florence, Siena, Bologna, and, lall of all, at are told, that Mr Edward Rigby of Norwich is oiopi- Milan." In the above quotation, the Ihare which John nion, that the mere exficcation of corn is not the only de Ravenna had in reviling and diffufing a knowledge, objed obtainable by drying it on the kiln, but that fonie not only of the Roman, but alfo of the Grecian litera- portion of the faccharuni of nnk is the tStSt of th.»t ture, is fo clearly reprefented, that no farther teftimony procefs. " The operation of kiln drying the malt (fays is ncce/fary to eftablilh his claim to celebrity. Mr Rigby) is as follows : — The grain is fpread thick After John de Ravenna had taught at Padua, he re- upon a floor made of flat bricks (tiles), ox iron plates, moved for the like purpofe to Florence ; where, as ap- which are full of perforations; immediately under this pears, he inftru(f^ed young people for fome time, with- floor is the oven or furnace, in which is a large fire out being exprefsly invited by the government, and made of f(?<^/v, cinders, or, in fome places, billet wood ; without being publicly paid for his labours. In the a current of air, at the mouth of the furnace, k;eps up beginning of his refidence at Florence, hefeemsto have the combuftion of tiie coak;, and the air which is phlo- Leen recommended by Colucius to the learned Charles gifticated by their burning, and which, in a common de Malatefta. " There lives here at prefent (fays Co- fire place, rifes up the chimney, palfes, in this inllance, lucius, in one of his letters) a teacher of great merit, through the apertures in the floor, and penetrates the John de Ravenna. — He is (continues he J of mature whole ftratum of malt before it can pafs into the e)iter- age ; irreproachable in his manners, and fo difpofed in nal air. Under thefe circumllances, it is evident, that general, that if you receive him, as I hope and wifh, the interftices of the malt mull be filled with phlogiltic among the number of your intimate friends, you will air: and as the grain ufually remains in this fitualion find him an agreeable and incomparable afllllant to you about two days, it is obvious, that if it have the power in your labours and lludies. What can be more defi- of abforbing phlogiflon, it certainly muft do it when rable to you than to pofleis a man who will lucubrate fo long in conta(Jt with it. Atid that the malt does Malt. and labour for you ? and who, in a lliort time, can com municate to you what you could not obtain by your own exertions without great difficulty. I do not know whether you will find his like in all Italy : and I there- fore wifli, that, if you confide in my judgment, you will receive Ji^lin de Ravenna in the room ot your late learn- ed friend James de Alegretti." It is not known whe- ther John de Ravenna went to refide with Malatefta or not. It if, however, certain, that tlie former, in 1397 (the fame year in which Manuel Chryibloras came to really imbibe fome of this principle, is not only probabld on the general ground of the truth of the preceding theory, but, I believe, it will be found, that the phlo- gifticated air which lifcs from the burning fubftances underneath, is correaed in palling through the malt ; for without its being meliorated by this or fome other caufe, it i^ evident that the air in the kiln-chamber, more efpecially the lower ftrata of it, maft be noxious, and probably even fo much fo as to be unfit for relpira- tion and combuftion. But fo far from this being the Florence), was invited thither by the magiftrates of cafe, I am informed, that workmen will lie and lleep that city, with the promife ol an annual falary, to in- ' " ftroifl young people in the Roman language and elo- quence : that John de Ravenna, at the period when he entered into this honourable engagement, was 45 years of age ; and that the fcholars of John de Ravenna were, at the fame time, fcholars of Chryloloras. Saluratus Colucius, in all probability, was the caufe of this invita- tion, as he was acquainted with the fervices of John de Ravenna, and knew how to appreciate them. " We know (fays he, in one of his letters to John de Raven- na), and all who refpecl you know alfo, that none of the rrwderns, or even ancients, approached fo near to Cicero as you ; and that to the moft wonderful beauty and powers of fpeech, you join thedeepelt knowledge." John de R^venna, like Chryfoloras, and moft of the teachers of the Greek and Roman Languages in the be- ginning of the fifteenth century, was, no doubt, engaged at firlt only for a few years ; when thefe were el.ipfed, the engagement was renewed, perhaps for the lall time, in 141 2, and he was bound, bcfides teaching the Ro- m.<n eloquence, to read publicly, jnd explain in the ca- tliedral, on I'eftivals, the poems of Dante. John de Ra- venna did not fng Jurvive the ab ive renewal of his en- gagement ; lor an anonymous writer, who, in 1430, fi- nillied yl Giiiile to I^ttlcr-'wi ilinp, according to the Priii- cifLs of Jul H <!f Ra\i<;nna," fpeaks of hi> preceptor as many hours on the malt in this (ituation without fuffcr- ing any inconvenience. And after mentioning this, it is fcarcely neceflary to add, that I find alf^, by experi- mcnt, that a candle will burn jjerfeiftly well in the air which is immediately on the fuiface of the malt. " Weie heat alone fufficient for the purpofe of com- pleting the operation of malting, it certainly might be applied in a much more cheap way than is at i)rel(fnt done ; for the floor on which the grain is laid might, unqueftionably, be heated equally without tiieie being perforations in it, as with them. In which cafe, one kind of fuel would be as good as another ; and, confe- quently, tlie prefent expence of previoully burning the coals, to convert them into coaks or cinders, might be faved. " But, admitting that the applicition cf plilogifton to the malt, as well as heat, is requifite in (his opera- tion, the necedity cf ihefc perforations becomes evident, and alfo the propriety ol previoufly burning the coals in fuch a way, that all the water, and thofe o-hsr hete- rogeneous particles which compole fmoke and fool, may- be dillipated ; for thefe, merely as fuch, would obri- oufly contribute little to the phbgiftiraiion of the malt, and would evidently impart fome offenfive flivour, if not I'lnie obnoxious qu.ility to it. " Reafoning from llie abf^ve premifes (Mr Rigby concludes), it would fecm, that as all the farinaceous of a man not then in exiftence. MALT. See BatwiNG (Encyc!.), where a full ac- parts of the barley rtrc feldom dilfolved in brewing, and !i of olr Robert Murray's method of malt- the grains which are left have ufually the difpofition to 3 I 2 become count is given 1 M A M [ 43<5 ] MAM become four, thereby manifefting fome of the acid prin- ciple to bo ftill ex fting in them, it is not improbable but Ibme further laccharlne matter might be obtained from the grain by another expofure to phlogifticated •.lir, or, in other words, by being once more laid on the kiln." This is in Jced fci far from being improbable, that we thinlc it mull infallibly be the cafe. Sugar, it is well known, confilis of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon (lee Chemistry in this Supplement, n° 466.) ; but from the difpolition of the grains to become (our, it is plain, that after the procel's of brcwmg they ftill retain much oxy- gon i and the azotic g is, which u here called phlogilH- cdted air, there is cvtry ttafon to beliove contains both hydiog.en and carbon. Tlis-le, thertfoie, uniting with the oxygen of the grains, mull make an addition to the faccharine matter. 1'his lias, indeed, been found to be the fart by Mr Richardfon, who, in confequence of Mr Righy's fui^gcllion, was induced to brew a fmall brew- ing of malt, often quarters only, and (lopping the pro- cess when, according to his general prailice, one extra>?l was Hill due, he ordered the grains to be laid upon one of his malt kilns, and cindera to be applied the lame as lor drying of malr. This was coniinued for two days and a hill, when the grains, being perfeflly dried, were put inl<i f.icks, and, when cold, returned again into the malh tun. The event, in fome meafure, juIUfied Mr Rij;by's expectation ; f(.r the produce of lermentable matter w.13 cmilidcrably more th.m he had renfon to ccnclude would have been the cale, had theextraifl been made in immediate fucceil'ion, as it would have been in the ordinary courle ot his praiftice. He attempts, in- deed, to account for it in a way very different from rurs ; but though we have tlie hijiheft conlidence in Mr Richardfon as an experienced brewer, we muft fonie- timcs beg leave to think for ourfelves as chemilts. Like a man of fenfe, however, and a man of fcience, he fays, •' I am fo well latisfied with the event of this experi- ment, that I llnll probably be inclined, on fome future cccafion, to repeat it, in various (lages of the procefs. The fine lively froth on the furface of the wort, in the undcrback, added to its tranfparency and good flavour, are circnmliances which induce me to thank Mr Rigby for the hint, which, it is not improbable, may be .ip- pHeJ to fome ufelnl pnipofe, in terrain fituations which lometimes occur in the brewing trade." MAMA K.A.TING, a townlhip in Ulfter county, Nev/ York, \V. of Montgomery and Wallkill, on De- laware river. It contains 1,763 inhabitants, including 232 electors, and 51 (laves. — Morse. MAMARONECK, a townlhip in Weft-Chefter county, New-York, containing 452 inhabitants, includ- ing 57 (laves. ]t is bounded fouiherly by New Ro- chelle, and ea(\erly by the Sound. — \b. M/VMARUMI, a place on the road from Guayaquil to Qa_ito, in S. America, where there is a very beauti- ful caicaJe. The rock from which the water precipi- tites itfclf, is nearly perpendicular, and 50 fathoms high ; and on both (ides edged v.'ith lofty and fpreading trcei. The clearnefs of the water dazzles the fight, ■which is delighted, at the fame time, with the large volume of water formed in its fall ; after which it con- tinues its courfe in a bed, along a fmall defcent, and is cro(red over by a bridge. — \b. MAMMALUKES, Mamalucs, Mameloua, or Mamlukt, were a dynafty that reigned for a confiderable Miunini- time in Egypt, and of which fome account has been '"kes. given in that article (Encycl.). A fuller account of them mud, however, be acceptable to our readers, as, lince the expedition of Buonaparte, they have attrafled the attention of all Europe. 'I'hey were firtt introduced into Egypt, as we have -^"'v""''" already o'jferved, by Saladinc, who, when he had it in ^■"""'^< "' conttrap':ation to beliege Jerulalem, very naturally en- ^ ■", deavoured to collect the mofl forcible means to accom- 7>„-j-/,. pli(h fo dedrable an end ; and, in confequence, obferving that the ancient inhabitants of Egypt were, from their etfcminate mode of education, and the (juiet and tran- quil habits ot their lives, niuch fitter for thofe occupa- tions in which they delighted, namely, the arts, mer- chandize, and mechanics, than military tadfics and mili- tary toil, he refolved, as little as poQible, to employ or depend upon them. This relblution ftimulating him to procure a hardier race of foldiers, he therefore coriimilTloned agents to treat with the Circafhans, by the Lake of Mjeotis, near Taurica Cherlbne("as, whence, about the year 1176, they purchafed more than a lhou(and (laves. Men inu- red to hard(hi|'), nurtured in the lap of toil and danger, and bred Irom their infancy to war, which was to them rather an inftiudl than a fcience, as tlie continual incur- fions of the Tartars rendered felf-defence, in their fi- tuation, ablulu'.ely necelTary. Thefe (laves S.ilddlne trained to military difcipline, and, at the l.ime time that he made them renounce Chrillianity, had tliem inllrueted in the M ihometm re- ligion ; and although he prohibited them from marry- ing, he allowed them an unbounded licence w'ith refpeft to defultory gallantry. What progrefs they made in the do(ftrine5 of the Alcoran, whether the tenets of that facred volume effedu.illy eradicated all their li. (I principles, is uncertain; but it is ceitain, that in time they became excellent folJiers, and that the military- glory of Saladine, which was feebly fupp.irted by the native Egyptians, expanded in the hands of the Mame- loucs, who cx'.ended their conqut lis on every (ide, un- til, pervading the Holy Land, they entered in the plain of Alkelon. Thele Mameloucs, who were continually adding to their numbers, in procefs of time became naturalized to the country; and, as it has been obferved, they ex- celled the Egyptians in (lr£ni;th of body, in military dil'cipline, in their (kill in horf.:man(hip, and in courage ; lo they, l)y the liberality of their generals, and the plun- der ot cities and provinces, al("o excelled them in wealth. In taiS, their mode of education fitted them for the moft dangerous and adventurous enterprii'es, and, from being the flaves, enabled them in time to become the mailers of even the Turks, by whom they had original- ly been purchafed. vVfter the death ofSiladine, wlio left the kingdom to his brother, they rofe to ftill greater importance than they had acquired during his reign, and continued, if not ablblutely to govern, yet, like the Rnman foldiers in the time of Pcrtlnax, Alexander, and Valerian, to awe the monarch. fhis influence continued through the reigns of five fuccellive Caliphs, until that of Melachfila, the lad of the pollerity of Saladine, who being at war with the Arriltians, and at the fame time, wilhing to reprefs the enormous M A M C 437 ] M A M Mammi- enormous power of the Mameloucs, purchafed flayes Imkes. from all the furrcunding countries, whom, in imitation ^^'^^'^^ of his anceftor, he armed and appointed to defend his dominions. The event of this mealure was exadly what might have been expected. Mulachfala was, in confequcnce of a confpiracy betwixt his ne%v and his old foldiers, (Iain ; and Turquemenus, the leader ot this, mu- tiny and rebellion, hailed by the title of Great Sultan of E.?ypt. With him began tlie government of the Mameloucs, about the year 1250; which had the next year gathered fuch ftrengih, that it was tliought necelia- ry, in order to reprels ihofe exuberances to which new formed governmenis are liable, and bring it nearer to a fyftem, to caul'e the following articles, in the form of a charter, to be fubfcribed to by their princip.il leaders, as an ;>« ot the whole people : — " lit, Tliat the Sul- tan (liould becholenfrom the body of M inieloiics: 2Jly, That none Ihould be admitted in'.o the order tliat were by birth either Jews or Turks, but only Chrillian cap- tives ; 3dly, That the native Egyptians Ihould not be permitted to ule, or have, any weapons, except the in- Itruments of agriculture." Turquemenus as is frequently the practice with thofe that expeiience a fudden elevation, endeavouied to kick down the ladder by wliich he had been raifed ; or, in other words, his carriage was fo haughty and dildainful to his former companions, that he was by them, or ra- ther by one of tlieni njmed Ciotho, fuddenly ll.iin ; for which the murderer was rev.'arded with his fceptre. After him fucceedcd a long race of princes, many of whom were as eminent for their talents as for their va- lour ; among whom, the name ot Caitbeius has been tranlmilted to us as that of the greatell ftatefman and general of hi^ age ; but, as every one who confidcrs the niiiterials of which the government was conipofed, muft rather wonder tliat it exilled folong, than that it ihuuld, through almoll the wh' Ic courle ot its operation, be expofcd to all the various evils and diftreifcs ariliug from a long tram of fedition and tuniult>, fo he mult lament tliat it Ihould expire in the reign of one of their wilelt and belt inonarchs : yet it is fome cmif l.ilion to reflect, that Cam| Ion, the lall Sultan of the M^me- kiucs, was ma murdered by his o'ujn fuhjeSIs, but having lor many years governed the kingdonib of Egypt, Ju- dea, and Syria, in a manner that has exciied the piaife of tlie hilloric (len, he, oppretied with age and diieafe, and encumbered with his ainmur, funk upon the lield of battle, and, wit : his lall breath, yielded the viiftory to the fortunate Sehm. Witli this monarch, who expired January 20, 1516, ended the government of tlie Mameloucs, after it had continued 276 years ; lor although an attempt was mide by Tomumby to get hi tnfelf declared Suit in, in •which attempt he adually fucceeJcd fo fir as to be in- velled witlj the title, yet he was foon after defeated by the viiflorious Selim. He was then torfaken by his troops, taken and executed ; while the Mamel uc>, bro- ken and difpeiUd, it was the policy of Sei'tn to rally, and, by ofi'eis too templing to be by them i-'iufed, en- gage in his fcrvice. The ule of thcfe foUli.rs foon be- came (ufKcienily apparent to the 'I'urkilh Emperors, to ftin:ul, lie ihein to augment their number, enlarge iheir fphtic ('faction, and combine them clnl'cr to the Hate, by the allowance of (liU greater privileges and advanta- ges than they bad before enjoyed.. Tlie Beys were ordained to be cliofen from among Mamma them ; and the Partia, or chief governor for the Porte, if^iljSL was to Ihare his power with thofe Beys, and even to continue in office no longer than fhould be agreeable to their colleAive will. At tirft the power cf the Pafha was very extenfive ; but, by the intrigues and ambi- tion oi the Beys, it has been reduced almoft to a cy- pher. It was rather of a civil than military nature. He was always prelident cf the Divan, which was held in the callle where he refided. But that council now com- monly meets in the palace of one of the chief Beys, ex- cept when a firman or mandate is received froniConftan- tinople, when the Beys are fummoned to the callle, to hear the commands of the Porte. The few who attend, as foon as the reading is finifhed anl'wer, as is ufual, " Efmami "j.-a taana" " We have heard, and we obey." On leaving the caltle, their general voice is " Ej'mana lua aTrfnia," We have iicard, and Ihall difobey." In the year lyyi, Salah Aga, a flavc of Marad Bey, was dejiuted from the government of Egypt to nego- ciate their peace with the Porte. He carried prefents of hcrfes, rich fluffs, &c. A fpontaneous tribute, which the Porte was in no condition to enforce, implied obli- g.itiun on the pat t of the latter. He was well received, and afterwards was appiinted IVaquil es Sultan, agent or attorney to the Sultan in Cairo. It is probable, tliis office was given liim to incline him to fecond the efforts of the Court in difuniting the Beys ; but it was ineffci.tual. Thel'e had foimerly experienced the evils ot divilion, and now were united liy common interefl, grown rich, and well provided with ilaves ; fo that no tribute has fince that time found its way to Conllanti- nople. The Mameloucs remain, as they have ever been, mi- litary flaves, importedfrom Georgia, Circaffia, andMin-i grelia. A few have been prifoners, taken from the Auftrians and Ruffians, who have exchanged their reli- gion for an eilablilliment. The Beys give general or- ders to their agents at Conllantinople, to purchafe a certain number every year ; and many are brought to Egypt by private mei chants on fpeculation. When the lupply proves infufficient, or many h ive been ex- pended, blnck (laves from the interior of Africa are fub- lliiuted, a'nd, if found docile, are armed and accoutred like the relt. Particular attention is paid to the education of thefe favoured llave--. They are inllrucfeJ in every exercife of agility or (Ireigth, and are, in general, dillingiiilhed by the grace and beauty of their perfons. Tiie grati- tude of the difciples is equal to the favour of their ma- ilers, whom they never quit in the hour ot danger. If they have a dilpolition for leirning, they are taught the ufe of letters, and fome ot them arc excelleiu Icribes ; but the greater part neither can read nor write.' A flriking example oi whicli deficiency is obfervable in Murad Bey himfelf. The inferior Mameloucs conftantly appear in the mi- litary drefs, and are c.immonly armed with a pair of p'Uolf, a fabre, and a dagger. They wear a peculiar cap of a green. Ih hue, around which is wreathed a tur- ban. The relief their drefs refembles that of other Mohamedan citizens, and is rellriifled to no particular colour; but another fingularily is thcit large drawers of thick Venetian cloth, of acrin)fon colour, to which MS attached their flippers of icd leather. On horfc- MAM C 438 ] MAN Man. ■Mamma- back they add to their arms a pair of large horfe pi- vernors within his diftrifV, putting into it fome flave of M»mn«- lukc». (lols and the dubbus or battle ;ixe. In battle, many his own, who is compelled to render an account of the lukes, ^-^'"^"^^ of tliem wear an open lielniel, and the ancient ring ar- receipts, of which a great part palFcs to fapport the inour of interwoven links ot fteel, worn under part of grandeur of his mailer. An opulent Bey may have their drefs, and thus concealed. Thefe are dear ; fonic- Jrom 600 to 1000 purl'es annually ; the revenue ot Mu- limes colling 500 piallres, or about L. 40. Some of rad Bey more than doubles that fum. The inferior them are made at Conllantinoplc, others in Perfia. Beys may have 300 purlcs, or L. 15,000. Their hcifesareof the fincll Arabianbreed,andareoften Every Bey hts 111 judgment on cales of equity. purch.UcJ at three or four purfes, L. 150 to L. 200 Thefe prrfoniges are very obfervant of their refpe(5live Iterlm". juiifdidions ; and no Bey will inipi ifon a man liberated Til °y have no pay, as they est at n table in the houfe by another. Though fomeiinies too impetuous, they of their mailer the Bey, Calhet', or other oliicer. Any neverthelefs difplay great acutenefs and knowledge o€ military officer may puichal'e a (lave, who becomes, ipjo charaflers. This government, at L-all, p..irc(feb every /j<So, a Mimeluuc. The name, from ma/d, to poirds, advantage of publicity, a> every B;y is a magillrate. implies merely a pcrfon who is the proptity of another. MAN, has been coiilidcred in a gieat number of par- Atter a pri'pcr education, the candidate thus conllitu- ticulars under the title Man (Encycl.J ; but a reference ted a Mameiouc, receives a prcfcnt of a hotfe and arms was made from that article to the article Farieties of from his niafter, togetlier with a fuit of clo'hes ; which the Huvian Species, which was, after all, omitted entirely, is renewed every year in the month Ramadan. The Perhaps enough has been faid on the varieties ot the eenerolity of their maflers, and rewards or extortions human fpecies in the articles Complexion and Ne- from others, afford them fupplies of money, either for gro (Encycl.J ; but as intidcl ignorance is perpetually avarice or debauchery. Some of them, admitted tope- pretending, that the diminutive Icelanders, the ugly culiar favour by the Beys, as chafnadars, or piirfe-bear- lilquimatix, the woolly-headed Negro, and the copper- ers, Sec. acquire great wealth. They are rather gay coloured American, could not have delcended from one and thoughtlefs than infolent, fond of fhow, and un- origin.il pair either of European comple.tionor of Hin- principled in their means of acquiring ic. They feldom djo fymmetry — it may not be improper, in this place, to mairy till they acquire fome olfice. Ihew the weaknefs ct this popular objeclion tn the Mo- Though born of Chrillian parents, they feem highly laic hillory of the origin ot man. This has been done fatisfied'^v.ith their condition, which they have been in fo fatisfadlory a manner by Profell'or Blumenbach, known to refufe to exchange for freedom. The ma- that we have nothing to do but lay his obl'ervations be- iority are regarded by the Arabs as little ftriifl in the fore our readers, convinced, as we are, that they are in- principles or duties ot Mohamedifm. It is worthy of telligible to every capacity, and that they will carry remark, that thoujh the Mameloucs, in general, be convidion to all who are not the flaves of prejudice, ftrong and perlbnable men, yet the few who marry very " Some late writers on natural hiftory (lays the Pro- Phil- Mag^ feldom iiave children. As the fon, even of a Bey, is feffor) feem doubtlul whether the numerous diltincl ■*'"'• '''• not honoured with any particular contideration, the wo- races of men ought to be conlidered as mere varieties., P" " men, perhaps, procure abortions. Of eighteen Beys, which have arifen from degeneration, or as fo many Ipe- with whofe hillory Mr Browne was well acquainted, cies altogether different. The caufe of this feems chief- two only had any children living. ly to be, that they took too narrow a view in their re- Hardy, capable of every fatigue, of undaunted cou- fearches ; felecfled, perhaps, two races the mod different race, and eminent (kill in horfemanfhip and the ufe of from each other pofllble, and, overlooking the inter- the fabre, the Mameloucs may be regarded as by far mediate races that formed the conneftlng links between the bell troops in the Eaft. But in a regular battle, them, compared thelie two together ; or, they fixed condufled by manoeuvres, and large or rapid move- their attention too much on man, without examining mcnts, they are equally int'eiior to European troops. other fpecies of animals, and comparing their varieties Being diftinguilhed by favouritifm or merit, the Ma- and degeneration with thofeof the human fpecies. The melouc becomes a Cafhef, and in time a Bey. The firft fault is, when one, for example, places together a chief caufe of preference arifes from political adherence Senegal negro and an European Adonis, and at the to fome powerful leader. fame time forgets that there is not one of the bodily The government of Cairo, and Egypt, in general, differences of thefe two beings, whether hair, colour, is vcfted in 24 Beys ; each of v;honi is nominally chofen features, &c. which does not gradually run into the by the remaining 23, but, in faft, appointed by one of fame thing of the other, by fuch a variety of fhades, tlie moft powerful. The Yenk-tchery, Aga, and feve- that no phyfiologift or naturalift is able to eftablidi a ral other officers, are enumerated among the 24 Beys. certain boundary between ihofe gradations, and confe- Befides being governors of certain dilf riifls of Egypt, quently between the extremes themfelves. feveral of the Beys receive other dignities from the " The fecond fault is, when people reafon as if man Porte : Such are the Shech el Bellad or governor of were the only organifed being in nature, and confider the city; the Defterdar, or accountant-general; the the varieties in his fpecies to be ftrange and problemati- Emir el Hadj, or leader of the facred caravan ; and the cal, without reflefting that all thefe varieties are not EniT esSaid, or governor «f the Upper Egypt. Thefe more rtrikingor more uncommon than thofe with which two lad oftices are annual. Thefe officers have alfo re- fo many thoufands of other fpecies of organifed beings venues allotted them by the Porte, ill defined, and li- degenerate, as it were, before our eyes." able to much abufe. As what we havefaid under thearlicles Complexion Of the other Beys, each appoints all officers and go- and Nsgro may be fufficient to warn mankind againfl the 284- MAN [ 439 ] MAN Mm. the firft error, and at the fame time to refute it, we lia- Iiave thought proper, on account of thefe vaiieties in ^'^'"^'^ ilen to refute the fecond by our author's cotnparifon be- the human race, to admit more than one fpecief. tween the human race and that cf fwine. " With regard to (tature, the Patagonians, as is well " More reafons (fays he) than one have induced me known, have aff>)rdcd the greatelt employment to an- te make clioice of fwine for this coroparifon ; btft, in thropologifts. The romantic tales, however, cf the old M^n. particular, becaule ihey have a great fimilarity, in many refpefls, to man ; not, however, in the form of their entrails, as people formerly believed, and therefore ftu- died the anatomy of the human body purpofely in fwine ; fo that, even in the lall century, a celebrated difpute, which arofe between the phyficians of Heidel- berg and thofe cf Durlach, refpecfing the pofition of the heart in m.in, was determined, in confequence of or- ders from government, by infpecfing a low, to the great triumph of the pirty which really was in the wrong. Nor is it becaufe in the time of Galen, according to le- peated ajfcriions, human flelh was faid to have a talle peifeflly limilar to that of fwine ; nor becaufe the fat, and the tanned hides of both, are very like to each other ; but becaufe both, in regard to the economy of their bodily llruifture, taken on the whole, fhew unex- pefledly, on ihe tirft view, as well as on clofer examina- tion, a very (Iriking finiilitude. " Both, for example, are domeftic animals ; both om- nlvorii ; l)0th are dilpcrled throughout all the four quar- ters of the world; and both coiifequently are expofed, in numerous ways, to the principal caufes of degenera- tion arifing from climate, mode of life, nnutiliiment, &c. ; both, for the fame reafon, are fubjedl to many difeafes, and, what is particularly worthy of remaik, to difeafes rarely found among other animals than men and fwine, fuch as the Hone in the bladder ; or to difeafes eiclufively peculiar to thefe two, fuch as the worms found in m;afled iwine. " Another reafon (continues he) why I have made choice of fwine for the prelent compiirifn i>, becaui'e the degeneration and defccnc from the original race are far more certain in lliefe animals, and can be bet- ter traced, than in the varieties of other domclllc ani- rnals. For no naturalill, I l)e!ieve, has carried his foep- ticilm fo f^r as to doubt the defceut of the domeftic fwine from tlie wild boar; which is fo much the more evident, as it is well kn')wn that wild pigs, when caught, may be eafily rendered as tame and familiar as domeftic fwine : and the contrary alio is the cafe ; tor if the lat- ter by any accident gel into the woods, they as rradily beci^me wild again ; fo that ihere are inftances of fuch animals being lli -t f u w:ld fwine ; and it lias not been till they were opened, and fc iind call rated, that peciple were led to a difcovery of iheir oiigin, and how, and at what time, they ran away. It is well afccrtaincd, that, before the difcovery ot Ameiica by the Spaniards, Avine were unknown in th.it qu irter ol the woild, and that they were afterwards canied thither from Europe. All the varieties, therefore, thiough which this animal has fmce degenerdted, brlong, with the original JEuro- pean race, to one and ihc fame Ipecies ; and fincc no bodily difference i.s found in the human race, as will prcfently appear, either in regard to ftaturc, colour, the form of the cranium. &v. which is not obferved in the fame proportion among the fwine race, while no one, on that account, ever doubts that all liie.'e diffeicnc kinds aie merely varieties th.it have arifen from degene- ration through the influci.ce of climate, &C. this cora- travellers, who give to thefe inhabitants ot the fouthern extremity of America a ftature of ten feet and more, are fcarcely worth notice; and even the more niodefl relations of later Englifli navigators, who make their height from fix to feven feet, have been doubted b'.' other travellers, who, on the fame coalt, fought for fuch children of Enoch in vain. But we ihall admit etery thing faid of the extraordinary fi/e of thefe Patagonians by Byron, Wallis, and Carteret; the fuft of wlicm af- figns to their chief, and ieveral of his attendants, :» height cf rot leis than feven feet, ,-xs far as could be de- teimincd by the eye; the fecond, Vs'ho affcrts that he adhially meafured them, gives to the greater part of them from 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feer ; to fome 6 feet 5 inclies , and 6 feet 6 ; but to the tallelf, 6 feet 7 inch- es : and this account is confirmed by the lall-mentioncd of the above ciicumnavigators. Now, allowing this to be the c^fe, it is not near fuch an exceis of ftature as that obferved in many parts of America among the fwine, originally carried thither from Europe ; and of thefe I fliall mention in particuLir ihofe of Cuba, which are more than double the fize of the original ftock in. Europe. " The natives of Guinea, Madagafcar, New Holland,. New Guinea, &c. are black ; many American tribes are leddilh brown, and the Europeans are white. An equal difference is obferved among fwine in dilFerent cnur.tries. In Piedmont, for example, ihey are black. When I paffed (f^tys our author) through that country,, during the great fair tor fwine at Salenge, I did not fee a finale one of any other cohjur. In Bavaria, they are reddilh bown ; in Normandy, they are all while. " Human hair is, indeed, fomewh.-it different from. fwines briiUes ; yet, in the piefent point of view, they may be compared with each oth^r. Fair hair is foft, and ot a lilky texture ; b!;:ck hair is co.irfer, and among feveral tribes, fuch as the Aljyifiniaus, Negroes, and the inhdbitHnts of New Hollind, it is woolly, and moft fo among the Hottentots. In the like manner, among the white fwine in Noiraandy, as I wiis aifured by an in- compar.<bIe obleiver, Sulzer of Ronneburg, tlie hair on the whole body is longer and fofter than ainon" o- ther fwine ; and even the brililes on the back are very little diflerent, but 1 e flat, and are only longer L'lan the hair on the (ther parts of the body. They cannot,, therefore, be employed by the btufh m..kers. The dif- ference between the hair ot the wild boar and the do- mcltic fwini.-, particularly inregaid to the f fter part between the firong brinks, is, as is well known, llill, greater. " The whole diff..'rence between the cranium cf a Negro and that of an European, is n. t in ihe le.ift de- gree greater tlian tliat equ.illy llriking difference which- exifls between the cranium of liie wild bo.ir and ihat ot the diroeftic fwine. Tfiofc who h.ive not obferved this in the animals tlicmfelves, need only to call their eye on the figure which Daubtntoii has given of both. " I Ih.tll pals over (lay^ our aiulior Ids national varieties which may be found among fwine as well as. parifon, it is to be hoped, will lilcDce ihofe fce^tics who among men, and only racnticn, that 1 have been allured MAN [ 440 ] MAN Manallin, by Mr Sulzer, tliat the peculiarity cf having the bone of the lej; remaik;ibl/ lonj;, as is the cafe among the Hindoos, has been remarked with regard to the fwine in Niirni.indy. ' They Hand very long on their hind legs (fays he, in one of his letters) ; their back, there- fore, is higliell at tlie rump, forming a kind of inclined pline ; and the head proceeds in the fame direiftion, io that the fnout is not fir from the ground.' I fliall here add, that the fwine, in fome countries, have dej^e- nerated into races which in fingul.'.rity far exceed every thing that has been found ftrange in bodily variety among the human race. Swine with folid hools were known to the ancients, and large herds of them are found in Hungary, Sweden, &c. In the like manner, the European Swine, firfl carried by the Spaniards, in 1509, to the illand of Cuba, at that time celebrated for its pearl fi(hery, degenerated into a monllrous race, with hoofs which were half a I'pan in length." From tliefe f.tQ^, our author concludes, that it is ab- furd to allow t!ie vaft variety of fwine to have defcend- ed from one oiiginal pair, and to contend that the va- rieties of men arc fo many diltiiiit I'pecies. MANALLIN, a townlhip in York county, Penn- fylvania. — Morse. MANCA, a town of Weft-Florida, on the E. bank of tlie Miffillippi, at the mouth of Hona Chitto river. —ib. MANCENILLA, a large bay on the N. fide of the idand of St Domingo ; about 4,000 fathoms long from W. to E. and 2,800 broad from N. to S. The S. E. part of the bay is very wide, and affords excellent an- chorage, even for vcftl-ls of the firll fize. Li other parts it is too Ihallow. The river M.dfacre, which was the point of feparaiion of the French and Spanilh colonies on the N. of the ifland, runs a N. courfe, towards its mouth N. W. and enters the eaftern part of the bay. The bay of Mancenilla, though a very fine one, is not fo ufelul as it might be, if its bottom were well known. There are fevcral Ihallows in it, owing to the overflow- ings ot the Maffiicre, wliich rolls into it, wood, fand, and ftones, in great quantities, fo that it feems necefla- ry to found the bay annually, after they are over. In general, it is prudent, on entering, to keep clofer to the point of Ycaque, than to the S. fide of the bay ; becaufe the fandy point has no rocks. The bottom of the bay is muddy. The river Malfacre is, during a league, from 5 to 12 feet deep, and pretty wide; but its bed is often lull ot the wood which the current brings down. It fwarms with fifh ; and here are found thole enormous mullets which are the pride of the table at Cape Francois. In the times of the floods, thefe fi(h are driven towards the bay, where negroes, well prac- tiled in the buhnefs, filh for them. Fiftiing in the bay is difficult enough, on account of the drifted wood ; but the negroes are good divers, and are often obliged to go to the bottom and difengage the feine ; but when it gets near the beach, it is a fingular and ftriking Ipectacle, to fee the negroes, the fifh, and the alliga- tors, all flouncing about in the water together. The negroes kill the alligators, knock out their teeth, and fell them to make curals, the garniture of which ferves to mark the degree of luxury or pride of thofe who hang them to the necks of their children. The plenty of fidi often attrafls fhips of war to this bay. The mouth of Malfacre river lies in N. lat. 19° 44', W. long, from Paris 74° 9'. — ib. MANCHAC, a town on the Midiffippi, two miles below the Indian town of Alabama. The banks of the river at Manchac, though frequently overflowed by the vernal inundations, are 50 feet perpendicular height above the futface of the water ; and the river, at its lowell ebb, is not lefs than 40 fathoms deep, and nearly a mile in width. The Spanilh fortrefs on the point of land below the Ibbei villi, clofe by tiie banks of the river, has a communication with Manchac, by a flender, narrow, wooden bridge, acrofs the channel of Ibberville, and not a bow-(hot from the habitations of Manchac. — ib. MANCHESTER, a fmall fi(hing-town, fituated on the fea-coaft between Cape Anne and Beverly, in ElTex county, MafTachufetts. The fifhery is carried on from this port chiefly in tlie velfels, and for the account of the merchants in Boll. in, and other places. The town- fliip lies S. E. of Wenham, and 30 miles N. E. of Bof- ton. Ic was incorporated in 1645, and contains 965 inhabitants. — ib. Manchester, a poll-town of Vermont, in Benning- ton county, on Batteukill. It is 22 miles N. by E. of Bennington, and 59 N. E. of Albany in New- York. This townlhip contaiub 1276 inhabitants. In the S. part of the town, in a hill a little W. of the Battenkill, is a deep ftrntum of friable calcareous earth, of the whitenefi of chalk ; and apparently compofed of fhells, which requires but little burning to produce good lime. — ib. Manchester, a townlhip in York county, Pennfyl- vania. — ib. Manchester, a fmall town of Virginia, fituated on the S. fide of James river, oppofite to Richmond, with which it is conneifled by a bridge. In 1781 this town fufFered much during Arnold's deftruftive expedition. —ib. Manchester, a town of Nova-Scotia, 10 leagues N. W. of Cape Canlb. It contained 250 families in 1783.—/*. Manchester House, one of the Hudfon Bay Com- pany's fadories, lies 100 miles W. of Hudfon's Houfe, and 75 S E. of Buckingham Houfe. It (lands on the S. W. fide of Safkafhawan ri»er, in the N. W. part of N. America. N. lat. 53° 14' 18", W. long. 109° 20'. —ib. MANCORA, a place on the road from Guayaquil to Truxilla, in Peru, fituated on the fea-coaft. Through it, during winter, runs a rivulet of frefh wa- ter, to the great relief of the mules '.hat travel this way. In fummer, the little remaining in its channel is fo brackifti, as to be hardly toler?ble. — ib. MANDING, a large ftate in the interior of Africa, cf which the only fatisfaftory account that we have is by Mr Park, who, for feveral months, was hofpita- bly entertained in Kamalia, one of its towns, fituated in 12° 40* N. Lat. and 6" 40' W. Long. The go- vernment of Manding appeared to our author to be a fort of republic, or rather an oligarchy. Every town is indeed governed by a chief magiftrate called Manfu, which ufually fignifies king ; but the chief power of the ftate, in the laft refort, is lodged in the affembly of thefe manfas Manchic, II Mamling. MAN [ 44^ ] MAN Mandiiig. manfas (a). The cafe, however, is dlfForent in other ^'^'^''^-^ countries, which are occupied by penpL- who have emi- grated from Manding; for in all the Mandingo flates near the Gambia, the government is monarchical, though the power of the fovereign is by no means un- limited. As Mr Park's ronte was confined to a trad of coun- try, bnunded nearly by the 12th and 15th parallels of latitude, the climate throtigliout the whole was nearly the fame as that of Manding, and extremely hot : Yet, where tlie countiy afcended into hills, he found it com- paratively cool and pleafant ; thougli none of the dif- triifls which he traveried could be called mountainous. About the middle of June, the hot and fultry atmof- phere is agitated by vi'ilent gufts of wind (called torna- does), accompanied with thunder and rain. Thefe uftier in what is denominated the- rainy feafon ; which conti- nues until '.he month of November. During this time, the diurnal rains are very heavy ; and the prevailing winds are from the fouth-well. The termination of the rainy kafon is likewife attended with violent tornadoes ; after which the wind Ihilts to the north-eall, and conti- nues to bloviT from that quarter during the reft of the year. When the wind fets in from the north-eaft, it pro- duces a wonde;ful change in the face of the country. The grafs foon becomes dry and withered ; the rivers fubfide very rapidly, and many of the trees (hed their leaves. About this period is commonly felt the l-ar- matlan, a dry and parching wind, blowing froin the nortiieaft, and accompanied by a thick fmoky haze; through which the fun appears of a dull red colour. This wind, in palling over the great delert of Sahara, acquires a very (Irong atttadion for humidity, and parches up every thing expofed to its current. It is, however, reckoned very falutary, particularly to Euro- peans, who generally recover their health during its con- tinuance. 'I'he truth of this our author experienced both at Kamalia and Pil'ania, when he had been brought to the very brink of the grave by ficknefs. Whenever the grafs is lulRciently dry, the negroes fet it on fire ; but in Ludamar, and other Moorilh countries, this praiflice is not allowed ; for it is upon the withered ftubble that the Moois feed their cattle until the return of the tains. The burning of the grais in Manding exhibits a fcene of terrific grandeur. •' lu the middle of the night (fays Mr Park), 1 could fee the plains and mountains, as far as my eye cc uld reach, va- riegated with lines of fire ; and the light reflccled on the (ky, made the heavens appear in a blaze. In the day time, pillars of fmuke weie feen in every direiftion ; while the birds of prey were ob/erved hovering round the contiigration, and pouncing down upou the fnakes, lizards, and other reptiles, which attempted to efcape from the flames." 'J'his annual burning is f.ion followed by a ficlh and fweet verdure, and the country is there- by rendered more healthful and pleafant. Though many fpecics of the edible roots, which grow in tiie Weft India illaods, are found in Africa, SuP>'L. Vol. II. yet our traveller never faw, in any part of his journey, Miudiuj. either the fugar-cane, the coffee, or the cocoa-lree; nor ^•^^-'^'^■-^ could he learn, on ir.quiry, that they were known to the natives. The pice-apple, and the thoufand other delicious fruits which the induftry of civilized man (im- proving the bounties of nature), has brought to (o great perfeftion in the tropical climates of America, are here equally unknown. He obferved, indeed, a f;w orange and banana trees, near the mouth of the Gambia ; but whether they were indigenous, or were formerly planted there by fome of the white traders, he could not pt li- tively learn. Concerning property in the foil, it appeared to Mr Park, that the lands in native woods were conlidered as belonging to the king, or (where the government wa< not monarchical) to the ftate. When any individual ot tree condition had tlie means of cultivating more land than he aclually poffelfed, he applied to the chief man of the dillridt, who allowed him an extenlion of territory, on condition of forfeiture it the lands were not brought into cultivation by a given period. The con- dition being iultilled, the foil became veiled in the pof- fetfor ; and, for aught that appeared, dclcenued to his heirs. The Mandingoes are a very gentle race of people ; cheertul in their difpolitions, inquifitive, credulous, limple, and tond ot tlatlery. The men are commonly above the middle fize, well lliaped, ftrong, and capable ot enduring great labour ; the women are good natured, fprighcly, and agreeable. Tiie drefs of both fexes is compofed of cotton cloth of their own manufadure; that of the men is a loofe frock, not unlike a iurplice, with drawers which reach halt' way down the leg ; and they wear landals on their feet, and white cotton caps on their heads. The women's diet's confuls of two pieces of cloth, each of wnich is about lix feet long and three broad ; one of thel'e they wrap round the waift, which, hanging down to the ancles, anfwers the puipofs of a petticoat ; the other is thrown negligently over the bo. Ibm and IhoulJers. B.uh men and women ami>ng the Mandingoes teem to have an invincible jnopenfity to commit depredations on the property of unpiotcv'led ftrangers ; whilft fuch is the good nature of thofe poor heathens, that they will readily fympathife in the fuffer- ings, relieve the diltrelfes, and contrioute to the perfcnal falety, of the very tlrangers whom they are bent upon plundering. Among the Mandingoes, the parental and filial affec- tion is remarkably tfrong between the mother and her child ; but not to between the father and his ciiildren. This, as Mr Park obt'erves, is ealily accounted lor. Tne lyltem of polygamy, while it weakens ilie father's at- tachment, by dividing It anic,ng ih.- children of ditL-ret.t wives, concentrates all tlie mothei's jealous tenderncfs to one point, the protc<flion oi her own offspring. He perceived, with great fatisfaaloii too, that the m iternal folicitude extended, not iiiily to tl>j growth and Itcuii- ty of the peitbn, but alio, in a certain degree, t > the improvement of the mind of the inf.int ; for one cf the 3 I'i- lirll (a) Mr Park, for the moft part, writes with remarkable perfplculty ; but we are not Aire tliat here we have not midaken hfs meaning. He fays, that the cfcief power of the llate is lodged in the airembly of that '-.vLcle ioly; but we think, tiiat by the wlul: body muft be meant the body of MjiiJ'js, otherwife the government cculd not be called an oligartliy. M A N [ 442 ] MAN ManJ-.iif;. fii ll lelFons, in wliicli the M.indingo women inftruiS their '^^''^"'-^ chilJrili, is tl.t praclhe of truth. The Mandingo won.en luckle their children until they are able 10 walk ol themlelves. Three years nur- fin-'- is not uncommon; and during this ptiiod, the hulband devotes his whole attention to liis other wives. To thii praitice it is owing, that llie family of each wife is fvilJom very nuir.eious. Few women have more than live or fix chilJttn. As ioon as an int.mt is able to walk, it is pcuiiltted to run about with gr^at free- dom. The motlier is not over folicitous to preierve it from lli'^ht lalh, and oi!i;r trilling accidents. A little practice foon enabks .1 child to take care of itl'ell, and expel itnce aits the pait ol a r.uili:. As they advance in lite,' the girls are taiiglt to fpin cotton, and 10 beat corn, anil are miluicied in odier domedic duiies ; and the bo) i are eni^l.Tyed in the labours of ilie lisld. Botli fexes, vvhe.her Bulhreens or Kafir:-, on attaining the age of puberty, are cireumcifed. i'liis painiul operation is not confidcred by the Kufirs fo much in the liglu of a religious ceieniouy, as a niiltcr (f convenience aur! uti- lity. Thsy have, indeed, a fuperllitiuus notion, that it contiibiices to render the mainage date proliHc. V/iieii a yuung man t;ikes a tincy to a young; E;irl, and willies to rnnrry her, ic is by no means conlideied as necLifary that he Ihould make an overture to the girl herleit. I'iie hrit object is to agiee with the parents, concerning the rccompence to be given them for the lots 01 the company and ftrvices of their daughter. The value of two Haves is a common price, unlefs die girl is thought very handfome ; in whicli eaie, the parents will i.iife ihcir demand Very confiderably. It the lover is rich enough, and willing to give the fum demanded, he then communicates his wilhe-, to the danifel : but her cunftnt is by no means neceifary to the match ; for if the paients agree to it, and eat alc.v LoHn-nuts, which are pielented t)y the fuitor as an earnell of the bargain, the young lady mult either have the man of their choice, or continue luimanied, tor Ihe c.uinot afterwards be gi- v;n to anothei. If the parents ihoulJ attempt it, tlifi lover IS then .nit.horiied, by the laws of the country, tn li:i^e iipcn the girl as his flave. At the cclcbratir.ii of a ni.irnagc, no religious ceremony leenis to be practifed. A lekiS number of people are indeed invited to the wedding, and feaftcd ; but confunimation confiitutes the marriage ; tor towards the morning, the new married cjuplc are always diliurbed by the women, who af- femble to infpeil the nuptial Iheet {according to the riianiiers of the ancient Hebrews, as recorded in Sciip- t'.ire), and dance round it. This ceremony is thought iiidili-viilably necelTavy ; nor is the marriage coniidered as valid witiiout it. The I'vi iiidingoes, and indeed all the negro Rates, whe- ther M.ihoniedan or Pagan, alluw a plurality of wives. The conlequence is, that the wives tretiuenily quarrel among ihtnilelves. When this happens, the hulband decides between them ; and fomelimcs finds it neceifary to adminultr a little corporal challifcment before tran- qiiilily can be reltored. 13ut it any one ot the ladies complains to the chief of the town, that her hufband has niijuiiiy punished her, and fhewn an undue partiality to Jbiiie other of his wives, the affair is brought to a pub- lic trial. Ill ihele palavers, huwever, which are con- 4ilAed chiefly by man led men, our author was infornx- ed, that the complaint of ths wife is not always conii- Mandrnj; dered in a very ferious light ; and the complainant her- ^'^~^^~^^^ fell' is fometimes convitfted of Ibile and contention, and left with.iut remedy. 1[ Ihe murmurs at the decilioii of the court, the magic roi! of Mumbo JumLo foon puts an end to the bufinefs. Sec Mumbo [u.miio in this Suppl. A child, among them, is named when it is feven or eight days old. 'I'iie ceremony commences by (having the infant's head ; and a oilh called >li^a, made of pound- ed corn and four milk, l> prepared for the guells. If the parents are rich, a Ihc^p or a guat is commonly ad- ded. Tiiis tcall is called iling ko(,n he^ " the child's heaii Ihaving." During Mr Park's Itay at Kimaiia, he was pieleiit at lour ditleient lealls of this kind, and the f.icmony was the fiiiie 111 each, whether the child belonged to a Bullireeu or a Karir. I'he fchodlmailer, wild (jrtii.ia;ed as priell on ihofe occalions, and who is neceliar ly a Bufhreeii, lirfl laid a long prayer over the d.'^a ; duiing which, every perlou preiVnt took hold of the btirn ol the calabalii with his right hand. After this, the fchoolaialfer took the child in his arms, and laid a fecond prayer; in which he rep-atedly ft^licited the blelhng of God upon the child, and upon a!l the company. When this prayer was ended, he vvliifpeied a tew fentences in the child's ear, and fpit three times in its face ; after which he pronounced its name aloud, and returned the infant to the mother. This part of the ceremony being ended, the father of the cliild divided the (/.-^.-j into a number ot balls, one of which he diUri- buted to every perfon prefent. And inquiry wib ihen made, if any peifon in the town was dangeroully I'n.!, ; it being ufual, in inch cafes, to fend the party a large portion ot [he ik^a, which is thought to poflcfs great medical virtues. The M indingoes have no artificial method of divi- ding tim:f. They calculate the yeais by the number of rainy feafms. They portion the year into tnoons, and reckon the days by fo many f:tns. T;;e day they di- vide iiit > morning, mid d.iv, and evening ; and fnrth.er fubdivide it, when iicceifaiy, by pointing to the fun'j place in the heavens. Our author frequently inquired ot fome of them, what became of ihe fun during the: night, and whether we Ihould fee the fame l"un, or n ditiereiu one, in the morning ? But that fubje(!t ap- peared to them as pLiced beyond ihe reach tit human invelbgation ; they had never indulged a conjecture, nor formed any hypothelis, about tlie matter. The rnoon, by varying her form, has more attrafted their attention. On tne firil appearance of the new moon, which they look upon ti> be newly created, the P.igaa natives, as well as M.ihomedan>, fay a Ihort prayer ; and this feems to be the only vilible adoration which the Kafirs oflxr up to the Supreme Being. This prayer is pruiioiuiced in a whifper ; the party holding up his hanJs before his face : its purport is to return thanks to God for his kindnslb through thee:,iltence i,f thepaft moon, and to folicit a continuation of his favour duiing thac of the new one. At the conclulion, they fpit upon their hands, and rub them over tii:ir tacc». Great at- tention is paid to the changes ot this luminary in its monthly courfe ; and it is thought very unlucky to be- gin a journey, or any other work or confequence, in the lall quarter. An eclipfe, whether of the fun or moon, is luppofed to be eifjcled by witchcraft. The ftars MAN [ 443 ] M A N Mandiiig. flars are very little regarded; and the whole Rudy of ^■'^"^'^•'-^ adronomy appears to them as a iifekls purfuit, and at- tended to by luch psrfons only as deal in magic. Their notions of geography are equally puerile. They imagine that the wurd is an extended plain, theteimi- nalion cf which no eye has difcovered; it being, they fay, overhung with clouds and darknefs. They defcribe the fea as a large liveT ot fait water, on the farther fliore of which is iituated a country called TobauLo doo ; *' the land ol the white people." At a dill;uice from Tobaubo doo, they defcribc another country, wiiich they allege is inhabited by cannibals of gigantic fize, called Koomi. Mr Park fays he has converfed vvitli all ranks and conditions of negroes on the fubjeifl ct their faith, and that he can pronounce, without the linallcll (hadow of doubt, that the belief of one God, and of a future (late of reward and punilhment, is entire and univerlal among them. It is remaikable, however, that, except on the appearance of a new moon, as belore i elated, (he Pagan natives do not think it necellary to offer up pr.iyers and fupplications to the Almighty. They reprcfent the Deity, indeed, as the creator andpreferver of all things ; but in general ihey conlider him as a being fu lemote, and ot lo exalted a nature, that it is idle to imagine the feeble fuppliciitions of wretched mortals can reverfe the decrees, and change the purpofes, of unerring wifdom. The concerns ol tins world, they believe, are committed by the Almighty to the fuperintcndance and diredion of fubordinate fpirits, over whom tliey fuppofe that cer- tai.i magical ceremonies have great influence. A white fowl, fuipended to the branch of a particular tree, a fnake's head, or a lew handluls of Iruit, are offerings which ignorance and fuperilition frequently prefent, to deprecate the wrath, or to conciliate the favour, of thcfe tutelary agents. The Mandingoes feldom attain extreme old age. At forty, moll of them become grey haired, and covered with wrinkles ; and but few of them furvive the age of fifty-five, or fixly. Yet their difeafes appeared but few ; fevers and Huxes being the moll common, and the mod fatal. For thefc they generally apply Japhies, i. e. charms, to different paits of the body; though fome- tiines, on the hill attaci^ of a fever, the patient is, with great fucccfs, placed in a fort of vapour bath. The other difeafes which prevail among the negroes, are the yaiL's, the elcphant'iafis, and a Itprofy of the very worll kind, together with tlie Gulma -worm, which tliey at- tribute to bad water. When a perfon of confequence dies, the relations and neighbours meet together, and manifell their forrow by loud and dilnial bowlings. A bullock or goat is killed for fuch perfons as come to allill at the funeral ; which generally takes place in the evening of the lame day on which the party died. The negroci have no appropriate burial places, and frequently dig the grave in the floor of the dtceafcd's hut, or in the Ihade of a favourite tree. The body is dreli'ed in white cott'^n, and wrap- ped up in a mat. It i» c.irried to tlie grave, in the dulk of the evening, by the relations. If the grave is with- out the walK of the town, a number of prickly bulhes are laid upon it, to prevent the wolves from digging up the body ; but cur iiuthor never oblervcd that any Hone was placed over the grave as a monument or memorial. ManUcini. With rtfpeifl to employment, the men ctililvale the MaiiJing, ground, or catch filh in large rivers ; while the women II manufadure cotton cloth. It is only the Ipinniug and the dying, however, that are performed by the women ; for the web, which is feldom more than four inches broad, is wove by the men in a loom made exaftly upon the fame principle as that of Europe. As the arts of weaving, dyeing, fewing, Sec. may eafily be acquired, thofe who exercife them are not confidered in Africa as following any particular profeffion ; for almoll erery flave can weave, and every boy can few. The only ar- tiils which are diftinflly acknowledged as fuch by the negroes, and who value themlelves on exei cifr.ig appro- priate and peculiar trades are the manufaflurers »i leather and of iron. The fiill of thefc are called K.ir- rattkea (or as the word is fometimes pronounced Gaun- gay). They are to be found in almoll every town, and they frequently travel through the country in the exer- cife of their calling. They tan and drefs leather with very great expedition, by lleeping the hide firll in ;t mixtuie cf wood alhes and water, until it parts with the hair ; and afterwards by uling the paunded leaves of a tree, called _^09, as an allringent. The manufaflurers in iron are net fo numerous as tlie KarrankcJs ; but they appear to have lluJied tlieir bulinefs with equal diligence. The negroes on the coalt being cheaply fupplied with iron f.-om the Eu- ropean traders, never attempt the manufafturing i f this article themfelves ; but in the inland parts, the n itives Imelt this ul'elul metal in fuch qii intities, as not only lo fupply themlelves from it with all necellary weapons and inllruments, but even to m:ike it an article of commerce with fome of the neighbouring Hates. During our au- thor's Hay at Kamalia, there was a fmelting furnace at a lliort diftance from the hut where he lodged, and the owner and his workmen made no fecret about the man- ner of conducing the operation ; and readily allowed him to examine the furnace, and allill them in breaking the iron-ftone. The jirocefs it is needlefs to defcribe ; though it be proper lo obferve, that the ni afs of metal obtained by it was rather ll;cl than iron. Moll of the African blackfmiths are acquainted alfo with the me- thod of fmelting gold, iu which proccfs they ufe an al- kaline fait, obtained from a ley of burn: coin-llalks eva- porated to drynefs. They likewife draw the gold into wire, and foim it into a variety of ornament--, tome of which are executed with a great deal of talle and in- genuity. The reader will obferve, that in tlie extrafls whicli we have made from Mr Park's interelling travels, tlie terms African and Negro are frequently ufed as if :-.ll Alricans and Negroes \iere Mindin.;ocs. The rcalVii is, that the Mandingoes were not only the moll mimcr- ous tribe which he vilited, but were alf ■ fpread over all that traft f f ctuatry which he traveifcd. MANGEEA, an ifland of the S. Seas, vifited by C::ptain Cook in the beginning cf his lall voyage. The coall IS guarded by a reef ol coral rocks, .igaird wliicli a heavy furf is continually i)reaking. The ifland is about 15 miles in circumlerence. The inhabitants ap- pear of a warlike dilpolition. S. lat. 21'' 27', W. long. 1 5 8"^ '1' .— Mnne. MANHEIM, a town of Pennfylv:uiia, in the coun- ty of Lancaller. It contains about 60 houfjs, and a 3 Iv 2 Dutch MAN [ 444 ] MAN Mamfuld. Maniana, Dutch church. Glafs works were ercdled here previous to the revolution, but they are fallen to decay. It is 1 1 miles N. by W. of Lancafler, and 77 W. by N. of Phiiadelphi.i. — Alio the name of a town in Lincoln couiuv, Maine. There is another of the fame name in York county, Penr.iylvani.i. — Hi. MANI.ANA, a fmall negro kingdom lying between 12° and 14° North Lat. and between thi meridian of Gre:nwich and l" and 30' Well Long. Its inhabi- tants, as Mr Park was informed by a variety of people in many different kingdom-, are remarkable for cruelty and lerocity ; carrying tlieir refencmcnt to their enemies fo far as never to give quarter, and even indulging tliem- felvcs with banquets of human flelh. Hence the inha- bitants of B.imbarra, who carried on with them a long and bloody war, and mull o( courfe be well i>.fcertained of the fad, called them Ala Jummulo, which fignifies men-eaters. MANICOUAGAN, or lilacl Rhfr, rifes from a like of i-s name, in Lowjr Canada ; runs a foutheni courfe, and falls into the St Lawrence S5 miles N. L. ofTadoufac. — Morse. MANIEL, or rather Bahoruco, mountains in the idandof HifpaniolaorSt Domingo, 20 miles in ciicum- ference, and almoll inaccelhble. They have been for fio years pall the phce of refuge of the fugitive Spanilh and French negroes. Thefe biigands have as yet al- ways defied their purfuers. The foil of thefe moun- tains is fertile, the air temperate, and the llreams in them, abound with gold dull. — ib. MANILLON, a townlhip in Fayette county, Penn- fylvania. — ib. MANITOUALIN, a dufter of illands near the northern Ihoie of Lake Huron, conlidered as facred by the Indians. — ib. MANLIUS, a townftip in Onondago county, New- Yoik, incorporated in 1794, and is th^ feat of the county courts. It is well watered by Butternut, Limellone, and Chittenengo creeks, which \inite at the N. F,. corner of the town ; and the llream, alluming the latter name, runs nortli to Oneida lake, which is JO n)iies northerly of the ceiitre of the town. It com- j.rehcnds that part of t!ie Onondago relervation bound- ed foudietly by the GeneiDe road, and welleily by Onondago cieek and t);e Salt lake. Of its inhabitants <j6 are eleilors, according to the State cenfus of 1796. —ih. MANMIC. Indian villages on the Picaway fork of the Ivlanmic, or Miami of the lake, and St Mary's ri- ver. — ib. MAMNINGTON, a townflilp in Salem county, Ncw-Jevlcy — ib. MANOR, a townfiiip in Laucafler county, Penn- fylvani^. — ib. MANSFL, an idand in the N. E. part of Hudfon's hay, between Southampton ifland and the coafl of Labrador. N. lat. 62" 38'. MANSFIELD, a townlhip in Sulfex county, New- Jerfey, containing 1482 inhabitants, including 35 flaves. It is fr.uated on Mulconecunk river, about 7 miles Ib'ith-ealterly of Oxford, and as far northerly oi Green- wich. — ib. MANSFIELD, a townOiip in Briltol county, Maf- £tchufstts, liluated 30 nfles fouiherly of Bollon. It was incorporated in 1770, and contains 983 inhabit- Mansfield Manure. ants. — ib. Mansfield, a townlhip in Chittenden county, Ver- mont, betw>;cn La Moille and Onion rivers, about 7 mileb dillance from each, and 113 miles N. by E. of Bennington. — ib. M.iNSFiELD, atownthip in Burlington county, New- Jerfey, on the S. fide of Black's creek, conflfting of 19,000 acres, of an excellent foil, noted for its fine paftures and large dairies. It is 8 miles W by N. of Burlington, and 12 S. by E. of Trenton. The inha- bitants are nu Illy Friends. — ib. Mansfield, a townlhip in Windham county, Con- nedlicut, about 30 miles north of New-London, and as far call of Hartford. — ib. MANTA, a bay of Guayaquil, in South-America, formerly famous for a confiderable pearl filhery ; but it has been t'jtally difccntioued for fome years. There is alfo a point ot this name on the coall near it. 'I'he bay has its name liom the great numbers of large lilh, called manias, the catching of which is the common enjiiloyment of the inhabitants. The method of car- r\ ing on this filhery is as follows : they throw into the water a log of wood, about 18 feet long, and near a foot in diam.-ter ; on one end they place their net, and on the other an Indian Hands in an ereift polition, and with a fingle oar rows his tottering bark to the dillance of half a league from the ihore, where he (hoots his net ; another Indian follows on a iimilar log, takes hold of the rope fattened to one end ot the net, and when fully extended, tliey both mike towards the land, hauling the net after them. It is aftonilhing to obferve with what agility the Indians maintain an equilibrium on thefe round logs, notivithllanding tlie continual agitations ot thefea, and their being 1. bilged to mind the oar and the net at the fame. Tliey are indeed excellent fwimrners. ; fo that if they flip off they are immediate- ly on the log again, and in their former pnfition. — ib. MANURE 15 fo eifential to agriculture, that the want of it, or an improper njanner of uling it, is the piincipal caufe of the llerdity of a country. We have therefore treated of manures and their a(5lion at fome length in the article Agriculture in the Encyclo- paiiia ; but as the theoretical part ot that diiquifition relts in a great meaiure on the dodtrine of phlogifton, which is now expl ided, it may ni:t be improper to re- fume the Aibjeifl here. Experience h-'Wever bting, af- ter all, the only guide whicli the farmer can fafely and confidently follow, inllead of amufing our leaders with theories of our own, we (hall lay belore them tlie obfer- vations of a man who feems to have united theory with praflice. " The ufe of manures (fays M. Parmentier*; has * Memoir. ■ been known in all ages, but we are yet far from having °/'*' ^'y\' any clear and precife ideas of the nature of the juices °;",^^,/^' which are dellined for the nnurilhnient of vegetables, '^^„'j/ '' and of the manner in whicli they are tranfmitted to their organs. The writers on agriculture, who have endea- voured to explain thefe matterr-, perceiving falts in moll plants, were perfuaded that thefe falts, by the help of water and heat, palled, in a faline form, through the vegetable filter. Thele fitll philofophers did not hefi- tate to conlider every thing that has been done by the induftry of man, to improve the nature of land, and its produftionsj MAN C 445 ] MAN Manure, produdlions, as merely forming refervoirs of thefe f.ilts, '^•^"''^^■^ which ihey conlidered as the principle of fertiliiy. This opinion wa (o well ertablillied among the improvers of land, that, to this d:iy, n):iny of tliem h^ve no objedl in view, in their operations, but to difen?age falts ; and, when they attempt to explain certain phencimena which take place in their fields or orchards, they talk confi- dently about the nitre of the air, of ram, of fnonu, of are no fooner fet free from one error than we f.dl into Mii;urc. another not lefs extraordinary. The furpriiing efl'tfls ^■^'"~>^^*-' of vegetation brought about by tlie overflowing of wa- ter, and in the neiglibourhood of fait marfhes, and the infinite number of inhaling capillary tubes obfcrved up- on the furface of ver;etables, led to an opinion tlia: the air and water, abfirbed by the roots and leaves of plants, were only vehicles loaded with faline matter, Jew, and fogs ; of \.\\z falts of the earth, of dung, of analogous to the vegetables nouiiihed by them marie, of lime, of chalk, tkc. and make ufe of thole vague terms, oil, fulphur, fphit, &c. which ought hencefor- ward to be banilhed from our elementary books on agriculiurc. " Among the authors who have attacked, and com- bated wich molt fuccefs, the opinion that the fiuitful- ncfs of Toils, and the aliment of vcget.ibles, rende in fa- line fubllaiices, mull be reckcMied Eller and VValleriui. Thefe philolophers examined, by every means which chemillry at thai time could furnilli, the various kinds of earth proper lor cultiv.ttion, and alfo chofe fubllances which have always beeo coniidered as the moll power- ful manures, without being able to obtain, from any of them, any thing more lli.m mere atoms of fak. " Animated with the fame zeal, and taking advan- tage ot the inltructions tound in their writings, I thought it neceliary to determine, by e.\perience, whether, as h.is been alferted, there re.iUy exill neutral falts in earths ; and alio, wiiethcr thofe canhs are more fertile in pio- poition to liie quantity of fueh falts they contain. With this view, I lixiviated, by means of dillilled water, many fpecies of cullivaicd earths, taken in various flates, from Irelli earth to that which had been inipoverilhed by the giowth of leveral crops ; I alfo tried dunn, redu- ced moie or lefs into the llaie of mould ; and likewife the mill atlive manures, fuch as the offal uf animal ful)- llances rotted by putreta>5tii-n ; but in none of thel'e, h»)vvever carefully analyzed, weie found any falts in a free Itate. They contain indeed the materials pioper for forming falts, bu; it tliey contain any ready formed, it is merely by accident. " The refcarches of Kraft, and thofe of Allien, were notaiteniied with dilleieiu refults. Having f ^wn fume oats in alhes, not lixiviated, and in fand Itrongly im- pregnated with potalh and with faltpeire, and having found th;il the oits did not giow, they concluded that neutral falls, and alkalies, not only retarded the growtli of vegetables, but that they ablolutely prevcnied it. It is well known that in Egypt there are dillriifls where the earth is entire. y coveied with feaf.ilt, and thefe di- ftricls aie i]uiie barren. It is probably owing to this propcity ol fea-talt, that the Romans were accullomed to fcalter large quantities ot it over field» where any great crime had been commitcd, and ol whicli ihey willied to perpetuate the remimbrance, by rendering the |iait batien for a certain time. " The idea that (alls had great influence in vegeta- tion, ought to have been greatly weakened by the fol- lowing limple reH <ft on. Siippoling that filts exilled in gaiden mouUl, they would be very foon dilf Ived by the rain, and carii-d .iway, towards the lower llrata of the earth, to a depth to wiii.;h the longelt roots wou'd not reach. ln.l.:ed the famous experiment of Vanhtl- niont would have been fuflicient in ha\c delboyed the above opinion, if it did not generally happen tliut wc " To the experiment of Vanhelmont, which was re- peated by many accurate obfervers, fucceeded thofe of modem philof pliers ; from which it clearly appeared, that plants could giow, and produce fruit, in the air of tlie atmofphere, and in diftiUed water, alfo in pure fand, in })owdered glafs, in wet mofs or fponge, in the cavity of flclhy roots, S:c. and that plants which had nothing but the above mentioned lluids for their noiirilhmeat, gave, when fubrnitted to chemical analyfis, the fsme produels as thole which had undergone their procefs of vegetation in a l(.il perieflly well manured. It was alfo obierved, that the moll biiren fjils were rendered fer- tile when they were properly lupplied with v.ater by canals ; and the eliicacy of irrigation was repeatedly evinced in diffeicnt ways : from thefe obfervations was formed the tollowing fyllem, that water rifes in plants in the form of vapour, as in dillillation ; that air in- troduces itfelf into their pores ; and that, if falts contri- bute to the fruitt'ulnefs of foils, it is only in conlequence of their containing the two lluids above-mentioned in great abundance." Our authjr, after making many experiments upon various foils and filts, and after attending minutely to the procefs of vegetation, thinks himfelf warranted to maintain, •' that (aline fubllances have no fenfible effedls. in promoting vegetation, except inafmuch as they are of a deliquefcent nature, have an earthy bails eafily de- compi fed, and are ufed only in fmall quantity. In thofe circumllances they have tlie power of attrafling, from the immeafe refervoir of the atmofphere, the vapours which circulate in it; thefe vapours they retain, along with the moillure that is produced from rain, fnov.', dew, fog, &c. which moillure they prevent from run- ning together in a mafs, or from bemg loH, eitlicr by exhaling into the air of the atmofphere, or by fiheiing itfelt thiough the infeiior (Irata of the earth, and there- by leaving the roots of vegetables dry ; they dillribute that moillure uniformly, and trani'mit it, in a Hate of great diviiion, to tlie orifices of the tubes d;ftincd to carry it into tlie texture of the pl.mt, where it is after- wards to undergo the laws of allimilation. As every kind ot vegetable manure polfeliis a vifcous kind cf moillure, it tiiereby pai takes of the property of deli- quefcent falts. In lliort, the preparation of land lor vegetation has no other objecl in view but to divide the earthy particles, to f .ften them, and to give ihem a form capable of producing the above mentioned clTtels. It is fuilicient, therefore, that water, by its mixture with the e irih .ind the manure, be divided, and fpreid out lo as to be applied only by its fuifiCv*, and that it keep the root ot the plant aKva\s wet, without drown- ing it, in order to become tl.e elfeniial principle o{ ve- getation. But as pl.ints whitli giow in tlie Ih.ide, even in the bell foil, are we.ikly, and as the grea'cv part of thoic which are made to tjrow in a plate that is per- MAN [ 446 ] MAN Manure, fcflly Jark neltlier give fruit nor flowers, it cannot be ^■^"^■'^'■^ denied th.ic the influence of ilie fun is of ^reit impoit- ance in vegetable economy." Such was ihe opinion which our author give of the rnanner in which fahs ai5l in vegei.uion, at a time wlien it was not known tliat nir and wa'cr (which had been fo long confidered as elements), far fioni being limple Jubilances, are capable ot being dccompofed by a great variety of operations both of nature and art; and no- thing was wanting to complete his theory, but to know that air and water aifl their part in vegetation only in a flate of decompofition ; and that if earth well manur- ed is a better matrix than watc: itfclf, it is bccaufe fucli earth has the power of converting the water into gales which are eafily abforbed, and which, while their .ib- forplion takes place, communicate to the plants a mo- tion and heat which they received when taking the form of gas, and which th^ lofe v.hen they en'.er again into combination ; whence it is natural to conclude, that this motion and this heat n)ufl neceflarily dcvcKipe llitmftlves in feeds, and maintain the vital aition in plants. What is a vegetable, confidcred chemically, accord- ing to t!ie prefent ftate of our knowledge ? It is, fay the chemilts, a compound of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, the proportions of which vary according to the agents which have concurred to its developemenr, and according to the matrix which received and affimilated them, in order to create thofe combinations which aie varied to infinity, by their forms and properties, and known by the generic terms of fait, oil, and mucilage. It appears, tlierefore, needlefs to feek thcfe combina- lions in the different fubftances which are ufed lor ma- nure, when we wifh to deteimine the nature of them, and explain their manner cl ai!ft;ng in vegetation ; be- caui'e, fuppoling it true that thcle lalts, thefe oils, or thefe mucilages, exift in their combined Hate, nothing but their conllituent elements, namely, hydrogen, oxy- gen, and carbon, can pollibly have any aflion. The iuperiority of animal fubllances, as manures, and the remarkable luxuriance ul thofe plants which are watered with putrid water, prove incontellibly, that the putrid llate is favourable to vegetation, and tiiat every lubftance which is liable to enter, to a certain degree, into that ftate, contributes very powerfully thereto. The moft aerated waters are, in this cafe, the moll be- neficial. It is obferved that rain, particularly in ftormy weather, quickens vegetation fo much, that the garden- ers in thi neighbourhood oi Paris are often obliged to drench their plants with water taken from their wells, which, in confequence of its rawnels, or its want of air, retards the vegetation of the plants ; either becaufe it precipitates the meteorifed or electrified water, or be- caufe, by being mixed with the other water, it dimi- nilhes its fertilizing quality ; whereas, in fummer, this lame well-water, by bei)ig expofed to the fun for fome da)S, acquires a fmell like that of Hale eggs, lofes its rawnefs, and becomes very fit for accelerating vegeta- tion. An atom of vegetable or animal matter is, at that lime, fufficient to bring about more quickly this Hate of putrefaiflion ; while thefe lame fubllances, by being employed in certain proportions, far from acling as a le.iven on the liquids which hold them in foliiticn, preicivs thoie liquids, or at hall m.ake them more flow to change. Salts and dung, therefore, are not merely decompof- Mv>i»rf- ed by the power of vegetation ; by lurnifliing the re- ^-•'~^'''""'*- lults ot their decompofition, they alio aft in the manner of leavens, the adion of which is fcarcely perceptible in cold or dry weather ; but wlicn tiiey are heated by the fun, and fufficiently penetrated with moillure, they very fion enter into a fort of fermentation, fuffering the va- rious gales with u^hich they are provided to cfcape. Thus manures may be confidered as decompofing inllru- ments, provided by nature, and prepared by art, to a<ft upon water lb as to bring it to a proper (fate of atte- nuation. The fubflances which enter into the compo- fition of plants are, therefore, nothing but produfls of the decompofition of air and water, and combinations of the conllituent principles of thefe two fluids, deter- mined by tlie power which prefides in the feed, and whicli thence has palfed into the plant. It is now eafy to account for tiie effefts of charcoal- powder, llraw, &c. which are made ufe of to cover ground during long droughts with undoubted benefit : they are mechanical means of preventing the diffipation ot muilture, and of determining it to take the form of thole gafeous Huids which have fuch powerful elFefl in vegetation. As water is compofed of hydrogen and oxygen, it is not furprifing that, when afllllcd by the influence of the fun, and that of eleclricity, it is capable of torming, almoll by itfelf, the folids and fluids of vegetables ; taking from the atmofphere the carbon it flands in need of, to give them their moft effential cha- rafters. We fay their moft elTential charafters ; for thofe terrellrial plants which have grown in air and wa- ter do not abound in principles, and their offspring, wlien they have any, is by no means vigorous. We fee alfo, that plants which are naturally of an aquatic nature, have in general but little fmell, becaufe the me- dium in which they live and grow furnifhes only a fmall quantity of carbon, in proportion to llie hydrogen and oxygen, which are the conllituent principles of water. Tliis is the reafon why, in cold and wet years, flowers are lefs odoriferous, fruit lets full of flavour, and more difficult to be preferved. Tlie germ of their reproduc- tion is weak ; and they are, if the exprelTion may be uled, in a fort of dropfy ; that is to fay, they are loaded with the principles which conllitute water, and even witli water itfelf. Thefe obfervalions, to which more might be added, may ferve to explain why vegetation is flow and weak in a loil which is too much charged with faline matter, while it is rendered quick and vigorous by a fmall quan- tity of this fame matter ; and why earth, which is per- fectly lixiviated, and watered, from time to time, with diltilled water only, is capable of giving to bitter plants their bitternefs, to fweet ones Uieir fweetnefs, to acid ones their acidity, to aromatic ones their fpicinefs, and to poifonous ones their deleterious qualities ; in fhort, why the inherent characters of plants are more Itrongly marked, in proportion as the foil in which they grow is furnifhed with natural or mechanical means to pro- duce a quantity of gas necelfary to the formation of the fubllances on whicli thofe ciiaraclcrs depend. If a nitrous or marine plant can, even when growing in a foil deftitute of nitre or fea-falt, occ.ifion the pro- duiSion of tiiefe falts, it mull be allowed that fuch plants would vegetate more ftrongly, and contain more of fuch falts, if they grew in foils more abounding in materials M A N Manure. m;Tterials proper to form them. ^'^^^"^^^-^ fpecies of fampliire, glalFwort, fea wrack, &c. flourilli on the borders of the fea, fuch foils being llrongly impreg- nated with the fluids necelf.iry to form the muriatic cas and fea fait which enter into the compolition of ihofi pliints; while the fun flower, peiiitory, &c. fuc ceed bell in earth which iv mixed with the ruins of old buildings, in which the mateiiali for the produdion of riitrouj gas, and even of nitre itlcU, are very abundant In fltort, tlie organization of ihele plants is a real ela- boratorv for forming the forementioncd falts. Thole plants which, for their vegetation, require the iTioft ainUance from the foil and manure, are very apt to contiat^ a d:fagreeable talle, if cither the foil or ma- nure are capable of lupplying tJis principles from which it is acquired. Tlic cUifs tilrudynnmiii, particularly all foits iii cabbages (which contain fulphur ready form- ed), contraci a bad taltc in a foil compofcd rf mud and dung, becaufe thefe fubltances, as they are decompoied, fiirnuh a grc.it quaiuity of hepatic gas, or of fulphutil'ed liydrogen gas; yet pl.rnts of another clafs may grow in the fime i 'il, elds by the cabbages, witlioilt partaking even in the fmallell degree of the bad taile of the lat- ter. The plants lall mtntioned, when growing in he- patic gas, retain only 1" much rt it as is fiifticient for ihe prodoc'lion <f the fubltances of which tiiey are formed ; liie overplus, which c( uld not be alTimilated, is thrown out by the excretory velfels, alter undergoing ihcfc mudilications which the digeifive juice» and orga- nization of the plant, and the Hate of the atmofphere, have produced. Thus we fee that thofe plants wliich abound moll in oily, f.iline, and raucilaginous principles, are generally fuc!i as require a foil wcil manured. Tobacco, l<>rin- ilance, gives forty pounds of .tlkalinefalt or putalh from every hundred Wi.ight of alhes : thi> plant may, by be- ing buried in the ground, be converted into a very powcriul manure; while other plants, which thrive in a middling foil, and appear as vigorous, are, in geixral, fuch as have not 1j gre.it a quantity of principles in their compofi'.ion, and when tiitown on the dunghill, and left to ror, furmln very little manure. From :"iich cbfervalions, it may periiaps not iie imp^llib'.e here.ifter to judge, by the analylis ot a plant, not only whstiier it rcquiies alaraeor a faiall qn,«ntity of manure, but like- wii'e what kind> of foil and mai.ure arc .molt tic to pro- mote its vegetation : wild plants alfo may ferve to Ihew the nature of the fjil whica ihcy feem moil to flouiifh ii:. Befides tlie piiyfical ai.1ion of manure':, they have a very evident mechanical aiTtion. When mixed with earth, in a ceitain proportion, they not only render it more pernieabie to water, but the roots o! plants can, with gi cater eafe, acquire their proper lize and Icrm in it : ill other cales, manures tend ir> unite lh.it earth •which is loo loofe, and, by rendering it moie tena- cious, thev pr:vf n: the water from being loll, and the roots frxRi becoming dry. Thofe manures wh'ch are called -warm are fuited to cold lands, not only bec;tufe they render them lels c<i.'npa<Jt, but alfo becaufe tiiey lake oft' a part of that nioillure whicli fuch lands always have in iro great (|Uintity. Cold manure<, on the other hand, by their vifcid tjuality, give tenacity to dry and hot foils attraiiing and rct.iining, for a longer lime, the moiliure wltich comes in their ^Yay. The Thus, tlie different nature of the foil mud therefore determine wh;t kind Mari<re. of manure it llands in need of, and alfo whether cu'.ti- ^-^'^''^^^ vating it by means of oxen or by horfcs is prefer- able ; for the manures produced from thefe two animals have thofe oppofite qualities which we have above dt- fcribed. By fuch obfervations, we fhall perhaps be at>le to refolve a quellion, rtfpcffing which the lenti- ments of cultivators in many parts of the kingdom are much divided. It cannot, however, be denied, that the earth is able of itfelf to ferve as a bafis and fupport to plants, and that it has an action more or lefs evident upon air, up- on water, and upon dung. There is a well-known me- thod of dillinguilhing clay from o:her earths ; by mere- ly breathing upon it, a ItucU is immediately perceived, fullicienily llrong to lliew that a decnmpolition and frelh combination have taken place. In fummer, after a drought of fonie days continuance, there always ariles in the fields a particular I'mell during a fliower ot r.iin ; and there is no kind of vegetable manure which, when mixed with earth, does not fend forth a fniell. This proves that the nature of the foil mult have an influ- ence, not only upon air and upon water, but alfo upon the efieil cf mar.ures ; and that belore we fpeak ot their power, we Ihould alway-, fpecify what kind ot earth they were applied to ; became when manures and earth are mixed K^geihcr, ilieie enluesan aflion and reaction more or lets tavouiable to vegetation. Having esarnineJ to what degree air and water enter. in iubllance, into the velfcls of plan:s, and having fhewn that the piincipal adion of earth, of falts, and of ma- nures, ccniills in preparing, elaborating, and decompo- ling thefe two fluids, and in giving to the produdls of ihcir decompolition the forms they require, to accora- (ililii the purp I'e of nature in vegetation, our author makes fome obiervations upon the particular elTesfts of certain fubflances uied for improving land, fuch as marl, lime, chalk, and wood alhes ; which are uiually applied either to an exhaulled foil, in order to reilore it, or to a drooping plant, with a view to give it ftrength. Of the efficacy oi thefe fubflances no one doubt..:, but it does not appear ihat we aie equally agreed refpccluig their manner of aifting^ Mail ^a maiuire whole eiTctts arc well known, and wlncii is found to be of the grcatelt benefit in thofe di- flrifis where it can be procured in lulHcient quantity) is capable of a<5ling in the raiiie manner as the moll fer- tile toil, when the principles cf which it is comp.-^fed, namely, clay, fand, calcareous earth, and magr.elian earth, are jullly proportioned to each other. But it is fomeiimes compa^ and tenacious, becaufe it contains a fuperabundanc portion of clay, and at oilier times po- rous and triable, becaufe it contains too much fand, anj therefore i'. not in general fit tor vegetation by itfellV Thelie confidetations tught always to be our gufde- when we me.m to empl y marl as a manure. It has been luppofed that to murl was a fort of tech- nical exprcfllon, imtiided to dcnrt; the bringing toge- tber or dividing the eaill y particles by means of clay or fand. It appeals t.i our a'uhfr, that neither of the above operaticns cin pre petly be ca. led ?««//'/«» ; be- caufe, ill either cafe, ail we do is, to put the foil it :o a lituation to rccc-ive .i:.d to piobt bv the inline. .ce cf tiie atmofpliere, and tliat of the manures made ufe of. The j'cculiar priuciflc of ir.ul is, that jar: of it whicii, hke- MAN C 448 ] MAN Mantirt. lime, aSt% very powerfully upon ihe different aeriform '**'"^^*^ fluids, is eatily reduced 10 powder, effervcfces with :i- cids, and funds forth a quantity of air-bubbles when wa- ter is poured upon it. Now this matter, which in a particular manner does the office of manure, refides ricitiier in clay nor in fand. Up'n the proportion of it depends the duration of the fertility it produces; con- fequently it is of importance, when we make ufe of marl, to l.now which of its conllituent parts it contains in the grcatell proportion, otherwife in fome cafes we fhould only add one common kind of earth to another. Hence our author infers, that for a chalky foil clay is the proper manure, and that in luch a foil a clay bot- tom is of more value than a gold mine. " Wood-afhcf, as a manure, may be, in fime refpeifls, compared to marl ; at lead they contain the fame earths as tliofe which ii;enetally enter into the compofition of marl, but they contain a greater quantity of faline fub- (lances, proceeding from the vegetables of wliich they are the refidue, and from the procefs made ufe of in their combullion ; a procefs which increafes their afli- vity, and ihould render us careful in what manner and lor what purpofes we employ them. Wood-afhes, when fcattcred over fields, at proper times and in pro- per quantities, dellroy weeds, and encourage the vege- tation of good plants. But do the alhe5 produce tliis tffeft by a fort of corrofive power ? I cannot (fays our author' think it ; for in that cafe all kinds of pLints would indifcriminately l^e aifted upon by them, and to a certain degree dellroyed. " Belides, the alhes of frefh wood are feldom em- ployed until they have been lixiviated, in which llate they are deprived of their caulf ic principle ; tiiofe allies which are mnft commonly made ufe of for manure are produced either from wood that has been floated in wa- ter, or from turf, or from pit-coal, and contain little or no alkaline fait. " It appears much more probable that afhes, when laid upon ground, dertroy the weeds by a well known effeft, namely, by feizing with eagernefs thit moillure vvliich fervcd to produce thofe weeds, and which in a I'uperabundant quantity is neceffary to their cxilfence and fupport. Whereas thofe plants which have a firm- er texture and a longer root, which are rendered Ifrong by age and by having withft ood the rigour of winter, and which are in fa<fl the plants of which the fields are compoled, do not fufFer any danuge from the applica- tion of the afhes ; but, on the contrary, by being freed from the fuperfluous weeds which ftified them, and robbed them ot a part of their fullenance, they receive a quantity of nourilhment proportioned to their wants. The Itate of relaxation and languor to which they were reduced by a fuperabundance of water, leaves them, the foil gets its proper con fillence, and the grafs, corn, &c. acquiiing the (trength and vigour which is natural to them, foon overcome tlie mofs, rullies, and other weeds ; thus a good crop, of v\hatever the field confillsof, i^pro- duced. It is in the above manner that wood afhes aft, whenever in the fpring it is neceiF.iry to apply them to meadows, corn fields, 5cc. the plants of which are (lifl:;d mid weakened liy a luxuriant vegetation of weeds, the lilual confeqsience of mild and wet winters. " When wnod allies produce an effeft difl'erent from what is above defcribed, it is either becaufe they happen to contain too much alkaline fait, or that they are laid on the ground in too great quantity, or that the fields Manure, to which they are applied were not fufficiently wet to ^-'~^'^' reftr.iin their iiflion ; for when they are fcattered upon cold foils, and buried by the plough before the time of fowing, they arc, like lime, of great fervice. The lad. mentioned fubftance is very ellicacious in other circum- llances ; and there is a well-known method of ufing it, praflifed i)y the Germans, as follows : A heap of lime is formed by the fide of a he.ip of poor earth, and wa- ter i> poured upon the lime: the earth is then thrown over it, and becomes impregnated with the vapours wliich cfcape from the lime wlnle it is flaked. The earth, after being thus aerated, may be feparated ; and although no lime remains mixed with it, is, by the ope- ration jull defcribed, rendered capable of giving a luxu- riant vegetation to whatever plants may be put into it. " It is pofTible, therefore, to aerate earth as well as fluids ; for this purpule, by mixing it with certain fub- ftances, during their decompofition, we mull attach to it the principles of which thofe fubftances are compo- fed ; from which there refults a matter fo loaded with gas, as to form a more compound fubllance, and one wliich has acquired new properties. The Arabians, for example, who lake great pains to improve their land, are acculinmed to make large pits, which they fill witli animals whicli happen to die : thefe pits they after- wards cover with calcareous or clayey e irth ; and after fome time tiiefe earths, which of themfelves are Rerile, acquire the properties of the richeft manures. " The foregoing obfervations may at lead be confi- dered as proving, that thofe fubftances which, when employed frelh and in too great quantity, are moft pre- judicial to vegetation, have, on the contrary, an advan- tageous elFeft, when they are previoufiy made to under- go a fermentation; or when they are mixed with earth or water, in a proportion adapted to the end propofed. The grafs of fields in which cattle or poultry go to feed, after the firit or fecond crop of hay, appears to be dried by the urine and dung of thofe animals ; as if fire had been applied to it ; whereas thefe lame cxcremen- titious fubftances, when combined with earth, or dilu- ted with water, are capable, without any other prepa- ration of performing the office of good manure. " But it animal fecretions, when applied in fubftance to plants, were capable ot afting upon them, as is af- firmed, in fuch a way as to corrode or burn them, how could feed which has been fwallowed, and efcaped the aftion ot the digellive powers, be prolific when thrown out by the animal, after having remained fo long in its dung? yet we often fee oats, fo circumftanced, grow and produce feed. Is it not more conlillent with ex- perience and obf'ervation to fuppofe, that thefe excre- mentitious fubftances, being ftill endowed with animal heat, and with an organic motion, difTufe round plants in vegetation a deleterious principle or inflammable gas, which deltroys them ; for foon after their application, the foliage of the plant grows yellow, dries up, and the plant withers, unlefs there happens a fhower of rain wiiich revives it. When thefe fubftances are diluted, by being mixed with water and earth, they lofe that principle which is io deftruftive to vegetable life, and an incipient fermentation augments their power as a manure, fo that they may be immediately made ufe of without any apprehenfion of injury from their eff'efts, " It appears, therefore, that any operation upon ex- crementitious MAN [ Maimrt. crementttious fubftances, by which they are dried and ^•^'^^'^'-^ reduced to powder, cannot be prjiflifed without depri- ving thofe fubliiinces ot" a great part of fucli of their principles as are e.ifily evaporated, and upon which their fluidity depends ; thefe principles, when diluted with water, and contined by being mixed wiih earth, are capable of increafing the produce ot the ioil. Such is the way in which the hufbandnien in Flanders make ufe of this kind of manure, in the cultivation of a kind of rape or cole feed, which is to them a very important branch of agricultural induftry and commerce; and they never obferve that the lap carries up any of thofe principles which give fuch manure its offenlive fmell ; nor do they obferve, that the fodder produced from fields fo manured, whether eaten frelh or dry, is difa- grecable to tluir cattle. The excrements of mU animals would be injurious to plants, if applied too frelh, or in too great quantity ; and a gardener could not com- mit a greater fault, than to put more than a certain quantity of them into the water he means to make ule of to water his young plants; in (hort, this kind of ma- nure is to be ufed in a very Iparing manner ; and he that is too prodigal of it \\\\\ find, to his coll, that excefs, even of that which is otherwifc beneficial, becomes an evil. " It mufl certainly be allowed, that excrementitious fubftances are a very advantageous manure ior cold ioils, and fuited to moll vegetable produdions ; a long expe- rience of their effects over a large traifl ot country, and the acknowledged intelligence of the Flemilh larmers, ought to be confidered as fufficient to overcome the prejudice that has been railed againll this fort of ma- nure. Suppollng that the bad etfeifls which have been attributed to it, when ufed in the Hate in which it is taken out of privies, &c. are not the offspring of a prejudiced imagination, they may have arifen from its having been made ufe of at an improper time, or in too great quantity ; or from its having been applied to a foil and for the cultivation of plants to which it was not adapted ; for we know that the excefs of any kind of manure changes the fmell and talle of plants, and the fame effeifl is produced by watering them too frequent- ly. .Striking examples of this change are feeu in the lirawberry and in the violet, when fuch as have grown in the woods are compared to thole produced from fome of our over-manured gardens ; alio in the lettuce, and fome other plants, when thofe railed for fale by the gardeners about Paris are compared to thofe of fome particular kitchen gardens. In the markets d fome cities, the carrots, turnips, and potatoes of the field?, are preferred to the fame kind of roots cultivated by the gardeners (a) ; for though the lad are of a larger fize, they have not fo good a flavour. Some vege- tables, therefore, are like certain wild fpecies ot the animal kingdom ; they refill every kind of culture, as ihofc animals refill every effort to tame them. " Although experience has taught the I'lcm'fli far- mers, that excrementitious fubllancos are more aitive in their n.itural llatethan wljcn dried, yet it cannot be de- nied that di ylng them, and reducing them into powder, is fometimcs very advantageous, bccaulc in that llate Sui'Pi.. Vol. II. 449 ] MAN they are much lefs offenfive, are eafily tranfportei to Mi»i.rt. any dillance, and may be ufed when mod convenient ^•^'~^'"**' or mofl proper. In many cities the inhabitants pay to have their privies emptied : in other places, thole who empty them pay for their contents ; and it would aflo- nilh any one to be told how great a revenue is pmduceil in tlie city of Liile in Flanders by the fale of this kind of manure. I am, however (lays our author), far from thinking that it is right, in all cafes, to employ it in the above mentioned flate of concentration ; it would be better, in my opinion, to follow the example of th2 Flemilh farmers, who ufe it the firll year for the culti- vation oi plants for oil, or for hemp or flax ; and the fecond year for the bell kinds of grain : tlius obtaining two crops, inftead of one, without any farther f repara- tion of the land. What is faid above may be applied alfo to the manures produced from the dung of c ittle, poultry, &c. (particulaily to pigeons dung, the moll powerful manure of its kind), ail which, by being dried and powdered before they are ufed, lofe a great portion of their aflivity. From thefe obfervations anothsr fa(5l may be deduced, namely, that manure fhould not bi taken from the place where it has been thrown together until the feafon of the year and the flate of the land are fuch that it may be put into the ground as foon as it is brought to it. In fome diftriifls a very injurious cuflom prevails of carrying the manure into the fields, and lea- ving it there formed into fmall heaps, expofed for fome days to the elements ; during which time, either the fun and wind dry up its natural moiflure, leaving a mafs which is much lei's adive ; or the rain dilfolves and car- ries away the extra>ilive part impregnated with the fait. This kind of brine, which is the moll powerful part of the manure, penetrates the eaith to a confidirable depth, and fhews (by the thick tut'ls which arife in thofe pla- ces, and whicli produce more ftraw than grain) ihac manure ought to be put into the ground as foon as it is brought to it, becaufe it then pofl'tffcs its full force and effeift, and confequently would be then ufed to tlie greateft advantage. " We have always at hand the means of compodng, from a great variety of vegetable and animal fubftances, fuch manures as", when brought into a proper llate, and mixed with land, contribute to its fertility. Chemiflry alfo offers to us a number of fubftances, which, although when ufed feparately they tend to diminilh the fertili- fing quality of the earth, are yet capable, by being combined, of forming excellent manures ; fuch, for in- llance, is that faponaceous combination which is produ- ced from a mixture of potalh, oil, and earth. What an advantage it would be, if, inftead t.-'i being fparing of manure, the inhabit.mts of the country would endea- vour to increafe the number of thefe relbutces, and to render them more beneficial, by employing them in a more cffcLlual manner. How many years liad palVed before it was known that the rttufe of apples and pears, after they are preifed (and whicli ufed to be thrown a- way as ufelefs), is capabl; of forming as valuable a ma- nure, in cyder and perry countries, as the refute of grapes does in wine countries." From what has been oblcrvcd, our author concludes, 3 L that (a) Wc believe they are univerluUy preferable. M A O [ 45 that manures aiT!-, in many circumflances, like medi- ciaes, anJ confequently that the fame foit of manure cannot be adapted to every Gtuation, and every kind of fo.l ; we mull tlierclore take care to make proper di- (lir<aions between them. Whoever ihall pretend that any puticular kind of manure may be ufed, with equal benef.t, in grafs land, corn-tields, vineyard?, orchards, kitchen-girucns, Sec. ought to be clatfed amongft thofe quacks who undertake to cure all perfons with the fame remedy, without any regard to their age, conllitution, &c. It is probibly from not having paid fufficient at- tention to the forementioned dillin<5tioDS, that fome au- thors have found fault with particular manures, while others have fpoken too highly in their favour. He think.;, however, and we agree with him, that we are 11:11 in want of a courfe cf comparative experiments up- on the vaiious kinds of manures, confidered according to their influence «ith refpetfl to diferenc foils, fuua- tions, and pioduclions. If this part of rural ectmomy were belter underllood, we fhould perhaps fee many places in a llate of cultivation, which, on account of the bad quality of their fo'l, have hitherto refilled all our endeavours to render them fertile. Perhaps it would not be proper to difmifs this fub- je^^ without noticing Mr Middleton's nbfervations on various kinds (f manure, which were publilhed in the Tranlai51ions of ti:e Society of Arts for the year 1799. Tliij gentleman agrees wiih Mr Parmentier in recom- mending the excrement'tlious mailer of privies as the moll powerful of all manures on fome kinds of foil ; but he dift'ers from him, and we believe from mod writers on agriculture, when he afllrms, that vKod njbes, when Jpread (>n the grals in February or March, are of very hitle fervice, and that the alhes of f!j«/ and even of peat are ol none upon any kind of land. Me likewife affirms fovl to be (f very liiile value as a manure, foapmaL-rs lo.ijle to be ot none, or rather ti) be liurtful ; and he feems to conlider malt-duj}, including the dull from the m.ili-kilris, to be, after the foil of privies, one of the moll powerful manures. He affirms, from his own ex- perience, that, with refpeifl to fettililing power, the ibil ot privies, compared with farm-yaid dung, is in the proportion of five to one. MAOUANA, one of tliat clufler of iflands in the South Sea which were difcovered by M. Bougainville, and by him named Navigator's lllands. It wai vifited by La Pcroufe in 1787, who defcrlbes it as exceedingly rich in every animal and vegetable produiftiim neceifary to the i'ullenance of man. The two frigates wh'ch he cnmmandeil had no fooner approached the fhcre than he difcovertd at the bottom of each creek a number of vil- lages, from whence came iiniumerable cances, laden vithhogs, cocoa nuts, and other fruits, which were pur- chvifed for glafs ware. This was in the evening ; and next morning the commerce was renewed in the moll hiendly manner. As early as the dawn of day, the i'.landers had furrounded the two frigates with 200 canoes lull of different kinds of provifmri, which they would exchange only for beads — in their eHimation idatr.onds of the firll water. Axes, cloth, and all other articles ot commerce, they difdained. Abounding in ledl bleifings, ihey were delirous of obt.iining fuper- iluiiies alone. Two beats, filled with empty cafks, were fent afhore foi tielh water ; and Peroufe himfelf accompanied them o ] MAO In his pinnace. A line of foldiers was polled between Mnouauj. the beach and the Indians, who amounted to about ^^^"'"^^ 200, including a great many women and children. The French commander prevailed upon them all to fit down under cocoa trees, that were not more than eight toifes dillant from the Ihips boats. Each of them had by him fowls, hogs, parrots, plgeouf, or fruit, and all wilhed to fell them at once, which occalioncd fome confufion. The women, fome of whom were very pretty, offer- ed their favours, as well as their fowls and fruit, to all thofe who had beads to give them ; and foon tried to pafs ihrough the line of foldiers, who oppofed but a feeble refinance to their attempts. Europeans who have made a voyage round the world, efpecially French- men, have no arms to ward off fimilar attacks. Ac- cordingly the fair lavages found little difficulty in break- ing the ranks ; the men then approached ; and the con- fufion was growing general; when Indians, who feem- ed to be chiefs, made tlieir appearance with llicks in their hands, and rellored order, every one returning to his poll, and the traffic beginning anew, to the great fatisfadion of both buyers and fellers. While all this was palfing with the greateft tranquil- lity, and the cafks were filling with water, Peroufe thought he might venture to the diftance of 2co yards to vilit a charming village, fituated in the midll of a wood, or rather of an orcliard, all the trees of which were loaded with fruit. Tlie houfes were placed upon the circuiiitcrence of a circle, cf about 150 toifes in dia- meter, the interior forming a vail open fpacc, covered with the moll beautiful verdure, and Ihaded by trees, which kept the air delightfully cool. Women, chiliiren, and old men, accompanied him, and invited him intn their honfes. They fpread the finefl and frellieft mats upon a floor formed of little chofcn pebbles, and railed about two feet above the ground, in order to guard againil humidity. Pie went into the handfomell of tliefe huts, which probably belonged to a chief; and great was his iurprife to fee a large cabin cf lattice, work, as well executed as any of thcfe in the environs of Paris. The bell atchiteft could not have given a more elegant curve to the extremities of the ellipfis that terminated the building ; while a row of pillars, at five feet dillance from each other, formed a complete co- lonnade round the whole. I'he pillars were made of trunks of trees very neatly wrought, and between them were fine mats laid over ore another with great art, like the I'cales of a fiih, and drawing up and down wltli cords, like our Venetian blinds. The rell of the houfe was covered with leaves cf the cocoa palm. This charming country combines the advantages of :i foil fruitful without cultuie, and of a climate which renders clothing unnecelfary. The trees that produce the bread fruit, the cocoa-nut, the banana, the guava, and the orange, hold out to ihefe fortunate people an abundance of wholefome food ; while the fo'vls, liogs, and dogs, which live upon the furplus of thcfe fruits, afford them an agreeable variety of viands. What coM imagination could feparate the idea of happinefs Irom fo enchanting a place ! But Maouana is not the abode of innocence. No arms were indeed perceived ; but the bodies of the Indians, covered over with fears, proved that they were often at war, or elfe quarrelling among themfelves ; while their features announced a ferocity that was not perceptible in the countenances of the women. MAR C 451 J ^rapletoii, women. Nature had, no doubt, (lamped this charafler cept him. on their faces, by way of fhewing, that the half favage, ^^^li^^^il^' living in a ftate of anarchy, is a more mifchievous ba- ing than the mofl ferocious of the l)rute creation. Of their ferocity and liieir treachery, Peroufe had too foon the moft complete evidence. M. de Langle, the fecond in command, went alhorc for fielh water, accompanied by futy Frenchmen, officers, failors, and foldiers. Tliey were received with an air of good hu- mour by crowds of people waiting on the beach with immenfc quantities of fruit and hogs ; but this calm was of fhort duration. The Indians picked a quarrel with Marble- town. M A R As the tide flows into the lute, its water Maranhao, is fomcwhat brackifli, notwithftanding the many rivers it receives. It abounds with all forts of filh, fomo of which are very large. By the navigation of this lake, , the inhabitants of Venezuela carry on a trade with thof; ot New Granada. The lake becomes narrower, towards the middle, where the town is eredleJ. — ib. MARANHAO, a fmall ifland at the mourh of the noted rivers Maracu, Topocoru, and Muny, on the N. fide of the province of Maranhao, or Maranon in Brazil. The ifland is oblong, 45 miles in circuit, very fertile, and well inhabited. The French, vlio them, pelted them vith ftones, thrown with great dex- feiztd on it in 1612, built a town here, called St Lou terity and with equal force ; and it was v^iih difliculty that, of the fixty-one, forty-nine reached tlie (hips, many of whom were feverely wounded. ilmong the killed were De Langle, and Lamaiion the naturalift (fee La- MANON in this Suppl.). Peroufe defcribes the men of Maouana as of gigantic ftalure and cf great mufcular ftrenglh. See Nai'igaioks IJlands in this Siipp!. de Maragnan; but it is now in the hands of i!ie Portuguele, and is a bifliop's fee. It is very ftrong, and has a Itout caftle built on a rock, towards the f;a, which commands a very convenient harbour. The illand itlelf is very difhcult of accefs, by reafon of the rapidity of the three rivers which form it: fo that vef- fels mult wait for proper winds and feafons to vifit it. MAPLETON, a name given to a pleafiiut rangeof Bcfidcs the town mentioned here, are two fmaller ones, excellent fatms, 3 miles caft of Princeton, in Newjer- viz. St Andero, on the moft northern point, and S; fey. — Morse. J''g'>> on the fouthern. The natives have about 27 MAQLIOIT, a bay of flioal waters in Cafco-Bay, hamlets, each conlifting of four large huts, forming a in the IJiltriifl of Main, about 20 miles north of Cape ftjuare in the middle; all being built of large timber Elizabeth, frequently nieniioncd in the hiftory of Maine ; where the Indians were ufed to land with their canoes, and from thence carry them to Ptj.-pfcot Falls, on Andrcifcoggin river. This was done witli the toil of only 4 hours walk. From thefe falls they went down into Kennebeck river ; and from thence c(<ntinucd their route lip that river to Wederunfett, and thence over to St Lawicnce ; or turned and went down through Mon- feag bay, towards Penobfcot ; or from tlie falls they continued their progrefs up Androfcoggin river, be- yond the White Mountains, and over to Connefticut and covered from top to bottom with leaves : f > that; each may contain 200 or 300 perfons. Tne inhabit- ants are ftrong and health)', and live to a great age ; bows and arrows .ire thair only weapons, wiih which they are very dextrous : but they are tierce and cruel, efpecially to their enemies. 'I'he continent, 3 or 4 leagues iVom the ifland, is iniiabited by the Tapouyta. pare, and Toupinambois nations, who are wild and tierce, and divided into 15 or 20 fuch hamlets, as have been defcribed above. Contiguous to thefe are the territoiies of Cuma and Gayeta, inhabited by nearly river, and from tlience to Lake Memphremagog, and the fame fort of people. The capital, Maragnan, has down to the limits of Canada. — ib. MARACAIBO, Mamcaybo, or Maracaya, a fmall but rich city of Venezuelo, a province of Terra Firma in South-America, fituated on the weftern bank of the lake of the fame name, about 18 miles from its mouth and 73 S. W. of Coro. It is well built, has fcveral (lately houfes, very regular, and adorned with balco- nies, from which there is a profpefl of the lake, which lias the appearance of a fea. Here are about 4000 in- iiabitants, of whom 800 are able to bear arms. It has .1 governor fubordinate to the governor of Terra Firma. Here is a large parochial church, an hofpital, and 4 convents. Velfels from 25 to 30 tons frequent this port, with manutadures and merchandize from the places near the lake, which are afterwards put on board Spanilh (hips that come hither to buy them. Ships are built at Maracaibo, which trade all over America, and even into Spain, this place being very coniniodious for (hip-building. It lies 338 miles eaft of Rio de la Hacha. N. lat. 10" 51', W. lonp. 70'' x^'.—tb. Maracaibo Lake, or rather Gulf, a large collec- tion of waters, on which the town above mentioned is fituated. It is near 208 miles long, and in fome parts, 50 in brcadih, running from S. to N. and emptying itfelf into the N. Sea ; the entrance of which is well de- fended by ftrong forts ; but Sir Henry Morgan palfed by them, plundered fcveral Spanifli towns on the coaft, and defeated a fquaJroii which bad been fent to inter- a harbour at the mouth of the river St Mary, en the Atlantic ocean ; 495 miles N. W. of Cape St Roque. S. lat. 2^ 27', W. long. 44° 36'. — lb. MARBLEHEAD, a [)oit of entry and poft-town in Elfe.K county, Malfachufetts, 4 miles S. E. of Sabm, 19 N. E. of Bolton; containing i Epifcopal and 3 Congregational churches, and 5,661 inhabitants. The harbour lies in front ot the town S. E. extcnJing from S. W. to N. E. about one mile and a half in Ungth, and hdlf a mile broad. It is formed by Marbleliead neck on the S. and E. and is protcded by a fea wall which, before its late repairs, was in imminent dan- ger of giving way, to the great detriment. If nnc ruin of the port. A battery and citadel were eieft- ed here in 1795, for the defence of the place, by order of Congrcfs. The bank tilhcry employs the principal attention of the inhabitants, and more is done ot this bufincfs, in this place, than in any other in the State. The exports ot llie year 1 794, amounted to 184,532 dollars. Marbleliead was incorporated in 1649, and lies in N. lat. 42" 30', \V. long. 69" 49'. — il. MARBLF.TOWN. a townlhip in Ulfter county, New-York, fituated on the W. fide cf Hudfon's river, and fome diftance from it ; 8 miles S. \V. by S. of Efopus, and near 80 N. of New-York city. It con- tains 2,190 inhabitants, including 374 ll.ives. By the State cenfus of 1796, 374 of tlie inhabitants are elec- tors. — ('/;, 3 L 2 MARCEL- Marcellut, « Miiiaga- linte. MAR [ 45 MARCELLUS, a military townfhip in Onondago county, New-York, fituated on Skaneatetes lake, 1 1 miles W. of Onondago Caftle. Marcellus, as incor- porated in 1794, comprehends alio the townlbip of Camillus, part of the Onondago refervatioii, and part of the refcived lands lying S. W. of the Salt Lake. In 1796, 65 ot its inhabitants were ele(5lors. — ib. MARCUS HOOK, a town in Chefter county, Penn- fylvania, on ihe weft fide of Delaware river, 20 miles below Philadelpliia. It contains about 30 families. Here are iw.i rows of piers, or long wharves, to de- fend vtli"cl> fiom the driving of ice in winter. — ib. MAKECH/\l'X, Cape, fornib the N. E. fide of the bay of Jacniel, in the ifland of Si Domingo. N. lat. 18° iS'.— I*. MARECHITES /n</;a»/ inhabit the banks of the river St John, and aioiind PalTamaqnoddy bay. They are edimated at 140 fighting men. — ib. MAKGALLAWAY, a river which rifes in the Dillrict 01 Maine, and erodes the New-Hamplhire line betc.een Lake Umbagog and a mountain on the north, and runs iiiuth weltward to Amarifcoggin river. Its mouth is 10 rods wide. — ib. MARGARET'S Boy, Si, a port en the fouth coaft of NovaScotia, between Profpeft Harbour and Ma- hone Bay ; from which laft it is feparaled by a pm- inontory, on which is the high land (i' Aipotagoen. — ib. Margaret's IJlanJs, in tlie N. Pacilic ocean, were difcovered by Capt. James Magce, in the (liip Marga- ret, of Bollon, in liis voyage from Kamlchatka in 1780. Their latitude is 24" 40' N. long. 141" 12' E. —ib. MARGARETTSVILLE, a village in Waftiington county, Maryland, about to miles S. by E. of Eliza- beth-'lown and 6 N. E. of William's Port. — /*. MARGOT, the river and heights of Margot are on ihc E. fide of the Miirilllppi. The river has a wellerly courfe, and is faid to be navigable for batteaux a num- ber oi miles. The ground below its junftion wiih the MlTiirippi, in lat. 35<' 28' N. affordi a commanding, airy, plcafant, and extenfive fituation for fettkments ; the foil is remarkably fertile. About 3 miles below this, the French built Alfuniption Fort in 1736, when at war with tlie Chickafaws, but the year after it was demolilhed, when a peace was concluded. It is 70 miles from the river St Francis, and 104 from the Chickafaw river. — ib. Margot Port, a maritime village on the N. fide of the iiland of St Domingo, in 19° 4S' N. lat. 9 leagues weftward of Cape Francois. — ib. MARIA, Ccfe Santa, is the northern cape at the mouth of La Plata river, in S. America ; 9 leagues from the bay of Maldonade, and 20 from Montevideo, a bay fo called from a mountain which overlooks it. —}b. MARIA SANTA, a town of the audience of Pa- nama, in S. America. It was built by the Spaniards foon after thev dil'covered ihe gold mines in its neigh- bourhood. N. lat. 7"^ 43', W. Ions;. 78° 12'. MARIAGALANTL, one of the Caribbce Iflands in the Atlantic ocean ; fo called from the lliip's name in which Columbus difcovered it, in 1493. It is oi an tliipiical figure, 4^ leagues from N. to S. and 3 from £, to W. It lies 5 ot 6 leagues S. cafterly of Cuada- 2 ] MAR loupe, above half its furface is barren mountains. There are only two parifhes, the principal at the fouth defended by a fort called Balfctcrre. It is indifferently watered, but produces 8oo,ooolb. ot coflFee, ioo,ooolb. cotton, and i,ooo,ooolb. of fugar. The French plant- ed a colony here in 1648. It was taken by the En- glilli in 1692, but the French foon fettled there again, and (tiUpoifefs it. N. lat. 15" 53', W. long. 6i» 6'.— ;i. MARIANNA, was the name given to the diftrift granted by the Plymouth Council to Captain John Ma- fon in 1621. It extended trnni the river Naiimkeag, now Salem, round Cape Ann, to Merrimack river, and from the fea to the heads of thefe rivers, with the ilLuids lying within 3 miles of the coall. — ib. MARIE, Cape Dame, the weftcrnmoll point of the ifland of St Domingo, which, with Cape St Nicholas, forms the entrance of the bay of Leogane. N. lat. 18"? 38', W. long, from Paris 76° 51'. The town of tliis n.ime, (ituated on the cape, is on the north-welfernmoft part ol the fouth peninfula ; 8 leagues wetl of Jeremie, and 60 weft ot Port au Prince. The towns and villa- ges, along the north coaft of the peninfula, and in the bay or bite of Leoganc, between the cape and Port au Prince, are Petit Trou, Anl'e a Veau, Maragoane, Petite Goave, Grand Goave, &c. Marie, Straits cf, conneft Lakes Superior and Huron, which will permit boats to pafs, but not lar- ger velfels. Near the upper end of thefe llraits, which are 40 miles long, is a rapid, which (though it is iitl- poflible for canoes to alcend) may be navigated by boats without danger, when conduced by able pilots. The ftraits afford one of the moft pleafing profpefts in the world : on the leit, leading to lake Superior, may be feen many beautiful little iflands that extend a confideiable way before you ; and on the right an agreeable fuccefllon of fmall points of land, which projcifl a little way into the water, and contribute with the iflands to render it delightful. — ib. MARIEL, Port, a harbour on the north fide of the ifland of Cuba, which will admit frigates of 30 guns. —ib. MARIETTA, a poft-town and fettlement of the N. W. Territory, fituated on the Ohio at the mouth of the Mnfklngum. The Campus Mattius in this town is an elevated public fquare, fcuinded by the Ohio Coinpany, in the year 1788. The fortification is all ol hewn timber, and for appearance, convenience, and defence, of fuperior excellence. It is more than 30 feet above the high banks ot the Muikingum, and only 159 yards dillant from that river, with a beautiful natural glacis in front. The town confills of i,doo houfe-lots of 90 by 180 feet ; the fpacious ftreets inter- feft each other at right angles, and there are necefl'ary fquares referved for ufe, pleafure, and ornament. There are but few houfes yet ere<51ed. It is 19 miles above Bel-Pre, 86 fomh-wcft of Wheeling, 146 fouth- well of Pittfburg, 240 nortlieall of Lexington in Ken- tucky, and 46c W. by S. of Philadelphia. The mouth of Mufkingum river lies in lat. 39° 34', long. 82'' 9'. —ib. MARK'S, St, a town of E. Florida, at the head of the bay of Apalachy ; t8o miles wefl of St Auguftine, and 105 from the Alachua Savannah. N. lat. 30° 12', W. long. 85" 45'.— i<5. Mark,. MAR C 453 ] MAR Mark, II Marlbo- rough. Mark, Si, a jurifdiaion in the weft part of the ifland of St Domingo, containing 4 paridies. Its exports, (hip- ped fr.m the town of its name, from Jan. 1, 1789, to Dec. 31, of the fame year, were 3,065,0471b. white fugar, 7,931,7101b. brown fupar, 7,041,8521b. coffte, 3,250,8901b. cotton, 349,8191b. inciigo, and various articles to the value ot 2,250^ livres : the total value of duties on exportation 1 16,974 dollars 4 cents. The town of St Mark lies at the head of a bay of its name, ^vhich is at the head of the Bay or Bite of Leogane. The bay is formed by Cape St Mark on the fouth, and Morne au Diable on the north. This town, although fniall, is reckoned the pleafanteft in the ifland. Its commerce is confidcrable. It owes a great deal of its embellilhnients to tiie attention of M. de Marbois dur- ing his adniinillratlon. It is 23 leagues well ot Hinche, 19- north-welt of Port au Prince, 14 fouth by well of I^es Gonaives, 30 fouth of Port de Paix, and 26i foiith-well of Cape Francois. N. hit. 19' 5', W. lorg. 75° lo'.— ;■*. MARLBOROUGH, a county in the northeafl corner ot Cheraws dillrict, on the Gie^t Ptdee river, S. Carolina, 25 miles 1 ^ng, and 19 bro id. — il>. Marlborough, New, a townlhip in Ccrklliire coun- ty, Malfachufetts, containing 1,550 inh^biiants.. It was incorporated in 1759, and i:, 135 miles weft by fouth of Bofton. — ib. Marldorovgh, an ancient and wealthy townlliip in Middltfex county, Malfachufetts, (the Okommalidnnjit of the Indians) was incorpi rated in 1660, and contains 1,554 inhabitants. It is 38 miles well of Bollnn. A mode of manufa<5luring Spanilh brown, from a kind of earth or loam, laid to releinb'.e bed ore, though not impregnated with particles of iron, has lately been dif- covereJ in tliis town by an ingenions gentleman. He conltruifled an air iurnace, at a trivial expenle ; and in the year 1794, could calcine and prepare for the mill a ton in 24 hours, 6 days in fucceilion, without great expenie of wood. Connoiifeurs in paints acknowledge it is good. His firft attempts in making fpruce yellow vrere likewife Mattering. — ib. Marlborough, a townfhip in Windham county, Vermont, having Newtane on the north, Halifax fouth, Brattleborough call, and Wilmington on the Weil. It contains 629 inhabitants. — lb. Marlborough, a poll-town in Chcfliire county, Newllamplhire, lix niiles from Kcene, 20 north (i AVinchendon, and 26 trom Alhburnhain in Mafiaehu- fctts. It was incorporated in 1776, and contains 786 inhabitants. — ib. Marldorough, Nfw, a townfliip in Ulfler county, New-York, on the well fide of Hudfon's river, north of Newburgh. It contains 2,241 inhabitants; of whom 339 are ele<5tors, and 58 flives. — ib. Marlborough, the nanii; o\ three townfliips in Peiinlylvaiiia, the one in Montgomery county, and Eall .iiid Well Marlborough in Cliellcr county. — ib. Marlborough, Loiui-r, a town of M.iryland, litu- ated in Calvert county on the enll fide of P.ituxent ri- ver, 24 miles foutlieafl of Wafhington city. It con- tains about 60 houfes, and a warchoufe for the infpec- tion if tobacco. The river is navigable for Ihips of burden tor fome miles above the town. — ib. Marlhoroi'Gh, Uf<pcr, the chief town of Piincc George's county, Maryland. It is fituated on the fouth-weft fide of Hatavifit, one of the two principal Marlow, brandies of Patuxei.t river. It contains about 120 II . houfes, a court-hcufc, and a warchoufe for the infpec ^^^il^J-l^I/ tion of tobacco. It is 47 miles S. S. W. of Balti- more, and about 15 eafterly of the city of Wafiiing- lon. — ib. MARLOW, a townfnip in Chefiiirc county, New- Hamplhire, fettled in 1761. It contains 313 inhabi- tants. — ib. Marmosets, a harbour in the ifland of St Do- mingo, which may receive merchantmen, but the en- trance of it is rendered dillicult by the breakers. It lies between Cape Rouge and Grand Port Berl.agnc. —ib. MARQUES, a cape on the coaft of Old-Mexico, or N;w-Si)ain, in the South Sea. — 'b. MAIISHFIELD, a townlhip in Plymouth county, Maifichiifetti, bounded S. by Duxborough, and 36 miles S. E. of Bollon. It w.is incorporated in 1640, and contains 1269 inhabitants. — ib. Marsh FIELD, a tov/r.lhip in Caledonia county, in Vermont; adjoining to Calais on the N. W. and Pea- chum N. E. — il. MARSHPEE, by feveral wi iters called Majhp:', an ancient Indian town in Barnllable county, Malfa- chul'etts, containing 308 inhabitants. There is Rill an Indian church here, but not more than 40 or 50 per- f'lis are pure Indians. The whole conlifts of about 8q families, principally of a mixed race, being 280 fouls in all. They have greatly decreafed fince 1693, when there were 214 adults, befides (Iragglers in the plantation and places adjacent ; under the care of Mr R'lwhind Cotton, minifter of Sandwich. — ib. MARSHY HOPE, the north-wellern branch of Nanticoke river in Maryland. Federallburgh liss on the E. lidc, 13 or 14 mihi from its mouth. — ('/■. MARTHA BRAE, in Jamaica a fmall town hav- ing a harbour, 7 leagues W. of Moiitcgo Point. It is frequented only by fuch velfcls as are particularly dcf- tined for this place. There is a bar with 16 or 17 feet water in going in ; and the palfage in coming out between the Triangle Rocks is not more than 60 feet wide with 6j or 7 lathoms water. — ib. MARTHA, St, a city in the province of the fame name, in Tcrra-lirma, Soutli America, with a harbour on the N. Sea, at the mouth of the Giiayra ; about 124 miles N. E. of Carthagena. It is the refidcnce of, a governor and billiop. The houfes are built with canes, and are very neat. Its haibour is large, con- venient, and fate, and the environs agreeable and fer- tile. At prefent it contains about 3010 inli.ibitants, who carry on an extenfive rich trade, and make great quantities of cottons, (luffs, &c. with earthen ware, which is much efleeme J. It has a valuable pearl lilhe- ry, in which great numbers of (laves are employed, whole dexterity in diving for the oyllers is very extra- ordinary ; fome of whom will remain for a quarter of an hour under water, and will rile with a balkct full. N. lat. I I-' 26', W. long. 7^" 59'.—'*. MARTHA'S V1NEYARI>, an ifl.mJ belonging to Duke's county, Malfachufetts, called by the Indians Nope, or Ciipatvocl, is litu.itcd between 40"^ 17', and 41" 29' N. lat. and between 70" 22' and 70" 50' W. long, about 21 miles long and 6 broad, and lies a lit- tle to the W. of Nantucket. Martha's Vineyard, Chaba^xuiddick.,. M A K [ 454 ] MAR M irtiiif- biirgh. Mirtick, ChibaquiJJick, Nom.in's Illand, and the Elizabsth Iflands, wlikli conlain about 16,500 acres of valuable land, conflitutc Duke's couniy, containing 3,265 while r inhabitants, and between 400 and 500 Indians and nuilnttoes ; wl.o JUblill by agticiihure and fifhing. Cattle and lliccp arc railed hero in great numbers ; and lye, corn and oats are the chief produce of the illand. White pipe-cliy, aud yellow and red oclire are found in Manila'!. Vineyard. The lavages of war were fe- vertly ttlt in this induQrious fpot. In September, 1778, the Britilh made a requilition of their militia arms, 300 oxen, and 20CO (hecp, which were deliver- td up. — ib. MARTICK, a towndtip in Lancader county, Penn- fylvania. — !!>. MARTIN, a county of Halifax didria, N. Caro- lina, adjoining Tyrrel, Halifax, Bertie, and Pitt coun- ties. It contains 6,080 inhabitants, of whom 1,889 are ilives. — ii. M.ARTIN'S, S;, one of the noithcrnmoft of the Caiibbee illands ; lituated in the Atlantic oce.in, be- tween Anguilla on the north, from whence it is diftant a league and a half, and St Bartholomew on the fouth- eall, 15 miles. It is about 15 leagues in circumfer- ence, with commodious bays and roads on the N. W. lide. Here are good falt-pits, and lakes of fait water, which run a great way within the land ; but has no frclh water but what falls from the clouds, and is fav- ed by the inhabitantb in ciflerns. The fait lakes abound in good filh, particularly turtle ; and llie fait water pods are frequented by vaft numbers cf birds. In the woods are wild hogs, turtle-doves, and parrots innu- merable. Here are ieveral trees producing gums; ;tnd plenty of the candle-tree, fplinters ot which, when dry and lighted, emit a very Iragrant fmell. Its to- bacco, the chief commodity cultivated, is reckoned MARTINVILLE, a poft-town, and the capital of Guilford county, in N. Carolina, is agreeably fituated on the cafl fide ot BufFaloe creek, a branch of Haw river, and contains about 40 houfcs, a court-lwufe and v gaol. It lies N. E. of Bell's Mill, at the head of Deep river; 48 miles nortli-weft of Hllllboiough ; 27 cart of Salem; 50 north-eall of Salifbury; 151 well by fouth of Halifax, and 500 foutii-weft of Philadel- phia. N. lat. 36"^ 5', W. long. 79" 43'. It was near this town tliat General Greene and Lord Cornwallis engaged in one of the be ft fought aftions in the late war, on the 15th of March, 1781 : and al- though the Americans were driven off the field, the Britilh ftiflered lb great lofs, that they could not pur- fue the vi(flory. The greateft part of the country in which the acftlon happened, was a wildernefs, with a few cleared fields intcrfjierfcd. The American army, when the atflion commenced, was polled on a rifing ground about a mile and a half from Guilford court- houfe. — ;i. MARYLAND POINT, is formed by a bend in Patowmac river, W. of Port Tobacco. — ii. MARY, Si, a port on the fouth fide of the Bay of Fundy — ii- Maky, Cape S/, is the motl fouthern promontory of Brazil, in South-America. — ii. Mary, CaJ>e St, the point of land which forms the northern fide of the mouth of La Plata river in Para- guay or La Plata, in South-America. S. lat ^^° 14', W. long. ^^^ 32'.— /i. Mary, Cape St, forms the foutheaftern head land at the mouth of Placentia Bay, Newfoundland Ifland. —ii. MARY'S RIVER, St, a branch of the Miami, which empties into Lake Erie. — ii, Mary's River, St, forms a part of tlie fouthern the bell in the Caribbee illands. Tlie Spaniards aban- boundary line of the United States. It in part divides doned this ifland in 1650, and blew up a fort which Georgia from Eall-Florida, and is very crooked, with they had erected. The Erencli and Dutch afterwards a wide open marlh on each fide, from its mouth up- fhared the ifland between them. But in 1689, were attacked and plundered by Sir Timothy Thornhill, and in July, 1744, were driven out by the Biitilli forces, and did not leturn till after the peace of 1763. They now enjoy about 35,000 acres, out of the 55,000 which the whole illand contains. The two colonies noka or Ekanfanoga fwamp, which extends fouthward- breed poultry and (heep, which they fell to the other ly into Eall-Florida. It is thought to be what is cal- illands. They alio cultivate a little cotton and coffee, led May river, difcovered by John Ribalt, in 1562. Be- About 20 years ago the French part contained 400 tween this, and Nalfau river, lies the low even coaft C'f white families, and 10,000 Haves. The Dutch part Amelia I'.land. The harbours of both rivers are fpa- no more than 60 families, and about 200 flaves. N. lat. 18'' 6', \V. long. 62° 30'.—/*. MARTINSBOROUGH, a town of N. Carolina, fituated on the S. fide of Tar river, and 20 miles above Walliington. — ii. MARTINSBURG, a poft-town of Virginia, and capital rf Berkeley county, fituated about 8 miles fouth of the Patowmac, in the midft of a fertile and well cultivated country, and 25 miles from the mine- ral fprings at Bath. It contains upwards of 70 houfes, a court-lioule, giol, and Epifcopal church; and con- tiguous to the town is one lor Preibyterians. It is 10 miles from Shepherdftov.'n, 30 from Pittfylvania court- houfe, 25 from Rocky Mount or Franklin court-houfe, 22 N. E. of Winchelter, 88 N. N. W. of Alexandria, and 244 from Philadelphia. — ii. M»rtin- villt, i Mity't. wards 30 miles, where the marfh is terminated by thick woods. It is nearly ftraight for 30 miles far- ther, up to ylllens, an Indian trader at the head of navigation ; where it is like a dead creek, 4 fathoms deep, and 10 rods wide. It rifes in the great Okafo- cious, but St Mary's is the fafeft. It has 9 feet of water at low fj'ring tides. It runs a courfe of 150 miles, and enters the ocean between the points of Amelia and Talbert's ifl.ands, in lat. 30" 44' and is navigable for veffels of conliderable burden for 90 miles. Its banks afford immenfe quantities of fine tim- ber, fuited to the Weft- India market. Along this ri- ver, every 4 or 5 miles, are bluffs convenient for vef- fels to haul to and load. — ih. Mary's, St, a poll-town and port of entry of Geor- gia, fituated on St Mary's river, a few miles from its mouth. It is a fmall place, and lias little trade. It is 129 miles fouth of Savannah. N. lat. 30" 45', W. long. 79" 12'. — ib. Mary's, St, a county of Maryland on the peninfula between Patowmac and Paiuxent rivers, 39 miles in length. MAS C 455 ] M A S Mafon. Mifeomy, length, and 15 in breadth. It contains 15,544 inhabi- tants ; of wlionn 6,985 arc flaves. — ii. MASCOMY, a conliderable pond in New-Hamp- ihire, in the fouth-wcdern part ot" Grafton county, lying partly in Lebanon and partly in EnSeld town- Ihips. This pond is from 30 to 40 fathoms deep. The furrounding land bears evident marks, that the furface of this pond was once 30 or 40 feet higher than its prefent level. By what caufe the alteration was made, and at what time, is unknown ; but ap- pearances indicate a iudden rupture, there being no fign of any margin between its former and prefent height. About a mile diftant from its outlet, there is a declivity of rock«, 40 feet higher than the flteam, as it now runs. By the (ituAtidU of thefe rocks, it ap- pears that they were once a tall, over which the water riovved ; but it has now made for itfelf a very deep channel, tlirough folid earth, nearly a mile in length, where it fcems confined for iuturity. — //'. MASCAUTENS, an Indian nation who inhabit on Lake Michigan, and between that and the Millillippi. The number i,f warrior?, 4C0. — Hi. MASON (the Rev. William) was a man of fuch eminence both as a poet and as a fcholar, that a more p.uticuhr account of his life and of his (ludics Ihould be publilhod than our fcanty materials enable us to give. He was born at Hull, where his father polfeifed the vi- carage ot St Trinity ; but where he received his fchool education we have not been able to learn. At the pro- former as the moft perfedl ; and Johnfon, wbofe ct itical Mafon. judgment will not be rafhly queilioned, feems to have ^•^^^'^ been of the fame opinion. Johnfon's partiality to Ox- ford, as is well known, made him embrace every oppor- tunity of turning injo ridicule Cambridge men and Cam- bridge poems ; but while he boafled of having fpent hours in burlefquing Caradacns for the amufement of his Oxford friends, he confelTcd that Elfiida was too beautiful to be hurt by ridicule. The voice of the public, however, feems to give the preference to the latter, and to confider it as (landing, like Drydcn's ce- lebrated ode, without a rival. In both are fentiments and expredions which would do honour to the genius cf Shakefpeare; andCara(5>acus, in theGreekverfion of Mr Glafs would not have dlfgraced sn Athenian theatre. Befides his two tragedies, Mr Mafin publlfbed many- other poeni'--. His Enghfh Garden is univtrfally read and admired, being unqueftionably the fineft pcem cf the kind that has appeared fince the days cf Thonifon ; though fome have affefted to confider it as treating the fubjea rather with profeffional (kill than with poetical genius. That there are in it a lev prnfaic exprellions we (hall not controvert ; for fuch feem infeparable from didaftic poetry ; but, taken as a whole, where rii.dl we find its equal } His elegies pirticularly that en the death of his wife, anti that on the demife of Lady Co- ventry, have been generally lead and extolled, ihougli not more than they deferve, as fuperior in cladic ele- gance to any thing of the kind in the Engliih tongue. per time he was admitted into St J ihn's College, Cam- and exprelllng a manlinefs and tendernefs cif the padie briilge ; uhere he took the degrees of 15. A. and M. A. and in 1747. he obtained a lellowlhip in Pc'mbroke H.dl. It was there that he contraifted an intimate fiiecdlhip Vf'v.h Gray the poet, and with Mr Hurd, now Bi/hnp ot \Vorcellcr. When the loimer of thefe oen- tkmen died, Mt Maion tonk upon l.inifelf the office of editor of his works and gnaidian ot his lame ; and upon the promotion of the latter to the fee of Litchfield and Coventry, he exprelfed hisfalisfaclion in fome beautiful verfes, which we read at the time, but do not recolle(fl where. In 1754 he entered into holy orders, and wa^ pa- tronized by the then Earl of Holdernefs, who obtained for him the appoiutnienl cf chaplain to the king, and prcfented him with the valuable rt<flory of Alton in Yorklhirc. He was fome time afterwards made precen- tor of York Cathedral, when he publillu-d a fniall vo- lume of Ciiurcli niulic, vvlncli has ahernatcly met with oppoiiiion and appliufe. In our opinion fomt cf his anthems are unrivalled. It was natural U)r the preccntorof a cathedral church, who was likewile a poet, to turn his attention to facred mufic ; and Mal()n had been a poet from his early years. His Elfri.la and Cirailacus, two traa;edies on the tic, rarely found in the moft poliflicd elegies of Roman writers. The fplendor of genius, and accuracy of judg- ment, confpicuous in his dramas, are equ illy diiplayed in his charaftcr as a lyric writer. His quarry was bold and impetuous, and he never fwept the ground with an ignominious fiight. In his Sappho and Phaon he has happily imitated the flyle of Dryden and Mttadafio ; and at his death he was employed on a poem in which he propofed to mcafure liis (Irengtli with Dryden. We have rcafon to believe that this ingenious man was not only a poet and a mulical performer, but tho inventor of the falliionable inftrument the Piano Forte. We cannot indeed at prefent bring evidence of tf.ij fact ; but we have inlliluted fuch inquiries as, we hope, Ihall enable us to afceitain the lru;h under the; article PiAno Forte. Poetry and mulic, and the duties of his office, might be fuppofed to have employed all his time ; but, unfor- tunately, he caught the alai in which in i 769 was fprcaii over the nation by the expulfi n of Mr Wilkes frcm theHoufeot Commons, and immediately inrolledhim- felf among die fupporters of the Bill of Rid-is. The decifion of the Houfe, which pronounced Mr Luttcral duly eleifted in oppofition to Mv Wilkes, lis C' nlidered Giecian model, were both publifiied before the year as a grofs violation of the rights of the people; and though he furcly did not approve of the conduft of the exiled mcnibtr, he joined with other freeholders in Yoi klliire in a petition to the king that he would dif- folve the parliament. Being now leagued with llie oppofition, he joined in fome violent clarnouis for a parliamentary retoim. In the year 1779, when the city of L< ndon, and fome 1757. Thefe two diamas, in the opinion of Dr Hurd, do honour to modern poetry, and arc, accord- ing to him, a fuRicient proof of the propriety of re- viving the chorus on the Briiilli llagc. In this fenti- ment lew critics, we believe, will agree with his Lord- Ihip ; but the tragedies have certainly great merit, and tranfctud perhai>s cvtry poem of the lame calk in our own or any oil-.cr modern tongue. In the firll, the oihcr cimnicicial towns, agreed to prefent il.cir peli- language is elegant and Iweet ; in tl:c latter, it is daring tions to parliament for a more economical expenditure and fublime. The auihtr himfelf always confidcred the C'l the public monev, and a more equal rcprefenuiiicn of M A S C 456 ] MAS Mafon. of the people, Mr Mafon came forward, and took an fricndlliips ; and he may be confidered as a man who Mafon, -^~''''"*^ adive pan in promoling thcfe defigns, as one who was merits to be ranked with the ablellfupporters of Britilh H convinced of their importance and neceffity. When hbcriy and Brililh morals. v»,^^-^^>Ij the county of Vork alfeinbled, on the 30th of Decern- MASON, a county of Kentucky, on the fouthern btr 17-9, and refolved un;ininioully, "lliat a committee fide of Ohio river. It contains 2,267 inhabitants, of of coMtfpondcncc fliould be appointed, for the clVcc- whom 2cS are flaves. — Morse. tually promoting the objefl of the petition then agreed Mason, a townfliip in Hillftjorough county. New. to, andalfo to piepareaplan of (T/'uf/.j/it'W to fuppoitthat Hampihire, on the Maii'achufetts line, about 70 miles laudable reform, and fuch other meafures as may con- weft if Portfmoutb, and 50 N. W. of Bollon. It duce to reftore the yj-fi-i/om c/'/arAuracn/," he was clio- was incorporated in 1768, and contains 922 inhabi- fen upon the committee, and was confultcd with, or al- lifted in drawing up thole varioushigh-fpiritedrefolutions and addreffes to the public, for which the Yorklhiie com- mittee was fo celebrated; and wliich was aftci wards gc- tunts. — ib. TRtE-MASONRY, is a fubje>.'l which, after the co- pious detail given in the EmydopjcJia of its lodges, and wardens, and grand mailers, we flioidd not have refu- nerally adopted by the olheralfociattd bcdies of reform- med in this place, but to warn cur countrymen againft trs. This part of his conduct is furely entitled to no the pernicious fuperflruflures which have been raifed praife. Thinking as we do of the parliamentary reform- by the French and Germans on t!ie finiple i)llem of ers, we caiin.i but regret that a man of Mr M ifon's ta- Britilh mafunry. lentsand virtues Ihould have embarked in their dange- Much falfehood is current refpeding the origin and rous purfuits; and though we perceived lel's hazard in antiquity of the malnnic alfociations. That the Dio- thofepurfuitsthan we do, we Ihould ftill conliJer themas nyfiacs of Alia Minor were a fociety of architedi and luifuilable to the charaaer of a clergyman. Ourauthor, engineeis, who had the exclufive privilege of building however, was of a diflerent opinion. In reply to a cen- temples, lladia, and theatres, under the myfteriuus tu- fure paifed by a dignified clergyman on the political telage of Bacchus, feems to be unquellionable. " We condud of hinifelf and fome ot his reverend bretliren, are alio certain, that there was afimilar trading alTocia- he publilhed, without his name indeed, a fpirited de- lion during the dark ages in Chriftian Europe, which fence of their proceedings and defigns in fome of the monopolized the building of gieat churches and caftles, country papers. The York committee, too, at its next and enjoyed many privileges under the patronage of the meetin'j;, refolved, " that a Proteftant, by entering various fovereigns. Circumftances (fays Dr Robifon), into hofy orders, does not abandon his civil rights ;" which it would be tedious to enumerate and difcufs, they alio rtfolved, " that the thanks of the committee continued this affociation longer in Britain than on the be given to thofe icverend gentlemen who, thus prefer- continent ;" but thei e is no good evidence, that, ante- rin" the public good to their own private emoluments, rior to tlie year 1648, any man fought admillu n into it, have Hood forth the firm friends to the trueinterefts of who was not either a builder by profeffion, or at leali their country." fkilled in the fcience of architedure. At that period, Mr M.ifun, however, Ihciwed, by his fubfequent cor.- indeed, Mr Aliimole, the famous antiquary (fee Ash- dua, that however earsellly he might wilh for what he moli:, EmyclJ, was admitted into a lodge at Warring- doubtlefs confidered as an expedient reform in the com- ton, together with his tather-in-law Colonel Mainwar- mons hou-fe of Parliament, he was firmly attached to the ing ; and thefe are the firft dift'nd and unequivocal in- Britilliconftitution. He was indeed a whig; but he was ftances that we have in Britain cf men unconnefled a whig of the old fchool. In the beginning of 179 when the reformers had betrayed the principles of French democrates, he deferled them, and ranged him- felf under the banners of the fervants of the crown ; and for thiscondufl, uliicli was certainly confiftent, he has been plentifully traduced by our Jacobin journallfts as an alarmill, who not only deferted his old friends, but with the operative malons being received into their my- fterious fraternity. The fecrecy, however, of the lodg- es, made them fit places for the meetings of the royalifts; and accordingly many royalifts became free-mafons. " Nay, the ritual of the matter's degree feems to have been formed, or perhaps twifted from its original infti- tution, fo as to give an opportunity of founding the afcribed to them a certain degree of guilt and political political principles of the candidate, and of the whole brethren prefent. For it bears fo eafy an adaption to the death of the king, to the overturning of the vene- rable conliitution of the Englilli government of three depravity. The death of this great and gnoJ man, which hap- pened in April 1797, was occafioned neither by age nor by inveterate d;fcafe. As he was ftepping into his chariot, his f_-ot Hipped, and his Ihln grazed againft the Hep. This accident had taken I'hice leveral days before orders by a mean democracy, and its re-eilablifhment by the elForts cf the loyalills, that this would ftart into every perfon's mind during the ceremonial, and could he paid the proper attention to it ; and on April the hardly fail to Ihew, by the countenances and behaviour 3d a mortification enfued, which, in the fpaceof forty- of ^e brethren, how they were afFeaed." eight hours, put a period 10 his lite That he was a fcliolar and a poet of high eminence is unlverfally acknowledged ; and we are alfured, that his polUiumnus works, when pubhllied, will not detraA from hii living fame. In private lite, though he atfeft- ed perhaps too much the faftidious manners of Mr Gray, whole genius he clllmated with a degree of en- thufufm amounting alniotl to idolatry, his charaSer This fuppofition receives much countenance from the well known fai."l, that " Charles II. was made a mafon, and frequented the lodges. It is not unlik;ly, thatbe- fides the amufement of a vacant hour, which was al- ways agreeable to him, he had pleafure in meeting with his loyal friends, and in the occupations t-f the lodge, which recalled to bis m'nd their attachmentand fervicej. His brother and fucceiior Jjmes II. was cf a more feri was ditlinguilhed by philanthropy and the moft fervid ous and manly cuft ol mind, and had little pleafure in the MAS [ 457 : MAS Mafonrf. the frivolous ceremonies of mafonry. He did not fre- ^-^"^^*-' quent the lodges. But, by this time, they were the refort of many perfons who were not of the profcllion, cr members ot ihe trading corporation. This circum- ftance, in all probabiHty, p'.oduced the denominations oifiee and accepted malons. A perfon who has the pri- vilege of working at any incorporated trade. Is faid to be zfreevian of tliat trade. Otliers were accepud as brethren, and admitted to a kind ol honorary freedom ; as is tlie cafe in many other trades and incorporations, without having (as far as we can learn for certain) a legal title to earn a livelihood by the exercife of it." It was not till fome years alter this period that tlie lodges made open profcffion of the cultivation of gene- ral benevolence, and th.*t the grand aim of the fraternity was tJ enforce the exercife of all the focial virtues. The eftablifhment of a fund for the relief of unfortu- nate brethren did not take pUce till tiie very end of the 1 7th century ; and we may prefume, that it was brought about by the warm recimmendatiins i)t fome benevolent members, wlio would naturally eulorce it by addiclies to their adembled brethren. Hence the probable origin of thofe phil.inthropic difcourfes, which are occafionally delivered in the lodges by one of the brethren as an cfhcial tafk. The boalled philanthropy of mafons ferves, however, another puipofe. The inquifitive are always pr)ing and teaming, ejger to difcover the fecrets of their neigh- bours ; and hence the brethren are iriduced to fay, that nniverfal beneficence is the great aim ot the order, for it is the only point on which tliey are at libeity to fpeak. I'hey lorget, tliat univerf.il beneficence and philanthropy are inconfiltent with the exclufive and mo- nopjlizing fpirit of an alfociation, which not only con- fines it j benevolence to its own members (hke any other charitable alfociation), but hoards up in its bofom in- ellimable fecrets, whofe natural tendency, they fay, is to form the heart to this generous and kind conduil, and infpire us with love to all mankind. The profane world cannot fee the beneficence of concealing from pu- blic view a principle or a motive which fo powerfully in- duces a mafon to be good and kind. Tlie brother fays, that publicity would rob it of its force ; and we muft take him at liis word : and ourcuriofity ii fo much the more excited, to learn what are tlie fecrets which have fi) fingular a quality, for they mull be totally unlike the principles of fcience, which produce their efl'eiffs only when made public. Tiom this account of mafonry, it would appear to have been at firll a loyal atfociali n, and as fuch it was carried over fiom England to the c ntinent ; for all tiie mafons abro.id prolels to have icceived their mylleries from Great Britain. It was firll tr.infported into France by the zealous adherents of King J ime^, who, togetiier ■with their unfortunate mailer, took refuge in that coun- try ; and it was cultivated by the I'lcuch in a manner fuited to tlie taile and habits of that liighly pnlilhed and frivolous people. To the three flmple Britifli de- grees «i apprentice, fillow-criij't, and majUr, they gradu- ally added degices innumerable, all decorated w ill) liars and ril)bcns; and into their lodges they inlidduccj the impieties and feditious dniffrines of Voltaire and the other philofophills. Indeed, If tlie account wliich the Able Barruel gives of mafonry be jull, it mull be ad- mitted, that even the fecrets of the molf ancient lodges, SuPFL. Vol. II. though in one fenfe harmlefs and juft, are fo cxprcfleJ, Maf.mry. that they may be calily twifted to very dangerous pur- ^'^'"^•^ pofes. This auihor was advanced by a few friends to the degree of mailer, without being obliged to take the oath ol fecrecy ; and being furnifhcd with the figns, he got admifijon into a lodge, v here he heard the fecret legularly communicated, with all the ordinary forms, to an apprentice. " It would be ufelefs, fays he, to de- fcribe the ccremoniaU and triaU on fuch occallons ; for in the firll degrees, they are nothing more than the play of children. 'Ihe grand objed was the communication of the famous fecret, when tlie candidate was ordered to approach nearer to the venerable. At that moment, the brethren, who had been armed with fwords fcr the occalion, drawing up in two lines, held their fwords elevated, leaning the points towards each other, and formed what in inafbnry is called the aic/> ofjleil. The candidate pafl'ed under ihis aich to a foit of a^tar eleva- ted on two fleps, at the faithell end of the lodge. The mafter, feated in an arm chair, or a fort of throne, be- hind tliii altar, pronounced a long difcourfe on the invi- olability of the Iccrct wliich was to be imparted, and on the danger of breaking the oath which the candidate was going to take, lie pointed to the naked fwords, which were always ready to pierce the breail of the traitor; and declared to him that it was imju'lTible to efcape their vengeance. The candid.ite then fwore, " that rather than betray the fecret, he confented to have his head cut off, his heart and entrails torn out, and his allies cafl before the winds." Having taken the oath, the matler faid the following words to him ; " My dear brother, the ferret of mafonry conlifls in thefe words, eqi'ALIty and liberty; all met: are equal and free ; all men are brclhreii." I'he mailer did not utter another f) liable, and eveiy body embraced the new brother equal and free. The lodge broke up, and we gayly adjourned to a mafonic repaft." In the Britilh lodges, the author admits, that no other interpretation is given to this famous fecret, than that, as all m.en are children of one common parent, and creatures of the fame God, they are in duty bound to love and help each other as brethren ; but he con- tends, that in France it was differently interpreted ; and he fupports his opinion by the following arguments : On the lith of Augufl 1792, Louis XV^I. was car. ried a prifbner to the tower of the temple, fo called be- caufe it formerly belonged to the knights templars. On that day, the rebel alfembly decreed, that to the date of lihcrly the date of equality fliould be added in future in all public ails ; and the decree itfelf was da- ted the fourth year of liberty, the firll year and firfl day of equality. It was on tliat day, for the firll time, that the fecret of frec-mafonry was made public ; that fe- cret fo dear to ihem, and which they preferved with all the lolemnity of the moll inviolable oaih. At the read- ing of this famous decree, they exclaimed, " We have at length fucceeded, and France is no other than an im- nicnfe lodge. The whole French people are tree ma- tons, and the whole univerfe will toon follow their ex- ample." " I witnclTed (fiys our author) this cnthufiafin ; I heard the converlations to which it gave rife ; I faw mafon?, til! tlicn the moll referved, who freely and open- ly declared, • Yes, at length the grand objeifl of Iree- niafoory is accomplitlied, EQi'ALirY and liberty ; all 3 M men MAS C 458 ] MAS Mafiinry. tHcn art equal and Irothcrs ; all men are free. That was ^■^'"^"^^ the whole fubftance ot" our doflrine, the objeft of our widies, thi -U'LoU of our grand fecret !" This is a very llrious charge againft the original fe- cret of mafonry, as it was undcrltood in France ; and though the author does not bring it dire<flly againft the fame fecret as undcrftoed in biitain, he yet feems to fay, that in a// lodges, the following queftion is put to the candidate before he is cntrulled with any fecret : — " Brother, arc you difpofed to execute all the orders of the grand-mafter, though you were to receive contrary orders from a king, an emperor, or any other fovcreign whatever?" And as the brother is obliged to promife this unlimited obedience, it is eafy to conceive how much atraiteioub conlpiracy may be promcted by means of malon 1 dgcs. The allegorical (lory which is told at the conferring of the degree of matter, is capable of vaiious and even contrary interpretatii'ns ; for though in this country it was originally rendered fubfervient to the purpoies of the royalilh, in the occult lodges on the continent it has been made the vehicle of trealon and impiety. When the degree of maflcr-irafon is to be conferred, the lodge is hung round with black. In the middle is a coflin covered with a pall, the brethren (landing round it in attitudes denoting forrow and revenge. When the rew adept is admitted, the mailer relates to him the following hillory or fable : *' Adoniram prefidcd over the payment of the work- men who were building the temple by Solomon's or- ders. They were three thoufand workmen. That each one might receive his due, Adoniram divided them into three clalfes, apprentices, tellow-cr.ifts, and maflers. He entrufted each clafs with a word, lign?, and a gripe, by which they might be recogniled. Each clafs was to preferve the greateft fecrecy as to thefe figns and words. Three ot the fellow-crafts, wilhing to know the word, and by that means obtain the falary, of mailer, hid themfelves in the temple, and eacli poded himfelf at a different gate. At the ufual time when Adoniram came to Ihiit the gates of the temple, the firft of the three met him, and demanded the word of the maflers ; Adoniram retufed to give it, and received a violent blow wiih a flick on his head. He flies to another gate, is met, challenged, and treated in a limilar manner by the fecond : flying to the third door, he is killed by the fellov/-craft poded there, on his refullng to betray the word. Hisa(ratrins buried him under a heap of rubbifli, and marked the fpot with a branch of acacia. " Adoniram's abfencc gave great unealinefs to Solo- mon and the mailers. He is fought for everywhere : at length one of the mailers difcovers the corpfe, and, ta- king it by the finger, the finger parted from the hand ; he took it by the wrift, and it parted from the arm ; when the mader, in adonilhment, cried out, Mac Benac ; which the craft interprets by " thejlefl] parts from the bones." " Left Adoniram fiiould have revealed the word, the mafters convened and agreed to change it, and to fub- ftitute the words Mac lier.ac ; facred words, that free- jnafoas dare not pronounce out of the lodges, and there each only pronounces one fy liable, leaving hisneighbour Mafonry. to pronounce the other." v^'-v'>w^ The hiftory finiflied, the adept is informed, that the objefl of the degree he has ju(t received is to recover the word loft by the death of Adoniram, and to re- venge this martyr of the niafonic fecrecy. The gener- ality of mafons, looking upon this hiftory as no more than a fable, and the ceremonies as puerile, give them- felves very little trouble to fearch farther into thefe myfteries. Thefe fports, however, alTume a more ferious afpeil when we arrive at the degree of ele>.'t (Ehi.J This de- gree is fubdivided into two parts ; the tird has the re- venging of Adoniram for its objeiS, the other to recover the word, or rather the facred dodlrlne which it ex- prelTed, and which has been loll. In this degree of eleft, all the brethren appear drelTed in black, wearing a breaft-piece on the left fide, on which is embroidered a death's head, a bone, and a poignard, encircled by the motto of Conquer or die. The fame motto is embroidered on a ribband which thef wear in faltier. Every thing breathes death and re- venge. The candidate is led into the lodge blindfolded, with bloody gloves on his hands. An adept with a poignard in his hand threatens to run him through the heart for the crime with which he is accufed After va- rious frights, he obtains his life, on condition that he will revenge the father of mafonry in the death of his alfadln. He is Ihevvn to a dark cavern. He is to pe- netrate into it; and they call to him, Strike all that (hall oppofe you ; enter, defend yourfelf, and avenge our mader ; at that price you fhall receive the det^ree of eleft. A poignard in his right hand, a lamp in his left, he proceeds ; a pliantom oppofes his pa/Tage ; he hears the fame voice repeat. Strike, avenge Hiram, there is his afl'aflin. He ftrikes, and the blood flows. — Stiike off his head, the voice repeats ; and the head of the corpfe is lying at his feet. He feizes it by the hair (a), and triumphantly carries it back as a proof of his victory ; fhows it to each of the brethren, and is judged worthy of the new degree. Our author fays, that he has queftioned divers ma- fons wheth. r this apprentieediip to ferocity and murder had never given them the idea, that the head to be cut off was that of kings ; but they all aflirmed that fuch an idea had never occurred to them till the French re- volution had convinced them of the {aSX. Ac this in- deed ve are not furpriled. The affallin of Hiram is no where ("aid to liave been a kins; ; and why fhnuld the young ele<5l have fuppofed, that when ftabbina; that af« fafiin, he was training to be a regicide ? The cere- mony, however, i^ certainly ferocious in the highed de- gree, and obvioufly calculated to reconcile the mafons of the occult lodges to the praiffice of afraifinaiirin at the command of their (uperiors; and when it is remembered, that they are bound to pay obedience to thole unfsen fii- periors even againft their lawful fovereigns, the atrocities of the revolution would naturally make them interpret this (hocking ceremony as it is interpreted by the Abbe. It was the fame with refpecfl to the religious prrt of this degree, where the adept is at once pontiff and fa- crificer (a) The reader may eafily conceive that this corpfe is no more than a mannikin containing bladders full of blood. MAS [ 459 ] MAS Mafonr^ crificer with the reft of the brethren. Veiled in the ^■^'"'^'"*^ ornaments of the priefthood, they oflfcr bread and wine, according to the order oi Melchifedec. 'I'he fecret ob- je<5l of this ceremony is to re-eftablifti reh'glous equa- lity, and to exhibit all men equally priefts and pontiffs, to recal the brethren to natural religion, and to per- fu^de them that the religion of Mofes and cf Chrift had violated religious equality and liberty by the diftincSion of priefts and Uiiy. It was the revolution again which opened the eyes of many of the adepts, who then owned that they had been dupes to this impiety, as they had been to the regicide effay in the former part. Our author treats the fraternity of the occult lodges through the higher degrees of Scotch mafonry, thofe of the Roficrucians, and tliat of the knights Kadofch ; and fums up his account in the ibllnwing terms : " In the two firft degrees, that is to fay, in ihofe of apprentice .ind feUoiu craft, the feci begins by throwing out its equality and liberty. After that, it occupies the attention of its novices with puerile games of frater- nity or mafouic repafts ; but it already trains irs adepts to the profoundeft fecrecy by the moft frightful oaths. " In that of majltr, it relates the allegorical hiftory of Adoniram, who is to be avenged ; and of the iword, which is to be recovered. " In the degree of ele8, it trains the adepts to ven- gcance, without pointing out the perfon on whom it is to fall. It carries them back to the time of the pa- triarchs, when, according to them, men knew no reli- gion but that of nature, and when every body was equally prieft and pontiff. But it had not as yet de- clared that all religion revealed lince the time of the patriarchs was to be thrown afide. " This lift myrtcry is only developed in the Scotch degrees. There the brethren are declared free : The word (o long fought for is, Deifm; it is the worlhip of Jehovah, fuch as was known to the philofophers of na- ture. The tiue mafon becomes the pontiff of Jeho- vah ; and fuch is the grand myftery by which he is ex- tricated from that darknefs in which the prophane are involved. " In the degree Rofa Crucit, he who wrefted tlie •word, who deftroyed the worlhip of Jehovah, is Chrift himfelf, the author of Chriftianity ; and it is on the Gof- pcl and on the Son of Man that the adept is to avenge the brethren, the pnnlitfs of Jehovah. " At length, on his reception as Kadofch, he learns that the aliailln of ^idciiiram is the king, who is to be killed to avenge the grand m.ifter MoUy, and the order of the maCons fuccellors of the knights templars. The religion which is to be dellroyed to recover the ivord, or the true dodrine, is the religion of Chrift, founded on revelation. This word in its full extent is equality and liberty, to be eftablilhed by the total overthrow of the altar and the throne. " .Such are the incipient degrees, the procefs, and the whole fyftem of mafonry ; it is thus that the feft, by its gradual explanation of its twofold principle of equality and liberty, of its allegory of the founder of mafonry to be avenged, r«f the word to be recovered, leading the adepts from fecret to fecret, at length ini- tiates them into the whole Jacobinical code of revolu- tion." If this account of mafmry be not greatly exagger- ated, what are we to think of thofe men among cur- felves, who, fince the publication of the Abbe Barruel's book and Dr Robifon's, have difplayed a zeal for the propagation of their myfteries, by which they fcemed not to be formerly adnated, and to wiiich the import- ance of the bufiucfs that, by their own account, is tranfifled in the lodges, cannot be thought to bear an adequate proportion ? It is not enough to fay that Brj. tilh mafonry is harmlcfs, and that the eq-jality and li- berty taught in our lodges are the equality and liberty taught in the bible. Without direftly queftioning this alTertion, we only beg leave to put cur countrymen in remembrance, that Fiench and German mafonry, as it was derived from Britain, muft have been originally as- harmlefs as our own ; and to call iheir attention to the munftrous fuperftruiflures of impiety and rebellion which in thefe countries have been raifed upon our foundation. Have there been no fymptoms of fedition and irreligion among us, fince the conim«ncement of the French re- volution, that we fhould be io confident that the equa- lity and liberty of our lodges will never degenerate into the equality and hberty of the French Jacobins ? This cannot be faid ; for it has been pro» cJ, that there are feveral occult lodges in Britain ; and what fecurity have we, or what iecurity can we receive, that their number will not increafe ? The legillature indeed has lately laid fome falutary reftraints on the meetings of mafons ; but fuch is the nature of thefe meetings, that nothing can ef- feiftually fecure us againft tlie introduflicn of the higher myfteries, but the voluntary ihutting up for a time of all lodges. This has been done by the honeft mafons in Germany; and why may it not be done by the ma- fons in Britain!' The fund for the relief of poor breth. ren may furely be managed wi.hout fecrecy ; the figns and giipe may be communicated witliout the luord, or exafting a promife of implicit obedience ; and the relin- quilhing of the joys of a focial hour would be no great facrifice to the peace of a country. But is Brililh mafonry really fo harmlefs as the younger mafons wifh us to believe ? The writer of thefe refle<^ions was never initiated in its myfteries, and therefore cannot, from his own knowledge, lay what is their tendency ; but he has no hefitation to aflirm, be- caule he believes himfelf able to demonftrate, that it is grofsly immoral to prumife implicit obedience to un- known fuperiors, or to fwear that one will keep invio- late a fecret, to the nature of which he is an abfolute ftranger. He liopcs, indeed, and is inclined to believe, that, in the decent lodges of Britain, the candidate is aft'ured, before he is required to take the oath, that the fecret to be communicated, and the obedience which he is to pay, militate in no refpeft againft the civil govern- ment or the religion of his country ; but ftill if the fe- cret contain information of value, it is, in his opinion, fintul to keep it a fecret ; and he cannot conceive upon W'hat principle a na;iveof Britain can promife unlimit- ed oliedience to any human being. The myfteries of mall')nry muft relate to fomething which is either im- portant and laudable ; frivolous, though innocent; or dangerous and immoral. To confine to a feft any in- formation which is laudable and important, is furely nrt to 3(51 the part of genuine philanthropilh ; to ad- miniller the moft tremendous o^ths in the midft of fri- volous amufements, is to violate one of the moft facred precepts of our holy religion ; and, as no man will pre- tend to vindicate dangerous and immoral myfteries, ma- 3 M 2 fonry Mifimry. MAS C 460 ] MAT u MafTiilan. Mafquc foiiry appears, in every point in which it can be placed, Pacoua, an aflbciation which no good Chriftian will think him- felf at liberty to encourage. MASQl^E PACONA, a jurifdiaion of Charcas, in Peru, extending above 30 leagues. Its air is hot, but not too great for vines. The city of the fame name, where the bifhop of Santa Ciuz de la Sierra re- fides, is very thinly inhabited ; but there are in other parts of the jurifdidion, feveral populous towns. It produces all kinds of grain and fruits ; honey and wax conrtitute a principal part of its trade. — Morse. MASQl'ES, or Cl.ilqucs and Mu/</uej, a jurifdiaion MASEY'S-TOVVN, in the N. W. Territory, ftands U^cy\ on the northern bank of Ohio river, between the rivers II Little Miami and Sciota i6. J^l^J^Xi^ MASSY'S CROSS ROADS, in Kent county, '"'^^^ M.iiyland, is N. E. of New Market, S. E. of George. Town, and S. by W. of Salfafras-Town, a little more than 5 miles from each. — ili. MAST Buy, on the north fide of the ifland of Ja- maica, in the N. \V. part. It is eaftward of Montego Bay, and near the (hclf of rocks that lies from the ihore, called Catlin's Cliffs. — ib. MASTICK Gut, on the S. W. fide of the ifland of of Cafco, in Peru, which begins about 7 or 8 leagues St Chriftopher's in the Wejl-Indies, is^ between Moline' from Cafco, extending about 30 in length. — ib. MASS.'^C, a fort built by the French, on the north- veftern fide of the Ohio, about 1 i miles below the inouth of Tennelfee river. Its remains (land on a high bank, in a healthy agreeable fituation. — ii. MASSACHUSETTS, Fort, Bands on the north- weltern corner of the State ol its name, in N. laC. 42° 41-30''; 19 miles N. E. by N. of Pittsfield, and 20 due E of Lanfingburgh city, in New-York State. — ii. Massachusetts Sound, on the N. W. C"aft of North-America, is filuatcd on the fouthern fide ot the Quadras Illes, and IcaJs from the W, into Nootka Sound along the N. fide of Kendrick's Ifland, whofe eaftern fide form , with Point Breakfaft, the mouth of Nootka Sound. — ib. MASSACRE River paffes out of the Straits of Magellan S. W. into the fuppofed channel ot St Bar- baia, which cuts through the ifland of Teira del Fuego, through which, we are inibrmcd, Capt. Mare- anille of Marfeilles palTed in 1713 into the South Paci- fic Ocean. — ib. Massacre River, on the N. fide of the Ifland of St Domingo, falls into the bay of Manctntlla. — ib. Massacre, a fmall ifl.md on the coaft of Welf-Flo- rida, 2 miles to the eallward of Horn Ifland; 10 miles from the main land, all the way acrofs there ib fiom 2 to 3 fathoms ; except the fnoal called La Grand Ba- lure, which (Iretches a league liom the main land, with 2 or 3 feet water on it, and in fonie places not fo much. Behind it is a large bay called L'Ance de la Grand Bature, 8 miles E. of Pafcagoula bluff. — ib. MASSAFUERO, an Ifland in the S. Pacific Ocean, called by the Spaniards the LelTer Juan Fcrnandes, 22 leagues W. by S. of the Greater Juan Fernandes. It has always been reprefented by the Spaniards as a bar- ren rock, without wood, water or provifions. But Lord Anion found this to be a political falfity, aifert- ed to prevent hoflile vedcls from touching there. There is anchorage on the N. lide in deep water, where a fingle Ihip may be flieltered clofe under the ftiore, but is expofed to all winds except the fouth. According to Capt. Magee of the (Lip Jeffcrfon, it is 38 leagues to the welUvard of Juan Fernandes, and in Gut on the N. W. and Godwin's Gut on the fouth- eall. — ib. MASTIGON, a river which runs weftward into lake Michigan about 11 miles north r.f La Grande Riviere. It is 150 yards wide at its mouth. — ib. MASUAH (See Massuah, Encycl.) is m latitude 15" 3S' 5" north, and in longitude 39" 36' 30" call of Greenwich. On the 22d of September 1769 Mr Bruce found the variation of the needle at Mafuah to be 12'' • 48' welt. MATA, Point, on the northern fide of the ifland of Cuba, and 9 leagues N. W. of Cape Maify. — Morse^ MATACA, or Mantaca, is a commodious bay on the N. coall of the ifland of Cuba, where tlie galleons ufually come to take in Irelb water on their return to Spain, about 12 leagues trom the Havannah. It ap- pears to be the fame as Matanze, in lit. 23'' 12' N. long. 81" 16' W. Peter Heyn took a great part of a rich fleet of Spanifli galleons here in 1627. — ib, MATALl, A province of S America, towards the river Amazon, between the mouth of Madeira and Tapaifa riv;.rs. — ib. MATANCA, or Manancet, a fliort and broad river of E. Floiida which falls into the ocean fouth of St Auguftine. — ib. MA TANCHEL, a fea-port on the weft coaft of New Mexico, about 20 leagues to the N. E. of the rocks of Pon'eque, over which, in clear weather, may be feen a very high hill, with a break on the top, cal- led the hill of Xilifco, and may be feen 8 cir 9 leagues, from the port. — ib. MATANE, a river of Canada, in N. America, the mouth ot which is capable of admitting vclfels of 200 tons burden. All this coaft, efpecially near this river, for 20 leagues, abounds in cod, which might employ 500 Ihallops or filhing fmacks at a lime. The ffli is veiy fine, and fit for exportation to the Straits. Spain, and the Levant. Gieat numbers of whales have been alU> feen floating upon the water, which may be llruck with a harp"on, and prove a very valuable fifliery. — ib, M.ATANZAS, or Matance, a large bay on the north fide ot the ifland of Cuba, 14 leagues fouth-eaft cf the Havannah, but fome accounts fay 20 leagues, about 33° 30' S. lat. and Sa*' W. long, from Green- From Cape Quibanico to this bay the cuaft is weft- •wich. — lb. north--.', eft — ib. My\SSANUTEN'S River, a weftern branch of the MATAVIA Bay, or Port Royal Buy, is fituated Shenandoah. — ib. wi.hin Point Venub near the north part "f the ifland of MASSEDAN Bay, on the N. Pacific Ocean, and Olaheite, but open to the north-well, and in th: louth W. coaft of Mexico, is fituated between Acapulco and Pacific Ocean. The eaft fide (jf the bay has good Aquacara, a port near the cape of California, where anchorage in 14 and 16 fathoms. S. lat. 17° 29', VV. Sir Thomas Cavendilh lay ajfter he had paffed the long. 149° 3c', and the variation cf the compafs 3" Suaits of Magellan. — ib, 34' eaft, — lb, MATCH- Matcha- dock, II Matthewi. MAT [46 MATCHADOCK Bay, in the eafternmoft part of Lake Huron. — ib. MATH ANON Port, in the foutheaft part of the ifland of Cuba, is one of thofe ports on that coaft whirh afford good anchorage for (hips, but with- out itny ufe for want of them. It is between Cape Cruz aiid Cape Maizi, at the eaft end of the ifland. —tb MATHEWS, Fort, (lands on the ealtern fide of Oconee river, in the S. weKern part ot Frankhn coun- ty, Georgia. — ib. Mathews, a county of Virginia, bounded W. by Gloucclti.r, from which it was taken fmce 1790; ly- ing on 'he W. fhore of the bay of Chefape;^k. It is about 18 miles in length and 6 in breadth. — ib. M-\TICALOC River, on the W. coail of New Mexico, is 7 leagues from Cataha Strand, or the port of Sanfonate. It is much espofed to northerly winds, and is known by feme fmall but high hills that are op- pofite to it. There is another large river to the well- ward of it, about 4 league?, which has 2 falh^ms upon the bar ; and from ihcnce to the bar of E(fapa it is 15 leagues. — ib. MATILDA, a village of Virginia fituated on the foulh-well bank of Patowmac river, above Walhington city, and near the Great Falls. — ib. MATIN ICUS IJl^nds, on the coaft of Maine. When you pafs to the well of thefe ifl.inds, the main pafl'age from the fea to Penobfcot Bay lies about north by well. Matinicus lies north lat. 43* 56', weft long. 68" 20'. — ib. MATMAI, or Matsumai, is the largeft of the Ku- rile ilLinds ; and if it be not independent, is tributary to Japan. The capital town of the fame name, Mat- mai, is fituated on the fea-(hore, on the foulh-well fide. It was built and is inhabited by the Japanele. It is a fortified place, lurni(hed with artillery, and defended by a numerous gairifon. The illand ot Matmai is the place of exile (or perlons of dillinLtion at Japan: it is fepa- rated from that empire by only a narrow channel, but which is confidered as dangerous, becaufe ihe capes, which projedl on both fides, render the navigation dif- ficult. The people are f.iid to be fenfible to liicnd- fhip, hofpitible, generous, and humane. MATTA DE BRAZIL, a town in the captain- fliip of Pernambuco, in Brazil ; about 9 leagues from OlinJa. It is very populous; and quaiuiiies of Bra- zil aie lent from this country to Europe. — Morse. MATT A PONY, a navij'.able liver of Viiginia, which rifes in Spoiiiylvania county, and running a S. E. cuurl'e, j.'ins Pamunky river, below the ti-wn of De la War, and together form York river. This river will admit loaded floats to Downei's bridge, 70 miles above its mouth. — ib. MATTES, on the eaft coaft of SouthAmcrica, in the fouth A'lantic Ocean, is in lat. 45° 5' fouth, and long. 64° 25' well — ib. MATTHEO IJLnJ, St, or St Matthew't IJland, in the S. Atlantic Ocean. S. lat 1° 24'. — ib. MATTHEWS Buy, Si, in the Guif of Mexico, on the W. (hore of Campeacliy Gu'.f, is more il.an 100 leagues to the N. of rumbez. — ib. ^IATTHEWs, St, or Miiideo Buy, on ihe coaft of Peru, on the N. Pacific Ocean, is 6 ie.ipuos to the N. E. by E. from Point Galera, and 5 or 6 le.igucs S. S. I ] MAY W. from the river St Jago, between which there is an- chorange all the way, if (hips keep at leaft in 6 fathoms water. It is all high land with hollow red crags, and feveral points run out, forming good retreats for (hips driven in by hard fqualls and flaws from the hills, and by the feas running high, which often happen. — ib. MAUGERVILLE, a townlhip in Sunbury county, province of New Brunfwick, fituated on St John's ri- ver, oppofite St Annes, and 30 miles above Belifle. —ib. MAUREPAS, an ifland on the north eaft coaft of Lake Superior, and north-eaft of Ponchartrain ifland. —ib. Maurepas, a lake in W. Florida, which communi- cates well ward with MifTiffippi river, through the Gut of Ibberville, and eaftward with Lake Ponchartrain. It is 10 miles long, 7 broad, and hai 10 or 12 feet water in it. The country lound it is low, and covered with cyprefs, live-oak, myrtle, &c. Two creeks fall into this lake, one from the north fide, called Natta- banie, the other from the peninfula of Oi leans. From the Ibberville at its junflicn with Maurepas to the river Amit is 39 miles, and from thence, fillowing the Ibberville, to the MilTilllppi at the W. fide of the peninfula of Orleans, 21 miles. From the Ibberville acrofs the lake, it is 7 miles to the palfage leading to Ponchartrain. The length of this palTage is 7 miles, and only 300 yards in width, whicli is divided into two branches by an iflind that extends from Maurepas to about the diftance of a mile from Ponchartrain. The fcuth channel is the deepeft and fhortell. The palFage thence through Lake Ponchartrain, to the Gulf of Mexico, is above 50 miles. — ib. Maurepas IJlund, on the coaft of Cape Breton, the fame as the IJJc Madaotc ib. MAURICE Bay, on the W. fide of Cape Farewell Ifland, or S. extremity of E. Greenland, and the prin- cipal harbour of that fea — ib. Maurice, Port, on the E. coaft of Terra del Fuego Ifland, is on the W. (hore of Le Maire Stiaits, between that ifland and Stamen Land on the E. and N. of the bay of Good Succefs. It is a fmall cove, having an- chorage before it in 124 fathoms, about half a mile from the (Lore, over coral rocks. — ib. Maurice River, the name of a place in Cumber- land county, New-Jerfey. — ib. Maurice River, in fome maps called corruptly Morris, rifes in Gloucefter county, Ne;v.Jerl'ey, and runs louthwardly about 40 miles, and empties into Delaware Bay; is navig.ible for velfcls of 100 tons 20 miles, and for fmall cratt confiderably further. — ib. MAXANTALLA IJhnd, is near the port of Ma- tanchel on the W. coaft of New-Mexico, and en the Ni rth Pacific ocean. — ib. May, Capt, the moll foutherly point of land of the Stale of Newjcrfey, and the N. point (1 the entrance into Delaware Bay and river, in lat- 39", and 1 >ng. 74" 56' W. The time of high water on fpring tide clays, is a quarter belorc nine o'clock. — ib. MAY POINT, on ihe S. fide of Ncw-Foundland Ifland, a point of the peninfula between Fortune and Placcntia B.iys. — ib. MAYAGUANA, one cf the Bahama iflands in the Weft-Indies, and ihs fame with M.iranella, and in lat. 22" 51' N. aiihc N point, and long. 72° 57' W. — ib. MAYFIELD, T.Iauger- viUe, M A Y [ 462 ] M E A Mayfiitd, MAYFIELD, a cowndiip ill Montgomery county, II New-York, adjoining Broadabin on the wedward, ta- ^^^2[J!!^[^ ken trom Caughnawaga, and incorporated in 1793. In 1796, 126 of its inhabitants were qualified elevflots. — ii. MAY'S I. id, in Malbn county, Kentucky, a fait fpring on a branch of Licking river, 9 miles S. S. W. of Walhington, on the fouth bank of the Ohio, and 15 northerly of the Blue Licks. — ii. MAYNAS, a government, formerly the eaftern limit of the jurifdiflion uf Quito in Peru, and joining on the call to the goveinn)eiit!> of Quixos and Jaen de Bracamcros. In its territory are the fources of thofe rivers which, after traverfmg a vail extent, form, by their confluence, the famous river of th; Ama/ons. It is fcparatcd from the podelllons of the Portuguefe, by the famous line of demarcation, or the boundary of thofe countries belonging to Spain snd Portugal. Its capital is San Francifco de Borja, the rtfiJence of the fiiovernor, but the Superior relides at Santiago de la Laguna. There are feveral mifllons in the govern- ment of Maynas, and diocefe of Qiiito, particularly 12 on the river Napo, and 24 on the Maranon or Ama- zon ; many of them are boih large and populous. — il/. MAYO R-'jrr, on theeaftlliore of the Gulf of Cali- fornia, and well coaft of New-Bifcay, in the province of that name, foims a fpacious bay at its mouth, in lat. 27" 40' N. and long. 114" W. — ii. MAYORGA (Martin de). See Don Martin, &c. in this Sappl. MAYOW (John), whofe difcoveries in chemiftry have aftoniihed the fcientific part of ihe public, defcend- ed, fays Wood, from a genteel family living at Bree in the county of Carnival/. His father was probably a younger fon, bred to bufmefs ; for our author was born in Fleet-llreet, London, in the parilh of St Dunftan's in the Weft. At what fchool he received the rudiments of his education, a circumftance which the biographers of men eminent in the republic of letters Ihould never omit, we have not been able to learn ; but on the 271]! (f September 1661, when he had juft completed his i6th year, he was admitted a fcholar of Wadham college, Ox- ford. Some time afterwards, on the recommendation of Henry Coventry, Efq; one of the fecretaries of ftate, he was chofen probationer fellow of All fouls college. As Wood informs us that he had here a LegijTs phici, an expreffion by which we underftand a law-tellowfhip, it is not wonderful that he took his degrees in the civil law, though phyfic and the phyfical fciences were the favourite objeds of his lludy. He was indeed an emi- nent phylician, practifjng both in London and in Bath, but in the latter city chiefly in the fummer months, till the year 1679, ^^hcn he died, fome time during the mon'.h of September, in the houfe of an apothecary in Yorkflrcet, Cnvetit Garden, and was buried in the church of that parilh. He had been married, fays Wood, a little before his death, not altogether to hi-, content ; and inJeed he muil have been very dilcontented, if he chofe to die in the houle of a friend rather than in his own. He publiflied, " Tractatus qulnque medico phy- fici, I. De talnitro ; 2. De refpiratione ; 3. De refpira- tione foetus in utero et ovn ; 4. De motu mufculari et fpiritibus ammalibus ; 5. De Rachitide." Thefe were publilhed together in 8vo at Oxford, in 1674; but there is an edition of two of them, " De refpiratione," and " De Rachitide," publifhed together at Leyden in 1671. Tnc fame of this author has been lately revived and extended by Dr Beddoes, who publifhed, in 1790, " Cliemical Experiments and Opinions, extrafted from a work publilhed in the laft century," 8vo ; in which he gives to Mayow the highell credit as a chemift, and afcribes to him fome ot the gr^ateft modern difcoveries refpeCling air, giving many extrafls from the three firft of his treatifes. His chief difcovery was, that oxygea gas, to wliich he gave the name of Jin air, exifts in the nitrous acid, and in the atmofphere ; which he proved by fuch decilive experiments, as to render it irnpoflible to explain liow Boyle and Hales could avoid availing themfelves, in their refearchcs into air, of fo capital a difcovery. Mayow alfo relates his manner of puffing aeriform fluids under water, frcm velfel to velfel, which is generally believed to b« a new ait. He did not col- leil dephlogiflicared air in velfels, and transfer it from one jar to another, but he proved its exiftence by find- ing fubflances that wc uld burn in vacuo, and in water when mi.xed with nitre; ind after animals had breath- ed and died in velfels filled with atmofpheric air, or af- ter fire had been extinguifhed in them, there was a re- liduum which was the part of the air unfit for refpira- tion, and for fupporting fire; and he further (hewed, that nitrous acid cannot be formed, but by expofing the fubftances that generate it to the atmofphere. Mayow was undoubtedly no common man, efpecially fince, if the above dates are right, he was only 34 at the time of his death. But he was not fo unknown as Dr Bed- does fuppofed ; for fince the repetition of the fame dif- covery by Pi iellley and Scheele, reference has frequent- ly been made by Chemilis to Mjyow as the original inventor ; thus allowing to him a fpecies of merit, to which he has perhaps but a doubtful claim, and which, if that claim be well founded, mull certainly be fhared between him and Dr Hooke. See Hooke in this Supplement. MA YZI, the eaftern cape of the ifland of Cuba, and the weftern point of the windward paflage. N. lat. 20° 19' 30", W. long, frcm Paris 76° 40' 30''. — Morie. MAZALTAN, a province of Mexico, or New Spain. It is well watered by the Alvarado, which difch^rges itfelf by 3 navigable mouths, at 30 miles diftance from \'era Cruz. — ib. MEADOWS, a Imall river which falls into Cafco Bay. in the Diftridl of Maine. — ib. MEADS, a place fituated on a fork of French Cieek; a branch of the Alleghany, in Pennfylvania. N. lat. 41° 36', and about 23 miles N. W. of Fort Franklin, at the morrth of the creek. — ib. ' MEAN, in general. See Eneycl. Arithmetieal Mean, is half the firm of the extremes. So 4 is an arithmetical mean between 2 and 6, or be- tween 3 and 5, or between I and 7 ; alfo an arithme« tical mean between a and b is "*" , or 4 " + 4 ^• 2 Gometrical Mf.au, commonly called a mean propor- tional, is the iquare root of the prodiifl of the two ex- tremes ; fo that, to find a mean priportional between two given extremes, multiply thefe together, and ex- trai5l the fquare root of the produ(5l. Thus, a mean pro- portional M E C [ 463 ] M E C Menfure, portional between i and 9, is V^ i X 9 = V'9= 3 : ^ MedLics. n>«an between 2 and 44 is •/ 2 X 4t = -/ 9 = 3 ''^'o ; '^■^~''"^>^ the mean between 4 and 6 is V/4X 6= v''4> ^^id the rnean between a and i is V u I/. Harmonical Mean. See Harmonical PxorOKliON, Encycl. MtiAN anil Extreme Proportion, or Extreme and Mean Proportion, is wlien a line or any quantity is fo divided that the Icfs part is to the greater, as the greater is to tlie wliole. Mean Anomaly of a Planet, is an angle which is al- ways propoitional to the time of the planet's motion from the aphelion or perihelion, or proportional to the area defcribed by the radius vcftor ; that is, as the whole periodic time in one revolution of llie planet, is to the time pad the aphelion or perihelion, fo is 360° to the mean anomaly. See Anomaly, Encycl. Mean Conjundion or Oppofition, is when the mean place of the fun is in conjunction, or oppolition, with the mean place of the moon in the ecliptic. Mean Dijlance of a Planet from the Sun, is an arith- metical mean between the planet's greaiell and leall di- Itanccs. Mein Motion, is that by which a planet is fuppofed to move equably in its orbit; and it is always propor- tional to the time. Mean Time, or Equal Time, is that which is mea- fured by an equable motion, as a clock ; as dillinguifh- edfrcm apparent time, ariling from the unequal motion of the earth or fun. Universal or Perpetual MEASURE, is a kind of meafure un.iltcrable by time or place, to wliich the meafuies of ditforent ages and nations might be re- duced, and by which they may be compared and efti- mated. Such a meafure would be very ufeful if it could be attained ; fince, being ufed at all times, and in all places, a great deal of coniufion and error would be avoided. It has been attempted, at different times and in diffe- rent countries, more elpecially by the French, who, fince the commencement ot their revolutionary govern- ment, have labfAired hard to obtrude their innovations in arts and fcience, as well as in politics, upon all na- tions. Propofrils, however, have been made by fobcrer men for a llaud.ird both ot weights and of meafurci. fiir all nations : and fome of the ni( II rational ot theft fiial be noticed under the word Weights in this Supple. ment. MECATINA, Great, Point cf, on the fouih coaft of Labrador, and the north Ih.ire of the Gull of St Lawrence, in N. America. N.lat. 50" 42', W. long. 59" 13'. — Morse, MECATINA Iflan.-l, Little, m the fame roaft and fiiote, lies foulh-well of Gieat Mecatina. N. lat. 50° 36 .—»i. MECH.A.NICS.— Our readers will recollea that ID the article 1'hvsics. Encycl. we pri'pofed to diflin- guilh b) the term Aiechanical Phihfopky th.rt part of natural fcience which treats ot 'he local minions of bo- jdics and the caufcsof thofe phenomena. And, although all the charges which we obferve in material nature are accompanied by local motion, and, when com|'lciely ex- plained, aie the effects (perhaps very remote) ot thol'e powers of mailer which wc call thoving f^rc.s, and of thofe alone, yet, in many cafes, this local motion is not Mcchani( obfcrved, and we only perceive certain ultimate refults ^«-^^'"> ot thofe changes ot place. Thia is the cafe (for ex- ample) in the folution of a grain cf filver in a phial of aquafortis. In tlie beginning of the experiment, the particles of filvcr are contained in a fmall fpace at the bottom of the phial ; but they are finally raifed from the bottom, and uniformly diifcmir.ated over the whole fluid. If we fix our attention fteaddy on one particle, and trace it in its whole progref«, we contemplate no- thing but a particle of matter atflcd on by moving for- ces, and yielding to their aftion. Could we ftate, fr every fttuatit.n of the particle, the direftion and inten- fity of the movir.g force by which it is impelled, we could conftrufl a figure, or a formula, which would tell us the precife diredion and velocity with which it changes its place, and we could delineate its path, and tell the time when it will arrive at that part of the velTcl where it finally reds in perfeifl equilibrium. Newton having done all this in the cafe ol bodies atfled on by the moving force called gravity, has given us a complete fy- (lem of ni'^chanical aftrononiy. The philofopher who fliallbe as fortunatein afcertainingthcpathsand motions ot the particles of filver, till the end of this experiment, will ellablUh a fylUm of the mechanical folution ot fil- ver in aqualortis; and the theorems and formulx which chataiflciife this particular moving force, or this modi- fic;ition of firce, dating the laws of vaiiation by a change of dldance, will be the complete theory of this chemical faift. It is this modification cf moving force which is ufually (but mod vaguely) called the cL'mical affinity, or the eletlive attraClion of Jilver and aqua- Jortis . But alas ! we are, as yet, far from having attained this perl'eiSlon of chemical knowledge. All that we have yet dlfcovered is, that tiie putting the bit of filver into the fplrit of fait will not give occallon to the exer- tion of this moving ftrce ; and we exprefs this c bferva- tion, by calling that unknown force (unknown, btc.iufe we are Ignorant of the law of its adion) an njfmsty, an elcBive attraflinn. And we have tbferved many fuch eleiftlcns, and have been able to clafs them, and to tell on what occafions they will or will not be exerted ; and this fcrap ot the complete theory becomes a mod valu- able acquifition, and the claflification of thofe fcraps a mod curious, and extenfive, and important fcience. The chemical philofopher lias alfo the pleafure of feeing gra- dual approaches made by ingenious men to the com- plete mechanical explanation of thefe unfeen motions and their caufes, of which he has arranged the tiltlmatc refults. The ordinary chemid, however, and even many mod acute and penetrating enquiiers, do i ot think ol" all thefe motions. Famili^irly converfant with tlie refults, they conllder them as principles, and as topics to re.i- fon from. They think a chenil;al phencinenon fufli- ciently ciplalned, when they have pointed out the afii- nity under wliicli it is arranged. Thus they alciibe the propagation cf heat to the cxpanfive nature of fire, and imagine that they conceive clearly how the cffe<f> is produced. But it a mathematicnl pkilof<phcr fliould fay, " What is this which you call an expand ve tluld ? Explain to me didiniSly, in what miinner this property whicli you call cipanfivene's operates in producing the propagation of heat." — Wc imagine that the chcmift wuuld M E C C 4f>4 ] ^-^ ^ ^' Mechanic, would find himfclf put to a ftand. He will thet., perhaps frequently fee tkofe feemingly different moving forces "^■^ ' for the firft time try to fo.m a dillaift conception of combine their influence on a fenfible reafs of tangible an exn inf.ve fluid, and its m;inner of uperation. He will niatlcr, giving it a icnhble local motion. Having torm- natnrVuv think of air, and will reflca on the manner in eJ fuch notions, we would fay that we do nut conceive which air aaually expands or occupies more room ; either the atom or the force as being iriatter, but the and he will thus contemplate local motion and mech.ni- two thus related. And we would thea fay, that what- cal orelfure H- will tind, too late, that this gives him ever objedl of contemplation dues not ultimately lead no aiEllance- becaufe the phenomena which he has us to this complex notion is immaterial; meaning br been accullort^ed to explain by the expanfivenefs of fluids the epithet nothing rnore than the negation of this par- hive no refemblance whatever to what we fee refult t.cular charaaer cf the objtft It is tciuivalent tofay. from the aflual expanfion of air. Experience has madj ing, that the phenomenon does not lead the mind to forces Mfchanici. him acquainted w'ith many effects which the air produ- ces during its expanlun; but they are of a totally dil- ferent kind from thofe which he thought that he had fufliciently explained by the expanfivenefs of tire. The only refemblance he obfervcs is, that tlie air and the heat, which were formerly perceived only in a fmall fpace, now appear in a much larger fpace. The ma- thematici.in n.-w dtfires him to tell in what manner he conceives this expanfivenefs, or this aflual expanlion the C( nfideration of an atom aifluated by a moving force ; ihat is, moved, or prevented fiom moving, by an oppofite predure or force. Such is the extenfion which tlie difcovetles of laft century have enabled us to give to the ufe of the term mechanifm, mechanical aflion, mechanichl caufe, &c. Tlie Greeks, from whom we have borrowed the term, gave it a mucli more limited meaning ; confining it to thofe motions which are jiroduced by the inter- of air or eis The chemilf is then obliged to conlider veniion of machines. Even many of the naturalifts of the air or eas as conllltin:; of atoms or particles, which the prefent day lin.it the teim to tliole motions which muft be kept in their prefent fituation by an external are the ,mm.^,«/. Cunkquences of impulfe, and which force the rrioll familiar of all to his imagination, name- are cafes ot lei.lible motion. _ Thus the chemift fays, ly, prelfure ; and all prelfures areeqaally fit. Prellure that printers ink is a iHechaiiical fluid, but that ink lor is 'a moving force, and can only be oppofed to fuch an- other moving force ; therefore expanfivenefs fuppoles, that the particles are under the influence of fomethmg which would feparate them from each other, if it were not oppofed by fomething ptrfealy of the fame h'tncL It writing is a chemical fluid We make no objeflion to the diiimiflion, becaufe chemiflry is really a vaft body of real and important fcience, although we have, as yet, been able to cljfs only very complicated phenomena, and are far fiom the kiiovvlcdge of its elements. This can by tion not be oppofed by greennefs, nor by loudnefs, nor dilln.dion made by the chemills is very clear, and very fear but only by what is competent to the produc proper to be kept in view ; but we flr uld be at a lofs 1 of motion • and it may be oppofed by any fuch tor a term to exprefs the analogy which i, perceivable natural power ; therefore by gravity, or by niagnetilm or eleflricitv, or corpufcular attraflion, or by an elec- tive attraaion. The chemift, being thus led to the contemplation of the phenomenon in its mod fimple ftate, can now judge with fome diftinflnefs, what is the betv/een thefe fenfible motiiais and the liidJen motions which obtain even in the chen:ical phenunjena, luilefs we give mechanil'm a ftill greater extenfion than the ef- feiflb of perculfion or impiillion. Mechanics, in the ancient fenfe of the word, confiders The authors wlio nature of thofe powers with which expanfivenef. can only the energy o .r^^„^, machines T be brought to cooperate or combine. And only now have treated the lubjea lyllematically, have obierved, will he be able to fpeculate on the means for explaining that all machines derive their efficacy tn-m a few limple the propagation of heat; and he will perceive, that the general laws of motion, and of the action of moving forces (doArines which we comprehended under the title of Dynamics, Suppl.) mull be reforted to for a complete explanation ot all chemical phenomena. The fame may be faid of the phenomena perceived in the forms and dilpofitions, which may be given to that piece of matter called tlie tool, 'Ofynm, or machine, which is inierpofed between the woikman or natural a- gent, and the tafk to be performed, which is always Icmething to be moved, in oppofition to refiding pref- fures. To thofe fimple forms tiiey have given the name growth ofvegetables and animals. All of them lead of mechanical powtRs, fimple powers, fimple ma- us ultimately to the contemplation of an atom, which chines. IS cbarafterlfed by being fufceptible of local motion, and req'iires for this purpofe the agency of what we call a moving force. We would dillincnifli this particular object of our The machine is interpofed for various reafrns. I. In order to enable a natural power, having a cer- tain determinate intenfity, which cannot be increafed, to balance or overcome another natural power, ading contemplation (confining of two conlVitutent parts, with a greater intenluy. For this purpofe, a piece ot the atom and the f -rcc, related, in fafl, to each other folid matter is interpofed, connefted in fuch a manner by conftant c. i iunflion) by the term mechanism. We with firm fupports, that the piellure exerted on the im- conceive it to be the charac^ei iftic of what we call mat- pelled point by the power occalions the e-xcitement of TF.R • and we would confider it as the moft fimple me- a prellure at the working point, which is equal or fu- CHANiCAL phenomenon. We are difpofed to think, perior to the relillance, anting irom the work, to the that this niovinc force is as fimple and uniform as the motion ot that point Thus, it a rod three feet long atom to which it is related ; and we would afcribe the be iupported at one foot from the end to which the re- inconceivable diverfity of the movin^ forces which we fiftance of two pounds is applied, and if a preffure of fee around us to combinations of this univerfal force ex- one pound be applied to the other end of the rod, per- erted by many atoms at once ; and therefore modified pendicular to its length, the cohefive forces whicn con- bv this combination, in the very fame manner as we nefl the particles ot the rod will all be excited, in cer- ' tain M E C [ 465 ] M E C Mcchanict. tain proportions, according to their fituaticn, arid tlie ot" the weight, ihs otlier being c.irricJ hy the hook to Meclmikt, ^■^""'"'^^ fuppoiteil point will be made to prefs on its iupport as uhirli the Handing rnpc is filtcned. This mechanical much as tliree pounds would prefs on it ; and a prelfure power does not (as is comnr.only imagined) derive i's in the oppofite direftion will be excited at the wotl.ing cfF.cacy from the piilky\ tun in,e round an axis. If it point, equal to the preilurc of two pounds. The re- were made fall, or if ihe tackl'; r( ]>c merely paflid iiftance will iherefoie be balanced, and it will be over- through a loop of the rope which carries ihc vtiehr, come by increafing tlie natural power a.5ting on the it would ftill tiquire only half of the wei"ht aifling on long divifion of tlie rod. This is called a leter. the running ro])e to bahmce it. The ufe of tiie mc tion Toothed wheels and pinions are :i perpetual fucccllion round an axis is merely to avoid a very great friflion. of levers in one machine or mechanical power. When the two hanging parts of the rope are not paral- 2. The natural power may a<fl with a certain veloci- lei, but inclined in any angle, the force necc/firy for ba- ty which cannot be changed, and the work requires to lancing the weight is to the weight as ihe fide is to the be performed with a greater velocity. A machine is diagonal of the parallelogram formed by the Jirefliors interpofed, moveable round a lixcd fupport, and the of the three ropes. Varignon calls this the funicular diftances of the impelled and working points are taken machine or power. Our failors call it the swicc. in the proportion of the two vehicities. Then are we We may employ the qunqua verfim prefi'ure of fluidi- certain, that when the power afls with its natural ve- ty with great elFcdt as a metiiaiiic power. 'I'hus in thi locity, the working point is moving with the velocity hydroltatic bellows defcribed by Giavefande 6 l/L.'-i we defire. and by Defaguilliers, the weight of a few ounces''of 3. The power may act only in one unchangeable di- water is made to raifefeveral hundied pounds. In like reftion, and the refiftance mull be overcome in another manner, Dr Wallis of Oxford, by blowint; with a pipe dire<5Hon. As when a quantity of coals mufl be brought into a bladder, raifed 64 pounds lying on it. Otto Gue- from the bottom oi a pit, and we have no power at ricke of Magdeburgh made a child balance and even command but the weight of a quantity of water. We overcome, the pull exerted by the emperor's fix coach let the water pull down one end of a lever, either im- horfes, by merely fucking the air from below a pifton. mediaiely or by a rope, and we hang the coals on the Mr Bramah, ironmonger in Piccadilly, London has other end, while the middle point is firmly fupported. lately obtained a patent for a machine a^llii"- on thij This lever may be made perpetual, by lapping the ropes principle as a prefs.* A pifton of one fourth of an inch . «. w round a cylinder which turns round an axis firmly (up- in diameter, forces water into a cylinder of 12 inches '* " ported. Thisisa FIXED PULLEY. We can fet unequal diameter, and by this intervention raifes the piQon of ia thit powers in oppofition, by lapping each rope round a tlie cylinder. A boy, afling wiih the fourth part of 'V/''- different cylinder, having the fame axis. This is a wind- his ftrength on llie fmall pirton by means of a lever LASS or GIN. All thefc forms derive their energy irom raifes 42 tons, or 94,080 libs, prefling on the "reat pi. the lever virtually contained in them. fton. Ic is very lurpridng, that this application of the Any of thefe three purpoles may be gained by the quaqua vcrfum preiTure of fluids has been overlooked for interpofition of afolid body in another way. Inftead more than a century, although the principle has beea of being fupported in one point, round which it is move- inculcated and lectured on by every iiinerant teacher able, it may be fupported by a folid path, along which and illullrated by the above mentioned experiments of it is impelled, and by its fhape it thrulls the refifting Gravefande and Wallis; nay, it has been exprelsly body out of its way. This is the cafe with the wedge taught as a mechanic power of great efficacy by the when itisemployedto fijrceupafwaggingjoift,orprels Profe/Tor of N.itural Philofophy at Edinburgh every things Qrongly together. If this wedge be lapped or feilion of the college for thele twei.ty yeais pall, but formed round an axis, it becomes a screw or a spiral he never thought of putting it in pradice. It f'orms a WIPER. This is alio the operation of the balance wheel moll compendious machine of prodigious power, and it of a horizontal or cylinder watch. Tlie oblique face fui(:eptib!e of the greatell Ibength." It the lame mul- of the tooth is a wedge, which ihrufts the edge of the tiplicatioii of power be attempted by toothed wheels cylinder out of its way. The pallet of a clock or watch pinions, and racks, it i^ fcarcely polllble to give (Irength is alio a wedge, afted on in the oppofitc direftion. enough to the teeth of the racks, and the^macl.ineW Thefe are the diQerent forms in which a folid body comes very cumberfome and of grea: expence. But is interpofed as a mechanic power. All arc reducible to Mr Bram.rh's machine may be made abundantly flront' the lever and the wedge. in very fmdll compafs. It only requires vety accuraie But there are other mechanic powers befides thofe execution. We give it all jiraife : but Mr Brain.ih is now mentioned. The carmen have a way of lowering millaken when he publillies it a« the invention or difco- a calk of liquor into a cellar, by palling a rope under veiy of a new mechanic power: for it h ts beeu fami- it, making the end fait to fome Hake dole to the liar to every Ihidcnt of mechanics and hydroHatics ever ground, and bringing the other end of the rope round fince B .yL's lirll publication of his hydrollatic para- thc cafk, and thus letting it flip down in the bight (if doxes. theroje. In this procefs they feci but half of Its weight, MECHOACAN, an Epifcopal city and capital of the other hall being fupported by the end of the rope the province o{ ns name, lituaied mi a laigc river, well that is falleneil to the flake. This is called a par- floredwith filli, near the well tide of a like, ab ut 120 BUCKLE by the fcamen. A hanging pulley is quite the mile» well of Mexico. It is a laige place, h.iving a fame with this more arilel» method. Tiie weight fine cathedral and handfomt lioulei belon,;ing to rich hangs by the axis of the pulley, anil each half of the S,ianMrd.s who own the iihcr mines at Guanaxoato or hanging rope carries halt of the weight, and the perfon Guaxafiata. — Morie. who pulls one of them upwards a&s only againll half MECKLENBURG, a county of Virginia, bound- SutPL. Vol. II. 3 N ed MED C 466 ] MED burg, 8 M:dlci. ed fi.utli by \ha State ot" N. Carolin.i. It contains 1^,733 inhabitant?, ot" whom 6,762 are (laves. — ii. Mecklenburg, a cininly ot ]\'orthC'jiolina, in Salifbury Jiftrit^, bounded iV.iith by tlie State of S. Carolina. It contains 11,395 inhabitants, of whom 1,60; are flave";. Cliief town, C!);»ilotte. — 16. MECOWDANISH, a Like in N. America, in 49" N lat.— ;i. MEDFIELD, a tnwnfiiip in Norfolk county, Maf- fachufetts, 20 miles foutli-wellerly ol Boflon. It was incorporated in 1650, and contains 731 inhabitants. — /i. MF.DFORD, a pleafant, thriving, compaft town in MiJdlel'ex county, Mairachulelts, 4 miles north < f Bnllon, fimatcd on Myllick river, 3 miles from its mouth. Hero are fcveral diilillcries and brick wcrks which give employment to a cc nlidcrible number ot people. The river is navigable for fmail vellels to this place. The townlhip was incorporated in 1630, and contains 1,029 inhabitants, who are noted for their in- dullry. — ik MEDICAL Jurisprudence. See Msdici.va Fo- renfit in this Suppl. MEDICI, is the name of an illuftrious family in Flo- rence, which contributed more than perhaps any other family whatever to the revival of letters in Europe. To trace this family from its origin, or even to give bio- graphical (ketches of all the great men whom it produ- ced, would occupy by far too great a part of our work ; for, during feme centurie?, almoll every individual of the houie of Medici was dillingnillied amcng his con- temporaries. That houfe, after having rendered itfelf memorable in the annals of Florence, tor oppofing the encroachments of the nobles on the liberties c-f the people, had loft much of its influence under the arifto- cratic government of the Albizi, when it was raifed to a rank fiiperior to what it had ever held, by Giuvanni d: Mf.dsci, who was born in the year i3f>o. This man determined to rellore his family to fplendour ; but, confcioiis of his critical fituation, furrcunded as he was by powerful rivals and enemies, he atftifled ra- ther a fecure privacy than a dangerous popularity. E- ven when raifed to the office of gonfalonier, or genera- lidinio of the republic, he carefully avoided any defire of partaking in the magirtracy, and feemed to be entirely engroiled by merchandize, which he extended from the Eall throughout Europe. This conduft, as on one hand it threw his enemies off their guard, on the other, enabled him to acquire an immenfe fortune, of which lie made a proper difpofition amongft all ranks of people. Many, even of the ruling party, either gained by his liberality, or pleafed with his amiable and retired con- duft, propofed to the feignioiy to admit him into the magiflracy ; and though the propofal met with great oppofition, it was carried in the affirmative. It was by rafhly declaring for the plebeians againfl the nibles that an anccllor of Giovanni's had loft to Ills family their rank in the ftate. Giovanni, refulving not to fpUt on the fame rock, continued to afTeiff priva- cy and retirement, accepting any office in the ftate with the utmoft appearance of reluiflance, and never attend- ing at the Palazzo, unlefs p.articularly fent for by the fetgniory. Rifing by thefe means in the efteem of the people, his enemies became, of courfe, unpopular ; and Medici, having obtained a decided fuperiority over liis opp». "— "^-""^ nents, he now ventured to procure, that lh<.fe taxes which the nobles had cxadtcd with the utmoft feverity and partiality fiom the people alone, Ihould be levied upon the two firft order-, in common with the plebei- ans : and that a law (hould be ordained, by which per- fonal property might be taxed. The nobles feeing, with the deepeft concern, their confequence fo fcnfibly wounded, and their power fo much diminiftied, htld feveral conliiltations in private how they niiglit effcft his ruin ; but their want ot una- niiiiity prevented any thing decilive from being carried into execution. The people, alarmed lor the fifety of their leader and patron, offered him the fovereignty, which his relations and friends urged him to accept ; but this hii prudence forbad him to take, as with the title of lord he would have gained alfo that of t)rant. Thus, by his fmgular prudence, he died polfeficd of all the puwer of the ftate, with the aftcftaticn of l-eing the molt dilintererted citizen in the commonwealth. His death happened in the year 142S. Giovanni was graceful in his perfon, and his afTabili- ty to all eftabliflied his charai.1er for moderation. His extenfive knowledge and pleafantry made his company eageily fought. As all his acflions were placid and fe- rene, he was not in want of tiiat trumpet of fedition, popular declamation, which he never attempted. Much to his honour, his elevarii n was not procured even by the banilhment ot a fingle individual ; a circumftance until then unknown in Florence, where every new ad- miniftratii n was marked with the ru;n of families, and by fcaiT'ilds ftained wah blood. " The maxims (fiys Mr Rofcoe) which, uniformly purfued, railed the houfe of Medici to the fplendour which it afterwards enjoyed, are to be found in the charge given by this veneratilc old man, on his death- bed, to his two tons Cofmo and Lorenzo. « I feel (faid he) that I have lived the time prelcrihed me. I die content, leaving you, my fons, in affluence and in health, and in luch a ftation, that, whilft yiu follow my example, you may live in your native place honoured and refpedled. jN'othing affords me mure pleafure than the refledion, that my conduc't has given offence to no one ; but that, on the contrary, I have endeavoured to fcrve all perfons to the bell of my abilities. I advife you to do the fame. With refpecl to the honours of the ftate, if you would live with fecurity, accept only fuch as are bsftowed on you by the laws, and the fa- vour of your (ellow-ci'izens ; for it is the exercile of that power which is obtained by violence, and not of that wliich is voluntarily given, that occafions hatred and contention." Medici (Cofmo de), the eldeft fon of the preceding, was born in 1389. During the life-time ot his father, he had engaged hirnfelt deeply, not only in the exten- five commeice by which the family had acquired its wealth, but in the weightier matters of government. When Giovanni di-d he was in the prime of life ; and though his complex on was fwarihy, he had an agree- able perfon, was well made, ol a proper ftature, and In converfatlon united a happy intermixture of gravity with occafional faUIes of pleafantry and repartee. His conduit was uniformly marked by urbanity and klnd- nsfs MED C 4^>7 ] MED Medic!, nefs to the fuperior ranks of his fellow-citizens, and by ^■■^~-'~'*^ a conftant attcnlion to the interefts and the wants of the lower clafs, whom he relieved with unbounded ge- nerofiiy. 15y thele means he acquired numerous and zealous partizans of every denomination ; but he rallicr confidered them as pledfijes for the continuance of the power which he poirtlied, than as inftrumenls to be employed in extending it to the ruin and fubjugation of the Hate. An intcrcliange of reciprocal good offices was the only tie by which the Florentines and the Me- dici were bound ; and perhaps the long continuance of this connexion may be attributed to the very circum- Ilaiice of its being in the power of either of the parties at any time to have dilflved it. J5ut the piudence and moderatiin of Cofmo could not reprefs the ambitious dciigns of tholi; rival families, who wiflied 10 pofl'ifs or to fliare his authority. In the year 1433, Rinaldo de Albizi, at the head of a power- ful party, cartied the appointment of t))e magillracy. At that time Cnfmo had withdrawn to his feat in the country, to avtid the dirturbances which he law likely to enfue ; but at the recjueft of hia friends he teiurncd to Florence, where he was led to cxped fucli a union of parties, as might at leaft preferve the peace of the city. No fooncr did he make his appeaiawce in the pa- lace, where bis prefence had been rcquelled, on pre- tence of his being intended to Ihare in the adminiflra- tion of the republic, than he was feized upon by his ad- verfaries, and committed to prilbn. The confpirators were divided in their opinions as to the difpofal of their prifoner. Molt of them inclined to follow the advice of Peruzzi, who recommended ta- king him off by poifon. Cofmo, confined in the Al- berzeitiiio, a room in one of the turrets of the Palazzo, could hear this dreadful confultation, which was deter- mining, not in what manner he fliould be tried, but in what manner he Ihould be put to death ; and finding that he was to die by an infufion of poifon fecretly ad- minirtered to him, a fmall portion of bread was the only food which he thought proper to take. Cofmo lived in this manner four days ; and, (hut up from all his kindred and friends, he foon expefted to be numbered with the dead ; but here, as it fometimes happens, he found relief where lead e.\pefted, from the man who had been engaged to take him off. Malavol- ta, the keeper of the prifon, either from compunflion, diflatisfaflion, or the youth and mi'fortunes of the il- luftrious I'uJferer, relented ; and inftead of purfuing any criminal intentions againft the life of Cofmo, after up- braiding him with entertaining fo unworthy an opinion of him, declared that his fears were entirely groundlefs. To convince him of tliis, he fat down, and partook of every thing the prifoner chofe to eat of. The expref- fions of gtatituJe, together with his moft engaging manners, and great promifes, entirely won Malavolra, who, to ingratiate himfelf ftill farther in the good opi- nion of Colmo, invited Fargaccio, the moll celebrated wit in Florence, to dine with him tlie next day, from the idc.i that his fprightly mirth would contribute to lighten his misfortunes. In tlie mean time, his brother Lorenzo, and liis cou- fin Avcr.irdo, having raifed aconlidcrablo body of men in Rom:igna and other neighbouring dillri"s, snd be- ing joined by the commander rf the troops of the re- public, approached towards Florence to his lelicf. The apprthenfion, however, that the life of Cofmo might be endangered, if they fhould proceed to open violence, induced them to aband-in their enterprife. At lengih Rinaldo and his adherents obtained a decree of the ma- gillracy, by which Cofmo was baiii(li<:d to I'adna for ten years, his brother to Venice for five years ; and fe- veral of tlielr relations and adherents Iharcd the fame fate. Cofmo received this determination of his judges with a compnfure that gained him the compaffion and the ad- miration of many of his mod inveterate enemies. He would ghdiy have left the city purfuant to his fentence ; but he was detained by his enemies till thtir authority (lioiild be eftabliflied : and it was not till he thought of bribing the gonfalonier, and another creature of Rinal- do's, that he was privately taken from his confinement, and conducted out of Florence. Padua, to which he was confined by his fentence, was in tlie dominions of Venice; but before he could reach that place, he received a deputation from the fe- nate, the purport of w hich was to condole with him for his mislortunes, and to promifehim their proteflionand afhllance in whatever he (hould defire. He experienced the treatment of a prince rather than that of an exile. Nc r were that wife people without good re ifons for fuch a conduit. Venice had long regarded Florence as her ri- val in commerce, and hoped, by conferring upon Cofmo the mofl. flattering dillincflions, to prevail upon him to re- fide there in future ; prudently fuppofing, that the ma- nufaiftories of Florence, and the great commerce the Medici had carried on throughout Italy, and extended far beyond it to the wealthieft kingdoms in Europe, would become their own by enrolling him aniongfl. their fubjefts. The readinefs with which Cofmo had given way to the temporary clamour raifed againft him, and the rc- luflance which he had fhewn to renew thofe rencoun- ters which had fo often deluged the flrects of Florence with blood, gained him new friends, even during his ex- ile. The utmoft exertions of his antagonills could not long prevent the choice of fuch magillrates as were known to be attached to the caufe of ihc Medici ; and no fooner did they enter on their ofHce, than Cofmo and his brother were recalled, and Rinaldo with his ad- herents were compelled to quit the city. This event took place about a year after the banifiiment of Cjfrao. The fubfequent conduifl of this great man (for great all allow him to have been) has been painted in diffe- rent colours by different writers. Mr Noble, after Ma- chiavel, compares his cruelties to hit fallen foes with thofe oi Sylla and Oflavius to the partizans of Marius and Cruius ; whilll Rofcoe reprefents his conduc't as in a high degree amiable and generous. It appears to us evident, from his own words, that he had cxercifed fome cruelties on his exiled enemies ; fnr when one of them wrote to him, that " the hen was hatching," he replied " She will have but a bad time of it, fo tar from her neft." When fome otiier exiles acquainted him that " they were not afleep," he anfweicd, " lie c u.d eafily believe that, lor he thought he had fp liltd ihe'i lleep- ing." At another time, fome rf the ritizcuiremotillrat- ed with him upon the odioufnefs of his conduit in ba- nilhing fo many perfons ; telling him, " the republic would be extremely weakened, and G. d offended, by the expulfion of fo many good and pious men as he was 3 N J fend- Mcdir MED [ 468 ] MED Medici, fending into banilhment." His anfwer was, " It would '"^'^^'^^ be better for the republic to be weakened than utterly ruined ; that two or three yards of fine cloth made many .1 one look like a good man ; but that ftates w'ere not to be governed or maintained by counting a lliing of beads, and mumbling over a few Pater ivjicrs." From this time the life of Cofmo de Medici was an almoll uninterrupted ferics of profperity. His misfor- tunes h.'.d taught him, that the affectation of grandeur is more dingeroui in a lice llate than ufurpation. He adopted, therelure, the drefs, behaviour, and manners, of a private citizen. His clothes were of the fame fafliion and mateiials as the reft of the Florentines. In the llrcets he walked alone and unguarded. His table was iupplled from wliat his cftate of Mugello produced, nor had he one fervant more than was abfilutely necef- fary ; thus enJeavnuiing to unite the charaifler of a prince with that of a merchant, and a private perfon in a republic. Whilft he rejefled all offices in the magiflracy, no bufmels was tranfafted without its being firll fettled at Mugello: nor did he contrail any alliances but with the fons and daughters of the citizens of Florence ; yet all foieign princes and courts paid his children tlie re- fped due only to thofc of fovereigns ; and the family »)f Colmo received educations equal to thofc of the greateft potentates. A proper judgment may be formed of his immenie traffic, and the prodigious advantages accruing from it : For though a private citizen of Florence only, yet lie poffeifed at one time mote money than what was in all the treafuiies of the different fovereigns in Europe. When Allonfo king of Naples leagued with the Vene- tians againft Florence, Cofmo called in fuch inimenfe debts from thofe places, as dep;ived them of relouices for canyiiig on the war. During the contell between the houles of York and Lancaller, he turnillied Ed- ward IV. with a fnm of money to great, that it might almoft be conliJered as the means of fupporting that rnonarcli on the throne. In his public and private charities, in the number and grandeur of the edifices he ereifled, not only in Florence, but in the moll diftant parts of the world, ai;d in the foundations which he endowed, lie feenied to more than vie with majefty. He fupplied moll ot the exigencies of the llate from his private purfe ; and there were lew citizens that had not experienced his liberali- ty, and many without the lead application, particularly the nobles. lint in nothing did his munificence produce fi much good to the world, or acquire fucli honimr to himfelf, as when it was exerted for the pi omotion of fcience, and the encouragement of learned men ; and upon nothing did Cofmo delight fo much to exert it. The ftudy of the Greek language had been introduced into Italy to- wards the latter part of the preceding century ; but it had again fallen into negleift. After a fliort interval, an attempt was made to revive it, by the intervention of Ematiuel Chryfoloras , a noble Greek, who taught that language at Florence, and other cities of Italy, a- bout the beginning of the ijih centiiry. His difciples, who were numerous and refpedable, kept the flame alive till it received new aid from other learned Greeks, who v.eie driven from Conftantinople by the dread of the Turks, or by the total oveithrow of tlie Eailern Empire. To thefe illuflrious foreigners, as well at to Medici; the learned Italians, who fhortly became their fuccefsful ^o^""'''^" rivals, even in the knowledge of their national hiflory and language, Cofmo afforded the mofl liberal fupport and proteifiion. The very liik-s of the works of an- cient authors, which were bri ught to light by his mu- nificence, would extend this article beyond its proper li- mits. Such, indeed, was the eflimation in which ihefe works were then held in Italy, that a manuftript of the hillory of Livy, fent by Cofmo de Medici to Alfonfo king of Naples, with whom he was at variance, conci- liated the breach between them. As the natural difpolition of Cofmo led him to take an aclive part in collcdling the remains of the ancient Greek and Roman writers, fo he was enabled by his wealth, and by his extenfive mercantile intercourfe with different parts of Europe and nf Alia, to gratify a pallioa of this kind beyond any other individual. To this end belaid injunflions on all his friends and correfpondents, as well as on the millionaries and preachers who travel- led into the remotell countries, to fearch for and pro- cure ancient manufciipts, in every language, and on every fubjtfl. The lituation of the Eaflern Empire, then falling into ruins, afforded him an opportunity of obtaining many ineftimahle works in the Hebrew, Greek, Chaldaic, Arabic, and other eaflern languages. From thefe beginnings arofe the celebrated library of the Medici ; which, aflervarious vicifTitudes of fortune, and frequent and conliderable additions, has been pre- ferved to the prefent times under the name of the Bibiia:heca Midiceo Laurcntiana . Nor was Cofmo a mere colleflor of books, he was himfelf, even in old age, a laborious ftudent. Having been flruck with the fublime fpeculations of Plato, which he had heard detailed in leftures by a Greek monk, who had come from Conflantinople to the coun- cil of Florence, he detci mined to found an academy for the cultivation (f that philofbphy. For this purpnfe he feleded Marlilio Ficino, the fon of his favourite phyfi- cian, and delfined him, though very young, to be the fupport of iiis I'uiure etlablifhment. The education of Ficino was entirely direded to the Platonic philofophy ; nor were the expeiSations which Cofmo had formed of him dilappointed. The Florentine academy was feme years afterwards eflablillied with great credit, and was the firll inllitution in Europe for the purfuit of fcience, detached from the fcholallic method then univerfally adopted. It is true, the fanciful dotflrines ot Plato are as remote from the purpol'es of life as the fubtleties of Arillotle ; but, by dividing the attention of the learned between them, the dogmas of the Stagyrite were depri- ved of that lervile refpeil which had fo long been paid to them, and men learned by degrees to think forthem- felves. The foflering hand of Cofmo was held out to art as well as to fcience ; and architedlure, fcnlpture, and painting, all flourilhed under his powerful protedicn. The countenance fhewn by him to thefe arts was not fuch as their profellurs generally receive from the great. It was not conceded as a bounty, nor received as a fa- vour, but appeared in the friendfhip and equality that fublilted between the artilt and his patmn ; and the fums of money, which Cofmo expended on piiftures, fla- tues, and public buildings, appear alnioft inci edible. Cofmo now approached the peiiod of his mortal ex- iftence: MED [ 469 3 MED Meiid. iftence : but the faculties of his mind remained unim- ^-'"'^^^^ paired. About twenty days before he died, he Tent for Ficlno, and enjoined him to tranflnte from the Greek the Ireaiife of Xenocrates on death. Calling into his chamber his wife and his fon Piero, he entered into a narrative of all his public tranfacftions ; in which he gave a full account of his extenlive mercantile conneilions, and adverted to the (late of his domeftic concerns. To Piero he reconmiended a Ihift attention to the educa- tion of his (ons ; and requeued, that his funeral might be conduced with as mudi privacy as polTible. He died on the firft of Auguft 14O4. at the age of 75 years, deeply lamented by a great majoiity of the citi- zens of Floience. Their efteem and gratitude had in- deed been fully (hewn fome time before, when, by a public decree, he was honoured v.'ith the title ni Pater Palrix,^n appellation which was infcribed on his tomb; and which, as it wis founded, fays Rofcoe, on real me- rit, has ever lince been attached to the name ot Cofmo de Medici. Medici (Lorenzo de), juftly ftyled the magnificent, was tlie grandfnn of Cofmo, and about 16 years of age when his grandfather died. His father Piero de Medi- ci, though polfelFed of more than ordinary talent', as well as of a very confiderable (hare of worth, was, from various circumllances, little qualified to maintain the in- Huence which his family had gained in the republic of Florence. From very early life he had been tortured by the gout ; and almoft uninterrupted pain had made him peevifh. Such a difpolition was not calculated to retain the affedions of the giddy Florentines, or to per- fuade republicans that they wore free, while they lub- niitted to the government of a lingle individual. All this Cofmo had fcirefeen, and had done what wifdom coidd do to preferve to his family that afcendency in the republic which he had himfelf acquired. He ex- horted Piero to beftow the utmoll care on the educa- tion of his fons, of whole capacity he expred'ed a high opinion ; he recommended to him Diolifalvo Neroni, a man whom he had himfelf raifed fnmi obfcurity to an eminent rank, as a counfellor, in whofe wifdom and fide- lity be mii;ht place the utmoll conliJence : and to bind the i; habitants of Florence to the iioufe of Medici by the (trongcft of all ties, he had dillribiiteJ among them, under tlie denomination of loans, inimenfefums, which he knew they would not fion be able to repay. Piero paid the utmoft deference to the dying injunc- tions of his lather. He had himfelf an ardent love ol letters ; and under the eye of the venerable Cofmo, he hid given his two f ns, Loren/.o and Juliano, the bell poQible domertic education. In the Greek language, in ctl ics, and in the principles of the Arillotelian plii- lofophy, Lorenzo, the cldell, had the advantage of the precepts of the learned Argyropylus (a), and in thofe of the Platonic feet he was feduloully inllruifled by M.irlilio Ficino (fee FiciNUS, Eiicycl.) ; but tor his mod valu.iblo accomplifhments he was not indebted to any preceptor. To complete his education, however, ic was judged expedient that he Ihould vilit fome of the ptincipai courts of Italy ; and very foon alter the death of his grandfather, he repaired to Rome, Bologna, Fer- Medici, rara, Venice, and Milan, where he gained the efteem of '~^"^''^* all whofe efteem was of value. Thus attentive was Piero to the advice of his father with refped to the education of his eldeft fon ; nor was he lefs attentive to it in the choice of his principal coun- fellor. He intrufted the whole of his affairs into the hands of Neroni, and gave him Cofmo's accounts to perufe and fettle. That ambition, which perhaps had lain lurking in this man's mind, was now called forth, and he bafely formed the fcheme of ruining the fon of his patron, by building upon his misfortunes his own future grandeur. For this purpofe, he lamented the ab.*!)- lute neceftity there was for an immediate call upon thofe who were indebted to Piero as Cofmo's reprefentative; telling him, that a delay might fuljjei.^ him to the gieat- ell inconveniences. Piero confeiued, though with re- ludance, to liis fuppofed friend's advice. The refuk was fuch as Neroni expelled. Thofe who were friends of the father became enemies of the fon ; and had not Piero dlfc'vered the fnarf, and delifted from fuch ri- gorous psoceedings, he iriight have found, when too late, that in lupporting the charaiSer of the merchant, he had forgotten that of the ftatefman ; for all the ci- tizens of Florence were his debtors. Soon after this, an attempt was made to afT.ftinate Piero, by a powerful party wkich had always been ini- mical to the hcufe of Medici ; but it was defeated by Lorenzo, who difplayed on that occafion a fagacity and prompitude of mind wliicli would have done honour to the oldeft ftatefman. Afewot the confpirators were declared enemies to the ftate, and condemned to baniHi- ment ; but by far the greater part of them were par- doned on the felicitation of Lorenzo, who declared, that "he only knows how to conqner, who knows how to forgive." In the year 1469 Piero de Medici died ; and Lo- renzo fucceed to his authority as if it had been a part of his patrimony, being requefted by the principal in- habitants of Florence, that he would take upon himfelf the adminiftration ot the republic in the fame manner that his grandfather and father had done. In the month of December 1470, a league was fo- lemnly concluded between the pope, the king of Naples, the duke of Milan, and the Florentines, againft Maho- met II. who had vowed not to lay down his arms till he had abolilhtd the religion of Chrift, and extirpated all his followers. The pope, however (Paul 11.), died on the 26th of July 147 1 j and Sixtus IV. fucceeding to the chair of St Peter, Lorenzo was deputed from Florence to congratulate him on his elevation. Two more oppolite ch^raiflers can hardly lie conceived than thofe of Sixtus and Lorenzo. The former was cruel, treacherous, and fordid ; the latter was merciful, can- did, and generous. Yet fuch inflancesof mutual good will took place between them on this occafion, that Lo- renzo, who, under the diredlon of his agents, had a bank eftablilhed at Rome, was formally invefled with the ofHcc of treafurer of the Holy Sec. Pifa had been under the dominion of Florence from the (a) This man had fled fromConftantinople, when it was taken by the Turks, to Florence, where he was pro- tedled by Cofmo ds Medici. MED [ 470 ] MED Medici, the year 1406, and it had acquired fome celebiitj- on ^■''"^^""*^ account ot its academy, which had exilkd almoll two centuries. That academy, however, had fallen into de- cay ; and, in the year 1472, the Floieiitincs rciblved to reftore it to its prilHiie I'plendour. Five citizens, of whom Lorenr.o de Medici was one, were appointed to fuperintend the execution of their jjurpofe ; but Lo- renzo, who was the projefior ot the plan, undertook the chief nianagcincnt of it ; and, in addition to 6000 florins annually granted by the Hate, expended, in ef- feding his purpofe, a large fum of money Irom his pri- vate fortune. In doing this, he only imitated the ex- ample of his father and grandfather ; for in the courfe of 37 years, reckoning irom the return ol Cofmo from banilhment, tliis illultrious family had expended on woiksof charity or jiuhlic utility upwards of 660,000 florins. " Some perfons (faid Lorenzo) would perhaps be better pleafed to have a part of it in their purfe ; but I conceive that it has been of great advantage to the public, and well laid out, and am therefore perfe<ft- \y fatisfied." In the year 14741 Lorenzo incurred the difpleafure of the pope for oppofing fome ot his encroaclinients on the petty princes of Italy ; and the revenge planned by Sixtus was of fuch a nature as would have difgraced, we do not fay a Chriftian bilhop, but the ruded favage. He began by depriving Lorenzo ol the office of trea- furer of the Roman See, which he gave to the Pazzi, a Florentine family, who as well as the Medici, had a public bank at Rome. By this ftep he fecured the in- tereftof the Pazzi, who, it is probable, were to govern Florence under the pope, when Lorenzo and Juliano de Medici Ihould be cut olF, and their friends and adhe- rents driven from the republic. The principal agent engaged in the undertaking was Franfcfco Salvi.ui arch- bilhop of PIfa, to which rank he had lately been pro- moted by Sixlus, in oppofition to the wilhes of the Me- dici. The other conlpirators were Giacopo Salviati, brother to the archbifliop ; Giacopo Poggio, one of the fons of the celebrated Poggio Bracciolini i^fee Poggi- us, Encycl.); Barnardo Bandini, a daring libertine, rendered defperate by the confequence ot his txcefles ; Giovanni Battilli Moniefrcco, who had dlllinguifhed himfclf as general of tlie pope's armies ; Antonio Maf- fei, a priell of Volterra ; and Stephano de Bagnona, one of the apoilulic fcribes ; with feveral others of inferior note. The cardinal Riario, then at Pifa, was likewife an inftrument in the confpiracy ; but he can hardly be confidered as an agent, for he was kept ignorant of what was going on, and enjoined only to obey whatever direflions he might receive trom the archbilhop of Pifa. The aflaflination of the illuftrious youths was fixed for Sunday, April 26. 1478; the place the cathedral of Florence, at the moment the hoft was to be elevated ; and their murder was to be the fignal for feizing and ex- pelling from the walls of the city all their relations and friends. What a tranfadlon this for one who prefumed to llyle himfelf the vicar of Chrill, the common father ol ChiirteiiJom, to patronize ! The fatal day arrived, and Lorenzo was already in the church ; but Jtiliano remained at hoine, occafionct! M»tlicl. by a flight ifidifpofitlon. The confpirators, determining ""^"""''^ not to lol'e one of their viiflims, went to invite, to in- treat him, to go. They embraced (b), and led him, by a tender violence, to the cathedral. The fignal was given by the elevation of the confecratcd wafer ; and whilll the people fell upon their knees to adore, the alfafllns rofe, and. as was conceited, two ot them, Fran- cifco Pazzi and Barnardo Bandini, fell upon Juliano. The latter diicded his pnignard fo truly, that it enter- ed into the bofom ot the unoffending youth, and iie fell mortally wounded at his feet. In a moment, as muft be fuppofed, all was confufion. Lorenzo, alarmed, put himfelf in a polUire oi defence, when, in an inftant, Antonio of Volterra, and Stepha- no a prieft, tlie dependant of the archbilliop, who, upon Giovanni Battilli's declining the infamous talk, under- took his deIlru(flion, ruthed upon him as their deltlned prey. The contcd continued fome time. Lorenzo had received a wound in his neck, and feemed to cntend for his life in vain ; but a fervant, whom he had lately relieved from pjifon, infpired by gratitude, heroically threw himfelf between his beloved lord and his aflaflins receiving in his body thofe weapons that were aimed at the breaft of Lorenzo. This fidelity faved him ; for by one vigorous effort he broke from Antonio and Ste- phano, and with a few friends rufhcd into the facrifty, fhutting the doors behind them, which were of brafs. Apprelienfions being entertained, that the weapon which had wounded him was poifoned, a young man fucked the wound, endangering his own life to fave that ot Lorenzo. The rage of the people to fee one of their favourites expiring, and the other covered with blood, was inex- prefllble. The cardinal Riario found it diflicnlt to fave his life at that altar wliich he had ftained by fo horrid a deed, and to which he then fled for proteAion. Whilll this infamous i'cene was aiSing in the cathe- dral, others of the confpirators were attempting to feize the Palazzo ; but with no better fuccefs. The arch- bilhop Salviatti, who had undertaken to head them, gave the magiftrates fufpicion by thofe violent emotions which agitated his whole frame. The nine fenators who compofed the magillracy, including the gonfalo- nier, who had been appointed by, and were, in other words, the privy council ot the Medici, immediately at- tacked thole who intended to have fiirprifed them ; and Salviatti and his followers had no fooner gained the fe- cond floor, than they found tliemfelves prifonerf. Jacobo Pazzi foon appeal ed in the flreet, proclaim- ing, with exultation, the murder ol Juliano ; and invi- ting the Florentines to free themlclves from the Medi- cean flavery ; but perceiving that he was not joined by the people, the magiftrates fent off 100 horfe to the ref- ctie of Lorenzo. 'J'his was the more to be commended, becaufe they continued to be alurulted by the confpira- tors, who, finding their fituation defperate, forced them- felves to the ground floor, determining, if poffible, to feize the Palazzo. The magiftrates, with their atten- dants, afted with fuch refolution and valour, that as of- ten (b) The affaffins embraced Juliano, to difcover whether he wore any fecret armour, that ibey might know where to ftrike with the fureft aim. MED C 47» ] MED Medici. ten as they gained an entrance, they drove them back, tions which then prevailed of the farftity of the pope, Medi( ''^^'"^*' icilling fomeof the alTailants upon the fpot, others they and the plcntitude of his power, it is needlefs to inquire- '-^""'^ threw out of the windows upon the pavement; and to l>ut the reader will n't be furpriftd thatthe prelates, who ftrike an awe into thofe ihat were without, they had the made ufe of it, piid no regard to the inrerdifl of Slxtiis. boldnels and viruie to hang the archbifhop from one of The pontilf, however, did not relax from his purpofe. the windows, dietfed as he was in his pontifical robes, Wiiiilt he brandifhed with one hand the fpiritual wea- ■with Poggif", another of the chief confpirators. Flo- pon, which the Fl-'reniines treated with fuch contempt rence relounded in every part with the exclamation — in the other, hegr fped a temporal fword, which he now Medici, Medici ! down wiih their enemies ! openly, as he had before fccretly, aimed at the bread L< rtnzp was liberated from that part of the cathe- of Loienzo. At his inQigation the king of Naples dral to which he had fled, and cnnveyed home in trl- difpatched an er.voy to Florence, to require the citizens umph, wheie his weunds were attended to, and where t" bandh Lorenzo from the Tufcan territories, if th.ey he found himfell lurroundedbyhisrnoll valuable (rlends, would not ircur the ver.!;,.-ance both of him and of the to whom he wa-; endeared by the fliocking occurrences pope. Thele threats produced not the intended effeifl • of the day. Hi> partizans however, did not /pend *or the Florentines avowed ihelr firm ref lution to fuf. their time only in lamentations tor the death of one of fer every extremity, rather than betray the man whom the bro;hers, and exultations for the preleivaiion of the they confidered as guardian of the republx. War other; they united in purfuing the confpirators, fpa- therefore was commenced ; and the republic was on the ring none that fell into their bauds. Jacobo Pazzi was point of being ruined, when Lorenzo 'aking advantage taken flyirg with his forces into Rotiianij, and immc- of a truce, threw himfelf, with a refoUnion not to be diately hung. An oflicer of the pope';-, who cc mniand- equalled, into the hands of the king of Naples. He cd a brigade under court Hirronimo, had alone the fa- judged, peihap,, that any ftipulations for his perfonal vour of decapitation. Bandini fled piivatcly to Pifa, fafety would be ufelefs with a prince who had fported thence to Naples, and, lattly, to Conllantinople ; but wi'-h honour, jurtice, mercy, and the moll f)lemn trea- Mahomet, to oblige Lorenzo, feized, and ftnt him back; ties. But, wtiilll all viewed him as a viiflim who had and he was hung out of the fame window from which devoted himfelf to fave his country, he, by perf'uafive thearchbifhophad fufFercd. An embaffy was tent from eloquence, obtained of this crufty perfidious monarch a Florence to thank the fultan in the name of die republic, feparate peace, and returned to Florence crowned with Throughout the whole of this jnll but dreadful re- a luccefs that no one thought pi>(rible, and where he tribution, Lorenzo had exerted ail his influence to re- ^"*' received as its tutelar deity. The pope, however ftraiu the indignation of the populace. He entreated continued inflexible, till a delcent of the Turks upon that they would refign to the magitirates the i.dk of Italy icitored him to his f;nfe5, and made him willing afcertaining and of punilhing the guilty, left the inno- to receive the fubmiffion c( Florence, and reconcile its cent fhould be incaulioufly involved in dellructlon; and inhabitants to the church. his appearance and admonitions h. id an init intaneous ef- Soon aftsr the termination of the hoftilitics between fe<fl. By his moderation, and even kindnefs to the re- Sixtus and the republic of Florence, Lorenzo began to lalivcs of the confpirators, he A ught to obliterate the unfold plans for I'ecuring the peace of Italy, which con- remembrance of pali dillurbances j and by his inierfe- '^r the higheft honour on his political life. To ccun- rcncc, even the furvivnrs of the Pazzi were lellored to terpnife all the jarring interells of the petty ftates of their hoii ur<., of which they had been deprived by a de- which that country was compofeJ, to reflrain the creo of the ftate. powerful, fucccur the weak, and to unite the whole in The generofity and moderation of Lorenzo had no 0"e tirrn body which might be able, on the one hard, effedf on the temper of Sxtut, who folemnly excommu- luccefsfully to oppole the formidable piwer of the nicated him, the gonfalonrtr, tl;e magillrates, and their Turks, and, on the other, to rtpel th.- incurfions of immediate fucctlUrs; and i- the hu 1 which he ill'ucd the French and Germ.ins, were the important ends on this occafion, he ftyles Lorenzo de Medici " the which this great man propoled to accomplilb. But child of iniquity, and the nuril ng of perdition !" Not before he engai,-ed in thele mcm.cntous underakings, he content with this ebuUi-ion of 'elcntment, he fufprnd^d had lurihtr perfonal dangers to encounter. By the in- the bilhops and clcigy of the Florentine territories from Higation of Cardinal Riario, and feme Florentine exiles, the exercife of their fpiritual Iuni5li..ns; thus laying the ""« Battilla Fr.ilcobaldi, with only two aflillant?, un- whole republic under an interdKl. 'J'his hi<l been a dertook to affalliiiate him in the church of the Carmelr, forniidahle weapon in the hands of his prcdecelTTs, who o" 'he felfival of the afcenfion 1481 ; but the plot was had, by mcan^ of it, overawed the moft powerful mo- oilcovercd, the confpirators executed, and Li renzo narchs; but the general chtracter of Sixtus was lb in- li<:"ce'orth feldom went abroad without being furround- famous, and his piefent ii.julVice lb manilell, that by ed by a number cf tried friends. the exertions of the bilhop of Arezzo, a convocation Lorenz.) was now at liberty to profecuts his bene- was held in the c <thcdral church of Florence, in which volent purpofes ; and after contributing to the expulfion Sixiiis was acculed oi fornicallon anu tiJulUry, with other of the » ui ks from Italy, he fct himfelf in good earnell infamous vice- ; declared to be the principal inlligator to lupport the wtik ftatcs againft the encroachments of the confpiracy again!! the Medici, and the fcntence of the more poweiful. This necefTarily embroiled t: e of excommunication which he had tulnilnited afiainll republic at one time with the pope, at another with Lorenzo and the Florentine m.iglllrates was cillcd in the king of Naples ; now wr.h the Vene.ian.-, and then direft -rrms, the " execr.iblc malcdi.aion ot a d.mined with the Diike of Mian; but when feme exclaimed 'yi'^'^t (malfdULim mnleaiaionem diimniilijfimi judicit) ! againll liun as being too precipitate in involving' the How fuch language could be reconciled to the no- republic in dangerous and expenfive wars, he explained to MED [ 472 ] MED Medirl. to ihem the neccllity of maintaining the balance of the ladies, the envy of the men, and the admiration of Medici. '"•''^''"''*^ power, if they would pref^rve the independence of their botli. The fiatefman of his time; unrivalled in chi- own (late ; and fo completely had he made himfclf ma- valry ; one of the moll eminent orators lh.it the world lleri.f this lubjecl tiiat he convinced the moll inciedu- has produced. His poetic merit, willi his judgment lous of the propriety of his mealnres, wliich, in 1488, in, and patronage of that art, procured !iim the title of introduced general tranquillity into Italy. " Father of the Mules." In liberality to his fellow. At this period, the city of Florence was .-it its higheft citizens, as well as in every other refpefl, e.\cept as a degree cf prolperity. The vigilance of Lorenzo had general, he exceeded even Csefar iiimfelf; and had not fecured it i'lom all apprelienfions of external attack ; and peace been his dear delight, his talents would have made his acknowledged dilinterellednefs and moderation had him a confummate commander. Yet with all thefe fu- almoll extinguilhed tiiat fpirit of internal diifenlion for perior accnmplilhments, he did not think it beneath which it had been fo long remarkable. The Floren- liim to indulge in amiilements wliich perfoBs, lefs wife, tines gloried in their illulliious citizen, and were grati- would have thought an impeacliment ot their under- tied by numbering in their body a man who wielded in (landing, and he would often feek pleal'ure in his nur- liis hands the fite of nations, and attrafled the refpedt fcry, fpending hours there in all the frivolous pranks of and admiration of all Europe. childilli diverlion. In fine, " the gravity of his life, if Yet amidil public affairs lb intricate and fo momen- compared with its levity, mud make him appear as a tous, fucli was the capacity of this man's mind, and cnmpofition ol two different perfons, incompatible, and, fuch his verfatility of genius, that for the greater part as it were, impillible to be joined with the other." of his life, he carried on a commerce as extenfive as that Lorenzo, like moll other great men, had v.ifhed to of his grandfather, wliilfl he afforded dill greater en- fpend his lall years in the tranquillity cf retirement. couiagement to learning and learned men. Cofmohad He therefore at an early period wound up his mercan- greatly promoted the lludy of the ancient languages tile coacerns, and divided hit time between the cares of and ancient philofophy. Lorenzo did the fame thing : the republic at Florence, and the cultivation of his but he did much more ; he encouraged the cultivation ellates in the country. He wifiied even to dived himfelf of his own tongue, which had been neglefteJ fince the of all public concerns, and get his fecond fon Giovanni age of Petrarca ; and by fetting a great example him- admitted into holy orders at the age of fevcn years, that felf, he produced u race of Italian poets, which have he might be fit lor ecclefiaftical preferment before he hardly been furpaffed in any age or nati<'n. To enume- ihould be deprived of tlie proteflion of his father. The rate even the names of the elegant fcholars whom he pa- young ecclefiaftic, who afterwards made fuch a figure tronifed, would extend tiii^ article far beyond its limits, as Leo X. was accordingly appointed by Louis XI. of In the academy of Pila, of which mention has been al- Fiance, abbot of Fonte Dolac, belore he was eight ready made, the lludies were chieHy confined to the years of age ; and by Innocent VIII. a cardinal, when Latin language, and to thofe fciences of which it was he was little more than thirteen. This added much to the the principal vehicle. At Florence the Greek tongue influenceof the family, not only in the Tnfcan dates, but was taught under the faniflion of a public inditutlon, througli all Italy ; and Loienzo having introduced his either by native Greeks or learned Italians, whofe fer- eldeft fon into public life, and accomplilhed a marriage vices were procured by the diligence of Lorenzo de between him and the daughter of a noble family at Medici, and repaid by his bounty. He placed Michael Rome, thouglit he miaht commit the affairs of the re- Angelo at the head of an academy, which he ere<5led public in a great meaiure to Piero, and indulge his for painting and fculpture, furnilhiug it with the beft own tade in the conveifetion of his learned friends. models of antiquity. He btillt and endowed a public This dream of felicity however was not realized. library, and lent Lafcaris, of imperial defcent, to Con- Early in the year 1492, he was attacked by a difeafe, llantinople more th.in once, to procure Greek manu- under wiiich he had long laboured, with fuch violence, fcripts. I'or father Moiiano, the orator, a monaftery that on the 8th of April he died in the midd of his was built ; and Florence owed many of her fined edi- weeping Irlends, after having taken <;f them, one by fices to him. Politiano and Ficino were among his one, an affe>5lionate farewell, and given to his fon Plero rood intimate friends; and it is not perhaps too much much falutary counfel, which he thought not fit to to fay, that he did more for letters and fcience and art follow. than any other individual that ever exided. His own The charafler of this great and good man is deve- ac(iuirements in learning were great; and his poetry, loped in the detail which we have given of his conduift of which the reader will find many fpecimens in the through life : But it may not be improper to add, that elegant work of Rofcoe, was exquifite. fucli was the love and veneration of the citizens to him, Is it lurprifing, when we examine Lorenzo's charac- that the phylician, who had attended him on his death- bed, afraid to return to Florence, leit the houfe in a date of didraflion, and plunged liinifeU" into a well. Throughout the red of Italy tl'.e death of Lorenzo was ter, that all Italy, all Chridendom, even the Maho- metans, gave him the mod flatteiing marks of appro- bation, and drove \\ho fiiould oblii»e hitn mod, by pre- fenting him with whatever was rare and valuable ? His regarded as a public calamity oi the mod alarming palace w.is cnndanlly filled with men famous In every kind. Of the arch which fupported the political fabric elegant, every ufelul fcience, and the neighbouring of that country he had long been conlideied as the princes flocked to it as to the temple of wifdom. The centre, and hi> Infi feemed to threaten the whole with celebrated prince of Mirandola, on his account, chofe immediate dedruftion. When Ferdinand king of Na- Florcnce !■ r his refidence, and died there. pies was informed ot the event, he exclaimed, '• This To a mi d engaging perfun was added each grace, man has lived long enough for his own glory, but too and every accomplilhment. He was the favourite of (hort a time for Italy." MEDICINA MED C 473 ] M K D Medicina.' MEDICINA forensis, is a phrsH: ufid in Germany '^'^~*'^'*^ to denote ihofe parts of anatomical anJ phyllological knowledge, which enable phyficians and furgeons to decide certain caufes as judges in courts of jiiftice. In that country it has long been law and cultom (if we iniftake not, by the Caroline code of Charles V.) to re- fer cafis oi poifoning, child murder, raps, prcv,natcy, im- pottncy, idcotifyn, &c. to the medical faculty, which, in the univcrfities and fome otlier great towns, is conllitut- ed into a kind of court for the trial of fuch queftions. In this country there are no fuch courts ; but in criminal trials medical gentlemen are often called upon to de- fcribe the fymptoms oi poifonlng, chtU-murder, rap:, &c. and therefore it becomes them to obtain an accurate knowledge of thefe fymptoms, and to rtore their me- mories with a number ot minute facls, to which they may have occafion to appeal when giving their evi- dence. The importance of this fubjetfl induced the profeflbr of the inftituies of phyfic in the univerfity of Edinburgh to refolve lately to read an annual courfe of leiflures on Medical Jurisprudence. This, we doubt not, will prove a valuable coune ; for though it is hardly con- ceivable that, under the head ttitdical jurifprudcnce, any k'l'j'xl dgi can be communicated which a well educated phyfici an would not neceflarily have acquired, without attending fuch a coiirfe ; yet it is very obvious, that the recolle>ftiiin of the young phyfician may receive great liid from his liftening to the well arranged lediires ot an accurate profellor. From thefe l;flures he may (lore Iiis mind with a co!leilio;i of aphnrifnis wliich Ihill be always ready on the day ot exaniin.iiion ; or the Iciffiires thenifcKes njay b" delivered in qnedions and anfwers Willi all the t'ornialitics ot a criminal court. We h;ive heard it obfeived, that to attend a courfe of luch kdures would be of the utmofl advantage to all who may be called upon tofi;rve as jurymen in criminal trials ; but of ilie truth of this obfsrvalion we are more th'.n doubtful. Peiions who are only /ja^' inllrucfed are always ccnceited of their own attainments; and men not acqu.iinted with anatomy and phyfiology cannot be tiire than half inllruilcd by th.e ableil C"urfe pollible to lie given of medical jurilprudence. Such perfons in- deed can hardly avoid m.ilaking the fenfe of the pro- fclfor's language, however peripicuous that language may be. Of this we had lately a very Ifriking iallnnce. A gentkm m, by no moan'; illiterate, tliougli a flranger to anatomical and pliyfiological fcience, was expalia- ting to the writer of this article upon the general im- poitance ot medical juiiffirudenrc, a cour.'e of which, he faid, lie had attended !■ r the fole purpofe of qu.ilily- iiig hinifeif tor diirhcging tile important duties of a juryman. Upon being alkeJ what lie had learned ? he leplieil, that he hid been taught, among other things which we thought fiivoloiis, to difceni, from the fymp- toms of han^in^, whether the dead man had been hang- ed by himjelf or by another. V«"e need not fiirely oL- li-rve, that no fuch lelT'O was ever taught in any uni- veifily, or by any medical Ici'lurer ; but it is worthy of confidcration, whether Icflures on medical jurilprudence may rot have ihe mod pernlL-»i'us cffeifs on the minds of men f> little qualified as this gcnileiiian to profit by them. To the regularly eJucaied phyfician and fur- geon fuch Iciflures may prove iilcful ; to the plain citi- zen, not (killed in anatomy and phyliology, they mufl Suj-Pi. Vol. II. prove dangerous; as their cnly tendency Is to m.alre him defplfe the evidence given before him by the regu- lar phyfician or fargeon ; to place implicit confidence in his own fuperficial knowledge ; and thus tj decide at random on the life or deatli of his fellow.creature : A little learning is a dangerous thing ; Drink deep, or tafte not the Pierian (ping. MEDINA, the capital of the kingdom of Woolli in Africa, is fituated in 13" 40' N. Lat. and 12° 40' W. Long. It is a place of conliderable extent, and may contain from 800 to 1000 hojfcs. It is fortified in the common African manner, by a furrounding high wall built of clay, and an outward fence of pointed (lakes and prickly bufhes ; but the walls are negleifted, and the outward fence has fuffered confiderably from the aflive hands of bufy hcufewives, who pluck up the flakes for fire.<ocd. Mr Park palfed through it on his route eaflward, and was treated with much kindnefs both by the king and the people. The good old fove- reign warned him of the dangers he was about to en- counter, and endeavoured to perfu ide l.im t^i relinquifli all thoughts ot his journey eallw ird ; but when he c;-uli not prevail, he gave him a guide, who co.iduifled him in latety to Konjar, the frontier town rf the kingdom towards Tiondou, from which it is fepara'ed by an in- tervening wildernefs of two days journey. Here our author was prelented, by way of lefrefliment, with a li- quor which tailed fo much like the llrong beer of his native country (and very good beer too), as to induce him to inquire into its ompolltion ; and he learned, with fome degree of furpriit, that it was actually made from corn which had been previcufly malted, much in the lame manner as bailey is malted in Great Britain : a rc'Ot yielding a grateful bitter was ufed in lieu of hops, the name of which he fort.ot ; but the corn which yields the wort is the hohus fpicalus of botaniits. MEDOC rU, a fet'lemeiii in New-Brunfwick, fitu- ated on tlie Wilt (ide of St John's river, 35 miles above St Amies — Jllorie. MEDOROSTA, a lake in the north part of the Diltrid of Maine, whole northern point is within 8 miles ot the Canada line, in lat. 47° 56', and long. 68" J 2' \V. It gives rife to Spey river, which runs S. S. E. into St John's river. — :6. MEDUNCOOK, a plantation in Lincoln coiintv, Dillrii^l ot Maine, 230 miles from BolK'D, having 322 inhabitant*. — il>. MEDUSA, In addition to the diflcrent fpccies of this genus ot vermes defcrilied in the Encs'cloptcdia, that which Is repreftntediii two dilTereit attitudes, fig. i. and 2. and which tlrongly refembles a bagpipe in fhape, may be worthy of notice. It is merely a white tranfparent veficle, fuinilhed with fever il blue tentic'e; yellowiili at their extremity ; its Ivng tail, which is alio blue, ap- pears 10 be compifed of a number of (mall glandulctn grains, H iiteneei and united together by a gelatinom membrane. The upper pait ot the veiicle exhibits a kind of team with alternotc piinilures of three difFo- rent li/cs ; its elongated pan, winch miy be confid.Teil as the head ot the animal, is terrninaicd by a (Ingie tiiink, the exterior edge rf which is fringed with 25 or 26 tentacles, much t'raaller than ihofe which oiii!,inr.te fiom the inl'eriion of its l.ing tail, and the number of which fomeiiniei. amounts to 30. By means of thefo 3 O la(l. Place XXXVI, MEL C 474 ] MEN Melete cunk. Mcdway, lad, the diameter of which it is capable of increafing at pleafure by forcing in a little of the air from its body, it fixed itfelf to the fide of the vefl"cl, in which it was placed, in fuch a manner a« that the extremity of fome of its tentacles occupied a furface of two or three lines from its body. The mnll moveable part of the veficle is its elongation, or the head ot the ani- mal, as it is by means of this that it performs its diffe- rent motions. The rounded fubliance, marked by the letter P, is fituated in the centre of the l.irger tentacles, which are firmly fixed to the body o; the animal near its tail ; and is only an aliemblage ot a few minute gela- tinous globules, fiom thi middle of which aiife other larger gl bules, with a imall peduncle, about the middle of which is fixed a curved bluilh coloured body, which is reprefented magnified in two pofiiions at R. Mar- tlniere, the naturalill, who accompanied Pcroufe in his voyage round the wi rid, met with this animal in about the 20th degree of lat. and lyy" of long, ead from Paris. MEDWAY, a townfliip in Norfolk county, Maffa- chuktts, bounded call and fouth by Charles river, which feparates it from Medfield, and of which it was a part until 1713- It has tvio paiifhes of Congregati- onahfts, and contains 1,035 inhabitants. It is 25 miles i'outhvveft of Bollon, on the middle poll-road from thence to Hartford. — Morse. Medway, or Mill-way, a fettlement in Liberty coun- ty, Georgia, foimed by emigrants from Dorcheller in iS. Carolina, about the year 1750, and whofe anceltnrs migrated from Dorcheller and the vicinity of Boilon about the year 1700. A handfome Congregaiional Tiieetinghoufe, belonging to this fettlement, was burnt by the Britilh during the war, and the fettlement was deftroyed. It has lince recoveitd, in a confiderable degree, its former importance. Medway is 30 miles fouth of Savannah, and 9 well ot Sunbury. — ii. MEGAMETER, a name fometimes given to the Micrometer, which fee, Encycl. MEHALL, in the language of Bengal, a place or dilliicl. M'KESSENSBURG, a town of Pennfylvania, York county, on Tom's Creek, 40 miles W. S. W. ot York. — Morse. MEHERRIN, a principal branch of Chowan river, in N. Carolina, which r:fes in Charlotte county, Vir- ginia, and running an eall by fouth courj'e, unites with the Noltaway about 7 miles fouth of the Virginia line. —ib MELAQUE PORT, on the weft coaft of New- Mexico, is to the north-weft of Port Natividad, or Na- tivity, and near 3 leagues at fouth-eaft iiom a row of 4 or 5 rocks, or naked iflinds above water, in the di- reiflion of norlh-weft. This port is land locked a- gainft all winds from the north-weft to the fouth- welt. —ib. MELA, or Mala, on the coaft of Peru in S. Ame- rica, liei between Canette and Ch'lca. It ii 3 leagues fiom Afia llland, whofe latitude is about 13'' 6' 6. — ib. MELAWASKA, a French fettlement of abinit 70 families, fecluded in a finyular manner trom the reft of mankind, in the north-eaftern part of the Dillnift ot Maine. Thefe people are R.man Catholics, and .ire inJuitriou'!, humane, and hofpitable. — ib. MELETECUNK River, in Monmouth county, Mcndozi. New-Jerfey, falls eaftward into Beaver Dam, which Memnron- is at the head of the bay which is north of Cranberry '°'^> New Inlet. — ib. MEMORONCOK, a ftream a little weft of Byram river. Dougials fays the partition line between New- York and Conneflicur, a<- fet'lcd Dec. i, 1664, ran trom the mouth of this river N. N. W. and was the ancient limits ol New-York, until Nov. 23, 1683, when the line was run nearly the lame as it is now fettled. — ib. MEMORY ROCKS, amongil the Bahama Iflands, are in lat. 27" 20' N. and long. 79° 40' W. — ib. MEMPHREMAGOG, a lake chiefly in the pro- vince of Can,idi, 40 miles in length from north to fouth, and 2 or 3 wide from eaft to weft. The north line of Vermont 8 ate palFes over the fouth part of the lake in 45° N. lat. Memphiemagog, which has com- munication, by the river St Francis, wiih St Law- rence river, is the rcfervoir of 3 confiderable ftreams, viz. Black, Barton, and Clyde rivers, which rife in Vermont. The foil on its banks is rich, and the coun- try round it is level. — ib. MEMRAMCOOK iJ/wr has been recommended as the nioft proper boundary between the province of New-Brunfwick and Nova-Scotia. It lies a little to the eaftward of Peticcodiak, and takes a north-eafterly di- reiftion. — il. MENADOU Bay, or Paiiadou, is 2 leagues from Port Balene, or Port Nove, on the coaft o{ C.tpe Bre- ton liland, at the fouth part of the gulf of St Law- rence, having the illand of Scatari, heretofore called Little Cape Bieton, oppofite to it. — ib. Mli-NDHAM, a townlhip in Morris county, New- Jeriey, 3 miles north-wefterly of Veal town, and 6 weft ot Mornftown. — ib. MENDOCIN, a cape on the north weft coaft of America, and N. Pacific ocean. N. lat. 42^" 20', W. long. 130" 5'. — ib. MENDON, a poft-town in Worcefter county, M.if- fachnlets, 37 miles fouth weft of Boftoii, .ind 31 no: th- eaft ot Pomtret in Conntflicut. This townftiip, called Shipi'Jlipaiige by the Indians, was incorporated in 1667, and contains 2 Congregational parithes, a fociety of Friends, and 1555 inhaliitants. It is bounded on the fou'.h by the State of Rhode-Ifland. It is watered by Charles and Mill rivers, and other fniall ftreams, which ferve 5 grift-mllls, 2 faw-mills, 2 clothier's works and a forge. There are 3 hi'ils here, viz. Caleb's, Wigwam, and Mitkee, from either of which may be feen, in aclerr day, the 4 New-England States. — ib. MENDOZA, ajurififtion in Chili, in S. America. It has a town of the fame name, and lies on the eaft fide of the Cordillera, about 50 leagues from S.inliago, in a plain auorned with gardens, veil fupplicd with wa- ter by means ot canals. Thetown contains about 100 families, half Spaniards and the other half calls, toge- ther with a college founded by the Jc fails, a parochial church, and 3 convents. In the jurifdifl on .ire alfo the towns of St Juan de la Fiontera, fi uated on the eaft of the Cordillera, and abou' 30 leai/ues n. rth of Mendoza ; and St Louis de Loyola, about 50 eail of Mendoza ; tlie latter is veiy fhia'l, but has a parifli chuich, a Dominic.in conven', and a college tounded by tlie Jefuits. — ib. Mendoza, a river which r't-s in the Cordillera of the Andes in S. America. Over this river is a natural bridge MEN [ 475 3 MEN Mcnich- lick, II Meniiiflci. bridge of rocks, from the vaults of which hang feveral pieces of Hone refembling fait, which congeal like ificles, as the water drop; from the rock. I'his bridge broad enough fur 3 or 4 carts to pafs a-biealt. Near this is another bridge, called the bridi;e ot tlie Incas, betwixt two rucks ; and " fo very high fiom the river, that the ftream, whxh runs with great ra- pidity, cannot be heard." — \b. MENICHLICK Lake, in the north-weft part of N. America, lies in lat. 61" N. long. 105° W. Nurih of this is Lake Dub 'Uiu. — ib. MENINSKI (Francifcus), a moft celebrated Ger- man orientalilt, was born in Lorraine, then fubjeift to the emperor, in the year 1623 ; and for copioufnefs of lear. ing, elegance of genius, ;ind profound knowledge of languages, particularly tlvjfe of the Eaft, proved un- doubtedly one of the principal ornaments of the age in which he lived. He lludied at Rome under Giattino. When he was about 30, his love of letters induced him to accompany the Poliih ambaflador to Coiiltantinople, where he lludied the Turkifh language under Bobovitis and Ahmed, two very fkil.'ul teachers. So fuccefstul was he in this ftudy, that wlien he had been there only two years, the place of hrll interpieter to the Poliili embafly at the Porte was promifed to him. When the place became vacant, he was accordingly appointed to it, and obtained fo much credit by his condudl, that, after a time, he was fent for into Poland, and again fent out with full powers as ambaifador to the Porte. For his able execiiiic'n of this office, he was further ho- noured, by being n.ituralized in Poland ; <in which occa- fion he added the Polifh termination oijli to his family name, which was Menin. Being defirous afterwards to extend his fphere of aftion, he went to the court of the emperor as interpreter of oriental languages in 1661. Here alfo, as in other inftances, his talents and beha- viour obtained the higheft approbation ; on which ac- count he was not only fent as interpreter to feveral im- perial ambaiFadors at the Porte, but was intrufted in many important and confidential fervices ; and, in 1669, having paid a villt to the holy fepulchre at Jerufalem, was made one of the knights of that order. Alter his return to Vienna he was advanced to further honours ; being made one of the counlellors of war to the empe- ror, and firft interpreter of oriental languages. At Vi- enna he died at the age of 75, in the year 1698. His great work, i. The " Thel'aurus lingiiarum orienta- liuni," was publilhed at Vienna in 1 680, in 4 vols folio ; to which was added, in 1687, another volume, intitleJ, " Complementum Thefaiiri linguarum orientalium, feu onomallicum Latino-Turcico-ArabicoPerlicum." The former volumes having become estremely fcarcc, partly on account of the deftruiflion of a great part of tl.e im- preflnn, in the fiege (f Vienna bj the Turks in 1683, a defign was formed fome time ago in England of re- printing the work, by a fociety of learned m:n, among whom was Sir William Jonc.<;. But as this undertaking, probalilv on account c>l the valt expcnce which mull have been incurred, did not proceed, tlie emprefs queen Maria Therefa, who had heard of the plan, took it up- on herfeh, and witli valt liberality furnilhed every tiling necelTary for its completion. In confequence of this, it MciiijifKl, was begun to be fpendidly republilhed at Vienna in I /So, with this title: " Francifci a Mefgnien Meninfki Lexicon Arabico-Perlico-Turcicum, adjedta ad fingulas voces et Phrafes interpretatione Latina, ad ufitatiorcs, etiam Italica." Ot this edition only two vols folio arc yet publilhed, exiending no farther than za/, the ninth letter ot the Arabic alphabet, which is about a third of the whole. The delay of the reR is much to be la- mented. In this edition, fay the editors, the Lexicon of Meninfki may be faid to be increafed, diminillied, and amended. lucreafed, becaufe many Arabic and Perfian words are added, from Wankuli and Ferhengi, the bell Arabic and Perfic lesicographers whom the Eall has produced ; and from Herbdot are inferted the names ot kingdoms, cities, and rivers, as well as phrafes in comni< n ufe among the Turks, &c. Dimin}/hcd, be- caule many ufelefs lynonyma are omitted, which rather puzzled than allilted the ihident ; as well as all the French, Polilh, and Germ<.n interpretations, the Latin being c nudered as lutHcient for all men of learning, AnundeJ, with refpcl to innumerable typographical errors; which, however, from a work of this nature, no c^rc can perhaps altogether exclude. The other ^'orks of Meuinlki weie occalioned chiefly by a violent conteft between liim and a man named J. B. Podella, in which much acrimony was employed on both fides. Thefe it is hardly worth while to enumerate, but they may all be feen in the account of his life from which this article is taken (a). It Ihould be obferved, however, that in 1674, Podefta publilhed a book, intitled, '« Prodro- mus novi hnguarum orientalium collegii, julfu Aug. &c. erigendi, in Univ. Viennenii ;" to which Meninfki op- pofed, 2. " Meninfkii Antidotum in Prodromnm novi ling, orient. coUegii, &c." 4to. But fuch was the cre- dit of his antagonifl in the univerhty, that foon after there came out a decree in the name of the reftor and csnfiftory, in which that antidote of Meninlki's is pro- fcribed and prohibited, for fix fpecific reafons, as im- pious and infamous. Meninfki was defended againfl this formidable attack by a friend, in a fniall trai5l, in- titled, " Veritas defenfa, feu juftitia caufa Dn. F. de M. M. [Meninfki] contra infame decretum Univerfita- tis Viennenfis, Anno 1674, 23 Novembris, &c. ab A- mico luci expofita, Anno 1675," in which this friend expol'es, article by article, the falfehood of the decree, and exclaims flrongly againll the arts of Podella. This traa is in the Britilh Mufeum. Podella was oriental fecretary to the emperor, and profelfor of thofe lanyu.i- ges at Vienna ; but is defcribed in a very fatirical man- ner by the delender of Meninfki. " Podell.t, natur.a Semi-Itdlus, Itatura nanus, ca;cutiens, balbus, imo bar- dus repertus, ahlfqiie vitiis ac llultitiis plenus, adeoque ad dilcendas linguas orientales inhabilis." A lill ot" the woiks of Podella is, however, given by the late editors of Meniiilki. MENIOLAGOMEKAH, a Moravian fettlement E. of the Great Sw.m.p, .,t the head of Lehich river in Peiir.fylvania, about 33 milc» N. \V. by N. of Belli- Ichein. — Morse. MLNOLOPEN, a wealthy and pleafant farming 3 O 2 lettlcmtnf. (a) We have taken this article from the Biographical Diaionary ; the editors of which took it (roiu the of Meninfki prefixed to the new edition of his great work. hfe M E R C Mcrler, II Merchetti. fettlement, in Monmouth county, New-Jerfey ; mak- ing a p.vrt of a rich glade of land, exte-ding from the fca, we 11 ward to Delaware river, eali of Printeion. — ii. MERCER, a county of Kentucky, adjoining Wood ford, Shelby, and Madifon counties the chief town. — ib 476 ] M Ii R on the merchftia are to be found in the Appendix to vol. I ft oi Sir David Ddlrymple' t Annals of Scotland. MERCY, Capeof Goil'i, the mi.ll foutherly point of Cumberland's liland, on the N. fide of Cumberland's Straits, in lat. about 66° N. and has Cape Wallinuham Harrcdfljurg is on its N. E. and Exeter Sourid on its north. — Morse. MEREDITH, Cafe, ainonj; the Falkland lllands It is 18 miles fcuth- v»l. jdi. MERCERSBOROUGH, a village of Pennfylvania, S. E. of North Mountain, and about i.^ miles S. W. of Cliamberfburg — ib. MERCER'S Creek, in the N. E. part of the illand of Antigua, in the VV. Indies, is a pretty deep inlet ot the coalt, the entrance to which ib bttwetn the iflands of Codrington, Crumps, or Pelican. Eavicount's Ifland is a fm.iU illand alio within it towards the fouth Ihore ; and in the iV-uthwcft part of it is Farley's Bay, at the mouth of a river. — ib. MERCHANT'S Careening Place, within the har- bour of Pert- Royal in Jamaica, on the N. tide of the long peninful.i. Along thisn.irrow fllpot beach is the only way to pafs by land to Port Royal, for 9 (>r to miles, the careening place being alniolt at midway, but fcmewhat nearer to the eaft end of the peninfula. ~ib. MERCHETTA, or M^rchf.tta Mulierum, is com- monly fuppofed to h.ive been a right which, during the prevalence of the feudal fyftem, the lord had of palhiig the firft night alter marriage with his female villain. This opinion has been held by the greater part of our „,,,,, antiquarians ; and we have adopted it in our h.ftoty of lat^8^ ,/° '.riM i ,!,' '^'., Scotland pablilhed \n ihe Jiiicyc/opa'Jia. It appears, however, to be a miftake. Tliat there was a cullorn called lUirchella mulierum, which prevailed not only in England, Scotland, Wales, and the ifle of Guernl'ey, but alfo on the continent, is indeed a fad unquellion-_ . able; but Mr A (lie has clearly proved, that, inllead of 'being an adulterous connedion, the tnercktla was a compacl between the lord and his valTal for the redemp- tion of an ojfcnce committed by that valfd's unmarried daughter. He admits, however, thai it denoted like- wile a fine paid by a fohcihan or a villain 1 1 his lord, ibr a licence to marry his daughter to a free man ; and that if the valFal gave her away without obtaining fuch a licence, he was liable to pay a heavier fine. He c]uotes two authorities in fupport of his opinion frona Bra,iton; f ne of which we (liall tranfcribe, as being a- lone complete evidence. " Ric. Bnrre tenet unum mefuagium et debet tellia- gium ilcfjm curix, etmerchei, hoc m- do, quod fi mari- taie valuer it fiUum fuam cum quodiim Iwcro homim; extra •uillam, fuciet paccm domini pro marita^io, it ft earn mart- laverit alicui cujlumario viihe, nihil dtbuU pro viarita- gw." " The probable reafon of the cuftom yfays Mr Aftle) appears to have been this. Perfons of low r.uik, refi- in the S. Alaniic Ocean, is between Port Stephen's and Cape Orlord. — il. MEREDI TH, a townfhip in Strafford county, New- Hampll.ire, lituated on the S. W. fide of I^ake Wini- pifeogce, 15 miles N. of Gilmantowr, y S. E. of Ply- mouth, and 7c N. W. cf Portfmouth. It was incor- porated in 1768. In 1775 it contained 259 and in 1790, 881 inhabitants. It was fitlt called New-Sa- lem. — \b. MERIDA, the capital of Yucatan, in the audience of Mexico; in N. America. It lies near the N. lide of the province, between the gulfs of Mexico and Hondu- ras ; 45 miles S. cf the Ocean, and 135 N. E. of the city of Campeachy. N. lat. 21" 38', W. long. 90" 36'.— »i. Merida, a town of New Granada, in S. Ameri- ca, lituated near the limits which divide the province from Venezuela. The foil round this place abounds with Iruit ot all Ibrts, and there are gold mines near it. It is about 54 miles from Luke M.uacaybo, 130 N. E, of Pampeiuna, and 260 N. E. ot St Fe. The inhabi- tants lend their fruit and merchandize to Truxillo. N. ib. MERIDIAN List, ;in aich, or p.ri t of the meridian of the place, terminated each way by the horizon. Or, a meridian line is the interledtion oi the phuie of the meiidian of the place with the pline of the horizon, often called a north-and-fouth line, becaufe its direiftioa is Irom north to fouth. In the aiticle Astronomv (EncycL), n° 376 and 377, we have given two methods of drawing a meridian line; but it may be proper to add, in thi>. place, the tollowing improvement of the tormer of tliele from Dr Hutton's Mathemiti:al Diiftionary. " As it is not ealy (fays the Doctor) to determine precifely the ex- tremity of the (hadow, it will be bell to make the (file flat at the top, and to drill a Ihiall hole through it, no- ting the lucid point projected by it on the feveral con- centric circles, iniiead of marking the extremity of the IhaJow itlelf on thefe circles." We Ihail give another method of drawing a meridian line irom the f.imc valuable dictionary. " Knowing the fouth quarter pretty nearly, obferve the altitude FE of I'ome itar on the eall fide of it, and not far from the meridian HZRN: then, keeping the Plate quadrdut lirm on its axis, U' as the plummet may Hill XXXVL cut the lame degree, dneft it to the wellern fide ot ihe meridian, and wait till you find the (lar has the fame ai- ding on an eftate, were either a'cripti gUke, or were t.tude a. before, -A^fe. Laftly, bdeft the angle EC e, fubjecled to fome fpecies of fervitude limihr to the formed by tne inteileawn ol the two planes in which efirip:ipLb^. They were bound to rcfide on the eftate, the quadrant hah been placed ..t the time of the two ob- and to perf )rm feveral lervices to the lord. As women ferv.uu ns, by ihe right hue HR, which will be the me- necelfarily followed the I efidence of their hulbands, the ridian fought." _ , rr ■^ confeqnence was, that when a woman of low rank mar- Magnttical Mbkidian, is a great circle palling thro' ried a ftrans^er, the lord was deprived of part of his or by the nugnetical pt.les ; to which meridians the live Hock; he therefore required a fine to indemnify m.ignetical needle conforms itfelf. See Magnetism, him for tlie lofs of his propei ty." Further particulars Si'ppl. , .^ ,. ,, , '^ '^ ' •^ ME RIM, MAR [ 477 ] M E S MERIM, a large lake in Paraguay in S. America, very near ihe coall of ihe S. Atlnntic Ocean, where the land is very Hat. Fort St M^i^ucl ftands at the S. end, and Fort Mangaveira at iti north-ealtern extremity. There is a very narrow lake, parallel to Lake Mirim between it and die ocean, and neaily as long. The forts command the extremities of the peninfub.— Mone. MERIMEG, or Maramsg, a large river ot Louili- ana, which ernties into the Mifiinippi, below the mouth of the Mill'ouri, and 50 miles above the fettle- nient of Genivieve. Fine meadows lie between this and the Miflouri. — il. MERION, (Jfper and Lexer, two townihips in Montgomery county, I'ennfylvania. — ib. MERO DISTRICT, in the State of Tenneflee, en the banks c.l Cumberland river. It comprehends the counties cf D.ividfon, Sumner, and Tenneifee. In 1790 it contained 7,042 inhabitants, including 1,151 flaves. By the State cenfus of 1 795 there were 14,390, of which number 2,466 were flaves — ib. MERO POINT, in the S. Pacific Ocean and coafl of Peru, between Cape Blanco to the S. W. and Tum- bez river to the N. E. on the S. E. fide of Guay-quil Bay, in lat. 3° 40' S. The coaft at the point ot Mero is low and flat, but the country within is higli and mountainous. — ib. MERRIMACK River, has its courfe foutherly through the State of New-Hamplliire, till it enters Mad'achufetts ; it then turns eadeily, and paifes into tlie ocean at Newbury Poit. This river is foimed by the confluence ot Pemigewaffet and Winnipifeogee ri- vers, in about lat. 43" 26'. This river is navigable for veilels of burden about 20 miles from its mouth, where it is obltru(5led by the tirft falls, or rapids, called Mitchell's Eddy, between Bradford and Haverhill. Vail quantities of (hip-timber, and various kinds of lumber are brought down in rafts, fo conllrufled as to pafs all the falU in the river except thofe of Amulkeaj; and Pawtucket. In the fpring and fum- mer, confiderable quantities cf falmnn, fhad and iilewives are caught, which are either ut'ed as b.iit in the c>idfilhery, or pickled, and (hipped to the Weil-In- dies. As many as 6 or 7 bridges have been thrown over this fine river at ditfeient diftances, from New- Concord, downwards ; the mod eleg;intand expenfive are the one two miles above Newbury-Pi rt, and the one at JIaverhill. A canal is now in proceCs to open a communicatirn between the wateis ot the Merrimack at Chelmsford and the haibour of Bolton, through Myllick river. The bur .icn.fs the mouth of this ri- ver is a very great incumbrance to navigation, and is efpecially teirible to (Irangers. There are 16 feet of water upon it at common tides. There are two light- hou(es of wood, removeable at pleafuic, according to the (hifting of the bar. The light; now bear E. ■{ N. and W. i S. Biinping both the light houfes to bear into one, until you are a breaft of the lower one, will bring y^ u in over the bar in the deepell water ; wliere is .1 bold ihore and good anchoring ground. The N. point i-.f Plumb-Ifland which forms the S. fide of the entrance into the river, lies in lat. 42° 47' 40". — ib. Merrim,>ck, a townlhip in HilUbonugh county, New-Hamplliiic, fituatcd on the fouth lide of Souhe- gan liver, which runs eallward into the Meirimack. It is 55 miles weflerly of Portfmouth, was incorporat- Merriiai. ed in 1746, and contains 819 inhabitantr. — ib. MERRIMICHI River falls into the head of a bay cf that name on the N. E. coalt of the province of New- Brunfwick. A little above its confluence with the bay, it forms into two branches, and runs through a fertile tract of choice intervale land ; and tlie land is, in ge- neral, well cloathed with, timber of all kinds. From this river there is a communication with St John's, part- ly by land, but principally by w ater carriage in canoes. The falmon fifuery is carried on with fucccfs, and the cod filhcry is improving near the entrance of the biv. —ib. MERRY-MEETING Bay, in Strafford cciinty, New-Hanipiiiiie, is the fnuth-eafternnioft arm of Lake Winnipifeogee. Mount Major (lands on its weft lide. —ib. Merr-y Meeting Biiy, in the Didriil of Maine, is formed by the jundlion of Andiofcc^ggin and Kcnne- beck river?, oppofite to the town ot Woolwich, 20 miles from the lea. Formerly, iVonr this bay to the fea, the confluent (Iream was called Sat-aduliick. The lands here are good. Steven's river heads within a mile of the bay, and a canal has lately l)een cpentd which unites thele waters. A company lias been incorporat- ed to build a bridge over Androfcoggin river, at its en- trance into the bay, to conneifl the towns of Brunfwick and Topfhim ; the former on its fouthern fide, the hitter on its n^ rthern fide. — ib. MERTEQUE, a town in the province of Hondu- ras in New-Spain, which produces the cochineal. — ib. MESA, La, thefoutherninoll of 4 ides in the Paci- fic Ocean, near to each other, and E. of the Sandwich liles. N. lat. 19", W. long. 137" 30'. — ib. MESOLABE, or Mesolabium, a mathematical inftrument invented by the ancients, for finding two mean proportionals mechanically, which they could not perform geometrically. It conlilts of three parallelo- grams, moving in a groove to certain interfedlions. Its figure is defcribed by Eutocius, in his Commentary on Archimedes. See alio Pappus lib. 3. MESOLoGARiTHM, a term uled by Kepler to fig- nify the logaiithms of the co<incs and c" tangents. MESSASAGUES, Indians inhabiting between Lakes Superior and Huron. They h.ue about 1,500 warriors. — Morse. MESSERSBURG, a town in Franklin county, Pennfvlvanii, 16 rniles S. W. of Chamberfburg, and 168 W. bv S. of Philadelphia.— ;4. MESSILLONES, or MuJJe B.iy, on the coaft of Chili or Peru, in S. America, is 8 leagues N. by E. of Morrenas bay, and 5 S. by W. of --Vtacama. It is pro- perly wi(hin the bay of Alacama, and is fo deep on the S. fide that there is no foundings ; but at the entrance or anch(<ring place it is moderate, and (hips may ride in 15 fathoms clean ground, and fecurcd from mod wi'ids — lb. MESPRE Bay, LittU, on the N. E. pirt of New- foundl.iud llland, f >uthward of St Julian, and N. by W. of the iflands Gros and Belle.— i*. MESUCKAMA Lnh. in the N. p.irt of N. Ame- rica. N. lat. so'' 10', W. long. 80".— ii. MESURA r.\, a Icapoit of the kingdom rf Tri- poli, in Africa. A cara\ an proceeds from this placi to Fezzan, and other iniciiur paits toward the fouth of Africa. C 478 E. Ion. M E X Africa. It is 260 miles north of Mourzook 15. 5. N. lat. 31. 3. METALLIC Iractors. METCHIGAMIAS, a long n.<rr w lake, or rather dilatation <.f the northern branch ot the river St Fi.tn- ] M E X See Perkinism in this In this country are interfperfed many fotintains of Mexico, different qualities. Tliere are an infinity ( f nitrous, ^^^■'*'''^" fulphiireous, vitriolic, and alluminous mineral waters, fume of which Iprmg out fo hot, that in a Ihnrt tune aiy kind ot truit or animal foc d is boiled in them. I'here are alfo petrifying waters, with which thty cii, i'l Lnuifiana, which falls into the Millillippi from make little white, fniooth ltnne>, not difplealing to the the N. W. about 4 miles, above Kappas Old Fort. — Morse. METHUEN, the norih-wefternmoft townfliip in Elfcx c. unty, Malfachufetts, fi mated on the N. bank of Meiriinack river, between Dracut and Haverhill. It coiiiains 2 parilhes and 1,297 inhabitants. It was tafte ; fcrapings from which taken in bnith, or in gruel, made of Indian corn, are molt powerful diaphoretics, and are ufed with remarkable fuccels in various kinds of fevers. The climate of this extenfive country is various. The maritime parts are hot, and for the mod part moid incorporated in 1725. Hufb.uidry and the cutting and and unhe.ilthy. Lands, which are very high, or very felling lumber divide the attention of the inhabitants, near to high mountains, which are perpetually cover- —il). ed with fnow, are cold. METONIC Cycle, called alfo the Golden Number, I'he mountains of Mexico abound in ores of every and Lunar Cycle, or Cycle of the Moon, that which was kind of metal, and a great variety of foflils. There are invented by Meton the Athenian; being a period of 19 entire mountains of h.adftone, and among others, one years. See Cycle, ^"nrjc/. »ery conlideral le between Coiliytlan and Chilapan, in MEW IJlancls, on the coaft of the Spanilli Main in the country of the Cohuixcas. the Wcft-Iiidies, between Cape Cameron, and Cape Cira- However plentiful and rich the mineral kingdom of cias a Dios, lie acrofs the entrance into the bay of Co- Mexico may be, the vegetable kingdom is ftill more tree, or Crotoe. They are furronnded with rocks, various and abundant. Dr Hernandez, delcribes in and are very dangerous, efpecially in cafe of hard his natural hillory, about 1,200 medicinal plants, na- gulls, from the N. and N. E. — Morse. tives of that country. Thefiuits of Mexico are, pine- MEXICANO River, or Adayes, in Louifiana, has a apples, plums, dates, water-melons, apples, peaches, S. E. courle and empt'es into the Gulf of Mexico, at quinces, apricots, pears, pomegranates, figs, black- Cabo du Nord ; W by S of Afcenlion bay, and E. by N. of the mouth of Trinity liver. On its banks are rich filver mines : Fort Adayes Hands on its north- eallern fide, in about lat. 30" 31' north. — ib. MEXICO, a townlhip in Herkemer county, New- York, incorporated in 1796, lying on Canada and Wood Creeks, and Oneida Lake. — ib. Mexico, or New-Spain, bounded north by un- known regions, eafl by Luu fiana and the gulf of Mexico, fuuth by tlie IlII mus of Darien, which fepa- rates it from Terra Firma in South America, weft by the Pacific Ocean. Its length is about 2,100 miles, its cherries, walnuts, almonds, olives, chefnuts, and grapes. The cocoa nut, vanilla, chia, great-pepper, tomaii, the pepper of Tabafco, and cotton, are very common with the Mexicans. Wheat, barley, peas, bcaub and rice have been fuccefsfully cultivated in this country. Witli refpeifl to plants which yield profita- ble refins, gums, oils or juices, the country of Mexico is fingularly fertile. Of quadrupeds, there have beeu tranfported into this country horfes, alfes, bulls, fheep, goats, hogs, dogs and cat?, which have all multiplied. Of the ancient quadrupeds, by which is meant thofe that irom lime immemorial have been in that country. breadth 1600 ; li.uaied between lat. 9° and 40'' north, fume are common to both the continents of Europe and and between hing. ^3" 8' and 125" 8' weff. This America, fome peculiar to the new world, others na- vafl country is divided into Old Mexico, which contains tives only of the kingdom of Mexico. The ancient the audiences of Gilicia, Mexico, and Gautimala, which quadrupeds common to Mexico and the old continents, are fubdivided into 22 provinces ; New- Mexico, divid- are lions, tigers, wild-cats, bears, wolves, foxes, the ed into two audiences, Apacheria and Sonera ; and Calijor'nia, on the weit, a peninfula. The land is in great part abrupt and mountainous, covered with thick woods, and watered with large rivers. Some of thcfe run into the Gulf ot Mexico, and others into the Paci- fic Ocean. Among the fir ft are Alvarado, Coatzacu- alco, and Tabafco. Among the latter is the river Guadalaxara or Great river. There are feveral lakes vhich do not lefs embellilh the country than give conve- nience to the commerce of tlie people. The lakes of Ian common ftags and wliite ftags, bucks, wild-goats, badgers, pole-cat.', weazles, martins, fquirrels, rab- bits, hares, otters and rats. Their prodigious number ot birds, their variety, and many valuable qualities, have occalioned fome authors to obferve, that as Afri- ca is the country of beaiis, fo Mexico is the country of birds. It is faid there are 200 fpecies peculiar to that kingdom. The civil government of Mexico is adminiftered by tribunals called audiences. In thefe courts, the vice- Nicaragua, Chapallan, and Pazaquaro, are among the roy of the king of Spain prefides. His employment is largeft. The lakes Tezcuco and Ch.ilcn occupy a great the greateft truft and power h^s Catholic M ijelly has at part of the vale of Mexico, which is the fineft trad of his ddpofal, and is perhaps the richelt government en- country in New-Spain. The waters of Chalco are truUed to any fubjed in the world. The viceroy con- fweet, thofe of Tezcuco are brackilh. A canal unites tinues in office three years. The clergy are extremely them. The lower lake (Tezcuco J was formerly as numerous in Mexico. The priefts, monks and nuns much as 20 miles long and 17 broad, and, lying at of all orders make a fifth of the white inhabitants, both, the bottom of the vale, is the refervoir of all the wa- here and in other pai Is of Spaniffi America. The em- ters from the furrjunding mountains. The city of pire of Mexico was lubdued by Cortez in 1521. — ib. Mexico ftands on an illand in this like. Mexico, the capital of the above province, is the old eft M E X [ 479 ] M E X Mexico, oldeft city in America, of which we have any account ; '*^'"^'^^*~' its iound.ition being d^ted as far back as 1325. It is fituated in the charming vale of Mexico, on feveral frnal! iflaiids, in L.ike Tetzcucn, in N. Ut. 1^° 26', and 103'' 35' W. long, from Ferro. T'his vale is fur- roun-ed with lotty and verd^mt mountains, and form- erly contained no lefs than 40 eminent cities, befides Till tf:eb and hamlets. Concerning the ancient popu- lation of this ciiy there are various opinions. The hif- torians moll to be relied on fay, that it was nearly nine miles in circumference ; and contained upwards of 60,000 houfes, containing each from 4 to 10 inhabitants. li) a late accurate enumeration, made by the magif- trates and prieft*, it appears that the prefent number of inhabitants exceeds 200, oco. The greateft curiofity in the city of Mexico, is their floating gardens. When the Mexicans, abou' the year 1325, were fubdued by the C'llhuan and Tepanecan nati'nis, and confined to the fmall iflands in the lake, having no land to culti- vate, they were taught by neceffity to form moveable gardens, which floated on the lake. Their conftrudi- on is very finiple. They take willows and the roots of mailh plants, and other materials whiih are light, and twill them together, and fo fiimly unite them as to form a f .rt of i)lattorm, which is capable of fuppoiting the earth of the gardt-n. Upon this foundation they l.iy the light bulhes wl.'ich float on the lake, and over them fpread the mud and dirt which they draw up from the bott'im of the lake. Their r gular H^nre is quadran- gular ; their length and breadth vari. us, but general- ly about 8 rods h'Ug and 3 wide; and their elevation from the luiface ot the wnier is k-fs than a foot. Thefe were the fir(t lipids that the Mexicans owned, after the foundation of Me.\ico ; there they firft cultivated the maize, great pepper, and otlier plants iiecelfary tor their fupport. Fn.m the mdullry of the people thefe iields foon became numcrou'.-. At preient they cultivate flowers and every fort of garden herbs upon them. Every day ri" the year at funrife, innumeiable veifels or boatr, 1 ailed with various kinds of flowers and herbs, uhich are cultivated in thefe gardens, are feen arriving by the canal, at the great market-place of Mexico. All plants thrive in them furprifingly ; the mud of the lake makes a very rich fnil, which re- quires no water from the clouds. In the liirgell gar- dens there is ronimonly a little tree and a little hut to fhelter the cultivator and defend him from the lain or the fun. When the owner of a garden or the Chinampa as it is called, wiftics to change liis fituation, to get out cf a bad neighbourhood, or to come n 'arcr to his fa- mily, he gets into his little boat, and by his own ftiength alone, if the jiarden is Imall, or with tlie afljll- ance ot others, if it is large, conduiSs it wherever he pleafes, with the little tree and hut upon it. That part ot the illand wheie thefe floating gardens are, is a place > f delightful recreatiiMi, where the fenfes re- ceive the liighefl poffi'jle gratitication. The buildings^ ^vi,ich arc ot ll ne, are c( nvenient, and the public edi- fice^, efpeci.t!ly the churches, are magnificent ; and the city his the ai pearance of inimenfe weahh. The trade of M;kico confills of 3 great branches, wliich extend over the whole woild. It carries on a traffic with Eu- rope, I y I-a Ve;,i Ciiiz, fituated on the Gull oi Mex- ico, or North Sea; with the Eait-Indie>, by Acapulco, OS the South iica, 210 milet S. W, of Mexico ; and with South-America, by the fame port. Thtfs two fea-ports. Vera Cruz and Acapulco, are admirably well fituated for the commercial purpofes to which they are applied ib. MlIA Rajah, the hij^'hell title of Hindoos. MIAMI River, Little, in the N. W. Territory, has a fouthweflern courl'e, and empies into the Oliio, on the eall fide cf the town of Columbia, 20 miles eall- ward of the Great Miami, in a ftraight line, but 27 taking in the meanders of the Ohio. It is loo fmall for bttteaux navigation. Its banks are good land, and fo high as to prevent in common the overflowing of the water. At the dillance of 30 miles from the Ohio, the Miamies approximate each other within eight miles and a halt. On this river are feveral falt- fprings. — Morse. Miami River, Great, or Great Mincatiii, called alfo AJprenict, or Rocky river, in the N. W. Territory, has a S. by W. cr.urfe, and empties into the Ohio Ijy a mou'.h 200 yards wide, 32^ miles from Big Bones, 154 miles from the Rapids, and 604 from the mouth of the Ohio. It is one of the mod beautiful ftreams in the Territory, and is fo clear and tranfparent, at its higheft (late, that a pin may veiy plainly be feen at its bottom. It has a very flony channel, a fwift dream, but no fills. At the Picque or Pickawee towns, above 75 miles from its mouth, it is not above 30 yards broad, yet loaded batteaux can afcend 50 miles higher. The portage from the navigable waters of its ealtern branch to Sandufky river is 9 miles, and from thofe of its weftern branch to the Miami of the Lakes, only 5 miles. It alfo interlocks with the Sci- oto. — ib. Miami of the Lakes, a navigable river of the N. W, Tenitoiy, which t.ills into Lake Erie, at the S. W, corner of the lake. A fouthern branch of this river communicates with the Great Miami, by a portage ot 5 miles. This river is called by fome writers Maw- mee, alio Omee, and Manmick — iu. Miami, a village on the Miami of the Lake near the Miami Foit. Large canoes can come from Ouia- tanon, a fmall French fettlement on the W. fide of the Wabaih, 197 miles below the Miami C->rrying- |iljce, which lall is 9 miles from this v'llage. — ib. MIAMIS, an Indian nation who inhabit on the Miami river and the fouthern fide of Like Michigan. They can raife about 300 warriors. In confcquence of lands ceded to the United States by the treaty of Greenville, Augiill 3d 1795, government paid them a fura in hand, and engaged to pay to them annually, torevtr, to tlie v.ilue of l,OO0 doil irs in goods. — ib. MiAMis Bay, at the mou.h of the Miami of the Lakes. — lb. MIATA JJlaml one of the Society Iflands, in the S. Pacific ocean. S. lit. 17'' 52', W. long. 148" 6'. —ib. MICHAEL, Si, or St Miguel, a town in the pro- vince of Qjit 1, in Peru, and fi'd to be the firft town the Spanuiros buil' in that coun'ry. It is rf confider- ab!e lizc, Itawdine; in a Iruitlul valley, about 20 leagues ft ni he lea. The inh^bitams call it Chila. Another town, called St Miguel, is iie fvjcond city in Tucu- ma lia, 20 leagues from St Jago del Ellero, on the ro.id :o Cliatc.ira or Poioli, at the foot of a range of [u^^cJ muuntaius, in a well watered place, having Uift M I C C 480 ] M I C Michael, the river Q»cbrad.i on the one fide, and feveral fmall llreanis 011 (he other, 5 or 6 hagins fiom it. The coiiiury produces all kinds of gram, plenty of grapes, cotton and flax, and yields excellent pa^lurage. — ib. Michael, S:, a town of N. An. erica, in New- Spain, and in the province of Mechoacan. It is very populous, and 100 miles from Mexico. N. lat. 20** 35', W. long. 102" SS- — '^• MiciiAtL's Bay, St, on tl'.e E. fide of the illand of Barbadoes in the Well-Indies; a little N. of Foul's Bay ; N. E. of which latt bay are Cobler's Rocks, in the fhape of a horn — ib. Michael's Gu/f, St, in the S. E. part of Panama Bay, is formed by the outlet of St Maria and other rivers tlut tall into it. — ib. Michael, S:, or S.' Miguel Riitr, is alfo on the S. coalt ct ihe ilUimus between N. and S. America, and on the N. Pacitic ocean, and 18 leagues to the \V. of I'ort Ma: tin Lopez, and 3 E. cf Guibahigue. It has 3 fathoms water at flood. AVithin the liver to the N. E. is the burning mountain ot St Miguel, in the midtl of :'.n open pl.iin. — ib. Michael's Bay, St, in Terra Firma, on the S. S^a. — ib. Michael's, St, a paiilh in Chailcl^on dilhiift, S. Carolin 1. — ib. Michael's, St, a town in Talbot county, Mary- land, S miles W. of Eallon, and 21 S. E. of Anna- polis. — ib. Michael, St, or Fond I'es Negre, a town on the S. peninfula of St Domingo illand, 10 leagues N. E. of St Loul^. — /'/'. MICHIGAN Lale, in the N. W. Territory, is the largelt and moll conliderable lake, which is wholly witiiin the United States, ana lies between lat. 42° 10' and 45O 40' N. and between 84'^ 30' and 87" 30' W. long. Its computed length is 280 miles from north to Icuth ; its breadth from 60 to 70 miie.e, and its cir- cumference neaily 600 miles ; and contains, according to Mr Hutchins, 10,368,000 acres. It is navigable for flipping of any burden; and communicates witli Lake Huron, at the north-eallern part, ihroui^h the Straits of Michilllmakkinak. The ftrait is 6 miles brojil, and ilie ioit of its name Hands on an illand at the mouth of the ftrait. In this lake are feveral kinds of lilii ; particularly tiout tf an excellent quality, weighing from 20 to 60 pounds ; and fome have been taken in the llrait which weighed 90 pounds. On the N. '.V. parts of this lake, the waters pulh through a narrow llrair, and branch rjut into two bays; that to the northward is called Noqnet's Bay, the other to the fouthward, Puans, or Gretn Bay, which lalt with the lake, f^jrins a hmg peninfula, called Cape Town- lend, or Vermillion P'int. About 30 miles S. of Bay de Puans, is Lake Winnebago, which communicates with it: and a very Ihort portage interrupts the water conimuiiTra'.ion, foutli-weftward from Winnebago Lake tiirougb Fij riv;r, then through Oulfconlin, in'o the liver M tlilCppi. Cliicago livctr, alfo at the S. W. ex- tremity of Lake Michigan, turnilhes a communication interrupted by a lliil Ihorter portaae, wi;h Illinois river. Lake Michigan receives many fnnU rivers Irom the W. KTiJ E. fome ijo and even 250 yards broad at their mcuclis. — 'Ji. MICHILLlMAKKlNAi: Strjiu conned Lakes Mick- mucks. Michigan and Huron, in a N. E. and S. W. courfe. MIchlHi- ib. makkiiLik, MiCHiLLiMAKKiNAK, an ifland, fort, and village on " the S. W. fide of the ftraits (f the fame name. The fmall ifie on which the village, and the fort conmiand- v ing the llra't, ft and, is W. N. W. cf White Wood Illand, in Like Huron. In addition to the lands round this po.1 to which the Indian title had been cs- tinguifhed by the French and Britilh goveriiii:ents, the Indians have ceded by the treaty of Greenville, a traft of land on the main, to the north of the iflar.d on which the poll of Michilliroakkinak ftands, to meafure 6 miles on lakes Huron and Michigan, and to extend 3 miles back from the water of the lake or ftrait, and alio De Bois Blanc, or White Wood Idand. This laft was the voluntary gift of the Chipcwu nation. The ifland of MichiUimakkinak is very barren, but, as it is the grand rendezvous of the Indian traders, a con- fiderable trade is carried on ; and its very advantage, ous fituation feems to enfure that it will be, at fome future period, a place ot great commercial importance. It is within the line of the United States, and was lately delivered up by the Fritilli. It is .ibout 200 miles N. N. W. from Detroit, and 974 N. W. of Phi- ladtlphii. N. lat. 45- 20', W. long. 84" 30'. — ib. MiCHiLLiMAKKiNAK, Little, A river in the N. W. Teriitoiy, which enters the fouth eaftern fide of Illi- nois river, by a mouth 50 yards wide, and has between 30 and 40 fmall iflands at its mouth ; which at a dif- tance appear like a fmall village. It runs a N. W. courfe, and is navigable about 90 miles. On its banks is plenty ot good timber, viz. red and white cedar, pine, maple, walnut, &c. as alfo coal mines. Its mouth is 13 miles below the Old Pioiias Fort and viU lage, on ihe oppofite fide of the river, at the S. W. end of Illinois Lake, and 195 miles irom the Millillip. pi. — ib. MICHIPICOTEN, a river which empties into Lake Snperiir, on the nnrth-eaft fuie of the lake. It has its fource not far dillant from Mo(fe river, a wa- ter of James's Bay. It forms at its mouth a bay of its own name ; and on the \V. part of the bay, is :i large illand fo calleii, clofe to the land, a fmall llrait only feparates it from Otter's Head on 'he noith. — ib. MIClilPICOOTON n.ufe, in Upper Canada, is fiiuated on t!ie E. lide of the mouth of the above liver, in lat. 47" 56' N. and belongs to the Hudlbn Bay Company. — ib. MiCHISCOUI is the Indian and prefent name of the molt northerly liver in Vermont. It rifcs in Bel- videre, and runs nearly north-eaft until it has croffed into Canada, were it runs fonie dill incs, it turns W. then f lutherly, ro-ent;r5 t)ie State 1 f Vermont in Hich- ford, and empties Into Lake Cliamplain, at Michif- coui Bay, at Highgate. It is navig d)le for the largeft boats to the falls at Swantowp, 7 miles from it; mouth. Michifcoui, La Moelle, and Onion rivers, are nearly of the lame mas,'ritude — ib. MiCHISCOUI Tuiigue, or Bay, a long point of linJ which extends foutheily into I^ake Clnmplain from the ntTcli-eaft corner of the State of Vermont on the W. fide ot the bay ot this name, and forms the tov.'n- (hip of Allbuij'. — ij. MICriMACKS, an Indian nation which Inliabit the country beiv/een the Shaoody Mountain'!, and ilr; Gulf M I D [ 4S1 ] U I D Gulf of St Lawrence in Nova-Scotia, oppofite to St J ilin's Ifland. This nation convey tiieir fentiments by liicroglypliics marked on the rind of the bircli and on paper, which the Roman niiffionaries perfe(5lly under- ftand. M^ny of them refide at the heads of tlie rivers, in King's and Hants counties. — ili. MICOYA Bay is fituaied on the S. W. coaft of Mexico, or New-Spain, on the North Pacific Ocean. In lome charts it is laid down in lat. 10" 15' N. and having Cape Blanco and Chira Ifland for its foutli-eall limit. — a. MICROCOUSTICS, or Microphones, inftru- rients contrived to magnify fmall founds, asmlcrofcopes do fmall objeifts. MICROCOSMIC Salt. See CHEMisTRV-Zni/^-, Suf/)/. MIDDLE BANK, a fidiing ground in the Atlan- tic Ocean, which lies from north-eall to fouth-weft, between St Peter's Bank and that of Sable Illand ; and oppollte to, and S. E. of Cape Breton Ifland, laid down in fome charts between lat. 44" 32', and 45"^ 34' N. and between long. 57° 37', and 59° 32'. — Morsf. MIDDLEBOROUGH, the Nar/tajka of the anci- ent Indians, a townlhip in Plymouth county, Malfa- chufclts, bounded well by Freetown and Taunton, eaft by Carver and W.irham, and is 40 miles S. by E. of Borton ; was incorporated in 1669, and contains 4,526 inhabitants. This town was formerly thickly inhabited by Indian natives, governed by the noted lachem Tif- pacan : there are now only 30 or 40 louU remaining, who, to fupply their immediate necellitits, make and fell brooms and bifl?;ets. The town is remarkable for a large range of ponds, which produce feveral forts of filh, and large quantities cf inn ore. The bottom of Affowamfet Pond may be faid to be an eniire mine of iron ore. Men go out with boats, and ufe inllrunienis like oyller dredges, to get up the oie from the bottom of the pond. It is n(jw lb much exhaufled, that half a ton is ihouglit a good day's work for one man ; but for a number of years one man could take up four times the quantity. In an adjacent pond there is yet great plenty at 20 feet deep, as well as from Ihoaler water. Great quantities of nails are made here. In winter, tlie farmers and young men are employed in this manutaifture. Here, and at Milton in Norfolk county, tlie Hrll rolling and flitting mills were ere(;ied about 40 years a^o, but were inipciteift and unpioduc- tive, in compaiifoi wuh th.ife of the prelent time. The prints of naked liands and leet aie to be ieen on feveral rocks in tins town, fuppoCed to have been done by the Indians. Thefe are probably fimilar to thole obftrved in the States of Tenneliee and Virginia. — ib. MIDDLEBOURG K.y, a fmall iflot' feparatcd from St M.utiii's in the Well-Indies on the N. E. — ih. MIDDLEBURG, or Eooa, the moll fouiherly of all the Fiieiidly Iflands, in the Souili Pacitic Ocean; and is about 10 leagues in circuit. — ib. MlDDLEBURY, a poll-town of Vermont, and capital ot Adjifon county. It is 33 miles N. by W. of Rutland, 15 from Vergennes, and 37 S. E. of Burlington. Here is a brewery \ipnn a pretty large Jcale. Tl,e tov.'nlliip lies on (he E. fide of Otter Creek, and contains 395 inhabitants. — ib. MIDDLE Cole is to the S. W. of Cape Anthony, Sun-L. Vol. II. in Staten Land, On the (Irait Le M aire, and the mod wefterly point of that ifland ; at the eitremity of S. America il. MIDDLEFIELD, a townfliip in Hampdiire coun- ty, Maflachuletts, 30 miles N. \V. of Springfield, and 125 miles welterly of Bufton. Il was incorporated in 17^3, and contains 608 inhabitants. — ib. MIDDLEHOOK, a village in New-Jerfey, 8 miles W. of Brunfwick, on the crof's poft-road from Brunl- wick to Fleniington, and on the N. bank of Rariion river. — ib. Middle IJlan.'s, or Ihlas de en Medio, on the W. coall of New-Mexico, and are between the ifl.inds of Chira and St Luke. They are in the North I'aciljc ocean, in lat. 9" 30' N. There is only from 6 to 7 fathoms from Chira to thefe iflands, and all vellels ihould keep nearer to them than to the main. — ib. MIDDLE Latitude, is half the fum of two given latitudes ; or the arithmetical mean, or the middle be- tween two parallels of latitude. Therefore, If tb.e latitudes be of the f inie name, either both north or both fouih, add the one number to the other, and divide tlic fum by 2 ; the quotient is the middle lati- tude, which is of the fame name with die two given latitudes. But If the latitudes be of diff-rent names, the one north and the other louth ; fubtrai5l the Uls from the greater, and divide the remainder by 2, fo Ihall the quotient be the middle latitude, ol the fame name with the greater of the two. MIDDLESEX, a county of MalTachufetts, bound- ed north by th.' State of New-H^mplhire, E. by Eifet county, S. by Sulfolk, and W. by Worceller county. Its figure is neatly equal to a fquare of 40 miles on a fide; its greatell length being 52, and its greatcil breadth 42 miles. It lias 42 towolhips, which contain 4.2,737 inhabitants. The religious focieties are 55 of Congregationalilts, 6 of Bapiiils, and fome Prefbyte- rians. It was made a county in 1643. It is watered by five principal rivers, Merrimack, Charles, Concord, Nalhua, and Myllick ; befides fmaller ftrcams. The chief pjvvns are Cnarleftown, Cambridge, and Con- cord. Charleflown is the only fea port in the county ; Concord is the moll refptclable inland town, and Is near the centre of the count), being 20 miles N. W. of Boflon. There are in the county 24 fulling-mills, about 70 tan-yards, 4 paper mills, 2 fnuff-mil'is, 6 dif- tillciles, and about 20 pot and peail aih ho'jf;s, Tiie i'ouihcrn and northern fides of the county are hilly, but not mountainous, few of the lulls exceeding 100 feet in height, and are covered with wood, or culii- valed quite to their fummits. Thi air is generally ferene, and the temperature mild. The extreme vari- ation of Farenheii's thermometer, m.iy be confidered as ico" in a year ; but it i» in very few indances, that in the courfe of a year it reaches cither extreme : 92" may be conlidered as the extreme fu;rimer heat, and 5 or 6' below o, as that of the winter cold. In the winter of 1796 — 1797, it (unk to 11° below o. Tile f>il is vaiious, in fome puts of rich, black loam, and in others it is I'ght and fmdy. It produces the limber, grain and fruit which are common throughout the State, eiilicr by n.Uaral growth or cultivation. — Men;. Middlesex, a maiitime couuty of Conneflicut, 3 P bounded Mldille- ficM, II MiiUkftt- M I D [ 4S2 J M I D Midcllcfex, bounded north by Hartford count)-, fouih by Lonp;- tains about 300 houfes, and carries on a confiderable Mlddle- II Iflaiid Sound, call by New-London county, and weil trade. Here the river has 10 feet water at lull tides. »°""- ^Jl^i;!^!!:^' by N-'wHaven. Its greateil length is about 30 miles, N. lat. 41" 35', W. long. 77° 12'. This plice was ^•''^^^* and its greateft breadth 19 miles. It is divided into called Mi:tl,il>eji,:k, by the Indi.iiu, and was fettled in 6 townlhip?, containing 18,855 inhabitant?, of whom 1650 or 1651. Two miles from the city is a lead 221 are flavoi. Conneflicut liver runs the whole mine which was wrouglit during the war, and was length of the county, antl on tlie fticams whicli flow produ(^ive ; but it is too expenfive to be worked ia into it are a number of milh. Middlcton is the chief time ot pc.ice. — ib. town. — ib. MIDDLE TOWN, a towclhip in Str;ifford county, MinDi-ESEX, a county of New- Jerfey, bounded north New-H.iniplliirc ; about 40 miles N by N W. of by Elllx, N. W. and W. by Sonierfet, S. W. by Bur- Portfniouih. It was incorporated in 1778, and con- lington, S. E. by Monmouth, call by R.iriton Bay tains 61 7 iuhabitanf;. — ib. and part of Staten illand. It contains 15,956 inha- Middletown. a townfliip in Rutland cnuiuy, Ver- bitants, including 1,318 llares. From the mouth of Rarit'in river up to Biunfwicl:, the '.and on both fides is generally good, both i'or pallure and tillage, pro- ducin-j confuleiable quantities of every kind of grain and hay. Chief town, New-Biunfwick. — it>. MiDULESFx, a cmmty of Virginia, on the fouih fide of Rappah.innock river, on Chefapeak Bay. It is about 35 miles in length, Hnd 7 in breadth, contain- ing 41I40 iiihabi:ants, incl iding 2,558 flaTCi. Ur- banna is the chief town. — ib. Middlesex, a townlhip in Cliittendon county, Ver- mont, on the nonh-eall fide of Onion river. It con- tains 60 inhabitants. — ;/■. moiit. It contains 699 inhabitants, and is 39 miles north of Benningti.n — ib. MiODLETOWN, a village on Long-Ifland, New- Y'lrk State; 12 miles from .Smiditown, and 13 from Bridgehjmpton. — ib. MiDDLETowN, a tov^ufhip in Ulfter county, New- Ycik, ere<fted iriim Rochelter and Wocdftock in 1789, and contains 1,019 inhabitants, including 6 fl.ives. In 1796 there were 135 of the inhabitants entitled to be eleifl IS. — :b. MiDDLiiTQWN, a towndiip In Newport county, Rhdde-UIiiul tiiate, cntains 840 inhabitiinis, includ- ins; 15 fl>iveb. In this town which is on the ifljnd Middlesex Canal ( Ma(rachulctts) it is e.tpe.'>ed which gives name to the State, and about 2 mihs from will be if great importance to the States of MalFachu- fetts and New-Hamplhire. It is now opening at a vail expenfe by an incorporated company. Tiie delign is to open a water communicatiim trom the waters of Merrimack river at Chehnsford to ttie harbour of Bof ton. The route of the canal will be foutherly through Newport, is the large and curious cavity in the rocks, called Purgatory — ib. MiDDLETOwN, a ftnall pn(l-town in Newcifl^e county, Delaware, lie~ on Apoquinimy Cretk, 2 1 miles S. S. W. ot Vk'ilmlngtiin, and 49 S. W. of Philadelphia. — ih. MiDDLETOWN, in Mcnmouh county, New Jerfey, the eaft parts of Chelmsford, and Bdlerica, the well a touiilhip which contains two places ot worlhip, one part of Wilmington, and the middle of Woburn ; for Baptills and one for the Duteh Reformed church, where it comes to fome ponds, from which the waters and 3,226 inhabitants, including 491 {laves. The run by Myilick river into Bofton harbour. The dif- centre of the townlhip is 50 miles E by N. of Tren- tance from the Merrimack to thefe ponds will be 17 miles. The canal will, without meeting with any large hills or deep vallies, be llraighter than the coun- try road near it. The dillance trom the Merrimack to Medford, as the canal will be made, is 27, and to Bollon, 31 miles. The canal is to be 24 feet wide at ton, and 30 S. W. by S. of New York city. The Itght-houie built by the citizens of New-York on the P' int ot Smdy Honk, is in this townlhip. The high lands of Navelink, are on the fea-coall, near Sandy Hook. Ti.ey are 600 feet above the furface of the water, and are the lands firfl difcovered by mariners the bottom, and 32 at the top, and 6 feet deep. The on this par; ot the coall. — ih. boats are to be 12 feet wide and 70 feet long. The Middletown Point, in the above townfhip, lies on toll is to be 6 cents a mile for every Ion weight which the S. W. Iide ot the bay within Sandy Hook, 9 miles ihall psfs, belides pay for their boats and labour. — ib. E. by N. of Spotfwood, and 14 north well of Shrewf- MIDDLE STAIES, one of the Grand Divilions bury. A polt-ofKce is kept here. — ib. rf the United States, (fo denominated in reference to Middletown, a flouiilhing town in Dauphin coun- the northern and fouiiiern States.) comprehending the ty, Pennlylvania, lituated on the N. W. lide of Swa- States of New-York, New-JerCey, Pennfylvanni, Dela- tara creek, which empties into the Snfquehanna'., 2 ware, and the Territory N. W. of the Ohio. — ib. miles b;lo\v. It contains a Gerni.in church and above MIDl>LETON, an interior townlhip in Ellex coun- 100 houles, and carries on a brifk trade with the farm- ty, Mall.icluUetts, 28 miles nottheiiy of Bolton. It ers in the viciii'.y. It is L-ftim.<ted that above 200 000 was incorporated in 1728, and contains 6S2 inbabi- bulhels of wheat are brought down thele rivers anniial- tants ih. ly to the landing place, 2 mile from the town. Con- MiDDLETON, a city and pofl-town of Conneflicut, tiguous to the town is an excellent merchant mill, fup- and the capital of Middlefex county, plealantly lituat- plied with a conftant Iheani, by a canal cut trom the ed on the weftern bank of Conneiflicut river, 31 miles Svv.itara. It is 6 miles S. ot Hummellton, and 92 W". from its mouth at Saybrook Bar, according to the by N. of Pliiladtl^hia. N. lat. 40° 12', W. long, courfe of the river; 14 miles S. of Harttord, 26 N. 76** 44'. There aie aifo two other towidliips of this by E. of NewHiven, 40 N. W. by W. of New- name in the Slate; the one in Delaware county, the London, and 209 N. E. of Philadelphia. Its public buildings are, a Congregational church, an Epilcopa- lian church, a court-houfe and naval-oHke. It con- other in that of Cumberlard. — ib. Middletown, in Frederick county, Maryland, lies nearly 8 miles W. N. W. of Frcderickftown. — lb Middle- M I L [ town, II Milfnrd. M1DD1.8TOWW, in Dorchedercoiintjr, Maryland, is abc.ut 5 miles N. of the CedarLanding Place, onTranf- quaking Cietk ; 7 vtfieil)- of Vienna, and bi N. W. of Cambridge. — ih. MIUSUMMER-Day, is held on the 24th of June, theianic day as the: nativity of St John the Baptift is held. MIDWAY, a village in Liberty cnuiity, Georgia, 30 miles lnuili of Savannah, and 10 miles N. W. of Sun- bury, lis inhabitants are Congregationalifts, and are the defcendants of emigiants from Dorchcfler near lioftori, in New-Englar.d, vho migrated as early as 1 700. — Mors:. Midway, a towndiip in Rutland county, Vermont, eaft of and adjoining Rutland. — ib. Mil' FLIN, a county cf Pcnnlylvania, furrounded by Lycoming, Franklin, Cumberland, Notthumber- land, D.iuphin, and Huntingdon counties. It con- tains 1,851 iqnare mks, i 184,960 acres, and is di- vided into 8 lownihips. The miHintains in this coun- ty abound with iron ore, for the manufaiSiiring of which, (everal forges have been erected. It is well watered by the Jiimatta, and other dreams which emp- ty into the Suiquehanuah. Chief town, Lewillown. —lb. Mifflin, a fmall town lately laid out in the above couniy, on the call (ide ni tlie Janiatta ; 12 miles calt cf Lcwidown, and 138 from Philadelphia. — ib. Mifflin, Fori, in Pennfylvania, is (ituated on a fmall iflind, at the mouth of Schuylkill river, about 6 miles ibuth of Philadelphia. — ib. MILFIELD, in Grafton county, New-Hampfhire, fettled 1774. — ib. MILFOKD, a townihip in Mifllin county, Penn- fylvania. — ib. MiLFORD, a port-town of the State of Delaware, pleafantly fitu.ited on the north lide of Mufpillion Creek, about 12 miles weft ot its mouth in Delaware Bay, 19 S. by E. of Dover, 7 fouth of FreJeiIca, and 95 S. by W. of Philadelphia. It contains ne.iily too hou- fes, all built lince the wjr, except one. The inhabitants are Epifcopalianj, Quakers and Methociih. — ib. MiLFORD, a town of Nortliampton cuunty, Penn- fylvania, Utely laid out on the N. \V. fide ol the Dela- ware, on a lolty lituation, at Well's Ferry, 120 miles above Philadelphia. In front of the town, which con- tains as yet only a few houfes, the river forms a cove well fitted for (heltering bo-its and lumber in ftorms, or frelhes in the river. A faw-mill and paper-mill have been eredted here; the latter belongs to Mr Bld- dis, who has difcovercd the method of making paper and parte board, by fubllituting a large proportion of faw-dull in the compofition. — ib. MiLFORD, a pnit town of Conneflicut, on Long- Iflind found, and in Ni>v-Haven county, 13 miles S. W. of New- Haven, and call ol Stratford. The mouth of the creek on which it (lands h.is 3 fathoms water. This town was cilled H^opoiun^e by tlie Indians, and was fettled in 1638. It contains an Epifcopal churdi, atid 2 Congregational churches. — ib. MiLFORD Haven, a deep biy on the coaft of Nova Scotia, to the S. W. round the point of the llrait of Canfn. It receives fcveral rivers I'rom the N. W. atid S. Vf.—tb. 83 ] MIL MILITARY 7ffw?i/Z-;/-j, in the State of Nev.--Yoil:. The legifijf.ire of tlie Stale granted ore miliion and a half aci es of land, as a gratuity to the cificers and f >]- diers of the line of this State. This tiact, foiming ihe new county of Onondago, is bounded W. by the cart fliore of the Seneca Lake, and the Mjfiachohtts lands in the new county of Ontario ; N. by the part of Lake Ontario near Fort Ofwego ; S. by a ricge of the Alle- ghany Mountains and the Pennfylvania hue ; and E. by the Tufcarora Creek (which falls neaily into the mid- dle of the Oneida Lake) and that pai t of what was formerly Montgomery county, which has been fettling by the New-England people vety rafidly fincc the peace. This pleafant county is divided into 25 town- fhips of Oo.coo acres each, which are af,aiii fubdivided into 100 convenient farms, of 600 acres ; making in the whole 2,500 farms. This trav-f is well watered by a multitude of fmall lakes and rivers. Tiie referved lands embofnmed in th's trafl, arc as follow: a trad about 171 miles long, and 10 broad, including the northern part of the lake Cayuga, wh'cii lie^ in the centre of it, to the Cayuga Indians. The Indians have a village on each fide of the lake ; .ind the ferry at the north end lies in lat. .',2" 54' 14" norlli. Connoga Caftle is about 3 miles fiutli of the ferry, on the eilt fiJe of Lake Cayuga. The Onon- dago Refervation is uniformly 1 i miles long, and 9 broad ; bounded north by the Public Refervation, and part of the townfliips of Manlius and Camillus. A ve- ry fmall part of the fniuh end of Salt L ike is within the Refervation. The Salt Spring, and the Salt Lake, with a fmall portion of gr(!und on each fide, is referv- ed by the State; its greuell length is 6j miles, and the greateft breadth ol the Refervation 34. — ib. MILK, or MiLKYET, property in Bengal. MILLER, Fori, is on the E. fide of Hudfon's ri- ver, 41 miles north of Albany, confifting (f rapids in the river, and feveral mills thereon. It is fo called from a little mud fort formerly biiilc there againft the Indians. — Mone. Miller's, or Payquagi, a rjx'er of MalFachufetts, which runs W. by S. and falls into Connedicut river, between NorthfielJ and Montague. It is a beautiful llream, though in fome pi. ices very rapid. Its chief fource is in Mononienock pond in Rindge, New-H.imp- (hire, and partly in Winchendon ; the other in Nauk- hcag pond in Alhburnham. Thefe with vaiicus dreams unite in Winchendon, and form Millet's river —ib. Millers, a fettlement in Kentucky, on a branch of Licking river, 32 miles north-eart of Le.xington. — ib- Miller's-Town, ill Northampton county, Pennfyl- vania, is plealantly fituated on a branch ol Lit'le l.,e- higli liver ; 26 niile^ S. \V. ot Eallon, and 47 N. W. bv N. of Philadelphia. It contains about 4c houfes. —ib. Miller's Town, a fmall town in Shenandoah conn- ty> Viiginia, 32 miles fou'h of Wlnchellcr. Two or three miles from this place is the naiiow paf), firmed by the Shenandoah river on one fide, and a fmall brock on the other. It is about a rod and a half wide, and 2 or 3 long ; on each fide is a bank of about ico feet liigli ib. MILL JJl.ind, near the N. W. end of Hudfon's 3 P : Straits ; M I L C 4«4 ] M I N Straits ; N. N. W. of Nottingham Idand, and S. by E. of Cape C<'mfoi t, but nearer to the latter. N. lat. 64° ?6'. W. long. 80-" 30'. — it. MILL J/Ln,l, A I'niall ill.ind in that branch of Chig- ne<So Bay which runs, up due north, whilll the Bay par- ticularly fo called, runs in nonh-ead. It is nearly due wert 4 miles from the nearefl. point of land. — ii. MILLS of various kinds are defcribcd in the article Mechanics (Ericy<l.) ; and he who (hall lludy that ar- ticle, together with IVater-WoRKs, and Machinery, in this Sujijhmeni, will have a fuHicitnt knowledge of the principles upon which mills mull be conlli uiSed inas that they may produce their prcper efFeils. The fubjed is introduced into iliii (lace merely to put it into the power of our countrymen to a.iopt, if they (liali think fit, the improvements whicli have been made in the ma- chinciy ol Hour mills in America. The chicl' of tliefe confift in a new application of the fcrew, and the introdudion of what are called elevators, the idea of which was evidently borrowed from the chain pump. Tiie fcrew is made by Ricking fmall thin pieces of board, about three inches long and two w-ide, into a cylinder, fo as to form the fpiral line. This fcrew is placed in a horizontal pofition, and by turning on its axis it forces wheat or flour from one end of a trough to the other. For inllance, in the trough which re- ceives the meal immediately coming from the (lones, a Icrew of this kind is placed, by which the meal is tor- ced on, to the dillance of fix or eight feet, peihaps, in- to a refervoir ; from thence, without any manual la- bour, it is conveyed to the very top of the mill by the elevators, which confill of a number ot fmall buckets of the fize of tea cups, attached to a long band that goes round a wheel at the top, and another at the bot- tom of the mill. As the band revolves round the ■wheels, thefe buckets dip into the refervoir of wheat or flour below, and take their loads up to the top, where they empty themfelves as they turn round the upper wheel. The elevators are inclofed in fquare wooden tubes, to prevent them from catching in any thing, and alfo to prevent dull. By means of thefe two fimple contrivances no manual laboui is required from the mo- ment the wheat is taken to the mill till it is converted into flour, and ready to be packed, during the various procelles of fcreening, grinding, fitting, &c. That this is a conliderable improvement is obvious ; and we are not without hopes that it may be adopted. The licentioulhefs of an Englifh mob has indeed perfe- cted an Arkwright, expelled the inventor of the fly- Ihuttle i'rom his native country, and by fuch conduifl prevented the re-eredlion of the Albion mills, and the general eftablilhnient of faw-mills through the king- dom ; but their fovereignty perliaps will not be ronl- ed by fo eafy and fimple a contrivance as this to lef- fen the quantity of manual labour. For an account of the Dutch oil-mill, which was fomehow omitted in its proper place in the Encyclop<i:<lia, fee Oil-MUI in this Supplement. MILLSTONE, a fouth branch of Rariion river, in Ncw-Jerfey. — Morie. Millstone, a pleafant rural village, fituated on the Millftone, river of its name, 14 miles N. of Princeton, in New- || Jeifey, containing the ieat of General Fielinghuylen, '^^'"'''"^'"'• and formerly the county town of Someifet. — it>. MILLTOWN, in the State of Delaware, two miles from Wilmington. — ib. MiLLTOWN, in Northumberland county, Pennfyl- vania, on the E. fide of the W. branch of Sufqueiian- nah river, cnntaining ab' ut 60 houfes, and 14 miles N. by W. of Sunbury.— ;3. MUTTON, a townlhip in Cliitteiiden county, Ver- mont, fituated on the call fide of Like Champlain, op. pofite to South Hern Ifl.in.l. It is divided into nearly- equal paits by L.i Moille river, which empties into tlie lake in Colchcller, near the S. line of Milton. The townlhip contains 282 iniialMlants. — il/. Milton, the UnciUa'juiJ[eU, or Unquety of the an- cient Indians, a townlhip iti Norfolk county, Maflachu- fetts ; adjoining to Dorcluftjr, from wliich it is partly feparated by Naponfet river, noted for the excellent quality of its water. It is 7 miles S. of BoHon, and contains 1039 inhabitants; 3 paper-mills, and a cho- colate-mill. It was incoporated in I 662. Milton hill affords one of the fined profpeds in America. — ib. Milton, a townlhip in the new county of Saratoga in New-York. By the State cenl'us of 1796, there were 301 of the inhabitants who were electors. — ib. MiLTON, a military townlhip in Onondago county, New-York, fituated on the N. E. fide of Cayuga Lake, near its fouthern extremiry ; 40 miles N. ot Tioga ri- ver, and 21 S. by E. of the ferry on the N. end of Ca- yuga Lake. It was incorporated in 1794. By the State cenfus of 1796, iSi of its inhabitants were elec- tors. — ib. Milton, a fmall town in Albemarle county, Virgi- nia, fituated on the S. W. fide ot the Rivanna, about 80 miles N. W. by \V. of Richmond. It has about 20 houfes and a warehoufe for the infpedion of tobac- co. — ib. MINAS, Baftn of, or Les Mines Bay, fometimes al- fo called I.e Grand Proye ; is a gulf on the S. E. fide of the Bay of Fundy, into which its waters pafs by a narrow (Irak, and let up into Nova-Scotia in an E. and S. direiftion. It is about 30 leagues from the entrance of Annapolis, and 10 from the bottom ot Bedford Bay. It is 12 leagues in length, and three in breadth. — ib. MiNAs, or De las Mmas Hill, is the middlemoit of the three hills, defcribed as marks within land for Bo. naventura Bay and river, on the coall of Peru, in S. America : thefe are S. of Panama Bay, and in N. lat. 3" 20', VV. long. 75° \%' .— ib. MINE AU FER, or Iron Mines, on the E. fide of Miffiirippi river, is Gi\ miles N. by E. of Chlrkafav/ river, and 15 S. by E. of the Ohio. Here the land is nearly fimilar in quality to that bordering on 'he Cliickafaw river, interfperfed with gradual rifings or fmall eminences. There was a pod at this place, near the former S, boundary ot Virginia. — ib. MINEHEAD, a towndilp In Elfex county, Ver- mont, on Connedlicut liver. — ib. MINERALOGY MINER 1 T S a fcience, the objeft of which is the defcription and Defijiition. J^ arrangement < f//,o;^,»/;/V /'Oi/w. or minerals ; orofrt// the bodies which belong to our globe, excepting animal and vegclabh I'ubllances. ij a;e the publi'.ation of the article Mineralogy, Eiicycl. Icarccly a (ingle day has palled without tht difto- vety oi'lomc new nnneralogicallaifl, or the detct^ion of fonieold and unfufpefted error. Thefe improvements cannot be overlooked in the prcfent Supplement. But they ate io numerous in every part of the icience, tliat we can haidly notice them without giving a pretty com- plete view of the prefent (lute of mineralogy. This will fcarccly occupy more room, and mult be much more ufetul as well as entertaining, than an undigeQed mafs of annotatioiis and remarks. We undertake this talk the mere readily, becaufe in the article Minera- logy in the EncyJipiedui, tl'.e improvements of Mr Wtrner and his dilciplcs, to which the fcience is indebt- ed for a great part of its prefent accuracy, have been entirely overlooked. J The objeifl of mineralogy is twofold, i. To (fe/crlie 01>jc<a. every mineral with fo much accuracy and precifion, that it may be eafily diftinguiihed from every other mineral ; 2. To arrange them into a fydem in fuch a manner th.it every mineral may be ealily referred to its proper place, and that a perfon may be able, meiely by the liclp ot the fyllem, to difcover the name of any mineral what- ever. Wlien thefe two objefls are accompliflied, mi- Dcfcrlptlon j^j_.^^] Hi i<Slv fo called, is completed. Rut were we of Mine- ,, °V ,• ... r i_ /- • r ■ i i i ygjj to Hop here, the utility ot the fcience, it it would be entitled to the name of fcience, could hardly be confi- dered as very great. We mull therctore apply chemijlry to difcover the ingredients ol which minerals are com- pofed, and to deteft, if poUible, the laws which thefe ingredients have obferved in their combination. Thus we Ihall really extend our knowledge of inorganic na- ture, and be enabled to apply that knowledge to the improvement of almoft every art and manufa^flure. 3 Mineralogy naturally divides itfclf into three parts. DiviCon of Thejirjl treats of the method of defcribing minerals; uie article. t!ieyr«fl(/, of the method of arranging them ; and the tl.ird exhibits them in a fyllem defcribed and arranged according to the rules laid down in the two fird parts. Thtfe tlirce p .rts Ihall be the lubjeifls of the following chapters; and we fhall finilTi the article with a chapter on the chemical analylis of minerals. Chap. I. Of the Description or MiNER.'iLs. Nothing, at livft fight, appears eifier than to de- fcribe a mineral, and yet, in reality, it is attended with a great deal of dilliculty. The mineralogical defcrip- tions of the ancients are fo loofe and inaccurate, that many of the minerals to which they allude cannot be afcerlained ; and conlequently thtii obfervations, how- ever valuable in themlelves, arc often, as far as relpeifls tis, altogether loll. It is obviou'., thai to dillinguilh a mineral trom every oth-r, we mull either mention fonie peculiar property, or a coUeflion ot properties, which exill together in no other mineral. Thefe properties A L O G Y miift be defcribed in terms rigidly .iccurate, v Iiicli con- vey precife ideas of the very properties intended, and ot no other properties. The Imallell deviation from this W(<uld lead to confulion and uncertainty. Now it is impoffible to defcribe minerals in this manner, unlefs there be a peculiar term tor each of their properties ; and unlefs this term be completely undei Hood. Minera- logy therefore mull have a language of its own; that is to fay, it mufl have a term to denote every mineralogi- cal property, and each of thefe terms mud be accurate- ly delined. The language of mineralogy was invented by the celebrated Weiner of Freyberg, and firll made known to the world by the publication of his trealife on the external chciraclers of minerals. Ol this language we (hall give a view in the following general deitriplion of the properties of minerals (a). The properties of minerals may be divided into two clalfes. \Jl, Properties difcovei able w-ithoiitdeftroying the texture of the mineral ; 2d, Properties refulting from the aiflion of other bodies on it. The firft clafs has, by Werner and his difciple?, been called external properties, and by fome French writers phyfical ; the' lecond clafs has been called chemical. The external properties may be arranged under the following heads : 1 Figure. 8 Duiftility. 2 Surface. 9 Fr.nflure. 3 Tranfparency. 10 Texture. 4 Colour. II Stiuifture. 5 Scratch. 12 Fragments C) Lullre. 13 Feel. 7 Hardnefs. I. By FIGURE is meant the fhape or form which a mineral is oblerved to have. The y^wrf of minerals is cxlher regular, particular, or amorphous. 1. Minerals which alfume a regular figure are faid to be cryllal- lized.* T\\t fulei of'acryllal are called faces; the fharp line formed by the inclination of two faces is call- ed an ed^e ; and the corner, or angle, formed by the meeting ot feveral edges in one point, is called a /olid angle, or fimply an angle. Thus a cube has fix faces, twelve edges, and eight angles. 2. Some minerals, though not cryflalli/.ed, affecl dparticular figure. Thefe particular figures are the toUowing : Globular, like a globe; oval, like an oblong fpheriod ; ovate, like an egg ; cheefe-Jhaped, a very flattened fphere ; almond- Jhaped, like an almond ; eentlcular, like a double convex lenfe, compreifed and gradually thinner towards the edges ; cuneiform, like a wedge ; nodulous, having de- prellions and protuberances like a potatoe ; hotrytiidal, like grapes clofely prcli'ed together ; denliform, longilli and tortuous, and thicker at the bottom than the top; •wireform, like a wire ; capillary, like hair, finer than the preceding ; retiform, threads interwoven like a net ; dendritic, like a tree, having branches ilfuiug from a common Wcm ; fhrubform, branches not arifing from a common Hem ; coraloidal, branched like coral ; ftalatli- tical, like ilicle>; claval.d, like a club, long, and thicker at one end than another ; fifciform, long llraight cylin- drical 485 Properties ofmmcr.iU> 14 Sciund. 15 Smell. 16 Talle. External Cbaraacrt. 17 Gravity. 18 M.ignetilm. 19 Eleiftricity. r form which a 5 Figure. • See Che- mistry, Part III. ch. iv. Sufft. (a) The fullefl account of Werner's external charaiflers which we have feen in the Englilh language, has been given by Dr Townfon in his Phitofoply of Mineralogy. Wc have availed ourfelves of this book, in order to exhibit fome ot the 1 r.elt improvemcnf: oi Werner and his dilViples. The reader may alio confult ll'crner't Treati/e, publilhed at Leipfic in 1774 ; or the French (ranjjatioa piiblilhed at Dijon iu 1790. See aUb Rome Je Lijle. Des caraaers c.xliriiur des mineraiix. Aud JJauy Jour, d bijl, Nat. 11. 56. 486 r.iternal Cliari(2cri 6 Surfjc:. MINERALOGY. Chap. r. 7 Tranfjii- rcncy. 9 Colour. drical bodies, united like a bundle of rods ; tultilar, cy- ■ lindiical and hollow. 3. When minerals have neither a regular nor particular Ihape, they are laid to be amor- phous. II. By SURFACE is meant the appearance of the ex- ternal lurface oi minerals. The furfacc is either umven, coiTipoled of fmall unequal clcv.iiions and dcprelTioni ; Jcahrous, iiaving very fmall IhaifAnd rough elevations, more e.ilily felt than feen ; dr.,J}, covered with very mi- nute cryilalb ; rough, c<.mpoled uf very minute blunt ele- vations, eafily diliinguHbablc by the feel j fcaly, conipo- f;d of very minute thin fcale like leaves ; /moo//i, free from all inequality or roiighnefs ; ffcciilar, having a fraooth polilhcd furface like a mirror : or JlreaLed, Iia- ving elevated, llraight, and parallel lines. Tliii lall clia- radcr is confined to the furf<ice of cryftals. The Jr^iis are either traiifverfe ; longitudinal ; alternate, in diffe- rent directions on different taces ; plumofi, running from a middle lib; or dccujfuted, eroding each other. III. By TRANSPARENCY is meant the proportion of light which minerals are capable of tranlmitling. They are tranfpareiit or pellucid, when objefts can be feen di- diniflly through them; d'laphatmu, when objeds are feen thi lugh them imliitinctly ; juhliaphanous, when light pall'es but in fo fmall a quantiiy that objefls can- not be leen through them (b) ; opaque, when no light is tranfmittcd. When opaque minerals become tranfparent in water, they are called hydriphanous. When objects are feen double through a tranlparent mineral, it is laid to refmH doubly. IV. The colours of minerals may be reduced to eight claffes. 1. Whites. Snow white. Pure white. Reddifh white. White with a light tint of red. Yelluwifh white. White with a light tint of yellow. Silver white. YtUowifh white with a metallic lullre, Greyilh white. White with a light tint of black. Greenifh white. White with a light tint of green. Milk white. White with a light lint of blue. Tin white. Milk white of a metallic luftre. 2. Greys. Bluilh grey. Grey with a little blue. Lead Grey. Bluilh grey with a metallic luftre. Pearl grey. Light grey with a flight mi.\ture of vio- let blue. Dark grey with a little blue and Smoke grey, brown. Greenifh grey Yellow itli grey Light grey tinged with green. A light grey tinged with yellow. Steel grey. A dark grey with a light tint of yel- low and a metallic luftre. Black grev. The darkeft grey with a tint of yellovy. 3. Blacks. Greyifli black. Black with a little white. BrowniQi black. Black with a tint of brown. Black. Pure Black. Iron black. Pure black with a fmall mixture of white and a metallic lullre. Bluifh black. Black with a tint of blue. 4. Blues. Indigo blue. A dark blackifli blue. Pruffian blue. The p'.ireft blue. External Azure blue. A bright blue with fcarce a tint of red. CJiaraiiitrs; Smalt blue. A light blue. v^~>^^«-' Violet blue. A nii-vturc of azure blue and carmine. Lavender blue. Violet blue mixed with grey. Sky blue. A light blue with a flight tint of green. 5. Gre.ns. Verdigris green. A bright green of a bluifh cift. Seagrecn. A very light green, a mixture of verdi- gris green and grey. Beryl Green. The preceding, but of a yellowilh caft. Emerald green. Pure green. Grafs green. Puie green with a tint of yellow. Apple green. A liglit green formed of verdigrii green and white. Leek green. A very dark grcea with a cad of brown. Blackifh green. The darkeft green, a mixture of leek green and black. Piltachio green. Grafs green, yellow and a little brown. Olive green. A pale yellowiflj green with a tint of brown. Afparagus green. The lighted green, ycllowifh with a little brown and grey. 6 . Tellotus. Sulphur yellow. A light greeniflt yellow. Brafs yellow. The preceding, with a little lefs greea and a metallic hiftre. Lemon yellow. Pure yellow. Gold yellow. The preceding with a metallic luftre. Honey yellow, A deep yellow with a little reddifh brown. Wax yellow. The preceding, but deeper. Pyritaceous, A pale yellow with grey. Straw yellow. A pale yellow, a mixture of fulphur yelliw and reddifh grey. Wine yellow. A pale yellow with a tint of red. Ochie yellow. Darker than the preceding, a mix- ture of lemnn yellow with a little brown. Ifabella yellow. A pale brownifli yellow, a mixture of pale orange with reddilh brown. Orange yellow. A bright reddilh yellow, formed of lemon yellow and red. 7. Reds. Aurora red. A bright yellow red, a mixture of fear- let and lemon yellow. Hyacinth red. A high red like the preceding, but with a (hade of brown. Biick red Lighter than the preceding; a mixture of aurora red and a little brown. Scarlet red, A bright and high red with fcarce a lint of yellow. Copper red, lie lultre. Blood red. fcarlet. Carmine red. Pure red verging towards a caft of blue. Cochineal red. A deep red; a mixture of carmine with a little blue and a very little grey. Crimfon red. A deep red with a tint of blue. Flelh red, A very pale red of the crimf in kind, Kof« red, A pale red of the cochineal kind, Peack A light yellowilh red with the metal- A deep red, a mixture of crimfon and (b) After Mr Kirwan, we have denoted thefe three degrees of tranfparencv by the figures 4, 3, 2. When a mineral is fubdiaphanous only at the edges, that is denoted by the figure i . Opacity is foraetimes denoted by o. Chap. II. MINERALOGY. External Charaacrs Streak. LvHrc. II liardncfs. 12 Humility and hrit* tlcncfs. »3 fia<iiurc. Peach blolTom red. A very pale whitilh red of the crimion kind. Moid. re. A dark d'riy crimfon red ; a iiiinture of crinilon aid a little brown. Biuwuilh red. A mixuire of blood red and brown. 8 . Browns. Rcddifli bro\%n. A deep bioivn inclining to red. Clove biovvn. A deep brown with a lint if carmine. Yell w Ih brown. A lij;ht brown verging towards ochre yellokv. Uiiibe: briiwn. A light brown, a mi.xture of yel- low ilh brown and grey. H.iir brinvn. Iniermediate between yellow brown and clove btnwn with a tint of grey. Tombac brown. A li.^ht yeliowifli bro^vn, cf a me- tallic Uillie, formed ot gold yellow and leddilli bruwn. Liver brown. Adailtbiown; bl.tckilh brown with a tnit of green. BUckilh brown. The darked brown, Col.iurs, in refjiefl of intenlity, are either Jijri, dtrp, light. OT pule . Vn hen a colour caniiut be referred to any of tlie preceding, but is a mixture of two, this is eiprcrtVd, by f.tymg, that the prevailing one vergn to- waid> the otiier, if it has only a fniall tint of it; Imjfi int ' it, it it has a greater. V. By the scaATCn or streak, is meant the mark left when a mineial is I'ciatched by any hard bed), as the p^ int ot a knife. It is enhcrjii»i/jr, of the fjmc colour with the mineral ; or dijimilar, of a dilTerent co- lour. VI. I.usTRE, is the glofj or brightnefs which ap- pears on the external luriace of a miiier.il, or on its in- ternal furlace when frefh broken. The tirll is called €i.Utnal, the lecond tiHerual luHre. Lultre is either common, lliat which molt minerals policls ; ^yf/ij/, like tliat of lilk 1 r rn. ther-if peatl ; -waxy, like th.it of uax ; greafy, like that «t gieale ; or mctuinc, like ihat of me- tals. As to the degree, the greateft is called fp'endcnt, the next Ihin'mg, ihe third UuiUjh ; and when i>nly a tew fcatteicil pai tides Itnne, tlie lullre is called dull \ c). VII. We liave uled figures to denote tiie comp irative HAHDNEss of bodiei ; lor an explanation of which, we rcfei to i.e article Chemistry, Vol. 1. p. 272, of this SuppU/iifnt. VIU. With refpei2 10 ductility and brittle- Ntss, mineiaU are either malieubU ; JtOile, capjlilc of beinc cut witlioiil breaking, out not malleable ; _/?x;.iv capable ot being bent, and when bent retaining their fti ipc ; or ttajlic, capable of being bent, but re< nvcring their tornicr inape. Mineral-- dellitnte 1 f thelV pro- pci ties are brittle. Buttle m'licrals, witli rel'peift to the eafe wiili winch they may be broken, aie either -very towih, lough, jragilt:, 1 r very fni'^ile. IX. liy FRACTURE is nieaot the irefh liirfiice which a mineral Oi plays when broken. It i> eitier ySa/. with- out any geneial elevation or <lep etii ii; nr cun hoital, having wide extended roundifli li'>ll' ws aid gcn'le ri- Angs. Wiien theti: are n>it v>ry evident, ine tiiflure Jscalle.l^J/ c nthoid.ilj when t.-.ey aiefmill, it is Call- edyniii// conchoiddl ; and when of gre.it exieiit, grtat conchiiidal Tile fra>ilurc may alio be ewii, free from all afperi- tie-.; uneven, having many fmall, ftiarp, abrupt, irrecular elevations and inequalities ; and from the lize of thefe, this fra^ure is denominated coarfe, fmall, arjlne ; fflin- tiry, having fmall, thin, half detached, fh^rp edged fplinteri, according to the lize of which this frafture is denominated courje <.■•: fine ; or rugged, having mai.y ytry mir.ute (harp hooks, more lenlible to me hand than the e)e. X. By TEXTURE is meant the internal (Irniflure or difp iliiion of the matter of which a mineral is compoIeJ, wtiich may be dif'cuvered by breaking it. The texture is either comfac'., without any dilfiiigu Ihahle parts, or the appeal aiice of being ct mpoled ot Imaller pai -^ ; earily, compofed ot veiy minute almo/l inipeicepuble rough patti ; granular, compofed ot Imall fhapelels grains; guiutijurm, c mpoled ot fmall fpheiiial br dies ; Jilrvus, compofej ot libies which may be long, Jhort, Jlraigkt, trook-d, pirallet, dive>gtr.l,Jle'.:aUd,JajLicuat:d. 01 decuf- J'a cd ; radiated, c- ntifling ol long narrow H ,tii(]i lamellrt; w lamellar ox /elicited, condlling of fniooth ccntinued fines covering eacli other: thef; plates may be either Jlruight, crooked, or umluLtlng. XI. The STRUCTURE or COMPOUND Tf.XTUtJE is the manner in whuh ihe parts tliat form the texture aie aifpoud. It is cichcry/./y, in Rraight layeis like f] lie ; tcjtaciouj, in incui vated layers ; cuncentric, in coa- centric layers ; or columnar, in columns. The texture -dudjlruclure may at tirft view appear tJie fame ; but in reality they are very different. Thus common Hate has often iheJLtyJlruaure and earthy tex- ture. The texture of pitcoal is conipaift, b-jt its ttrnc- ture is often tlaty. XII. By FRAGMENTS is meant the fliapeof the pieces into which a niineial breaks when ftruek with a ham- mer. They are either cui(c- ; rhomboiJal ; ijjedgjlyjped ; fplinlcry, thii, long, and pointed ; tabuljr, thin, and broad, and lliarp at the coiners, as common flate; or indeterminate, without any paiticular ref;ml)lance to any ottier bi'dy. The edgei < f in Jeierminate fragments arc either veryjbarp, jharp, Jl:arfijh, or Hunt. XIII. By the FhtL of minerals is me.'.nt tlic fenfa- tion which their liirtaces communicate when handled. The feel 01 finie minerals is ^rea/fv. ot otheis <■//-_)•, &c. XIV. S rme minerals when llruck give a clear SOUND, as common tlate ; others a di*// found. The SMELL, TASTE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, and MAG- NETisM ot niineial-, require no explanation. VVitli relpeift to electricity, 1 me nuneials become electric when heated, o.liers when rubbed, others cmnot be lendeied eledric. The eleiffiicity of fume minerals upojitive or vitrons, of others nfgative or rtftnoits. A- lor the chemical properties of minerals, ih'^y have been already explained in the article Chemistry, which ni.ikcs a pan of this SuppUmenf. And ioT the description of the blow-pipe, and the manner of uliiig it, we refer the reader to a ireatife on that tubjei!> pre- fixed to the article Mineralogy in the Encscloptdta. Chap. II. Of the Arrangement of Minerals. Minerals may be arranged two ways, according ta their exteiual chai-.iflers, and according to their chemi- cal compofiii. n. The tirit of thele m.thods has lieca called all artifcial clafiilication ; tlie fecond, a natural one^ 487 ■Rxtcrn.!! Charade rs. 14 Tc»(ure. 15 Strudlurc 16 Fragraenta^ Feci. 18 Sotud.. (c) I'l-.cic i.iui degifc^have bteu dtuoied by Kirwan by the llgures 4, 3, 2, 1, and no luftre by o. Wc have.- tfnitrttcd him iu the ^relent article. 488 MINERALOGY. Chap. II» Artificliil SyUcm. I? Aititichl clalTts. one. The firll is indlfpenfably necelFary for the (lu- dent of n-aturc ; the feconJ is no lefs inJifpenfable lor the proficient who means to turn his knowledge to ac- count. Without the firft, it is impoQiblc to dil'cover tlw names of minerals ; and without the fecond, we muft re- main ignorant of iheir ufe. Almoft every fyfttm of mineralogy hitherto publifli- ed, at Icaft fince the appearance of Werner's external charaHcrs, has attempted to combine thefe two arrange- ments, and to obtain at one and the f.irae time the ad- vantages peculiar to each. But no attempt of this kind has hitherto Aicceeded. Whether this be owing to any thing impolFible in the undertaking, or to the prefcnt imper{e<;> (late of mineralogy, as is more pro- bable, we do not take upon us to determine. But furely the want cf fuccefs, whicli has hitherto attended all attempts to combine the two arrangements, ought to fuggeli the propriety cf i'cparating them. By ad- hering ftrialy to one language, the trouble of ftudying two different fyllems would be entirely prevented. They would throw mutual light upon each other : the arci- ficial fyllem would cn.ible the ftudent to difcover the names of minerals ; the natural would enable him to ar- range them, and to ftudy tlieir properties and ufes. The liappy arrangement of Cronlledt, together with the fubfcquent improvements of Bergman, Werner, Kirwan, Hauy, and other celebrated mineralogifts, has brought the na'uni/ fyllem of mineralogy to a conlider- able degree of perfection. But an artificial fyflem is Hill a dciideratum ; for excepting Linnaeus, whofe fuc- cefs was precluded by the (late nf the Icieiice, no one has hitherto attempted it. Though we are very far from thinking ourlelves fufficicntly qualified for under- taking fuch a talk, we (hall neverthelefs venture, in the nejit chapter, to (ketch out the rudiments of an arlilicial fydem. The attempt, at leall, will be laudable, even though we Ihould fail. Chap. III. Artificiai, System. Minerals may be divided into (ix cla(res: 1. Minerals that cannot be lul'ed by the blow-pipe perfi:, 2. Minerals fufible /><■/-/• by the blow-pipe. 3. Minerals fufible by the blow-pipe />erfe when ex- pofed to the blue flame, but not when expoled to the yellow fi.ime. 4. Minerals fufible />er fi by the blow-pipe ; and when in fu(ion, partly evaporating in a vilible fmoke. 5. Minerals which totally evaporate before the blow- pipe. 6. Minerals totally foluble in muriatic acid with ef- fervefcence, the folution colourlefs. Under the('e heads we (hall arrange the fubjefts of the mineral kingdom. Class I. INFUSIBLE. ORDER I. Specific gravity from 16 to 12. GiNus I. Colour whitilli iron grey. Species I. Native platinum. ORDER II. Sp. gr. 8.5844 to 7.006. GtNus I. Atir.idled by the magnet. Sp. I. Native iron. Genus II. Not attracted by the magnet. ^^-^ S/>. 1. Native copper. Flexible and malleable. Colour ufually redi Sj). 2. Wolfram. Arfificial Brittle. Colour ufually brown or black. Syilmi. • ORDER III. Sp. gr. from 6.4509 to 5.8. GiNvs I. Forms a blue glafs with microcofmic fait, which becomes colourlefs in the yellow, but recovers its colour in the blue flame. Sp. I. Tungftat of lime. Genus II. Forms with microcofmic fait a per- manently coloured bead. Sf. I. Sulphuret of cobalt. ORDER IV. Sp. gr. fioni 4.S to 4.5. Genus I. Tinges borax dark gnen. Sp. I. Common magnetic iron (lone. Genus IL Tinges borax reddi(h brown. Sp. I. Grey ore of nianganefe. ORDER V. Sp. gr. from 4.4165 to 3.092. Infu- lible with fixed alkalies. Genus I. Hardnefs 20. Sp. 1 . Diamond. Genus II. Hardnefs 15 to 17. Caufes fingle re- fraftion. Sp. I. Telefia. Sp. 2. Corundum. Genus III. Hardnefs 13. Single refraftion. Sp. I. Ruby. Cryllallizes in oflohedrons. Genus IV. Hardnefs 12. Single refrafli on. Sp. 1. Chryfoberyl. Genus V. Hardnefs 12. Caufes double refradlion. Becomes eledric when healed. Sp. I. Topaz. Genus VI. Hardnefs 10 to 16. Double refrac- tion. Sp. gr. 4.2 to 4.165. Sp. I. Zircon. Genus VII. Hardnefs 6 to 9. Feels greafy. Sp. I. Cyanitc. Genus VIII. Hardnefs 9 to 10. I'eel not greafy. Double refradion. Sp. gr. 3283 to 3.285. Sp. 1. Chry(olite. Genus IX. Hardnefs 12. Infufible with borax. Colour of large malies black, of thin pieces deep green. Sp. Ceylanite. ( Phofphat of lime.) ORDER VI. Sp. gr. from 2.9S29 to 1.9S7. Infufi- ble v.-ith fixed alkalies. Genus I. Hardnefs 12. Sp. I. Emerald. Genus II. Hardnefs 10. Sp. 1. Jade. Genus III. Hardnefs 6 to 7. paient. Sp. I. Phofphat of lime. Before the blow-pipe becomes furrounded with a luminous green vapour. Genus IV. Hardnffs 6. Opaque. Sp. I. Micarelle. Genus V. Stains the fingers. Colour lead grey. Sp. I. Plumbago. Spanifh wax rubbed with plumbago docs not become eledlric ; or if it does, the eleftricity is negative. Streak lead grey even on earthen ware. ORDER VII. Sp. gr. from 4.7385 to 4.569. Fufible with fised alkalies. Genus Somewhat tranf- Chap. III. M I N E R A Arti&cial Syftcm. Genus I. Stains the fingers. Colour lead grey. , S/>- I. Molybdena. Spanifh wax rubbed with molybdena be- comes poficlvely eleflric. Streak on earthen ware yellowilh green. ORDER VIII. Sp. gr. from 4.1668 to 2.479. F"" fible with fixed alkalies. * Hardnefs from 10 to 12. Genus I. Ufualiy white. Cryftals dodecahedrons. Double refraftion. Frafture imperfeiflly con- choidal or fplintery. Brittle. S/i. 1. Quartz. Genus II. Uliially dai k brown. Fraftiire per- feftly conchoidal. Brittle. Eafily breaks into fplinters. Sp. I. Flint. Genus III. Not brittle. Fraiflure even or im- perfeftly conchoidal. Sp. I. Chalcedony. Sp. 2. Jafper. Genus IV. Forms with potafs a violet glafs, with foda or borax a brown glafs, with microcofinic fait a honey yellow glafs. Colour green. A- morphous. Sp. I. Chryfoprafium. Genus V. Tinges foda red. The colour difap- pears before the blue flame, and returns befure the yellow flame. Sp. I. Oxyd of manganefe and barytes. Sp. 2. Black ore of manganefe. Sj}. 3. Carbonat of manganefe. fBrcwn ore of iron. Red ore of iron.) ** HarJnefs 9 to 3. Genus VI. Flexible and elaftic in every diretflion. Sp. I. Elaftic quartz. Genus VII. Emits white flakes before the blow- pipe. Sp. I. Blende. Genus VIII. Becomes eledlric when heated. Sp. I. Calamine. Genus IX. Tinges borax green. Blackens before the blow-pipe. Sp. I . Mountain blue. Colour blue. Sp. 2. Green carbonat of copper. Colour green. GiNUs X. Tinges borax green. Becomes attra<fiable by the magnet by the aftion of the blow-pipe. .S^. I. Brown iron ore. Colour brown. Sp. 2. Red iron ore. Colour red. Genus XI. Tinges borax fmutty yellow. Be- comes brownifli black before the blow-pipe. Sp. 1 . Carbonat of iron. Genus XII. Feels greafy. Sp. I. Steatites. ( Blaii ore of Manganefe. Carbonat of manganfe. Mica.) ORDER IX. Sp. gr. from 2.39 to 1.7. Genus I. Liiftre glalfy. Sp. I. Opal. Sp. 2 Hyalite. Genus II. Lullre greafy. Sp. I. P.tchftone. SuppL. V'oi.. II. L O G Y. Genus III Sp. 1. Class II. Luftre waxy or pearly. Staurolite. FUSIBLE. ORDER I. Sp. gr. f[om 19 to 10. Genus I. Colour Yellow. Sp. I. Native geld. Genus U. Colour white. Sp. I. Njtive Silver. Genus III. Colour yellowifli white. Sp. I. Alloy of filver and gold. ORDER II. Sp. gr. from 7.786 to 4.5. Genus I. Flexible and malleable. Sp. I. Suiphuret of filver. •• Brittle. Genus II. Tinges borax white. Sp. I. Tinltone. Genus III. Tinges borax green. Sp. Sp. 2. Sp. 3- Genus IV. Suiphuret of copper. Colour bluifl) grey. Chromat of lead. Colour aurora red. Purple copper ore. Colour purple. Tinges borax faint yellow. Become* bl ick when expoftd to ihe vapour of fulphuret of ammonia. Sp. I . Galena. Colour bluifh grey. Luftre metal- lic. Fragments cubic. Black lead ore. Colour black. Luftre metallic. Lead ochre. Colour yellow, grey, or red. Luftre c. Carbonat of lead. Colour white. Luftre waxy. Phofphat of lead. Ufualiy green. Luftre waxy. Af- ter tulion by the blow-pipe cry- ftallizes on cooling. Molybdat of lead. Colour yellow. Streak white. Luf- tre waxy. ORDER III. Sp. gr. from 4.35 to 3. * Hardnefs 14 to 9. Melts without frothing into a grey en- Sp. 2. Sp.l. Sp.^. Sp.5. Sp. 6. Genus amel. Sp. Garnet. Colour red. Melts into a brownifh enamel. Shoil. Colour black. Opaque. Froths and melts into a white enamel. Tourmaline. Becomes ele«flric by heat. Froths and melts into a grecniftj black Genus II. Sp. 1. Genus III Sp. I. Genus IV. enamel. Sp. 1. Bafaltine. Genus V. Froih^. and melts into a black enamel. Sp. I. Ti.alliie. Colovir dark green. Sp. 2. Thumerftone. Colour clove brown. •• Hardnefs 5 to 8. Genus VI. Melt^ in-o a traufparcnt glafs. 3 Q_ Sp. I. 49© Artificial MINER Sp. I. Fludt of lime. Powder phofphorefces when thrown on a hot iron. Genus VII. Melts into a black glafs. S/i. I. Hornblende. Genus VIII. Melts into a black bead with a fiil- phureoiis fmell, and depofits a blue oxyd on the charcoal. Sj>. I. Siilphuret of tin. Genus IX. Melts into a brown glafs. Tinges borax violet. S/>. 1. Afbeftoid. C'>lwur green. Genus X. Melts into a browo (?) glafs. When fuffd with potafs, and dillolved in water, the folution becomes ot a fine orange yellow. Sf. I. Chromat of iron. Genus XI. Before the blow-pipe yields a bead of copper. S^^. I. Red oxyd of copper. f Sulphur et of copper.) ORDER IV. Sp. gr. frrm 2.94; to 2.437. Genus I. Conipofed ct fcales. Sp. I. Talk. Feels greafy. Spanifli wax rubbed by it becomes pofuively eleiflric. Genus II. Compofcd of thin plates, ealily fepa- rable from each other. Sp. I. Mica. Plates flexible and elaflic, may be torn but not broken. Spanilh wax rubbed by it becomes negatively eleflric. Sp. 2. Stllbite. Plates fomewhat flexible. Colour pearl white. Powder renders fy- rup of violets green. Froths and melts into an opaque white enamel. Sp. 3. Lcpidolite. Colour violet. Powder wliite with a tint of red. Froths and melts into a white femitranfparent ena- mel full of bubbles. Genus III. Texture foliated. Sp. I. Felfpar. Fr.igments rhomboidal. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Sp. 2. Leucite. Always cryftallized. White. Pow- der renders fyrup of violets green. Hardnefs 8 to 10. Sp. 3. Argentine felfpar. Always cryllallized. Two faces dead white, two filvery white. Sp. 4. Prehnite. Colour green. Froths and melts into a bruwn enamel. Genus IV. Texture fibrous. Fibres eafily fe- paiated. Sp. I. Albenus. Feels 1'. mewhat greafy. Genus V. Texture llnated. Sp. I. yEJclite. Abforbs water. Froths and melts inu) a frothy mafs. CsNus VI. Texture earthy or coropadl. A L O G Y. sp. I. Chap. III. Lazulite. Artificial. Froths and melts into a yellowifh •''yfteni. black mafs. If previouily calci- ned, gelatinizes with acids. Sp. 2. Borat ot lime. Tinges the fljme grcenilh, froths and melts into a yellowilh enamel gar- rilhed with fmall prcjefting points. If the blall be continued, thefe dart oiF in fparks. ORDER V. Sp. gr. from 2.348100.68. Genus I. Hardnefs 10. Sp. 1. Obfidian. Cvlour blackirti, in thin pieces green. Genus II. Hardnefs 6 to 8. Sp. I. Zeolite. Gelatinizes with acids. Becomes e- leiSric by heat. Genus III. Hardnefs 3 to 4. Sp. I. Amianthus. ' Feels greafy. Texture fibrous. Sp. 2. Mountain Cork. Elaltic like cork. Class III. FUSIBLE by the BLUE FLAME, INFUSIBLE BY THE YELLOW. Genus I. Sp. gr. from 4.43 104.4. Sp. I. Sulphat of barytes. Genus II. Sp. gr. from 3.96 to 3.51, Sp. 1. Sulphat of ftrontites. Genus III. Sp. gr. from 2.31 1 to 2.167. Sp. I. Sulpliat of lime. Class IV. FUSIBLE, and partly EVAPORA- TING. ORDER I. Sp. gr. from 10 to 5. Genus I. Colour white or grey. Ludre metallic. Sp. gr. 9 to 10. Native amalgam. 'J inges gold white. Creaks when cut. Alloy ot filver and antimony. Pi'wder greyilh black. * * Sp. gr. fioiu 6.467 to 5.309. Sulphjret of bilniuth. Melts when held to the flame of a c male. Dull grey cobalt ore. Streak bhiilh grey. Hardnefs 10. Wlien (truck, emits an arl'enical fmell. Liiftre icarcely metallic. Genus II. C' 1- ur red, at leall ot tiie ftteak. Sp. I. Red filver ore. Bums with a blue flame. .S^. 2. Hepatic mer..urial 01 e. Does not flame, but gives out mer- cury before the blow-pipe. Genus III. Colour blue. Sp. 1. Blue lead ore. Bums with a blue flame and fulphu- reoub fmell, and leaves a button of lead. Genus IV. Colour ycllnwifli green. Sp. 1. Pliofphat and arfeniat ot lead combined. When tuied by the blow pipe, cry. ftallizes in cooling. Genus V. Colour ufually that of copper. Sp. Sp. Sp. Sp. 3. Sp. 4. Chap. in. Artificial Syftcm. MINERALOGY. Class VI gr. 6.60S4 to 6.6481. Sj>. I. Sulpliuret of nickel. Exlules before the blow-pipe an ar- feiiical I'moke. ORDER ir. Sp. gr. from 4.6 to 3.44. Genus 1. Colour grey. ,i^. I. Grey ore of aniimnny. Burns with a blue flame, and leaves a white oxyd. S/i. 2. Grey copper ore. Crackles before the blow-pipe. Genus II. Colour yellow. Pyrites. S^. Sp. SOLUBLE WITH EFFERVESCENCE IN MURIATIC ACID. Genus I. Sp. gr. from 4.333 to 4.3. Sp. I. Carbonat of barytes. Genus II. Sp. gr. from 3.66 to 3.4. Sj>. I. Catbonat of llromiles. Genus III. Sp. gr. from 2.8 to i or under. Sp. I. Carbonat of lime. We have purpofely avoided giving names to the claf- fes, orders, and genera ; becaufe a more careful exami- nation will doubtlefs fuggefl many improvements in the arrangement, and an artificial fyftem ought 10 be brought to a great degree of perfection before its claifes. Burns with a blue flame and fulphu- orders, and geneia, be finally fettled. reous fmell, and leaves a brownilh bead. Yellow copper ore. Melts into a black mafs. Class V. EVAPORATING. ORDER I. Sp.gr. 13.6. GtNUS I. Fluid. sp. I. Native mercury. ORDER II. Sp. gr. from 10 to 5.419. Genus I. Colour red. Sp. I. Native cinnabar. Genus H Colour white or grey. Luflre me- tallic. Sp. I. Native bifmuth. Melts into a white bead, and then evaporates in a yellowilh white fmoke. Sp. gr. 9 to 9.5. Sp. 2. Native antimony Melts and caporates in a grey fmoke. Sp. gr. 6.6 to 6 8. Sp. 3. Native arfenic. Evapora'es without melting, gives out a garlic fmell. ORDER III. Sp. gr. from 4.8 to 3,33. Genus I C' I'ur led. Sp. I. Red antimonial ore. Melts with a lulphureous fmell. gr- 4-7- Sp. 2. Realgar. Melt with a garlic fmell. Sp. gr 3-3S4- Genus II. Colour yellow. Sp. 1. Oriimeut. Sp. Class I. EARTHS and STONES. WE fhall divide this cbfs into three orders. The the minerals belonging to the firft order exhibit the fame firft : rdcr Ihall comprtlieiid all chemical com- homogeneoii': appearance to tiie eye as 'f they were fira- bin.itions ot earths with each otl.er ; the fecond order, pic bodies. We Ihall therefore, for want of a better name, ch'Miiicjl comliinations of earths witli acids; and the call the fit ll order JitHpft ; the fecond order we (hall di- third order, mechanical mixtures ot earths or Itones. All lUnguilh by the epithet of filme ; and the third we fn.iU 3 QL- "11 (d) C rpnra mineralia in quatuor fpecies dividuntur, fcilicet in hpide<:, et in liqurfKliva, fulphurea, ct files. Et horuai qiiKd.im iunt rarx fubllanila: ti dtbilis compofitionis, et quxJam foitis fubllintix, et qusedam duiTit- bilia, ct qujcdam non. ^viccuKa dc congelutione ct con^lutinatitne /apidum, Cap. 3. Thcatrum Cliemicun, t. ir. P- 997' We have excluded from this arrangement all thcfe bodies wliich in the following fyft.m are arranged un- der the clafs of combullibles ; becaufe there can fcarce- ly be any difficulty in diftinguilhir.g them both from the other clalfes and from one another. For fimilar reafons we have excluded the clafs of falts. Chap. IV. Natural Systeivi. Avicenna, a writer of the 1 ith century, divided mi- nerals into four claiTes ; Rones, falls, inriammatjle bodies, and metals (d). Thi.> divifnn has been, in fome mea- fure, followed by all fucceeding writers. Lini.xus, in- deed, the firll of the moderns who publiflied a lyftein of mineralogy, beinj; guided by the external ch.iraders alcne, divided minerals into three clafies, /j^'/rr, minirx, foffi.ia ; but Avicenna's claffes appear among his orders. The fame remark may be made with refpeft to the fy. ftemi of Walleriut, Wclfterdorf, Cartheufer, andjufti, which appeared in fuccellion after the firll piililication of Liniixus't SyfiiKia Naturec, in 1736. At lall, in I 758, the fyliem of Cronlledt appeared. He reiiiftated the dalles of Avicenna in their place ; and his fyliem was adopted by Bergman, Kirwan, Werner, and the J moll celebrated mineralogill~ who have written fince. We alio (hall adf pt his clalfes, with .1 few flight excep- tions ; becaufe we are not acqu linted with ai.y otlier divifinn «hich is mtitled to a prel'. en e. We (hall therefore divide this tro.itife into four claffes. I. Stones. II. Salts. III. Comimili'-les. IV. Oies. The fii ft clafs comprehends all tiie mneraK which are comp^.led tliieliy or entirely of earths; the fee 'iid, all the cunibinalions of acids and alkalies whieh orciir in the mineral kingdom : the third, thole minerals w liich are capable ot combullion, and which conlill chiefly of I'ulphur, carbon, and oil ; the fouiih, the mineral bo- dies which are compofed chiefly of metals. 13 Naturil diffei. 492 MINERALOGY. call a^gregatis ; becaufe mofl cf the minerals belonging to it cinlill of vtLuoaf'^mp/eJlonet, cemented, as it were. tcgether. Order I. SIMPLE STONES. SI Cronftedt't gcuera Improved. Cronsi 1-dt divided this order into nine penera, cor- refpnnuinj^ to nine earths ; one of which he thought compofed the ftuiics ar/ani;cd under e^ch genus. 'I'lie names nl his gei.eta were, ciilmrex, filtcet, granatiiia, argil'(]i:i.iCy mtcatet, Jluorcs, ajb(flint, v,folilhint, rimgiiejiit. All his earilis were afterwards toimd to be conip.urid*, except the fiilt, fecund, f.uith, .ind nitrh. Bcrgm.111, therefore, in lis Sciai';raphi i, firll publillied in 17S2, reduced the nuniber nf genera to five ; wliich waw tlie niwnber cf primitive earllis kn(>wn when he wrote. Since that period three n.w e-.rchs have been difcovered. Ac- cordingly, in the la:cll iylUm'i of mineralogy, the ge- nera belonging to this order amount to eight. Each genus IS named from an earth ; and they are arranged in the ncwell Wernerian fyllem, which we have leen, as follows : 1 . Jargon genus. 2. Silictou- genus. 3,. Gluciria genu*. 4. Argillaceous g^nu":. 5. Magnefian genus. 6. Calcareous genus. 7. Barytic genus. 8. Strontian genus. »3 Still dcfici- ciu. 24 New gene- ra. Mr Kirwan, in his very valuable fyftem of mineralo- gy, has adopted the fame genera. Under each genus thofe llores arc placed, which are compi fed chielly of the eaiih which gives a name to the genus, or which at lead are fuppefed to pofiefs the charaders which di- flinguilh that earth. A little confideration will be fufficlent to difcover that there is no na'ural foundation f r thefe genera. Mod ftones are compofed of two, three, or even four ingredients ; and, in many cafes, the proportion of two or more if thefe is nearly equal. Now, under what genus foever fuch minerals are arranged, the earth which gives it a name mufl form tlie fmallell part ot their com- pofuion. Accordingly, it has not been fo much the chemical com|iofuion, as the < xternal charader, which has guided the mineralogift in the dillribution of his fpecies. The genera cannot be faid properly to have any charader at all, nor the fpecies to be conneded by any thing elfe than an arbitrary title. This defed, which mull be apparent in the molt valuable fyllems of mineralogy, feems to have arifen chiefly from an attempt to combine together an artificial and natural fydem. As we have feparated thefe two from each other, it be- comes neccffary for us to attend more accurately to the natural diflribution of genera than has hitherto been done. We have accordingly ventured to torm new ge- nera for this order, and we have formed them according to the following rules. The only fubllances which enter into the minerals belonging to this order, in fuch quantity as to deferve attention, are the following : Alumina, Glucina, Silica, Zirconia, Magncfia, Oxyd of iron, L'me, Oxyd of chromum, Barytes, Potafs. Simple Stones. Clafsl. AH thofe minerals which are compofed of xhz fa7iit ingredients we arrange under xhefiime genus. Accord- ing to this plan, there mud be as many genera as there '"^ ' ^^ are varieties ot combinations of the above fubllances ex- illing in nature. The varieties in the proportion cf the ingredients conftitute fpecies. We have not impofed names ii|)on our genera, but, in imitation if Bergman,* * Ofufe.ij. have denoted cacli by a f)mb. 1. This lymbol is com- *^'" pofed of the fiift le'ter of every fubliance which enteis in any coniidciable (juantity into the compi>fiiion of the minerals arr .nged under the genus denoted by it. Thus, fuiipole the mineials ot a genus to be compokd ai a!u- miua, Ji'iica-j and oxyd of iron, we denote ilie genus by the fymbol (?/(. Tne letters are arranged according to the pr' portion of the ingredientb ; that which enters in the greatell proportion being put firll, and the others in their order. Thus the genus aft is compofed ot a conliderable proportion of alumina, of a fmaller propor- tion ot filica, and contains lead of all of iron. By this contrivance, (he fymbol of a genus contains, within the compafs of a few letters, a pretty accurate defcription ot its nature and character. Where the propoitions of the ingredients vary in the fame genus fo much, that the letters which conltitute its fymbol change their place, we fubdivide the genus into parts ; and whenever the minerals belonging to any genus become too nume- rous, advantage may lie takenof thefe tubdivifions, and each of them may be formed into a feparate genus. At prefent this feems unnecelfary (e). The following is a view ot the different genera be- longing to this order, denoted each by its fymbol. Every genus is followed by the fpecies included under it ; and the whole are in the order which we mean to follow in delcribing them : I. A. VI. t. AST. Telefia, Micarell, Corundum, Shorl, Native alumina. Granatite, II. AtrfC. 2. SAt. Ruby. Tourmaline, Ill . AIM. Argentine felfpar, Ceylanite, Mica, IV. s. Talc, Quartz, Balaltine, Eladic quartz, Hornblende, Flint, Obfidian, Opal, Petrilite, Pitchdone, Felfite. Chryfoprafium. VII. SAP. V. I. AS. Felfpar, Topaz, Lepidolite, Sommite, Leuclte. Shotlite. VIII. SAG. 2. EA. Emerald. Rubellite, IX. SAB. Hornflate, Staurolite. Horndone, X. I ASL. Chalcedony, Chryfoberyl. Jafper, 2. SAL. Tripoli. Hyalite, jEdelite. 3. SAWL. (e) We need Iiaidly remark, that the lall three genera of Werner belong to the fecond order of the firft clafi of this trealife. Order I. MINERALOGY. 493 G.I. A. Tclcfi*. 3. S.IWl. XV. SAMLI. Zeolite, Argillite. Stilbite, XVI. SM. Analcime. KitFeklll, 4. SLA. Steatites. Lizul'ite. XVII. MSI. XI. SALI. Ciirjlolite, Garner, Jade. Tiiuincrftcne, XVm. SML. Prehnitc, Afbeltiis, Thallite. Afbeftinite. XII. I. AMS. XIX. I. SILM. Cyanite. Pyrnxen, 2. MSA. Artieftoid. Serpentine. 2. SMIL. XIII. MSAl. Aainolite. Potitone, XX. SL. Ciilonie. Shiftofe horneftone. XIV. SLAM. XXI. 2S. Siliceous fpar. Zircon. Genus I. a. SPECIES I. Telell.i (f). Oriental ruby, fapphire, and topaz, of mineralogifts. — Rubis d'oricnt ot Ue Lifle. Three ftones, dillinguilhed from each other by their colour, have Inng been held in high eftimation on ac- count of their hardnefs and beauty. Thefe ftones were Icn >wn among lapidaries by the names of ruby, fappbhe, and topii%, and the epithet oriental was ufually added, to diltinguilh thenn Irom other three, known by the fame names and the fame colours, but very inienor in hard- nefs and beauty. Mineralogifts were accuftomed to conlider thel'e ftones as three diftinft fpecies, till Rome de Lifle oblerved that they agreed in the iorm of their cryftals, their hardnefs, and moft of their other proper- ties. Thefe obfervalions were fufficient to conftitute them one fpecies ; and accordingly they were made one fpecies by Rome de Lidc hinifelf, by Kirwan, and fe- veral other modern mineralogical writers. But this fpecies was deftitutt- of a proper name, till Mr Hauy, whole labours, dillinguiOied equally by their ingenuity and accuracy, have contiibuted not a little to the pro- grefs of miner.ilogy, denominated it tehjta, from the Greek word toit.oc, which fignifies^^r/fiV. The telefia is found in the Eall Indie?, efpecially In Pegu and the ifland of Ceylon •■, and it is molt common- ly cr> llallized. The cryftal- are of no great fue : Their friniiiiv K rm, according to Mr Hauy, is a regular I'lx- fided prifm, divifible in direflion;. parallel both to its bafes and its fides ; and confequently givmg for the form of its primitive nucleus, or ot its integrant molecule, an equilateral three-fided pnfm.* Tlie moft ufual va- riety i- a dodecahedron, in which the telefia appears un- der the form of two very long ftender lix-fided pyra- mids, joined bafe to bafe.f The fiJes of thefe pyramids are ifofceles trianqles, having the angle at their vertex .Simple 22" 54', and each of thofe at the bafe 78° 4a' (c). ^^^2^^ The inclination of a fide of one pyramid! to a coniigu- ous fide ot the other pyramid is 139'^ J+'.f I" fome ^ mj.i^i fpecimens the fummits of the pyramids are wanting, fj R'jmi Jt that the cryftal has the appearance cf a fix-(ided prifm, ^-'-p, "• fomev. hat thicker in tiie middle than towards t!ie extre- ^'■'' mities.* The three alternaie anpks at each extremity of * Fig. 2. thi.. priim area'fo fomttiines wanting, and a fmall trian- gular face inftead of them, which renders the bafes of the fuppofed prifm nine-lided. The inclination rf each (<f thel'e fmall triangles to the bafe is 122° iS' J For fi'jures 'i,Haii^,Ilii. of thele cryftals we refer the reader to P>.ijn.e de Lifle and Hauy.* • Uu. The texture of the telefia is foliated, and the joints are parallel to the bafe of the prifm. f Its luftie vh- f •^■"'J- ries Irom 3 to 4(H). Tranfparency ulually 3 or 4, lometimes only 2. It caufes only a lincle refraajcn. Specific gravity from 4. to 4.288. Hardnefs from i j to 17. It is either colourlcfs, or red, yellow or blue. Thefe colours have induced lapidaries to divide the tc- lelia into the three following varieties. Variety i. Red telefia. Oriental ruby. Colour carmine red, fometimes verging towards vio- let. Sometimes various ci lours appear in the fame ftone, as red and white, red and blue, orange red. Hardnels 17. Sp. gr. 4 2S8. Variety 2. Yellow telefia. Orient jI topaz.. Colour golden yellow. Tianfp. 4. Hardnefs 15. Sp. gr. 4.0106. Variety 3. Blue telefia. Oriental fdpphyr . Colour Berlin blue, often lo very faint tliat tl'.e ftone appears almoft colourlefs. Tranfp. 3, 4, 2. Hardnefs 17. Sp. gr. 3.991 to 4. 083. J This variety is xmx. \ CmiW, probably the fame with the fapphyr of the ancients. Nidolfint Their fapphyr was diftinguiflied by gold-coloured fpots, 7<>»"'-l"- none of which are to be I'een in the fapphyr of the mo- "' derns.ll || Hiir, A fpecimen of this laft variety, analyfed by Mr Kla- T^nphra- proth, was lound to contain in 100 parts, /"'■ "'f 9S.5 alumina, 1.0 oxyd of iron, 0.5 lime, p. I03. 100.0 *. • BiitrJir, The colouring matter of all thefe varieties is, accord- '• *^- ing to Bergman's experiments, iron, in different ftates ot oxydaiion. He found that the topaz contained 06, the ruby .1, and tlie fapphyr .02 of that metal f But t I^'rgaam,. when thefe experiments were made, the analyfis of flones "" 5^* was not arrived at a fufficient degree of perfe<flion to enfure accuracy No conclufion, therefore, can be drawn from thefe experiments, even though we were certain that they were made upon the real varieties of telefia. SPECIES, (f) See Klrnvan' i AlineraUgy, I. 250. — Gmelins Syjhwa Natune of Linntui, III. 170. — Romi de Li/le's Cry- JlaW.yraphie, W. 212. — Bergmanni Opufcula. II. 72. (o) In f me u.ftjnccs, tlie angle at the vertex is 31°, thofe at the bafe 74° 30', and the inclination of two triangles 122" 36' See //auy, ilid. (h) When the kindoi luftre is not fpecified, as in llic prefcnt inftance, the common is always meant. 49+ 26 Corundum. MINERALOGY. SPECIES 2. Corundum (i). Corundum of Gmtlin — /Idamiintinc /par of KlaprO'.h and Kirwiiii — Corindun ot Hauy — Corivinaum of Woodward. This lloiie, though it appears to have been known to Mr Woodward, may be faid to have been tirfl dilUn- guifhedfrom olhcr minerals by Dr Black. In 1768, A fpecimcn from China of 84.0 alumini, 6.5 (ilica, 7.5 oxyd of iron, Order I. Simple Stoiic'i*' • Garrezi/ and Grt- iiill^y Ni- eholfoni your. ii. 540. ■}■ Grtvillf, Hid. \ your Je Mil. N^ xxviii. 262. • Nichtl- Jons your, ii. 541. t F'g- 3- II fig- 4. \ Di Btur- non. • See airn Hauy your. M Min. N» xxTiii. z6:. 98.0II. p/5,V.i. 71. Notwithflanding the quantity of filica and of iron Mr Berrv, a Ijpidary in Edinburgh, received a box of which thefe analyl'es exhibit in the corundum, we have it from Dr Andcrlon of Madra-. Dr Black afcertam- been induced to include it m the prefent genius, on ac- ed, that thefe fpecimens dilFeied trom all the Hones count ot the (Ircng refemblance between it and the known 10 Europeans; and, in confequence of its hard- third variety of leklia. Tiie (diking refemblance be- liefs, it obtained the name of adamantine fpar. Not- tween the cryft.dsol tdefia and coiundum wdl appear withftanding this, it could fcarcely be faid to have been evident, even from ll c fnpeiricial defcription which known to Emoptan miner.ilogilts till Mr Greville of ue have given; and iheobfervations of De BMurnon* • A'lt/;»^ London, who has done fo much to promote the fcience render thib refemblance ftill nioi e llriking. It is not im-/"'' 7"""": of mineralogy, obtained fpecimens of it, in 1784, from probable, therefore, aj Mr Grevdle and the Count de '"• '" India, and dillributed them among the moll eminent iiournon have luggefted, that ci'rundum niay be only chemifts, in order to be analyfed. Mr Greville alio a variety of telelia, and that the fctming difference in learned, th.it its Indiin name was Corundum. It is their ingredients is owing to the im^^uiity of ih. fe I'pe- lound in Indoftan, not far trom the river Cavery, which cimens of corundum which have hitherto been brought is fouth trim Madras, in a rocky matrix, ofconfider- to Europe. Let not the diHeicnce which has been found in the primitive iorm ot thele Ifones be ccnfider* ed as an iniuperable objeiStmn, till the iubjed lias been again exiniiiied with this precife objeft in view ; for no- thing is ealier than to commit an overfightin fucli dif- ficult examinations. able hardnefs, partaking of the nature of the (lone it- felf.* It occurs alfo in China ; and a fubl^ance, not tnilike the matrix of corundum, has been tound in Te- ree, one of the welletn illands ot Scotland f. The corundum \s uiually cryllallized. It': primitive form, diicovered by Mr Hauy f and the Count de Bour- non,* is a rhomboidal parallelopiped, whole tides are equal rhombs, with angles ot 86" and 94°, according to B">urnon, or whofe diagonals are to each other as \/ 17 to t^ 15, according to Hauy ; which is veiy near- ly the tame thing f . The moft common variety, for the primitive form has never yet been found, is the regular ii;;-lided piifm, the alternate angles of which are fome- times wanting |!, and the triangular iaces, which occupy their place, aie inclined to the bafe at an angle of 122° 34' J. Sometimes the corundum is cryllallized in the form of a lix-lided pyramid, the apex of which is gene- rally wanting. For a detcription and tigure of theli:, and all the otlier varieties ot corundum hitherto obt'er- ved, we refer the reader to the diilertation of the Count de Bournon on the fubjefl.* The texture of the corundum is foliated, and the na- tural joinrs are parallel to the faces of the primitive rhoiTiboidal parallelopiped. Lullre, when in the di- rection of the laraii je, 3 ; when broken acrofs, o. O- pake, except when in very thin pieces. Hardnel's 15. 27 SPECIES 3. Native alumina (k). This fubllance has been found at Halles in S.ixony Native ilni in compact kidney-form malfes. Itsconfiftence isearthy. luina. Lullre o. Opaque. Hardnels 4. Brittle. Sp. gr. mo- derate. FeeU foit, but meagre. Adheres very llightly to the tongu;. S'aiis very llightly. Colour pure white. Does not readily ditfut'e itfelt in water. It c -nfillsof pure a.umina, mixed with afmall quantity of carbonal of lime, and Ibmetimes of fulphat oflimef. t Schnhtr, n IT ^^ Genus II. amc. G. II. amo. SPECIES I Ruby (l). Ruby. Spinel and bal.fi Ruby of Kirwan — Ruby of Hauy — Rubis Jpinelie ocloedre of De Lifle — Spine. lus of Gnielin. This Hone, which comes from the itland of Ceylon, is uiually cryltallized. The primitive form of its cry. (lals is a regular o.:tohedron, compofed of two f .ur- fided pyramids apphed bale to bafe, each of the tides of which is an equilateral ti langle J (, m ). In fome cales } pi". ft two oppolite tides of the pyramids are broader than the + Kljfrcth. ticc alfo Mr Crr- ■vilU, Ni- cboifoni your, Ui* II. t Beitrjge, i. 77. Sp. gr. from 3.710 to 4.180 f. Colour grey, often other two ; and fometimes the edges ot the oilotieJron with various liiades of blue and green. According to the anilyfis of Klaproth, the corun- dum ot India is compofed ot 89.5 rtlumina, 5.5 filica, 125 oxyd of iron, 96.25 X. are wanting, and narrow fnces in their place. For fi- gures and defcriptions of thefe, and other varieties of thefe cryll^ls, we refer the reader to Rome de Lijle and ihc JbLe Ejlner.* _ *Cr^Jlall.a. The textuie of the ruby is foliated. Its luQre is 3. 226. Eft- Tranfp. 3.4. It caul'es a (ingle rtfraflion. Hardnels ""■'' •''^'''>"•• 13- yp-gr-S 57ot '"3625^. Colour red ; it deep, "• the ruby is uiually called baiajs ; if pale rofy , fpinell. 1 ijX^'^i^ th The and Grt- (ij See Kiriuau'i Mweralogy, I. — Klaproth in Btob. der Berlin, VIII. 295. and Beitr'dg,; 1. 47 Mr Greville and ihe Count de Buurnonm l\vt Phihfophical TranfaQicns 1798, p. 4C3. '■'^r.d \t\ A, cholfon'j Journal, II. 540. and III. S-—Mr Hauy Jour, de Phyf. XXX. 193. and Jour de Mm. N° XXVIII. 262. (k) Sec Kiriijan's Min;ralo^y, I. 175, and Schrebtr 15. Stuck, p. 209. (l) See Kirwa-i's Min. I. 253. — Rome de L'ljle, II. 224. — Klaproth Beoh. der Berlin, III. 336. and Beit- tra^e, II. \.— VavqucVtn Ann. dc Chim. XXVII. 3. and XXXI. 141. (m) We thall afterwards dillinguilh this odohedron either by the epithet r^ju/jr ox alumini/urm, becaufe it ia the well known form of cryftals of alum. viile. Clafs I. MINERALOGY. 45 - larthsand The ruby, according to the analyfis of Vauquelin, is rious ; a circiimftance which has induced tnineralogifts Simple ^J^^SJl, conipofed of 86.00 alumina, to divide it into numerous varieties. Of thefe the fol- Stones. 8.50 luagnelia, lowing are the chief. ^^-^^^^tm/ 5. 2 J chromic acid. i. Puie colour lefs, perfeiftly tranfparent cryftallized quariz, having much the appejrance of artificial cryf- • jinn, lie 99-75* '"*' ' '^"°"'" hy the n:ime of rod iryjlal. CiirM.xnwu. The ancients feem to have claffed this ftone dfmong 2. Quart?, lefs tranfparent, and with a fplintery frac- »i- ... their hyacinths f. '"re, has ufually been dillinguiiheJ by the name of \ Plmii, 1. quaitx,, and feparated from rock cryital. As there is *'■'■'■ GiNUS III. AIM. no occifion fur this fepiiralion, we have, in imitation ( f G.III.Am. SPECIES 1. Ceyianite _ Mi Hauy, chofen the word quartz for the_/j!>«^c name, CeyUuitc. The mineral dcnominaied ctylanie, from the iflnnd of comprehending under it all Uie varieties. Ceylon, from which it was brcught into Eun pe, had 3. Blood red quartz ; formerly calied fom/i2/7<r//'a />a- %CryJlal- hecn obfeived by Ri-nic de Lifle f ; but was firlt de- aW./, and by Hauy yricr/z /fHw/Wf. It owe^ its colour Icg.m. 180. fcribed by La Metliene in the Journal de Phyhque for to oxyd of iron. Tlie mineral known to mireralojjills Mote 31. January 1793. by the name of _/i';,ff/i/<f, and confideicd by them as a va- It is mjlt commonly found in rounded maiTes ; but rieiy of jajper, has been difcovered by Dolomieu to be fometimes alfo cryftall'/.ed. The primitive form of its merely this variety >.t quartz in an amorphous (late.* • "jour. A cryltals is a regular oifloiiedron : it commonly occurs 5. Yellow quartz ; called falle ti-paz. Mh,.tff^ under this form, but more commonly the edges of the 5. Rofy red (juartz ; called Bohemian ruby. ixviii. 255. %Hauy, oilohedron are wanting, and linall f.ice> in their placej. l-"or a fuller enumeration ot thefe varieties, we refer Jeur.di The fradure of the ceylan'te is conchoidal.* lis the reader to 5wi;^r'/ Mincraog^\, K'.r'wan's Miner- f i. Sg. Mrn.ii internal luibe is glalfy. Nearly opaque, except when a/a^ J, ana Guielin's edition ofthe S)ficma Nat.j-tc li \i. 144. as""' '" ^"f '^'" P'^<^<^s- Hardnefs 12. Sp. gr. from Linnsus^. 'i'his lart writer, however, has arranged fe- ^ iii. 194. •/iiii63. 3-7647 t to 3.793$. Colour of the mats, black; of veial r.-.ii.erals under quartz which do not b:long to it. ^ Huuy. very thin pieces, deep green. Powder, grcemlh grey. Pure quartz is tompofed entirely of lilica; bur feme 4 DtfcatiU. According to the analyfis of Defcotils the ceyianite is ofthe varieties of this fpecies are contaminated wiili me- compofed of 6S alumina, tallic oxyds, and with a fmall quantity of other earths. 16 oxyd of iron, ■c\ a- r^ / ^ I2magnef.a, ^^. ^ ^^\^'\^ ^•. El^^'c Quartz (n). 31 2 fj[j °^ This fingular Hone is moder.itely elaftic, and flexible E"1'c ' in every direction. Texture, earthy. Lullre, o or i.^"!^"- ^gr Haidnefs, 9. Biitlle. tip. gr. 2.624 Colour, greylih Cbim -oM. white. J'hofphorefces when fcraped with a knife in the J, J." ' SPECIES I. Quartz ||. dark. The fpecimen analyfed by Mr Klaproth con- -o This ftone, whch is very coniini>ii in moft mountain- tained 96.5 filica, G. IV. s. ons countries, is lomeiimes cryllallized, and f ,metimes z,^ alumina, Quartz. ^ amorphous. The primitive fVnii of its cryllals, accord- 5 oxyd of iron, I AWj/iV jijg ^,, j^ji. jj.n,y^ is ^ ihomb iidal parallelopiped ; the 'angles of whole rhombs are 93° 22', and S6" 38 ; lb 99-5t \ BtUragt, * Jour. Je that it does not differ much fr. m .1 cube.* The moft species 3. Flint (o). ii. 116. Jf/n. N° common variety is a dodecihedmnl;, compoi'ed ot two Pyromadus — Pierre a fu/il — iv/r-.v of Hauy. ,j xxviii. 2J5. fix.lided p) r.imids, applud bafe to bafe, wh.ife fides are This Ifone, which lias become fo ne< ell'ary in modern Flint. i'^'S- <>• ilxfceles tri.,ngles, Ii.iving the angle at the vertex 40", war, is found in pieces of different fizes, and ufually and each ol the angles at tiie bafe 70° ; tiie inclination of a fi;;ure more or lefs globular, commonly among of a fide ot one pyramid to the contiguous fide ot the chalk, and often arra- ged in fome kind of order. In other pyramid is 104°. There isotten a fix-fided prifm Saxony it isfaid to have been found cryllallized inhexa- interpofed between the two pyramid-, the fi Jes ol which hedrons, compofcd ot two low three-(ided pyramids ap- U Fijr. 7. always corrcfpind with thofe .f tlie pyramids ||. For a plied b.ife to bafe.* • Gmilmi defcripti'>n and figure of the other vaiieties if quarz Its texture is compafl. Its frafture, fmooth con- Sy/lerr^ \t. cryltals, and for a demonftration 1 f the law uhuh they choidal. Lullre, external o, the Itones being always ''"'■'• have foil wed in cr) llailizing, we refer the reader to covered by a white crull ; internal i, inclining to ^ '^^ ^ CnJIal. Rome de Li/lc \ -.md Mr Hauy \.. grcafy. Tranlp. 2; when very thin, 3. Hardnefs, 10 ii. 7'- The lex-ure of quartz IS more or lefs liated. Frac- or 11. Sp. gr. from 2.58102.63. Colour varies \Min. ture, Conchoidal or f|iliniery Its lullre varies from from honey yellow to brownifh black. Very br ttle, "'9^^% ' 3 '" '» ''"'^ ''■> tranp.iiency froni 4 to I ; and in (ome and fplits into iplin'crs in evei y direiffion. Two piccei »Uo Lamr- -^ '''-S 't IS opaquc. It caufes a di ubl. reir tC^ion. Hard- of flinr rubbed fnia ly logctlier pliolphorefc-, and emit ilerif.your. '^^^''t from 10 to 11. Sp. gr. frim 2 64 to 2 67, and a peculiar od ur. When heated it decrepitates, and be- /r A'.v/: ill one va;ieiy 2.691. Its coloiir is exceedingly va- comes white and opaque. When expofed long to the tiii. 470. air (n) Kiriuan'i /Vf/n. I 316 — Gerhard Mem. Berlin, 1783, 107. — Klaprolh't Biitrage 2 Band. ii^. See alfo Jour.de Phrf. XLl. 91. (o) Kirwiin't Mm. I. 301 — Dolomieu Jour, de Mia. N° XXXfll. 693. and Sa.ivet, ibid. 713. Thefe laft gentlemen give the only accuraw account of the metiiod of making gun timts. ■jrg. Ul. 496 MINERALOGY Earths and air it often becomes covered with a white cruft. A Clafsl. Stones, fpecimcn of flint analyfed by Klaproth contained ^'"^^^'^^ 98.00 filica, .50 lime, .25 alumina, 0.25 oxyd cT iron, 1.00 water. t SiitrSgt, 1 00. oof t. 46. Another fpccimen analyfcd by Dolomieu was com- pofed ul" 97 filica, 1 alumina and oxyd of iron, 2 water. 3i Opjl. iJnur.Jt loot , , Mm. N" Tlie white cruft with which flint is enveloped, con- xTxili. 702. fifls of the fame ingredients, and alio a little carbonat of lime. Dolomieu dilcovered that water is elFcntial to flint ; for wheti it ii feparated by heat the Hone loles § liiJ. its properties J'. The manutaclure of gun flints is chiefly confined to two or three departments in France. The operation is exceedingly fimple : a good workman will make a 1000 flints in a d.iy. The whole art confifts in llriking the (tone repeatedly with a kind of mallet, and bringing off at each ilroke a fplinter, Iharp at one end and thicker at the other. Thefe fplinterb are afterwards fliaped at plealiire, by laying the line at which it is wifhed they lliould break, upon a Ihatp iron inflrument, and then givii'.g it repeatedly i'mall bliws with a mallet. During the whole operation the workman holds the ftone in his V liiJ hand, or merely fupports it on his knee||. SPECIES 4. Opal (f). This ftone is found in many parts of Europe. It is ufually amorphou-. Its fradture is conchoidal, com- monly fome what tranfparent. Hardnefs from 6 to 10. Sp. gr. from 1.7 to 2.66. The lownefs of its fpecitic gravity, in (bme cafes, is to be afcribed to accidental cavities which the llone contains. Thele are fometimes filled with drops of water. Some fpecimens of opal liave the property of emitting various coloured rays, with a particular effulgency, when placed between the eye and the light. Tlae opals which polFefs this property, are dillinguifhed by lapidaries by the epithet oriental; and often by mineralogifts by the epithet nolil'ts. This property rendered the Hone much eileemed by the an- cients. Variety 1. Opal edler — Opalus ncbi/is. Luftre glafl'y, 3. Tranfp. 3 to 2. Hardnefs, 6 to 8. Colour, ufnally light bluifli white, fometimes yellow or green. When heated it becomes opaque, and fume- times, is decompofed by the aftion ot the atmofphere. Hence it Teems to follow, that water enters eilentially into its cimpofition. A fpecimen of this variety, ana- lyfed by Klapioth, contained 90 filica, 10 water. ^S.!tragt, ,1°°^ ii. ijj. Variety 2. Semi-opal. Fr;\flure, impeifedly conchoidal. Luflre, glaffy 2. Tranfp. 2 to 3. Hardnefs, 7 to 9. Its colours are very various, greys, yellows, reds, browns, greens of Simple diiT.-rent kinds. _ vj^^^ Specimens of this variety fometimes occur with rifts : thefe readily imbibe water, and iherefoie adhere to ihe tongue. Thefe fpecimens fometimes become tranfpa- rent when (naked in water, by imbibing that fluid. ^ They aie then tailed hydrophones. Variety l. Cat's eye*. * Klmam't This variety cnnies from Ceylon, and is feldom feen ■^'"■'■^°'" by European mineralogilh till it has bsen poliflied by ^J/^^' ';, the lapidary. Mr Klaproth has defcribed a fpecimen jq. which he received in its natural Hate fioin Mr Greville oi London. Its figure was nearly fquirc, with lliarp edges, a rough fuiface, and a good deal ot brilliancy. Its texture is imperfedly foliated. Luftre greafy, 2. Tranfp. 3 to 2. Hardnefs 10. Sp. gr. 2.56 to 2.66. C ilciui, grey; with a tinge of green, yellow or white: or brown, with a tinge of yellow or red. In certain pofitiuns it refleifts a fplendid white, as does the eye of a cat ; hence the name of this ftone. Two fpecimens, analyfed by Klaproth, the firft from Ceylon, the other irom Malabar, were compofed of 95.00 94-50 filica, 1.75 2.00 alumina, 1.50 1.50 lime, 0.25 0.25 oxyd of iron. 98.25t. SPECIES 5. PitchftoneJ. Menelites. 98.5* y«...5|. * BiUr3g,, i. 94. t Ibid, p- 96. This ftone, which occurs in different parts of Ger- j^ many, France, and other countries, has obtained its Pitchftone. name from fome refemblance which it has been fuppofed §-'^"'- Mi"- to have to pitch. It is moft ufually in amorphous pieces '' '^'^* of different fizes ; and it has been found alfo cryftalli- ,j^ „ |. zed in fix-fided prifms, terminated by three-fided py- 1787, f-86. ramids. Its texture is conchoidal and uneven, and fometimes approaches the fplintery. Luftre greafy, from 3 te 1. Tianfp. 2 to 1, fometimes o. Hardnefs 8 to 10. Ex- ceedingly brittle ; it yields even to the nail of the fin- ger. Sp. gr. 2.049 to 2.39. Its colours are numer- ous, greyifli black, bluifh grey, green, red, yellow of different fhades. Sometimes feveral of thefe colours appear together in the fame ftone. A fpecimen of pitchftone from Mefnil-montant near Paris*, analyfed • 3^4 •y^ur. by Mr Klaproth, contained ie Phyf. 85.5 fihca, '"i- ai>- 1 i.o air and water, i.o alumina, .5 iron, .5 lime and magnefia. 98-5+ ^S.ltrSg., SPECIES 6. Chryfoprafium ((i_). "^ i^ This mineral, which is found in different parts of chryfopra- Germany, particularly near Kolem'urz in Silefia, is al- Cum. ways amorphous. Its fraflure is either even or inclin- ing to the fplintery. Scarcely any luftre. Tranfp. 2 to 3 Hirdnefs 10 to 12. Sp. gr. 2.479. Colour, green. In a heat of 130° Wedgewood it whitens and becomes opaque. A (p] Kiriucin's liliri. I. 289. — Ifauy, Jour. iP H'tjl. Nat. II. 9. Delias. Nnuv. Jour, de Phyf. I. 4J. ((jj Kir-Man' I Min. I. — Lihmann. Mem. Berlin. 175J./. 202. — Klaproth Beitrage, II. 127. Order J. MINERALOGY. "• IJ3- G.V. IAS. I'opaz. A fpecimcn of iliis (lone, analyfed by Mr Klaproth, contained 96.16 filici, 1. 00 ox)d of nickel, 0.83 lime, o.oH alumina, 0.08 o.xyd of iron. 98.15$ Genus V. i. as. SPECIES I. Topaz (r). Occideiittil ruby, topaz, and fapphyr. The name topa'2. has been rellrifled by Mr Hauy to the Rones called by mineraligilti occidental 1 uby, topaz, and fapphyr; which, agreeing in their cryftalhzation and mud of their propenies, were arranged under one fpccies by Mr Rome de Lille. The word topaz, deri- ved from an ifland in the Red Sea (s), wlieie the an- cients ufed to find topazes, was applied by them to a mineral very diiferent from ours. One variety of our topaz they denominated chryfotite. The topaz is found in Saxony, Bohemia, Siberia, and Brazil, mixed with other minerals in granite rocks. It is commonly cryftallized. The primitive form ot its cryftals is a prifm whofe fides are reftangles, and bafes rhombs, having their greateli angles 124" 22', and the integral molecule lias the fame form*; and the height of the prifm is n a fide of the rhomboidal bafes xxviii, 287. as 3 to 2\. The different varieties of topaz cryllals hi- t lig. 8. therto obiervcd, amount to 6. Five of thefe are eight- fided prifms, terminated by four-f:ded pyramids, or ■wedge-duped fumniits, or by irregular figures of 7, 13, or 15 fides II; the lall variety is a twelve-fidcd priim, ter- minated by fix-fided pyramids wanting the apex. For an accuiate defcription and figure of thefe varieties we refer the reader to Mr Hauyf . The texture of the topaz is foliated. Its luftre is from 2 to 4. Tranfp. from 2 to 4. It caufes a double refraiflion. Hardiiefs 1 2 to 14. Sp. gr. from 3.53 11 to 3.564. The Siberian and Brazil topazes, when heated, become pofitively eleiSrified on one fide, and $Hauy,iiiJ. negatively on the other j. It is infufible by the blow- pipe. The yellow topaz of Brazil becomes red when expofed to a ftrong heat in a crucible ; that of Saxony becomes white by the fime procefs. Tliis fljews us, that the colouring matter of thefe two ftones is dif- ferent. The colour of the topaz is various, which has in- duced mineralogifts to divide it into the following va- rieties : 1. Red topaz, of a red colour inclining to yellow; called Brazilian or occidental ruby. 2. Yellow topaz, of a golden yellow colour, and fometimei alfo nearly white ; called occidental or Bra-z.il topaz. The powder of this and the following variety caufes fyrup of violets to alfume a green colour ||. I yjuijui- J. Saxon topaz. It is of a pale wine yellow colour, ''/;.7''"r-'''and fomclimes greyilh white. «ix. i6j. ^"'■'''- Vol. II. 497 • U,wy, jffjur. de Min. N II Pig- 9- ■(■ your, de Min. Hid. It is of a bluifli or pale green It is of a blue colour ; and 4. ^igue marine, colour. 5. Occidental fapphyr. fomctimes white. A fpecimen of white Saxon topaz, analyfed by Vau quelin, contained 68 alumina, 31 filica. 991F SPECIES 2. Sommite. This (lone was called fommite by La Metherie, from the mountain Somma, where it was tirlt found. It is ufually mixed with volcanic produflions. It cryllallizes in fix tided prifms, fomctimes terminated by pyramids. Colour white. Somewhat tranfparent. Sp. gr. 3.2741. Infufible by the blow-pipe. According to the analyfis of Vauquelin, it is compofed of 49 alumina, 46 filica, 2 lime, I oxyd of iron. Simple Stone?. ^ your, de Min. N° xiiv. J. 37 Somtcicc. 98* SPECIES • Hid. M* „, ,. , ixviii. 279. 3. Shorhtef. ^g ' This (lone, which received its name from Mr Klap- ShorUtc. roth, is generally i'ound, in irregular oblong maifes or t Xir-wtni columns, inferttd in granite. Its texture is foliated. ■''^"'•'•**^- Fradure uneven. Lu(lie2. Tranfpaiency 2 to 1. Hard- nefs 9 to 10. Sp.gr. 3.53. Colour greenilh white, or fulphur yellow. Not altered by heat. According to the analyiis of Klaproth, it is compofed of 50 alumina, 50 filica. ICO Genus V. 1. sa. SPECIES 4. Rubellite (t). Red Jhorl of Siberia. This ftone is found in Siberia mixed with white quartz. It is cryftallized in fmall needles, which arc grouped together and traverfe the quartz in various di- reaions. Texture fibrous. Fraflure even, inclining to the conchoidal. Tranfparency 2 ; at the edges 3. Hardnefs 10. Brittle. Sp.gr. 3.1. Colour crimfon, blood or peach red. By expofure to a red heat it be- comes fnow white ; but lofes none of its weight. It tinges foda blue, but does not melt with it. According to the analyfis of Mr Bindheim, it is compofed of 57 filica, 35 alumina, 5 oxyds of iron and manganefe. 97 SPECIES 5. Hornflate (u). Shijlofe porphyry. This (lone, which occurs in mountains, is generally amorphous; but fometimes alfo in columns! Struc- 3 R tare $9 G. V. 2 sx. Rubellite 40 Hornflatc. He (r) Kirivan's Min. I. 254.— Pc//. Mem. Berlin, 1747,/. J,6.—Marpraf, Hid. 1776. b. 73. Tukel. yla. Mad. Nat. Cur. IV. 316. /t/ ^ t S J, I, P il and 160. — (s) It got Its name trom To^ra^a, to fed ; bccaufe the ifland was often fuiroundcd with fog, and tlicrefore difficult to lind. See Pimn lb. 37. c. 8. (t) Kiru-an'j Min. I. 288. liindheim. Crell'i ylnnals, I792, p. 320. (uj Kir-wan's Min. I. 307 — H/iegleb, Crcll't Annals, 1787, 1 Band. 302.— Sec aifo /?<«//. Siviml. N^tur. Hijl. Aufidz!, p. 207. 49B £arth> and Stones. MINERALOGY. ciafs r. tureflaiy Texture folbtod. Fr.ifture uneven and fplin- and yellow. Several colours often appear in the fima Simrlc tery ; fonietimes approachini; the conchoidal. Luftre o. ma!s. To this variety belong many ot the ftones known ^^^^^^l:;^ Tranfparency I or o. Haidnefs about lo. Sp.gr. by ihi n.ime oi SiOlcJ: pehblft. from 2.512 to 2.7. Colour iliiFerent (hades ol _^n_)', from njb to b'uijj or olive gnni. M-lts at 145° Wedge- wood into an enamel. A fpecimen, analyfeJ by Wedge- wood, contained 73.0 lilica, 23.9 alumina, 3.5 iron. 4t llornllouc, • KirtLJn, >• 303- t Hcbmtif- Jtri SittHi i. 103. nil/, p. 30J- 41 chalcedo- ny. 100.4 SPECIES 6. Hornflone (x). Pclrofilix — Ci.ert. This (Irnc, which make?, a part of many mountain?, is uiually amorphous ; but, as Mr Kirwan inform^ us, it has been found cryilallized by Mr Beyer on Schnee- berg. Its cryililsare fix fided piifms, fometimes ter- niin,ited by pyramids ; hexahedrons, confilliiig ol two thiee-fided' pyramids applied bafe to bale; and cubes, or fix-fided plates.* Its texture is foliated. Fr.iifture fplinlery, and fometimes conchoidal. Lulhe o. Ti anf- parency i to 2. Tl-.e cryllals are fometimes opaque. H.irdnefs 7 to 9. Sp. gr. 2.532 to 2.653. Colour but hurnlione occurs alio of the iol- SPECIFS 8. Jafper{y). 43 Tliis (lone is an ingredient in the compofition of Jafpcr. many maintains. It occurs ufuiUy in large amorplious niaffcs, and fometimes alfo cryllalli/cd in fix-fided irre- gular prifms. Its frafliire is conchoidal. Luftre from 2 to o. Euher opaque, or its tranfparency is i. Hard- nefs 9 to 10. Sp. gr. from 2.5 to 2 82. Its colours are various. When heated, it dees not decrepitate. It feems to be compcftd of filica and alumina, and often aifo contains iron. Farieiy I. Common jafper. Sp. gr. fiom 2.58 to 2.7. Its colours are, different fliades of white, yellow, red, brown, and green ; often variegated, fjiotteJ, or veined, with feveral colours. Fiir'itty 2. Egyptian pebble. This variety is i.iiiul chiefly in Egypt. It ufuilly has a fpheroidal or Cat rounded figure, and is enveloped in a coaile rough ctuft. It is opaque. Hardnefs 10. Sp. gr. 2.564. It is chiefly diftinguiftied by the variety <jf colours, which always cxill in the fame fpecimen, either in concentric lliipes or layers, or in dots or dendrilical ulual dark blue lowing colours; grey, red, blue, green, and brown ot '^,^^^^^^_ Thefe colours are, different browns and yel- different Ihades.f According to Kirwan, it is conipofed of 72 filica, 22 alumina, 6 carbonal of lime. 100 J SPECIES 7. Chalcedony. This flone is found abundantly in many countries, particularly in Iceland and the F.iro iflands. It is molt commonly amorphous, ftalaiflitical, or in rounded lows, milk white, and ifabella green ; black alio has been obferved in dot?. Variety'^. Striped jafper. This variety i^; alfo diftinguilhed by c ncentric ftripes or layers of ditFerent colours : theie colours are, yellow, brownilh red, and green. It is dillinguilhed Irom the lalt variety by its occurring in large amorphous inalfes, and by its frafture, which is nearly e\en. SPECIES 9. Tripoli. 44 This mineral is found fometimes in an carlliy form, Tripoli, but moie generally indurate''. Its texture ib earthy. Somewhat tranfparent. Hardnefs 10 to 11. Sp. gr. 2.56 to 2 665. Not brittle. According to Bergman, the chalcedony of Faroe is compofed of 84 lilica, 16 alumina, mixed with iron. 100 Does not ftain the fingers. Colour generally pale yel- lowilh grey, alfo different kinds of yellow, brown, and white. It contains, accoiding to Haaffe, 90 parts of filica, 7 alumina, and 3 of iron. A mineral belonging to this Ipecies was analyfed by Klaproth, and found to con-. tam 66.5 filica, 7.0 alumina, 2.5 oxyd of iion, 1 .5 magnefia, X.25 lime, ly. air and water. Variety 1. Common chalcedony. Frafture even, inclining to conchoidal. Tranfparen- cy 2 to 3 ; fometimes i . Its colours are various ; it is nioft ccminonly greyilh, v/ith a tint of yellow, green, blue, or pe ul ; often alfo white, green, red, yellow, brown, black, or dotted with red. When (Iriped white and black, or brown, alternately, it is called onyx; when Itripcd white and grey, it is called chaicedonix. Black or brown chalcedony, when held between the eye and a lliong light, appears daik red. Fori ty 2. Cornelian. Fraflure conchoidal. Tranfparency 3 to i ; often which former mineralogifta conlidered as a variety of asi cloudy. Its colours aie various Ihades of red, brown, mica. It is found in granite. Its texture is foliated, Y and 97-75 Genus VI. i. asi. SPECIES I- Micarell.* ^r This name has been given by Mr Kirwan to a ftone G. VI. r. Micarell. Kirivamt Mm i. 21 Z. (x) Ktrzvan's /lf;n. I. 303. — Baurner Jour, de Phyf. II. 154. and iT/on«c'/, j^/'i/. 331. — IViegleb. Crcll's An- rah, 1788, />. 45 and 135. (y) Kirw. Min. I. 309. — Borral Ilijl. Natur. dt Corfe. — Henkel A5. Acad. Nat. Curios. V. 339. Order I. MINERALOGY. Earths and and it may be fplit Into tliln plates. Ludre metallic, 3. Stones. Opaque. Haiiinefa 6. Sp. gr. 2.980. Colour brown- ilh black. At 153" Weclgewood, it melts into a black •f- Kirn. compad glafs, the fiirl'acc of which is rcddlfh.f iM. A ipscimeii analyi'ed by Klaproth contained 63.00 alumini, 29.50 lilica, 6.75 iron. 499 46 Sh»rl. t UiJ. i. x6j. • lilJ. i. 166. 99.25 SPECIES 2. S'uorl.J No word has been uled by mineralogifts with lefs li- mitation thin JJ^or/. It was firll int'oduced into mine- ralogy by Cronlledt, to denote any (lone ol a columnar form, conhdetable hardnefs, and a fpecilic gravity from 3 to 3.4. This defcription applied to a very great num- ber cf (tones. And lucceedmg mineralogilts, tiiough they mado the word more definite in its fignihcation, left it llill fo general, that imdcr the defignation of JJ.vr/ a.1- moll 20 dillindl fpecies of minerals were included. Mr Werner lirlt defined the woxd Jhorl precifely, and reftrifled it to one fj ecies of ftoncs. We life the word in the fenfe afligned by h'm. Shorl is found abundantly in mountains, either maf- five or cryllallizcd, in three or nine-fided prilms, often terminated by tlnee-fided fummits. Tlie fides of the ciyllals are longitudinally (beaked. Its texture is (o- liated. Its fradure conchnidal. Lullrc 2. Opaque. Hardnefs 10. Sp. gr. 2.92 to 3.212. Colour black. Streak grey. It docs not become elcftiic by lieat. When heated to rednefs, its colour becomes biownifli red ; and at 127" Wedgewood, it is converted into a browni(h compaiT; enamel.* Accordiilg to Wiegleb, it is compofed of 41.25 alumina, 34.16 (ilica, 20.00 iron, 5.41 manganefe. t CnWs £cttragej I* Bandt:t. 4. Utick, p. 21. 47 Granatitc. } Fig. 10. * Rtme de tijlc, il. 435- 100.82 f SPECIES 5. Granatite. Stnurotid: of Hauy — Pierre de Croix of De L llr — Stauroiithe of Lametherie. We have adopted from Mr Vauquelin the term_g-r<j- nalite to denote this (\one, becaufe all the other names are ambiguous, having been applied to another m.ineral poifefled of very diilerent properties. Granatite is found in Galicia in Spain, and Britan- ny in France. It is always cryft.dli/.ed in a very pecu- liar form ; two (ix-lided prii'ms interfe<5i each other, ei- ther at right angles or obliquely. J Hence the name crofijione, by which it was known in France and Spain.* Mr Hauy has proved, in a very ingenious manner, that the primitive form of the granatite is a rectangular prifm, whofe ba(es are rhombs, with angles of 129^" and 50I" ; and that the height of the prilm is to the greater diagonal of a rhomb as i to 6 ; and that its in- tegrant molecules are triangular prifnis, fmillar to what would be obtained by cutting the piimitive cryilal in two, by a plane paffing vertically tlirough the lliorter diagonal of the rhomboidal bafe. From this (lni>niire sinij,le lie has demonllrated the law of the formatic».i of the Atones, crueitorm varieties.* The colour oi granatite is grey- • ^;,„. j,. iih or reddifh brown. Chint. vi. According to the analyfis of Vauquelin, it is com- '■i^- poled of 47-c'j alumina, 30.59 (ilica, 15.30 oxyd cf iron, 3.00 lime, 95-95 t Genus VI. 2. sai. SPECIES 4. Tourmaline (2). This (lone was (irft made known in Europe by fpeci- meiis brought from Ceylon; but it is now found fre- quently forming a part of thecompofition of mountains. It is either in amorphous pieces, or cryllallizcd in three or nine-fided pr.fms, with four-fided fummits. Its texture is toliated : Its Ira^liire conchoidal, In- tem.il hilhc 2 to 3. Tianipaiency 3 to 4 ; ibmelimes only 2 (a). Cr.uies only (ingle reft aftion.* Hardiiefs 9 to It. Sp. gr. 3.05 to 3.155. Col ur brown, often 10 dark that the (lone nppears black ; the brown has al- fo fometimes a tint of green, Klue, red, or yellow. When heated to 200*^ Fahienheit, it becnmes elec- tric ; one of t!ie fummits ot the crylf il negatively, the other potuively.f It reddens when heated ; and is lu- fible/iirryf with inlumefcence into a white or grey ena- mel. A fpecimen of the tourmaline of Ceylon, analyfed by Vauquelin, was cmipofed of 40 lilica, 39 alumina, 12 (ixyd of iron, 4 lime, 2.5 ox)d of manganefe. + IhiJ. in. 106. 48 G. VI. 2. SAI. Tourma- line. *Jaur. d* Min. N" xxviii. 165. t JEfl 97-5t- a-.-,. XII. species 5. Argentine felfpar.^ j^-. This (lone was difcovered by Mr Dodun in the black motmtains of L.-.nguedoc. It is either amorphous, or Argentine cryllallized in ihoniboid.il tables, or fi.'c or eight-lided fclTpar. prifms. Its texture is foliated. Fragments redangu- §.'^'>«'"', iar. Laminar indexible. Internal lullre 4. Tranfpa- '• •5*7- rency 2. Colour white ; two oppofite faces of the cry- ftals are filver white, two otlicrs dead while. Hardnefs of the lilvery lamin.c 6, of the roll 9. Brittle. Sp. gr. 2.5. When the flame of the bljw-pipe is direfled againll the edges of the cryilal (lluck upon gl.ifs), it eaiily melts into a clear compa(5l glafs ; but when the flame is direi^led againd the (aces, they prefervc their ludre, and tiie edges alone flowly melt. According to the analyiis of Dodun, it is compofed 46 filica, 36 alumina, 16 oxyd ol iron, 98 When this ftone is expofed to the atmofphcre, it is 3 R 2 apt of (z) Kiriu 1 271. — lier^. II. iiS. and V 402. — Gfrhurd. Alem. lierlin. r 17^4, 270. — IVii/m Phil. Tranf. XLI. 308. — JEpinus. Recueil fur la Tourmaline, phir, I'Oii/ J.- ('J.\it. ft 111 Tourmaline de Ceylori dcmafquei. (a) And when black only i. •7, p. 14. — Hduy Mem. Par- dee alio La Porterie. Le S.ip- MINERALOGY. 50 Mica. U Kinv. i. a 10 — Gmc I'tn^ Nov. Com. Petro- fol. xii. J49- trig + rig. 12. Jour. Jc Min. N° \xviii. 296. 'IHd. apt to Jecay: Its Tjrface becomes iridcfccnt, :iniiathft changes to ochre yellow: Its fpecific gravity is 2.3 or 2.212; anJ when breathed upon, it gives out an earthy fmell. SPECIES 6. Mica y. This flonc fiirms an elTential part ot many mountains, and has been long known under the names c,{ ^'.ccia ma- rie and Mitfcovy ghtfs. It confifts ot' a great number of thin lamiiiSB auhering to eacli other fometimes of a very large lize. Specimens have been found in Si- beria nearly 2t yards fquare (b). It is fonictimcs crv ftallized : Its primitive form is a redingular prilm, whofe b.ii'es are rhombs, with angles of 1 30° and 60" f : Its integrant molecule has the fame form. Scmelimes it occurs in re<5langul.ir prifros, whofe b.ifis alfo are reftargles, and fomctimes aUb in lliort lix- fided prifnis f ; but it is much more iVequenily in plates or fcales of no determinate figure or dv.s.'* Its texture is foliated. Its fragments fiat. The la- mella flexible, and fomewhat elaftic. Luftre metallic, from 3 to 4. Tranfparency of the laminx 3 or 4, fome- times only 2 (c). Hardnefs 6. Very tough. Often abforbs water. Sp. gr. from z.6546 to 2.9342. Feels linooth, but not greafy . Powder feels greafy. Colour, when pureft, filvcr white or grey ; but it occurs alfo yellow, greenilli, rcddifh, brown, and black. Mica is iufible by the blow-pipe into a wliitt, grey, green, or black, enamel ; and this laft is attr^icted by the niag- net (n). Spanifh wax rubbed by it become^ negatively eleifliic* A fpecimen of mica, analyfedby Vauquelin, contained 50.00 filici, 35.00 alumina, 7.00 o.tyd of iron, 1.35 magnefia, 1.33 lime, 1 7W. 302, 51 - Talc. ■ Kiriv. i. 150. — Poll JVIrm. hir'.. I746,p. ("'i 5 i/jiyt, Jour, tte Min. N' Xiviii. 3JI. 94.68t. Mica has long been employed as a fubditute for glafs. A great quantity of it is faid to be uled in the Kuffian marine i'or panes to the cabin windows of (hips ; it is preferred, becaufe it is net fo liable as glafs to be broken by the agitation ol the (hip. SPECIES 7. Talc ;};. This (lone has a very llrong refen)blance to mica, and was long confidered as a mere variety ot that mine- ral. It occurs fometimes in fmall loofe fcales, and fome- tiiiies in an induiated form; but it has not hitherto been found cryftailized. Its texture is foliated. The lamcUrs are flexible, but note'allic Itsluitre is from 2 to 4. Tranfparency frr>m 2 to 4. Hardnefs 4 to 6. Sp. gr. when indurated, from 2.7 to 2.8. Feels greafy. Colour moft common- ly wliitilh or greenifh. Spanilh wax tubbed witli it be- comes prjJhi'Vi'ly eleif ric J . Variety I. Scaly talc. Talcile of Kirw.in. This variety occurs under the iorni of fmall fcales, fcarcely cohering. Lnflrc 3 to 4. Very light. Ad- heres to tlie fingers. When rubbed upon tlie ikin, it , give>; it a glofs. Colour white, with a (hade of red or green; fometimes leek green. Farhty 2. Common talc. Venetiiin tah. This variety often occurs in oblong nodules. Lufti e, nearly metallic, 4. Tranfparency 2 to 3 ; wlien very thin 4. Hardnefs 4 to 5. Colour white, with a (hade of green or red; or apple green, verging towards (li- ver white. By tranfmitted light, green. Vdi'iely 3. Shifiofc talc. Its ftruflure is fiaty. Frafture hackly and long fplin- tery. Eafily crumbles wlien rubbed In the fraiflure. External hUlre 2 to 3 ; internal, i ; but f mctimes, in certain p'^fitions, 3. Colour grey, with a fhade of nhite, green or blue. Becomes white and fcaly when expofed to the air. A fpecimen of common talc, analyfed by Mr Chene- vix, contained 48 ;0 tilica, 37.0 alumina, 6.0 oxyd of iron, 1.5 magnefia, 1.5 lime, 5.0 water, Clafs I. Simple Stones. 99.0." spiciEs 8. Bafaltinef. n.dl 'An Chim. xxviii. 2C0. Biifaltic hornlUnde of Werner — y/fl/no/c- of Hauy — Zil- .^^. '"''■. lerlite of Lamctherie — Shorl prifmati'^ue hexa^onc jjo. of SaulFuie. This ftone is found commonly in bafallic rocks ; hence its name, which we have borrowed from Mr Kirwan. It is cryllallized, eitlicr ui rhomboldal prifros, or fix or eight-fidcd prifms, termii^ated by three-fided pyramids. Its texture is frliated. Its fraiTture uneven. Lullre 3. Tranfparency, when in very thin pla'ef, i. Hardnefs from 9 to 10. Sp. gr. 3.333. Colour black, dark green, or yellowifh green. Streak white. Tranin.its a rcddilh yellow light. Before the blow-pipe, it melts into a ereyilh coloured enamel, with a tint ot yellow f. . . , . A fpecimen, feemmgly of this (tone, analyfed by Berg- iy„,^. j^ man, contained 58 fiHca, 27 alumina, 9 iron, 4 lime, I magnefia, 7« Min. N° xxviii. 269. 99+- 53 Horn- \ Ber^. iii. 307. SPECIES 9. Hornblende «[[. Amphlbole of Hauy (e). This (lone enters into the compoiition of various blende, mountains. Irs texture is very confplcuoufly foliated, j,,"^"' '' Fra(5ture conchoidal. Fragments often ihomboidal. Lullre 2. Opaque. Hardnefs 5 to 9. Tough. Sp. gr. 2.922 103.41. Colour black, blackifh green, olive green. (b) Hijl General de Voyage, T. XVIII. 272, quoted byHsuy Jour, di Min. N» XXVIII. 299. (c) Black mica is often ne.irly opaque. (d) Hauy, ibid. p. 295. Bergman, however, found pure mica infufible /rr _/! ; and this has been the cafe with all the fpecimens of Mulcovy glafs which we have tried. (e) We fufpeift, that under this name Mr Hauy comprehends /jcr/ alfo. Order I. MINERALOGY. Earths and greett. Or leek green. Streak greenifli. It neltlier be- btonci. comes elciftric by friiflion nor heat.* Before the b!ow- • Hauy, pipe it melts into a black glafs. A fpecimen of black Jour. Je hornblende, analyfed by Mr Hermann, was compofed of Mi.. N° 37 niica, =">''"• 26?- 27 alumina, 25 iron, 5 lime, 3 magneaa, blciidc. \Biiib. in 97 t jjjjj.'xiy. SPECIES 10. Refplendent Hornblende 54 There ure two minerals which Werner confiders as RcfiiL-n- varieties ol hornblende, and Mr Kirwan as cunlli'-uting kl"l,' ,''""'" " dillin.n fpecies. Tbefe, till future analyfes decide the point, we lliall pi ;cc here under the name of refplendent hornblende, the name given them by Mr Kirwan ; and we Ihall dcfciibe them feparately. FaiL'/y I. Labradore hornblende. Texture, curved foliated. Lullre, in fome pofi- tions, o ; in others metallic, and trom 3 to 4. Opaque. Hardnefs 8 to 9. Sp. gr. from 3.35 to 3.434. Co- lour, in moll pofitions, greyilh black ; in otliers, it re- fleifls .1 llrong iron grey, fometinies mi.\ed with copper red. Variety 2. Shiller fpar.* Texture foli.ued. Luflre met.iliic, 4. Tranfpareri- cy, in thin pieces, i. Hardnefs 8 to 9. Sp.gr. 2. 8S2. Colour green, clten with a (hade of yellow; alfogok'en vellow. In fome pofitions ii refleds white, giey, or yellow. At 141" Wedgewo-'d, hardened into a porcelain niafs. A fpecimen, analyfed by Gmelin, was compofed of 43.7 filic 1, 179 alumina, 23.7 iron. • Kirtv. i. 2ZI. 1 1.2 magnefia. f Berghau" kundcy I Band. p. 92. 55 Obfidi-in. II K'trtv. i. 264. $ Berg, ii 304. 56 Pttnlite. * Kirlv. i 315- 57 Tclfite. ■^ Kifw. 316. 9^-5t- It has been found in the Hartz, (luck in a ferpen- tine rock. SPECIES 1 1. Obfidian ]|. Iceland a^alc. This (lone is found either in detached ma(res, or form- ing a part of the rocks which conipofe many monniaiiis. It is ufually inverted with a grey or opaque crull. Its fraiflure is conciioidal- Its internal luftre 3. Tranf- parency i. Hardnefs 10. Sp. gr. 2.348. Colour black or greyilh black ; when in very thin pieces, green. It melts into an opaque grey mafs. According to Berg- man, it is compofed of 69 filica, 22 alumina. 100^. SPECIES 12. Petrilite.* Cubic felfpar. This (lone is found \u the n'afs of mountains. It is amorphi us. Texture foliated. Fra(5iure fplintery. Fragments cubic, or inclining to that form ; their faces unpi'hdied. Luftre 2. Tranl'patency partly 2, partly i. Hardnc('s9. Sp.gr. 3.081. Colour reddilh brown. Does not melt at 160° WedgewcoJ. SPECIES 13. Felfitef. Compatl felfpar. This (lone alfo forms a paitof many mountains, and is amorphous. Texture forr.ewhat foliated. Frafiure uneven, approaching to the fplintery. Lullre i. Tranf- parcncy foarce i. Hardnefs y. Colour azure blue, and fomeiimes brown and green. Streak white. Le- fore the blow-pipe, whitens and becomes rifty ; but is infufible per fe. Genus VII. sap. SPECIES I. Felfpar f. This (lone forms tie princip il part of many of the higheil mountains. It is commonly cryftallized. Its primitive form, according to De LilL", is a rectangular prii'm, vvliofe bafes are rhombs, with angles of 65" and 1 15^" f . Sometimes the edges of the prifm are wanting, and faces in their pi ice; and fometmcs this is the cafe alf;i with the acute angles of the rhomb. For a de- fcription and figure of thefo, ;:nd other varieties, we re- fer the reader to Rome de I.'fle,^ Mr Hauy f , and Mr PimX. Its texture is foliated. Its crofs frai5lure uneven. Fragments rh.'imboidal, and commonly fmooth and po- lilhed on four fides. Lullre of the polilhed faces often 3. Tranfparency from 3 to r. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Sp. gr. from 2.437 to 2.7. Gives a pecu.iar od^ur when rubied. It is made eleiftric with great diflicuhy by friiftion. Fufible per fe into a more or Id's tranfparent j;hifs. When cryftallized, it decrepitates beloie ths blow-pipe. Variety I. Pure Felipar. Moon Jlonc — Adu'.aria. This is the puiell feilpar hiherto tVund. It occurs in Ceylon and Switzeilai.d; and was firit mentioned by Mr Sage. Lullre nearly 3. Tranfparcncy 2 to 3. Hardiiefs 10. Sp.gr. 2.559. Colour white; fome- tinies with a lliade of ) ellow, green, or red. Its furface is Ibnietimes iridefcent. Variety 2. Common Felfpar. Luftre of the crofs fra(?lure o; of the fraiflure, in the direelion of thi laminx, from 3 to t. Tranfparency 2 to I. C'liurinoft commonly flelh red; but often bluiOi grey, yellowilh white, milk white, brownilh yellow ; and fometimes blue, olive green, and even bl.ick. Variety 3. Libradore felfpar. This variety was difcovered on the coafl cf Labra- dore by Mr Wolfe ; and fince that time it lias been found in Europe. Luftre z to 3. Tranfparency from I to 3. Sp. gr. from 2.67 to 2.6925. Colour grey. In certain pofui.ins, fpots of it reHedl a blue, purple, red, or green colour. Variety 4. Continuous felfpar. This variety mod probably belmgs to a ilifTerent fpe- cics ; but as it has not hitherto been analyled, we dij not think ourfelves at liberty to alter its place. It is found inlaigemalfis. Texture earthy. Frac- ture uneven, fiinetimes fplintery. Lullre o. Tranl- parency i. Hardneis 10. Sp. gr. 2.6c(j. Colour reddilh grey, reddilh yellow, flelh red. A fpecimen of green tclfpar from Sibciia, analyfed by Vauquclin, contained 62. S3 filica, 17.02 alumina, 16.00 petals, 3.00 lime, 1. 00 oxyd of iron.. Simple Stones. 58 G.VII.SAP. Felfpar. t Kir-.u. ;. jr6. and y«'jr. de Phf. paf- fim. t Fig- 13- aiid 14. * CryJIdr. ii. 461. t Jl/.w;. Fur. I 78 J, P- 2 73- \ Sur de 2<^oitvcl!e CryJIallifa- tinn, &.C. 8 99.85!!. II Ann. at SPECIES ic6. 502 MINERALOGY. ciafs r. Earths and Stuiics. SPKC1E5 2. Lepidolite (f). Lilalile. ^■^^^"^ This done appears to have been firftobferved by the I.ep'.dolite. AbbJ Poda, Awd lohive been firfl defcnbed by De ^Crrtl'syVi- ]i^.Tn§. Hitlierto it lias only been found in Moravia nalt, i79i> in Germany, and Sudermania in Sweden*. Tliere it ','■ '' is mlNe.l with (rr.inite in larire amorphous mafles. It is Am-He conipoled cfthin plates, eafily leparatcd, and not unlike Chim.ixix. thole I f niicaf . Lullre, pearly 3. Tranlpaiency be- io3. tween i and 2. Hardiuis 4 to 5. Not eafily pulvc- titiiWrr, rifed;};. Sp. gr. from 2.8i6|| to 2.854951. Colour i/"^' NO r °^ ''''' '^'''*' vii'let blue ; of the thin plates, lilvtry white, jj ■ ■ Powder white, with a tint of red^. Before the blow- I IbU. P'l'^' 't frotlis, and nu'lcs c;di',y inln a white feniitranfpa- II Klafro'.b. lent enamel, full of bubbles. Diirolves in borax «ith ^ Hauy. effervefceiice, and commur.icates no colour to it*. Ef- %Li Lirvrr, fi.rverces flightly with foda, and melts into a mafs fpot- jiifn '^°\\ '•'^'■' ^"'' "^'^' ^^'''' niicrocofmic lalt, it gives a pearl 210.' coliiured globulef . • IIU. This ftone was firft called lilalite from its colour, that t K/afroii, of the /i/y. Kl iproth, who dlfcovered its component Ann. o'c parts, gave it the name of UplJoliic [g). It is conipofed of 53 liiica, 20 alumina, 18 pot.ifs, 5 tluat of lime, 3 oxyd ot ni.ir.ganefe, I oxyd (.li iron. Chim. xxii. 37- J yauqueti/ty Ann. de Ch'tm. MX. 105. 60 Leucite. II KiriV' i. a8j. 1 00 J SPECIES 3. Leucite I Vefuvian of Kir wan — Wh'iU garnet of Vefuvius. This none is ufually found in volcanic produiftions, and is very abundant in the ncighbmirhood of Vefuvius. It \3 always cryll.iilized. The primitive form of its cry- Itah is either a cube or a rhomboidal dodecahedron, and its integrant molecules are tetrahedrons ; but the varie- ties hitherto obferved are all polyliedrons : The moll common has a fpheroidal figure, and is bounded by 24 equal and hmilar trapcziodjf; fometimes the faces are 12, 18, 36, 54, and triangular, pentagonal, &;c. For a defcriptirn and figure of feveral of thefe, we refer the '^ Jour.de reader to Mr Hauy||. The cry ftals vary from the fii;e Min. N° of a pin head to tha.t of an inch. 2CXV11. 185. 'piig ttxture of the leucite is foliated. Its fra<ffure fomewhat conchcidal. Lullre 3 ; when in a ftate of decompofition o. Tranfparency 3 to 2 ; when decom- pofing o. Ilaidnefs 8 to 10 ; when decompufing 5 to 6. Sp. gr. 2.4648. Colour white, or greyilli white (h ). Its ,„ ,. powder caules fyrup of violets to affume a green colour*. Ic'r"'!- ' ^' '^ compofed, as Klaprcth has (hewn, of I>jo 54 filica, 165. 23 alumina, 22 potafs. + Fig. 15. It was by analyfing this (lone that Klaproth dlfeo- Simple vered the pr.;fence of potafs in the miner. il kingdom ; Stoiic5. which is not the leall important of the numerous difco- verics of that accurate and iilulhious chemill. Leucite is found fometimes in rocks winch have ne- ver been expofeJ to volcanic fire; and Mr Dolomieu has rendered it prob.;blc, from the fubftances in which it is found, that the leucite of volcanoes has not been formed by volcanic fiie, but tliat it exifted previoufly in the rocks upon wliicii the volcanoes have ailed, and tint it was thrown out unaltered in fragments of ihefe rocksj". § yo^r.Ji Genus VIII. sag. Min.ti'' SPECIES I. Emerald (k). "^^''a ^^'' Tills ftone has hitherto been only fnund cryflallized. q y|'|[ The primitive l';rm of its cryllals ii a regular lix-lided ,ai;. Eme- prifni ; and the form of its integrant molecules is a tri- raid, angular prifm, whofe fides are i'quarcs, and bafes equila- teral triangles*. The moll common vaiiety of its cry- • ^„,^ ftals is the regular fix-fided prifm, fometimes with the your-jl edges of the prifm, or of the bafes, or the folid angles, M",. N" or both wantiugf , and fmall faces in their placef . The "'". 7^- fides of the pnlm are generally channelled. |^'^' .' Its texture is foliated. Its tradure conchoidal. Luftre \in"'\\, ' ufually from 3 to 4. Tranlparency from 2 to 4. Caufes 243.' and a double rtfrafliun. Hardnefs 12. Sp. gr. 2. 65 to Hauy,ibiJ. 2.775. Colour green. Becomes eleflric by friL^tion, but not by heat. Its powder does not ph'ifphorefce when thrown on a hot ironf . At 150" Wedgewood j. Hotomiiu, it melts into an opaque coloured mafs. According to jmr. de Dolomieu, it is fufible^fryf by the blow-pipej. .V/m. N^ This mineral was formerly fubdivided into twodiftinft *^"I- '9- fpecies, the emerald, and beryl or aqua marina. Hauy ' ' ' demonllrated, that the emerald and beryl correfponded exa<ftly in their (Iruflure and properties, and Vauquelin found that they were compofed of the fame ingredients ; henceforth, therefore, they mull be confidered as va- rieties of the fame fpecies. The variety formerly called emerald varies in colour from the pale to the perfed green. When heated to 120° Wedgewood, it becomes blue, but recovers its co- lour when cold. A fpecimen, analyfed by Vauquelia« was compofed of 64.60 filica, 14.00 alumina, 13.00 glucina, 3.50 oxyd of chromum, 2.56 lime, 2.00 moifture or other volatile inorredient. Ml 99(') 99-66 11 ^^^ ^^ The beryl is of a greyifii green colour, and fometimes J;^,-^ ^^i_ blue, yellow, and even white: fometimes different co- 264. lours appear in the fame ftnneij. It is found in Ceylon, diftVrent parts of India, Brazil, and efpecially in Siberia Vy' """"' and Tartary, where its cryflals are fometimes a foot (f) Kirnu. I. 208. — Karjlen. Beob. dsr Berlin, 5 Band. 71. — Klaproth Beitrage, I. 279. and II. 191. (g) Th.it k, fciile Jlone, or llone compofed of fcales : From Atr;;,, the fcale of a f.Jh, and Xi6w, ajiorie. (h^ Hence the name leucite, from Xfi-ait, white. (1) S;e Jour, de Mm. N° XXVII. 194. and 201. and Klaproth's Beitrage, II. 39. (k) Kir. I. 247. and 248. — Dolomieu. Magaziu Encyclopediquc, II. 17. and 145.; ZXld jf our. de Mi n. Nf XVIIl. l^.— Klaproth Behrd-e, II. 12. Order I. M I N E II A L O G Y. Earth-, and long. A fpecimen of beryl, analyfcd by VauqueliD; bioiici. contained 6y lilica, *"^~^^^'*^ 13 aliiminj, 16 ghicina, I.J oxyd ot iron. H Ann. it Chirti. xxviii. 168 62 G. IX. SAB Staurolite. • K,r'.u. i. tFig-I7- + Hnuy, ^our~ Je xxviii. i2o 99-5 il It was by anal) ling this ftone that Vauquelin difco- • vercd ihc curih whicii he called ^/W/na. Genus IX. sab. spiciES I. Staurolite*. Andreol'ite of Lametherie and Hauy — Hyacinihe blanche cruclforme, var. 9. ol Rome dc Lile. This ftcme has been found at Andrealbeig in the Hartz. It is cryllallized, and the torm of its cryftals has induced mineralogills to give it the name of cr'jfs- Jlone. Its cryll.ilsf are t\TO four-lided H.ittcned prifins, terminated by ftnr fided pyramid?, inteifcifting each other at right angles : the plane of interfedion paiEng longitudin;illy through the prifms (l). lis texture is foli.ited. Its luftre waxy, 2. Tranf- parency from i to 3. Hardnefs 9. Brittle. Sp. gr. 2.355 to 2.361. C(lc)urmilk white. When heated fluwly, it Inks 0.15 or o 16 parts of its weight, and falls into powder. It eiFervefces with borax and microccf- rriic fait, and is reduced to a gieenilli opjque niafs. AVilh (oda it m.lts into a trothy white eriamul. When its powder is throv/n on a hot coal, it emits a greenilh yellow lightf . A fpecimen analyfed by Weftrum was cooipofed of 4.J. lilica, 20 alumina, 20 barytes, 16 water. ICO Klaproth found the fame ingredients, and nearly in t »-•/.-., tlie fame proporlion4- S. 80. A variety ot lUurulite has been found only once, which has the ioUowing peculiarities. Its luftre is pearly, 2. Sp. gr. 2.361. Colour brownilh prey. With liida it melts into a purplilh and yell'wilh frothy enanjel. It is compofed, according to Wellruni, of 47.5 filica, 120 alumina, io.o b.irytes, 16.0 water, 4.5 oxyds of iron and mar.ganefe. C X. ASI, Chrylobc- • Kiriv. i. 361. 100. Genus X. i. asl. sPEciF.s I. Chryfoberyl*. Oriental chryjolile of jewellers — Cyviofhane of Hauy. Hitherto tliis Hone has been found only in Brazil, the iiland of Ceylon, and as fome affirm near Nortfchink ■o Siberia. Werner firll njade it a dilhn«ft fpecies, and gave it the name which we have adopted. It is ulually found in round mall'es about the lizc ol a pea, but it is fometimes alio cryll.dliied. The primitive form of its cryftals is a four-lided reftangular prilm, whotc height is to its breadth as v^3 to i, and to its thicknefs as \/2 to Lf. The only variety hitherto obferved is an eight- fided priim, ternr.inatcd by lix-fided fummitsj;. T^-o of the faces ol the prilm are hexagons, two are reflangles, and four trapeziums ; two faces of t!ie fummits are red- aiigles, and the other A ur trapeziums. Sometimes two ot the edges of the prilm aie wanting, and fmall faces in their placef . Its texture is foliated. Lamiiiie parallel to the faces of the priim. Luftre 3 to 4. Tranfparsncy 3 to 4. Cauits iingle rcfradiun. Hardnefsiz. Sp. gr. from 3.698J to 3.7961 1|. Colour yellowiih j^ieen, I'uila e Iparkling. It is infufible by the blow-pipe per ft, and with loda. A fpecimen of chryfiberyl, analyfcd by Klaproth, was compofed of 71.5 alumina, iH.o filicn, 6.0 lime, l.J oxyd of iron. Simple Stones. t Fig- IS. \ Fig- ly- t Hjuy, 'Jour. Je jWn. N° xxi. 5. } fycrnr. II Jiauy. 97.0J Genus X. 2. sal. SPECIES 2. Hyalite*. This ftone is frequently found in trap. It occurs in grains, filaments, and rho.iiboidal malFes. Texture fo- liated. Fraflure uneven, inclining to conchcidaL Luftre gl.iiry(M}, 2 to 3. Tranlparency 2 to 3; fometimes tho' leldom, it is opaque. Hardnefs 9. Sp. gr. 2.1 if. Colour pure white. InfjCible at 150° Wedgewood • but it yields to fodaj;. According to Mr Link, it il compofed of 57 fiiicj, 16 alumina, 15 lime. 90 and a very little iron||. Species 3. ./Edelite*. This (lone has hitherto been found only in Sweden at Moflcberg and ^lidelfors. From this laft place Mr Kirwan, who riift made it a dillina fpecies, has given it the name wliich we have adopt:d. It was hrft men- tioned by Bergmanf . Its form is tuberofe and knotty. Texture itnaicd ; fometimes refembles quartz. Luftre from o to I. Sp. gr. 2.515 alter it has abforbed wa- ter|. Colour light grey, often tinged red; all'o yel- lowiih bi own, yeliowifh green and green. Before the blow-pipe it intumefces and forms a frothy mafs. Acids conveit it into a jelly^. A fpecimen from Moircbcrg, analyfed by Bergman, ciiUdincd 69 lilica, 20 alumina, 8 lime, ■; water. «co|| ||q»,/<. vi.. A fpecimen from -A^Jelfors yielded to the fame che- J°'- mill 62 iilica, 18 alumina, 16 iime, 4 w ater. »cc^ ^ JiiJ., Genus § Bal.Sge, i. lOJ. 64 G. X. a. S.\L. Hyalite. • Kiru: i. 296. \ Kirivan^ \JJ. II CrtlfsAn.. nail, 1790, 2 BanJ. -lEdclite. * Kiriv, t. 276. t 0/.!/-. vi. lOI. } See JC:r- «■«•/! 'j AZin.. i. 276. § Berg. iii. 227. (l) See Gil/r.t, your. <le ri'yf. 1793. P- ' ^"'^ ^• (mJ Hence probably the name kjialiie, which was impofed bj W^erner from "uaxn, ^/u//, .and X(6»(, ajhnc. 504 fed of • Hjuy, Jour. Jr Mix. N° xiv. 86. ■)■ HauyyibiJ. N® xxviii. S76. MINERALOGY Genus X. 3. sawl. SPECIES 4. Zeolite (n). ' This Hone was firll delcribeil by Cronfledt in the Stockhulm Tranfaaioiis for 1756. It is found^ fome- times amor|ihous and fomctimts cryflallizod. The pri- Riilivc lorm of its cryftals is a leilangular priftn, whofe bales are l'quare». The molt common variety is a long four- Tided prifm, terminated by low tour fiJed pyra- mids.* Its te-vture is (Iriatcd or fibrous. Its luflrc is filky, from 3 to 1. 'I'raiifpareney from 2104; fomc- times I. Hardnefs 6 to 8 ; fonietinies only 4. Abforbs water. Sp. "r. 2.07 to 2.3. Colour white, often with a Ihade ot red or yellow; lometimcs biici^.red, green, blue. When heated, it becomes electric like the tour- maline.f Before the blow-pii-e it froths (o), emits a phofphorefcent light, and mclti into a white ft-mitranf- parent enamel, too loft to cut gla's, and foluble in acids. In acids it dilFolves llowly and partially without effer- vel'ccnce ; and at laft, unlets the quantity of liquid be too great, it is convened into a jelly. A fpecimen of zeolite (r), analyfed by Vauquelin, contained 53°° hhea, 27.00 alumina, y.46 lime, 10.00 water. According to the analyfis of Vauquelin, it Is comno- 52.0 filica, 17.5 alumina, 9.0 lime, 18.5 water. ciafs r. Simple Stuncs. J UiJ. N° xliv. 576. 67 Stilbite. • Hauy, Jtur. * Mix. a^ xiv. 86. f Hauy.n.iJ. N° xxviii. 876. § Vauqutlin xxxix. i6l. 99.46 J. SPECIES 5. Stilbite. This ftone was tirft formed into a diftlna fpecies by Mr Hauy. Formerly it was conlidered as a variety of zeolite. The primitive form of its cryftals is a reflangular prifm, whofe bafes are rectangles. It cryltallizes fome- times in dodecahedions, confuting ota four-fided prifm with hexagonal faces, terminated by iour-lided lummits, whole faces are oblique par.illelograms ; fometimes in fix-fided prifms two of whofe folid angles are wanting, and a fmall triancul.u face in their place.* Its texture is foliated. The laminae are eafily fepa- rated from each other; and ate fonie«hat tle.xible. Lultre pearly, 2 or 3 (O- Hardnefs interior to that of icolite, which fcralches (tilbite. Brittle. Sp. gr. I.coQ.f Colour pearl white. Powder bright white, fometimes with a Ihade of red. This powder, when ex- pofcd to the air, cakes and adheres as if it had abforb- cd watsr. It caufes fyrup of viclets to aflame a green colour. When flilbite is heated in a porcelain crucible, it fwells up and alfumes the colour and femitranfparen- cy of b.iked porcelain. By this procefs it lofes 0.185 of its weight. Before the blow-pipe it troths like bo- rax, and then melts into an opaque white coloured en- , amel. J 97.0 II I «'-^-^i64. SPECIES 6. Analcime. Analcimc This ftone, which was difcovered by Mr Dolomieu, is found cryltallized in the cavities of lava. It was firft made a diltind fpecies by Mr Hauy. Mineralogifts had formerly conioundcd it witii zeolite. The primitive form of its cryllals is a cube. It is fometimes found cryltallized in cubes, wliofe fc.hd angles are wanting, and three fmall 11 iangular faces in place of each ; fometimes in polyhedrons with 24 faces. It is ufu- ally fomewhat trani'parent. Hardnefs about 8; fcratch- es glafs flightly. Sp. gr. above 2. When rubbed, it acquires only a fmall degree of electricity, and with dif- ficulty (r). Before the blow-pipe it melts without frothing, into a white femitranfparcnt glafs.* Genus X. 4. sla. SPECIES 7. Lazulite.f This ftone, which is found chiefly in the northern 278. parts of Afia, ha^ been long known to mineralogifts by 69 the name cf iapis lazuli. Tliis term has been contract- G. X. 4. ed into lazulilc by Mr Hauy ; an alteration which was ^^■''^^ '"='^''- ceitainly proper, and which therefore we have adopted. ."^. Lazulite IS always amorphous. Its texture is earthy, ig,. Its fradture uneven. Luftre o. Opaque, or nearly fo. Hardnefs 8 to 9. Sp.gr. 2.76 to 2.945 J. Colour ^ Brijfm. blue (s); often fpotted white from fpecks of quartz, and yellow from panicles of pyrites. It retains its colour at 100* Wedgewood ; in a high- er heat it intumefces, and melts into a yellowifli black niafs. With acids it eifervefces a little, and if previ- oully calcined, forms with them a jelly. Margraif publiftied an analylis of lazulite in the Ber- lin Memoirs for 1758. His analyfis has fince been confirmed by Klaproth, who found a fpecimen of it to contain 46.0 lilica, 14.5 alumina, 28.0 carbonat of lime, 6.5 fulphat if lime, 3.0 cxyd of iron, 2.0 water. • Hauy, Jour, de Mm. N° xiv. 86. and xxviii. 1 00.0^ Genus XI. sali. species I. Garnet (t). § Btltragf, i. 196. 70 This ftone is found abundantly in many mountains. ^- ^^' It is ufually cryltallized. The primiiive form of its ^^j_'' chryftals XX. 4 (") . (') in zeol (O 442.- Kiriu. I. 2-jS.—GuettarJ, IV. e^ .—Biicquet, Mim. Sav. Etrang. IX. ^-J 6.— Pel/flier, Jour, dc Phyf :o. Hence the name ^eoTue, given to this mineral by Cror.ftedt ; from fs«, to firment, and x/Sii?, ajlonc. Dr Black w.is accullomed to mention, in the conrfe of his ledures, that Dr Hutton had difcovered _/o</a ite. This difcovery has not hitherto been verified by any other chemical mincralogift. Hence the name given to this mineral by Ylt.\i.^,Jiilh'ite, from trnxCa, lojhine. Hence the name analcime given it by Hauy, from a»«\x/{, iveai. Hence the name la-iu'.hf, from an Arabian word azul, which fignifies Hue. Kircu. I. 258. — Gtrhard, Difquijisio ph^:co-chymica Gratiatorum, &c. — Pafuinot, Jour, de Phyf. III. •ll'ieglib, Ann. de Chim. I. 231. Order I. MINERALOGY. Earths and crfftals is a dodecahedron \vhofc fides are rhombs, with Mr Klaproth found a fpeclmen of BuLem'aa garnet, ^^^:j^i^ angles of yH" 31' 44", and 120° 28' 16". The inchna- compofcd of tion cf ihe rhomlis to each other is 120°. Tliis dode- cahedron may be confidered as a four-lided prifm, ter- • Fig. 10. minated by four-fided pyramids.* It is divitible into ' Dc Li/I.-, four par.iUelopipeds, wliofe fides are thombs ; and each ji. jiiand of tliefc may be divided into four tetrahedrons, whofe jP,'- ' fides are ifolceles triangles, equal and fimilar to either xrii'. xos. °^ ^^^ halves into which the rhomboidal faces of the dodecahedron are divided by their fliorter diagonal. The ^Haiiy,UiJ. integrant molecules of garnet are fimilar tetrahedrons. f i<=>S ^o 00 filica, 28 50 alumina, 16.50 oxyd of iron, 10.00 magnefia, 3.50 lime, .25 oxyd of mangaaefe. 987511 sPECiiss 2. Thiimer(lo:ie.* Siirpli; t IliJ. P Ofwfc. ii 9- § Hauyf your, Ji Mm. U° xxviii ^ S metimes the edges ot ihe dodecahedron are wanting, and fmall faces in their place ; and fometimes garnet is cryflaliizfd in polyhedrons, having 24 trapezoidalfaces. For a delcriplion and figure of ihefe, and other varie- ties of garnet, we refer to Rome cle Lijle and H,iuy.X The texture of garnet, as Bergman firft Ihewed, is foliated. II Its fradlure commonly conchoidal. Inter- nal lultrc from 4 to 2. Tranlparency from 2 to 4 ; fometimes only i or o. Caufes fingle rcfradion.J Hardncfs from 10 to 14. Sp. gr. 3.75 to 4.188. Co- , lour ufually red. Otten attra<5ted by the magnet. Fu- ' fible ffrji by the blow-pipe. I'ariity I. Oriental garnet (u). Internal Uillrc 3 to 4. Tranfpurcncy 4. Hardnefs 13 to 14. Sp. gr. 4 to 4.188. Colour deep red, in- clining to viulet (x). farieiy 2. Common garnet. Frafture uneven, inclining to the conchoidal. In- ternal luftre 2 to 3. Tranfparency from 3 to o. Hard- nefs 10 to II ; fometimes only 9. Sp. gr. 3.75 to 4. Colour commonly deep red, inclining to violet ; fome- times verging towards black or olive ; fometimes leek green, brown, yellnw. Variity 3. Amorphoos garnet. Struiflure flaty. Lullre 2. Tianfparcncy 2 to i. Hardnefs 1 1 to 12. Sp. gr. 3 89. Colour brownilli or bl.ickifh red. Found in Sweden, Switzerland, and tlie Eall Indies. A fpecimen of oriental garnet, analyfed by Klaprotli, contained 35-75 fdica, 27.25 alumina, 36.00 oxyd of iron, 0.25 oxyd of manganefe. • Billrag,, 99 25 * ii. a6. A fpecimen of red garnet, analyfed by Vauquelin, contained 52.0 filica, 20.0 alumina, 17.G oxyd of iron, 7.7 lime. • J,ur. Jc 96.7 t Min. N° A fpecimen of black garnet yielded to the fame che- iliv. 5TS- mift 43 filica, 16 alumina, 20 lime, 16 oxyd of iron, 4 moillure. } ■»'■'/• 573. Sup PL. Vol. II. 99 1- 1 Hc'lratt, ii. 21. 71 Thu:i:i.r- ftor.e. * Ktr-A-. i. 273— /><•/- lelur, "J cur. .'•< Pl~f. xxvi. 66. + D: Lj/!r, TamHts of Lametherie — A:;imt; of Hany. This (lone was Hr(l dcfcribcd by Mr Schreber, who found it near B.ilir.e d'Auris in Dauphir.c, anJ gave it the name ci/horl vioif.]- It was afterwards found near Thum in Saxnny, in confcquence of which \Verner called it thmiierjfone. It is fometimes amorphous ; but more commonly cryllallized. Tlie primitive form of its cryllals is a rectangular prifm, whole bafes are parallelograms with angles of 101° 32' and 78" :S'.J; The moil ufiial va- riety i« a flat rhomboid.il parallclopiped, with two of its oppofitc edges wanting, and a fmall face in place of each. J The faces of the parallelopiped are generally ftreaked longitudinally. The texture oi thumerllonc is foliated. Its frailure conchoidal. Luftre 2. l'rai;fpaiency, when cryllalli- zed, 3 to 4 ; when amorphous, 2 to i . Caufes fimplc retraction || Hardnefs 10 to 9. Sp. gr. 3.2956. C.)- lour clove brown ; fometimes inclining to red, green, grey, fiolet, or black. Before the blow.pipe i: froths Irke zeolite, and melts into a hard black enamel. With borax it exhibits the fame plienomen 1, or even when the llone is fimply heated at the end of a pincer.^ A fpecimen of tlmmcrftone, analyfed by Klapreth, contained 52.7 filica, 25.6 alumina, 9.4 lime, 9.6 oxyd of iron with a trace of •^— manganefe. 97-3* A fpecimen, analyled by Vauquelin, contained 44 filica, 18 alumina, 19 lime, 14 oxyd of iron, 4 oxyd of manganefe. 99 \ t J'^r. A Xdin, ihiJ. SPECIES 3. Prehn'te (v). -2 Though this llone had been mentioned by Sage,f Prihnite. Rome de Lille,* and other niineralogilh, Wetner was \ ^fimr. I. the firft who properly dillinguilhed it from other mine- \^q ,, ,, rals, and made it a dillin^l fpcci:s. The fpecimen ;; '^^ '' which he examined was brought from the Cape of Good Hope by Colonel Prehn ; hence the name preb- nitc, by wjiich he diilinguifhed it. It was found near Dumbarton by Mr Grotchef ; and fince that time it t-^""-"'- has been obfervcd in otlier parts of Scotland. ChimX.iii. 3 S It y»tir. c> Mil. N» xrcviii. 164. § Fit'. "• § D, up, ibid. II Haujythid, ^ fauijyitimf Jlur. de Jl/i-i. NO xxiii. I. • Scilragt, ii. izj. (u) Tliis feems to be the carbuncle («5fa; ) of Theophrallus, and the carluncului garamantkus of other ancient writtTf. See IliU's Thco[>kr.illus ttfi /,i5f.», p. 74 and 77. (x) Hence, according to many, the WAmz gurnet (in L.'M\ngrjnatas), from the refcmblance of the (lone in co- lour to the blolfoms of the pomegranate. (y) A'/Vw. I. 2-]i,.—HaJJ!nfratx.y Jour, de Phyf. ^iXyill. ■i>l.—Sage, iUJ. XXXIV. 446 — Kta^rotb, Beob. der Berlin, z Band. 211. Awi /Inn. dt Ckiin. I. 201. MINERALOGY. It is both amcrphous and cryftvillized. The cryftals are in groups, and confuled : iliey i'eem to be four- i Hauy, fiJed prifiTii with dihcdnilfummiii:};. Sometimes Uiey Jtjr.Je ate irrtgular lix-fidcj plates, and I'umetimeb tl.it rhom- Miii. M° boidal parallelopipeds. xxvm. 277. lis textuie is foliated. Fradure uneven. Internal lu lire pearly, I'carcely 2. Tranfparcncy 3 to 2. Ilard- H /{aiy,ii:t/. n^k 9 to 10. Brittle. Sp. gr. 2.6969]]. Coluur apple green, or greenilh grey. Before the bluw-pipe it lioilis more violently than zeolite, and mtlts into a lirown enamel. A fpecimen of prehnite, analyfed by Klaproth, was conipofcd of 43.83 filica, 30.33 alumina, 18.33 hme, 5.66 DA yd of iron, 1 .16 air and water. 5 Ann* t Cbim. U ao8. 1 Hid. and xxxii. 8l. 73 Thallite. • CnJlalJo^. ii. 401. your, de Mm. N" xxviii. 271. <) Fig. 23. 4 Ro^:r d; Lip, ih'ul. and Huuyj your, de Min. N= MI. 4IJ. (! ffliKv, aiid Jhf.tiUi, ibid. 99-3 ' 5" Whereas Mr Hailentratz found in another fpecimen 50.0 filica, 20.4 alumina, 23.3 lime, 4.9 iron, .9 water, .5 magnefia. 101 •OH spEcits 4. Tiiallite. Cicen Jlyirl of Dauphiiio of De Lille * — Delph'mlte of Sauffiiie. This (lore is found in the filfures of mountains ; and hitherto only in Dauphir.c and on Chamouni in the Alp->. It ii fometimes amorphous, and fometimes crylValli- zed. The primitive form of its cryllals is a rectangu- lar prifm, whole bafts are rhombs with angles of 1 14'' 37', ai'.d 65" 23' f. '1 he mort ufnal variety is an elon- gated four-lided prifm (often flattened), termin.ited by four-lided incomplete pyramids § ; fometimes it occurs in regul.ir li.\-fidcd piiims |. Tlie ciyftalsate often very llender. Its texture appears fibrous. Luftre inc<»nfider- able. 'I'ranlparcpcy 2 to 3, fometimes 4; fcimetimes nearly opaque. Caufes lingle retraftion. Hardnels 9 to 10. Brittle. Kp. gr. 3.4529 to 3 46. Colour dark green (z). Powder white or yellowiih green, and f»iels dry. It does not become elcflric by heat. Be- tore the blow-pipe, froths and melts into a black flag. With boiax melts into a green bead ]]. A fpecimen of tiiallite, analyfed by Mr Defcotils, contained 37 tilica, 27 aluiTiina, 17 oxyd of iron, 14 lime, 1-5 oxyd of nianganefe. GeNUS'XII. I. AMS. SPECIES I. Cyanite.* Sappare of Saufl'nre. This ftone was firll defciibed by Mr Sauffure, the fjn, who gave it the name of Sappare\. It is common- ly found in granite rocks. The primitive form of its cryllah is a fourfided oblique prifm, whofe fides are in- clined at an angle of 103''. The bafe forms with one fide of the prifm an angle of 103" ; with another, an angle of 77^. It is fometimes cry iiallized in fixhded prifms J. Its texture is foliated. Lamina; long. Fragments long, fplintery. Lnftre pearly, 2 to 3. Tranfparency of the laminx 3. Caufck (ingle refraction ||. Hardnefs 6 to 9. Brittle. Sp. gr. from 3.092 to 3.622 ^. Feels fomewhat greafy. Colour milk white, with (hades of (ky or pruffian blue (a) ; fometimes bhiilh grey ; fome- times partly bluilh grey, partly yellowilh or greenilh Before the blow pipe it becomes almoft perfeflly white ; but does not melt. According to the analylis of Sauflure, it is compofed of 66 92 alumina, 13.25 magnefia, 12.81 filica, 5.48 iron, 1. 7 1 lime. S Hid. NO jgti. 42c. 96.5^ Clafs I. Simple Stones. 74 G. XII. A MS. Cy- anite. * Kirnv. i. 209 •S'o^f, your* d< PhyJ. XXXV.' 39. ■j your, de Pliyf. xxiiv. 213- \ Hauy, your, di Min. N° xxviii. 281. ]| Hauyt'ibidm § Kirtvan. 100.17^ Cyanite has alio been analyfed by Struvius and Her- mann, who agree with Sliulfure as to the ingredients; but differ widely from him and one another as to the proportions. Hermann. 30 alumina f your, di Jfhyf. itid. Struvius. 5-5 ■ 30-5 - 51-5 ■ 5.0 - 4-0 - 96.5- 39 magnefia, 23 filica, 2 iron, 5 lime. 97 t Genus XH. 2. msa. SPECIES 2. Serpentine (b). This (lone is found in amorphous malles. Its frac- ture is fplintery. Ludre o. Opaque. Hardnefs 6 to 7. 6p. gr. 2.2645 to 2.709. Feels rather fott, al. mod greafy. Generally emits an earthy fmell when breathed upon. Its colours are various (hades of green, yellow, red, grey, brown, blue : commonly one or two colours form the ground, and one or more appear in fpots or veins (c). Before the blow-pipe it hardens and does not melt, A fpecimen of lerpentine, analyfed by Mr Chenevix, contained 34.5 m;ignelia, 2S.0 (ilica, 23.0 alumina, 4.5 oxyd of iron, 0.5 lime, 1 0.5 water. loi.o* •CriiriA,,. t Ibid. 75 O. XII. a. MSA Serpentine. (z) Hence tlisname ihallke given it by Lametheiie, from eax^ot, a great leaf. I a) Hence the name cyanite, impofed by Weiner. (b) Kirnn I. 156. — Margraf, Mem. Berlin, 1759, p Annals, I 7^9, II. 416. (c) Hence the mmt f:rfe,uine, given to the ftone a ferpent. * Ann. de Chim. xxviii 199. . 2-—Sayen, Jour, t/e Phyf. XIII. 46.— Myw, CreWs from a fuppofed refemblance in colours to the ikin of Order I. Earths and Stnncs. MINERALOGY. 507 77 Chlorite, • Klriu. i. 147- • Vaaqueliit, Mi: N° xixts. 167. t Ann. J: Cbim. XXX. 106. Genus XIII. Ms.11. SPECIES I. Potllonef. This flone is found In nefts and beds, and is always amorphous. Its ftrudure is often flaly. Texture un- duldtingly foliated. LuQre from i to 3. Tranlpa- rcncy (rom i to o ; fometimcs 2. Hardnefs 4 to 6. Brittle. Sp. gr. from 2.8531 to 3.023. Feels grca- fy. Sometimes abforbs water. Colour grey with a (hade of green, and fometimes of red or yellow ; fome- times leek green ; fometimes fpeckled with red. Potftone is not mucli afTeifled by fire ; and has there- fore been made into utenfils for boiling water ; hence its name. According to Wieglcb, the potftone of Como con- tains 38 rnagnefia, 38 filica, 7 alumina, 5 iron, I carbonat of lime, I fluoric acid. "90" SPECIES 2. Ciilorite.* This mineral enters as an ingredient into different mountains. It is fometimes amorphous, and fometimes cryllallized in oblong, four-lidcd, acuminated cryftals. Its texture is foliated. Its luftre from o to 2. O- paque. Hardnefs from 4 to 6 ; l\ metimes in loofe icales. Colour green. Variety I. Farinaceous chlorite. Compofed of fcales fcarcely cohering, either heaped together, or invefting other (tones. Feels greafy. Gives an earthy fmell when breathed on. Difficult to pulve- rife. Colour grafs gieen, fometimcs greenilh brown ; fometimes dark grteu, inclining to black. Streak white. When the powder of clilorite is cxpofed 10 the blow- pipe it becomes brown. Before the blow. pipe, faiina- ceous chlorite froths and melts into a dark brown glafs ; with borax it forms a greenilh brown gl.tl!>*. Variety 2. Indurated chlorite. This variety is ctyftallized. Luftre i. Hardnefs 6. Feel meagre. Colour dark green, almoft black. Streak mountain green. Variety 3. Slaty chlorite. Struiflure flaty. Fragments flatted. Internal luftre I to 2. Hardnefs 5. Colour greenilh grey, or dark green inclining to black. Streak mnniuain green. A fpecimcn of the firft variety, analyfcdby Vauque- lin, contained 43.3 oxyd ot iron, 26.0 lilica, 15.5 alumina, 8.0 magneda, 2.0 muriat of potafs, 4.0 water. 90t A fpecimeii cf the fame variety yielded Mr Hap- SimjJe ner 12.92 oxyd of iron, ijl^i'.^^ 37.50 niica, 4.17 alumina, 43-75 magnefii, 1 .66 lime. I 00.0 f \X.v,Jjurii A fpecimen of the fccond variety, analyfed by the °y^S"t "• fame cheroift, contained 10.15 oxyd of iron, 41.15 filica, 6.13 alumina, 39.47 magnefia, 1.50 lime, 1 .50 air and v;ater. 99.9 ^ ^CrittiAn- On the fuppofition that thefe analyfes arc accnrato "■'''•^'79'» the enormous difference between them is a demonflra- tion that chlorite is not a chemical combination, but .1 mechanical mixture. GkNUS XIV. SLAM. Q_ XIV. SPECir.s 8. Siliceous fpar (d). »iam. This ftone has been found in Tranfylvania. It is Siliccou* cryftalli/ed in 4 or 6 fided prifms, channelled tranf- fp^""- veifely, and generally heaped together. Its texture \-i fibrous. Its luftre filky, 2. Its colours white, yellow, green, light blue. According to Bindheim, it contains 6 1. 1 filica, 2 1 .7 lime, 6.6 alumina, 5.0 magr.efia, 1 .3 oxyd of iron, 3.3 water. 99.0* 104. 79 G. XV. SAMLI. Genus XV. samli. SPECIES I. Argillitef. jirgiUactous Jhijlus—Comm. ,1 Jlate. _ ArglUite. This ftone conditutes a part of many mountains. ^ Ktr-ja. i. Its ftruifture it flaty. Its lexture foliated. Fiaiflure 2-,4. fplintery. Fragments often tabular. Luftre moil cvin- monly filky, 2 ; fometimes o. Tranfparency from o to I. Hardnefs from 5 to 8. Sp. gr. from 2 67 to 2. 88. Does not adhere to the tongue. Gives a clear lour.d when ftruck. Often imbibes water. Strrak white or grey. Colour moll commonly grey, witli a fliade of blue, green, or black; fometimes purpliili, ycilowifli, mountain green, brown, bluifli black ; fometimes llriped or fpotted with a darker colour than tlie ground. It is compofed, according to Kirwan, of filica, alu- mina, magnel'ia, lime, oxyd of iron. In fume vaiirties 3 S 2 ths (n) Isthisthe<m«o//V<rofLowitz from the lake Baik.il in Siberia ? Iffo, the name of the genus ought to be SLM ; for he found it to contain no alumina. According to his analyfis, it was compofed of 52 filica, 20 lime, 1 2 carbonat of lime, 12 magnefia. ./. The MINERALOGY. t W^v, 7<>"r. d- 'Min. N° xxviii. 272 the lime is wanting. Several varieties contain a confi- derable quantity of carbonaceous matter. Genus XVI. slacmi. SPECirs I. Smaragdite. This ftone was calhd fm.iragdile by Mr SaiilTure, from feme refsmblance which it has to ihe emerald. Its texsure is foliated. The laminx are inflexible. Frailure even. Hardnefs 7. Colour in feme cafes tine gi cen, in others it has the grey colour and metallic hillie of mica : it aflumes all the fliades of colour be- tween tliefe two cxlrcmes.f According to the analyfis of Vauquelin, it is compo- fed of 50.0 fillca, 13.0 lime, ii.o alumina, 7.5 oxyd of chrorr.um, 6.0 magnefia, 5.5 Oiyd of iron, - 1 .5 oxyd of copper. \ Ar.n. dc Chin. XXX. 106. 81 G. XVII. SM. Kiffckil. * Kir^vans 7VJV/;.i. 144. 1 1^<'<S"'SZ- Phihf. Ata^. iil. 1*5- • irifflu 94-5 t Genus XVII. sm. SPECIES I. KifFel<il.* Myrftn — Scafroth. This mineral is dug up near Konie in Natolia, and is employed in forming the bowls of Turkilh tobacco pipes. The fale of it fupports a large monaflery of dcrvifcs eflablilhed near the place where it is dug. It is found in a large fid'ure fix feet wide, in grey calcare- ous earth. The workmen alfert, that it grows again in the filfure,-! and puffs itlelfuj) like froth (e). This mineral, when fielh dug, is of the confidence ot wax ; it t'ecls foft and greafy ; its colour is yellow ; its fp. gr. 1 .6co J : when thrown on the lire it fweats, emits a fetid vapour, becomes haird, and perfectly white. According to the analyfis of Klaproth, it is compo- fcd of JO-JO filica, 17.25 magnefia, 25.00 water, 5.00 carbonic acid, .50 lime. ii. 172. X2 Stcithes. 98.25 s^ srEciEs 2. Steatites (f). Though this mineral was noticed by the ancients, little attention was paid to it by mineralogilU, till Mr Pott publifiied his experiments on it in the Berlin Me- moirs for 1747. It is ufuaily amorphous, but fometimes it is cryftalli- zed in lix-fided prifms. Its texture is commonly earthy, but fometimes foliated. Lullre from o to 2. Tranl- parency from o to 2. Hardnefs 4 to 7. Sp. gr. from 2. 61 to 2.794.* Feels greafy. Seldom adheres to the tongue. Colour ufuaily white or grey ; often with a tint of other colours; the foliated commonly green. Does not mth per fe before the blow-pipe. Variety 1. Semi-indurated fleatitcs. Texture earthy. Fraflure fometimes coarfe fplin- tery. Luftre o. Tranfparency o, or fcarce i. Hard- nefs 4 to 5. Abforbs water. Takes a polilh from the nail. Colour white, with a (hade of grey, yellow, or green; fometimes pure white; fometimes it contains dcndritical figures j and fometimes red veins. Var'uty 2. Indurated fleatites. Fra<51ure fine fplintcry, often mixed with imperfedly conchoidal. External luftre 2 to i, internal o. Tranf- parency 2. Often has the feel of ioap. Abforbs wa- ter. Colour yellowilh or greenilli grey ; often veined or fpotted with deep yellow or red. Variety 3. Foliated Or ftrialed fleatites. The texture of this variety is ufuaily foliated ; fome- times ftriated. Fragments cubiform. Luftre 3. Tranf- parency 2 to I. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Colour leek green, pafCng into mountain green or fulphur yellow. Streak pale greenifh grey. When heated to rednels, it becomes grey ; and at 147" Wedgewood, it forms a grey porous porcelain mafs.* A fpecimen of fteatites, analyfed by Klaproth, con- i tained 59.5 filica, 30.5 magnefia, 2.5 iron, ^.^ water, 9S.ot. A fpecimen of white ffe?.tites, analyfed by Mr Che- nevix, contained 60.00 (ilica, 28.50 magnefia, 3.00 alumina, 2.50 lime, 2.25 iron. ciafs r. Simple Stones. 155- -f- BeitrilgCf ii. 179. 96.25 t Genus XVIII. msi. SPECIES I. Chiyfolite (g). Peridot of the French — Topu% of the ancients. The name chryfilitc was applied, without difcrimina- tion, to a great variety of ftoues, till Werner defined it accurately, and confined it to that flone which the French chemifts diftinguifh by the appellation oi peri- d'lt. This ftone is the topa% of the ancients; their chryfolits is now called topaz.§ Chryfolite is found fometimes in unequal fragments, and fometimes cryftallized.f The primitive form of its cryllals is a right angled parallelopipechj whofe length, breadth, and thicknefs, are as 5, y^S, \/j.* Tne texture of the chryfolite is foliated. Its frac- ture conchoidal. Its internal luftre from 2 to 4. Its tranfparency from 4 to 2. Caufes double refraiftion. Hardnefs- \ Ann. de dim. xxviii. 200. G. XVIII. MSI. Chryfolite. § Plinll, lib. 37- c. 8. t Fig- 23- ♦ Fig. 24- ' Hr,„y, Jour, de Mir.. N° xxviii. 281. Tlie carbonat of lime was only mechanically interpofed between the fibres of the ftone. See Pallas, Neu. Nord. Hcilr'Jje, 6 Band, p. 146. (e) Hence the name hijf-h'd, or rather leff-kelli, " clay froth," or " light clay." (f) Kiriu. I. 151. — Pttt, Mem. Berlin, 1747, p. 57. — IViegleb, Jour, de Phyf. XXIX. 60. — Lavot/tcr, Mem. Par. 1778, 433. (c) Kiriu. I. 262 — Carlheufer, Min. 94. — Dohmieii, Jour, de Mm. W xxix. 365. — La Methene, Nouv. Jour, de PhyJ. I. 397. Order I. Earths and Stones. \ Kir. Mm. J. 163. ^ Vtiuquilln, Ami- <i< Ch'm- !txi- 97- § K\r-.v. Hid. |] Cojuclurl, your, dc Mil. N^ xi\\. 10. y Kirivaiti Mm. i- a6j. — Le •Jour, di Pkyf. XXX. 397- MINERALOGY. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Brittle. Sp. gr. from 3.265 to 3.45. Colour green. It is infiifible ;U i J0°, but loles its iranfparency, anJ becomes blackilh grey.f With bo- rax it melts without effervefcence into a tranfparent gUfs ot' a light green colour. Infuhble with microcofmic laltf and fixed alkali. ^ Variety I. Common chryfolite. Found in Ceylon, and South Amciica, and in Bohe- mia, amidll fand and gravel. || LuRre 3 to 4. Tranf- parency 4 to 3. Colour yellowifli green, lometimes ver- ging to olive green, fometime? to pale yellow. Vanity 2. Olive chryfolite — O/iiine.^ Found commonly among traps and bafalts ; fomet imes in fmall grains, foir.etimes in pretty large pieces ; but it has not been obfeived in cryftah. LuRre 2 to 3. Tranfparency 3 to 2. Colour olive green. The tiirft variety, accordhig to the analyfis of Kla- proth, is compofcd of 41.5 magnefia, 38. 5 lilica, 19.0 oxyd of iron. t Kla froth' J Bcilri'gc, i. 103. 99.0 t According to that of Vautpjelin, it is compofed of 51.5 magnefia, 38.0 filica, 9.5 oxyd of iron. ^ An Chirn . dc .ibid. 99.0 1 The fecond variety, according to the analyfis of Kla- proth, is compofed of 37. 5S magntlia, 50.00 fiHca, 1 1 75 oxyd of iron, .21 lime. 5 Slitr'igl, i. 112. Jade. 99.54$. SPECIES 2. Jade (h). This (lone was formerly called lapU nephrificin, and ■was much celebrated for its medical virtues. It is found in Egypt, China, America, and in the Siberian and Hungarian mountains. It is fometimes adhering to rocks, and fometimes in detached round pieces. Its furface is fmooth. Its fraflure fplintery. Ex- ternal luftre o, or fcaree 1 ; internal waxy, i. Tranf- parency from 2 to I. Hardnefs 10. Not brittle. Sp. gr. from 2.95 to 2.9829 ; or, according to Saulfure, to 3.389. Feels greafy. Looks as if it had imbibed oil. Colour dark leek green, or verging towards blue ; in fome prominencies inclining to greenilh or bluifh white. When heated it becomes more tranl'parent and brittle, but is infufible/tv/c According to Huepiner, it is compofed of 47 filica, 38 catbonat of magnefia, 9 iror, 4 alumina, 2 carbonat of lime, 100 This is the (lone which the inhabitants of New Zealand make into hatchets and other cutting inftru- ments. Genus XIX. sml. SPECIES I. Albcllus (1). This mineral was well known to the ancients. They even made a kind of cloth fiom one of the varieties, ■which was famous among them for its incombullibilily. It is found abundantly in moll mountainous countries, and no ■v.here more abundantly than in Scotland. It is commonly amorphous. Its texture is fibrous. Its fragments often long fplintery. Lull re fiom o to 2 ; fometimes 3, and then it is metallic. Trarlparency from o to 2. Hardnefs from 3 to 7. Sj;. j;r. from 2.7100.6806. Abforbs water. Colour ulually white or green. Fufible per fe by the blow-pipe. Variety I. Common Afbelhis. Luftre 2 to I. Tranfparency i. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Sp. gr. 2.577 to 2.7. Feels fomewhat greafy. Colour leek green; fometimes olive or mountain green; fome. times gretnifh or yellowifh grey. Streak grey. Pow- der grey. Variety 2. Flexible afbeflus. ./^miiwluj, Compofed of a bundle of threads ilightly cohering. Fibres flexible. Lnllre 1 to 2, fometimes 3. Tranf- parency I to 2, fometimes o. Hardnef's 3 to 4. Sp. gr. before it abforbs water, from 0.9088 to 2.3134; after abforbing water, from 1.5662 to 2. 3803. f Feels greafy. Colour greyifh or greeni(h white ; fometimes yellowifli or filvery white, olive or mountain green, pale flelb red, and mountain yellow. Variety 3. Eiadic abedus. Mountain corh. This variety has a llrong refemblance to common cork. Its fibres are interwoven. Lullre commonly o. Opaque. Hardnefs 4. Sp. gr. before nbibrbing w.i- ter, from 0.6806 to 0.9933 i after abforbing water, from 1.2492 to 1 .3492. Feels meagre. Yields to the fingers like cork, and is fomewhat eiadic. Colour white ; fometimes with a (hade of red or yellow ; fometimes yellow or browr. A fpecimen of the fird variety from Dalecarlla, an- alyfed by Bergman, contained 63.9 filica, 16.0 caibonat of magnefia, 12.8 carbonat of lime, 6.0 oxyd of iron, 1.1 alumina. A fpecimen of the fecond variety yielded to the fame chemid 64.0 filica, 17.2 carbonat of magnefia, 13.9 carbonat of lime, 2.7 alumina, 2.2 oxyd of iron. IOO.O.{ A fpecimen of the third variety contained, according to the fame analyfis, 56.2 filica, 26.1 carbonat of magnefia, 12.7 carbonat of lime, 3.0 iron, 2.0 alumina. loo.otl Twelve 509 Simpte Stones. ^Bri/ca • Of'tifi. iv. 170. » liiJ. jv 163. II /lid. IV 170. (h) Kirnv. I. 171. — Bartolin, De LapiJe Nephritico. — Lthmann, Nov. Comm. Pefropol. X. 381. — Hapfner, Hifl. Nat.de la Suife, I. 25 I. (1) Kirw. I. I yj.— Bergman, IV. iGo.— Plot, Pkil. Tranf. XV. 1051.— AVW, Jour. Jc P !>•.■/. II. 62 UiJ. III. 367. MINERALOGY. 87 G. XX. I. S 1 L M . Pyroxcn. I Hauy, 'your, de Min. N° xxviii. 369 II J3^ Lip, ii. 398. ■f F^rbtr. \ Le L:cvre. Tu-eU'C different fpecimsns of afbeftus, analyfed by Bergman, yielded the fame ingredients, differing a little in their proportionsf . SPECIES 2. Afbeftinite (k). This ftone is amorphous. Texture foliated or broad ftriatcd. Lulke lilky, 3. Tranfparency i to 2. Hard- nefe 5 to 6. Sp gr. troni 2.8c6 to 2.880. Colour white, with (hades of red, yellow, green, or blue. At 150" Wedi'ewood it melts into a green glafs. Genus XX. i. silm. SPECIES I. Pyroxen. This flonc is r)und abundantly in lava and other vol- canic productions (l). It is always crjllallized. 'J'he piiniiiivc iorni of its cryllals is an oblique angled prifni, whofe bafes are rhombs with angles of 92" 18', and 37" 42't. It generally cryflalli7.es in eighi-lided prifms, terminated by'dihedral fumniiis||. Its texture is folia- ted. Haidncfi 9. Colour black; fometimes green. Powder grecnilh grey*. Comnuinly attrafled by the magnetf . Scarcely fulible by the blow-pipe|. With borax it melts into ;i ycUowifh glafs, which appears red while it is liotj. According to the analjfis of Vauquelin, it is com- § VaujucUn. pofcd of 52.00 (ilica, 14.66 oxyd of iron, 13.20 lime, 10 00 magnefia, 3 33 alumina, 2.00 oxyd of manganese. II J''-"-- ''' Min. N° xjotix. 172. 88 Afbeanid. * KirivaHy i. 166. ■J- I^acquartf Ann. de Ckim, xxii. 95-191 83- } jhid. * K'lrzvajis SPECIES 2. Afbednid*. Tliis ftone has obtained its name from its fimilarity to common afbellus. It is- amorplious. Its texture is foliated or Itriated. Its lulfre common or glaffy, from 2 to 3. Tranlpirency from o to i. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Sp. gr. from 3 to 3.31. Colour dive or leek green ; when decompoling, brown. Before the blow- pipe it melts per fe into a brown globule. With bo- rax it foims a violet coloured globule verging towards hyacinthf. According to the analyfis of Mr Mac- quart, it is compofed of 46 filica, 20 oxyd of iron, 1 1 lime, 10 oxyd of manganefe, 8 magnefia. 95j: There is a variety of this Ipecies which Kirwan calls metalliform afbeftoid. Its luftre is femimetallic, 3. O- paque. Hardnels 8 to 9. Sp. gr. 3.356. Colour grey. GElJt^S XX. 2. SMIt. SPECIES 3. Shnrlaceous aiftinollte { m). This Hone cryftallizes in four or fi.x-lided prifms, thicker at one end than the other; hence it has been called by the Gcwnxvn- Jlrahl/lein, " airow.ft.one." The cryftals fon.etimei adhere longitudinally. Fraiflure hackly. External lultrc glaffy, 3 to 4; internal, i to 2. Tranfparency Ironi 2 to 3 ; lometimes i. Hard- nefs Irom 7 to tc. Sp. gr. 3.023 to 3.45. Colour leek ( r dirk gieen. This ftone is often the matrix of iron, copper, and tin ore.s. SPECIES 5. Lamellar aftinolitc. This ftone lefembles hornblende. It is amorphous. Te.'cture fo'ii.ited. LiiUre various in different places. 'J'ranlp.irency o, or fcarce I. Sp. gr. 2.916. Colour dark yellowilh or greenifh grey. SPECIES 6. Glaffy aiflinolite. This ftone is found amorphous, compofed of fibres adhering longitudinally, or in flender four or fix-fided priims. I'exture fibrous. Fragments long Iplintery, io (liarp that they can fcarcely be liandled without in- jury. Exteinal luftre glafly or filky, 3 to 4; internal o. Tranfparency 2. Exceedingly brittle. Sp. gr. 2.95 to 3 493. Colour leek green ; fometimes verging towards grecnilh or filver white; fometimes ftained with yellowifh or browndh red. According to Berg- man it is compofed of 72.0 filica, 12.7 carbonat of magnefia, 6.0 carbonat of lime, 7.0 oxyd of iron, 2.0 alumina. Clafs I. {■tones. G. XX. J. SMIL. Shnrlacc- ous aiflino- lite. 90 Lamellu' adinoUtCt 91 GhtTy aiai^ nolitc. 305- fometimes inclining to red*. 99-7 • OpufcAv. Genus XXI. sl. SPECIES 1. Shiftofe hornftonef . o. xxr. The ftruflure of this ftone is flaty. Luftre from o sl. .shiftofe to 1. Commonly opaque. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Sp. '^'""nflone. gr. from 2.596 to 2.641. Colour dark bluifti or black- ' ^^•■^'"'' ilh giey. Infufible per fe. Variety I. Siliceous fhiftus. Commonly interfeCled by reddifh veins of iron flone. Fraflure Iplintery. Luftre o. Tranlparency from o to I. Variety 2. Bafanite or Lydian ftone. Commonly interfered by veins ot quartz. Fracture even; fometimes inclining to cofichoidal. Luftieltarce 1. Hardnels 10. Sp. gr. 2.596. Powder black. Colour greyilh black. This, or a ftone limilar to it, was ufed by the an- cients a? .1 toucljftone. They drew the metal t'> be ex- amined along the ftone, and judged of its punt) by the I. 165. Is this tlie tremclite of Werner ? It certainly is not the tremol'ite of the French (k) A'/Vi'j. Mm. mineralogifts. ( l) Hence the name pyrcxcn given it by Hauy ; from wi/f Jirt, and Jtvo«, afiran^er. It means, as he himfelf explains it, ^Jirar.ger in the regions of fire. By this he means to indicate, that pyroxen, though prefent in lava, is not a volcanic production. (m) In this and the following fpecies we have followed Mr Kirwan's new arrangement exaflly, without even venturing to give the fynonimes of other autliors. The defcriptions which have been given are lo many and in- complete, and the minerals themfelves are ftiU fo imperfedfly known, and have got fo many names, tliat no part ct ir;inerak'gy ii in a ftate of greater confufion. I Order I. MINERALOGY. £arth« aiid the Colour of the metallic ftrcaV. On this account they called !t /Sa^-atot, ihe trier. They called it alfo Ly- diunjhne, becaiife, as Theophraftus informs us, it was iound mod abundantly in the river Tmolus in Lydiaf . A fpccimen of the firft variety, analysed by Wieg- Stoncs. t HM's Thcuprajlus p. J -JO. A fpecimen analyfed by Klaproth contained 70.0 zirconia, 25.0 fiHca, 0.5 oxyd of iron. leb, contained 75.0 filica, 10.0 lime, 4.6 magnefia, 3.5 iron, 5.2 carbon. 9.! G. XXII. Z3 Zircon. * JCjrtvait, i. 257. and 333- $ Fig. 25. f Haiiy. Jour, de Min. H» xxvi. 91. j Fig. 26. \nui. t nu. t lUd. p. loC. 98.3 This fpecies is rather a mechanical mixture than a chemical combination. Genus XXII. zs. SPECIES 1. Zircon*. Jargon — Hyacint h . This ftone is brought from Ceylon, and found alfo in Fiance, Spain, and other parts of Europe. It is commonly cryllallized. The primitive form of its cry- ftals is an oftahedronj, coropofed of two four-fided py- ramids applied bafe to bafe, whoie fides are ifofceles triangles (n). The inclination of the fides of the fame pyramid to each other is 124" 12'; the inclination of the fides of one pyramid to ihofe of another 82" 50'. Tlie folid angle at the apex is 73" 44't- 1'he varieties of the cryllalline forms of ziicon amount to feven. In fome cafes there is a four-iided prifm interpofed be- tween the pyramids of the primitive form; foraetimes all tlie angles cf this prifm are wanting, and two fmall trianguhir faces in place of each ; fometimes the cry- ftals are dodecalicdrons, compofed of a flat four-fided prifm wiih hexagonal faces, terminated by four-fided fummits with rhumb"id.il faces|| ; fometimes the edges of this prifm, fometimes the edges where the prifm and fumniit join, and fometimes both together, are wanting, and we find fmall faces in their place. For an accurate defcription and figure ol ihefe varieties, we refer to Mr Hany\. The texture of the zircon is foliated. Internal luftre 3. Tranfparency from 4 to 2. Caufes a very great double retraiflion. Hardncfs irom 10 to 16. Sp. gr. from 4.2 to 4.i65f. Colour commonly reddidi or yel- lovvilli ; fometimes it is limpid. Before the blow-pipe it lofes its colour, but not its tranfparency. With borax it melts into a tranfparcnt glafs. Intufible with fixed alkali and microcofrtiic fait. 1. The variety formerly called hyacinth is of a yel- lowifh red colour, mixeil wiih brown. Its furface is fniooth. Its luRrc 3. Irs tianfparcncy 3 to 4. 2. The vaiiety formerly called jargon vf Ceylon, is either grey, greenifli, ycllowilh brown, reddifli brown, or violet. It has litlle external lullre. Is fometimes nearly opaque. 'I'iie firll v.iriety, according to the analyfisof Vauque- lin, is compofed of 64.5 zirconia, 32.0 filica, 2.0 oxyd of iron. 98.5t 95. 5 J i SatrSgr, The (econd variety, according to Klaproth, who dif- '• *3i' covered the component parts of both thefe ftones, con- tains 68.0 zirconia, 31.5 filica, 0.5 nickel and iron. 1 00.0^ Order II. SALINE STONES. § niJ. i. Z19. Under this order we comprehend all the minerals 94 which tonfift of an earthy bafis combined with an acid. ^'="'="' They naturally divide themfclves into five genera. We (hall defcribe them in the fullowing order. I. CALCAREOt;S SALTS. Caibonat of lime, Sulphat of lime, Pholphat of lime, Fluat of lime, Borat of lime. II. BARVTIC SALTS. Carbonat of barytes, Sulphat of barytes. III. STRONTITIC SALTS. Caibonat of ftrontiter, Sulphat of ftromites. IV. magnesian salts. Sulphat of magnefia. V. ALUMINOUS SALTS. Alum. Genus I. calcareous salts. This genus comprehends all the combinations of lime and acids which form a pai t of ilie mineral kingdom. species I. Carbonat of lime. No other mineral can be com| ared with carbonat of lime in the abundance with which it is fcattered over the earth. Many mountains confift of it entirely, and hardly a country is to be found on the face of the globe where, under the names of linieftone, ch.ilk, marble, fpar, it does not con(lltute-a greater or fuialler part of the mineral riches. It is often amorphous, often (lalaiSitical, and often cryftdllized. The primitive form of its cryllals is a pa- rallclopiped, whofe lides are rhombs, with angles of 77° 30' and 102" 3o'|. Its integrant molecules jiave the fame form. The varieties of its cryllals amount to more than 40; for a defciiption and figure of which we re- fer to Rome Je LiJIe* and //i:uy (o). When cryllallized, its tcxiure is foliated ; when amor- phous, its lliudurc is fometimes foliated, fometimes ilriated, fometimes granular, and fometimes earthy. Its 'luAre 95 G. I. Calca- reous falts. 96 Carbonat of lime. } Fig. 28- • CryJIil. i. 497- (n) Let ABC (fig. 27.) be one of the fides. Draw the perpendicular BD; then AB= 5. BD = 4, AD = 3. (o) F.ffjid'uii! Theoric, &c. p. 75. — Jour, de Phyf. 1793, Auguit, p. 114. — Jour. d'HiJi. Nat. 1792, Fe- bruary, p. 148. — ^mi. (/<.- C/jim. XVII. 249. &c. — Jii:ir. de Mm. N'^ XXVlll. 304. r: MINERALOGY. ciafs r. Earths and luflre varies from o to 3. Tranfparency from o to 4. Stones. j[ caufes double refraiftion ; and it is the only mineral which caufes double refiaclion through two parallel faces of the cryftal. Hardnefs from 3 to 9. Sp. gr. from 2.315 to 2.78. Colour, when pure, white. Et- fervefces violently with muriatic acid, and ditfolves completely, or leaves but a fmall refiduum. The fo- lutinn is colourlefs. This fpecies occurs in a great variety of forms ; and therefore has been fubdivided into numerous varieties. All thefe may be conveniently arranged under two ge- neral divifions. I. Soft carbonat of lime. Variety I. Agaric mineral. Mounta'ir. mi/i, or mountiiin meal ot the Germans. This variety is found in tlie clefts of rocks, or the bottom of lakes. It is nearly in the Hate ot powder ; of a white colour, fometimes with a Ihade of yellow ; and fo light, that it almoR floats on water. Vandy. 2. Chalk. The colour of chalk is white, fointtimes witli a fliade of yellow. LuUre o. Opaque. Hardnefs 3 to 4. Sp. pr. from 2.315 to 2.657. Texture earthy. Adheres llightly to the tougue. Feels dry. Stains the fingers, and marks. Falls to powder in water. It generally contains about -j-ip of alumina, and -, iu of water ; the reft is carbonat of lime. Variety 3. Arenaceous limeftnne. Colour yellowilh white. Luftre I. Tranfparency I. So brittle, that fmall pieces crumble to powder be- tween the fingers. Sp.gr. 2.742. Phofphorefces in the dark when fcrapej with a knife, but not when heat- ed. It confifts almoll entirely ot pure carbonat ot lime. Variety 4. Teflaceous tufa. The colour of this variety is yellowifh or greyifli white. It is exceedingly porous and brittle ; and is ei- ther compofed ot btoken iheils, or refembles mortar containing Ihellb ; or it confifts of fiftulous concretions varioufly ramified, and refembling mofs. 11. Indurated carbonat of lime. Variety I. Compad limeftone. The texture of tliis variety ia compaft. It has little luftre ; and is moft commonly opaque. Hardnefs 5 to 8. Sp. gr. 1.3864 to 2.72. Colour grey, with vari- ous Ihades of other colours. It moll comnioFily con- tains about -Jothof alumina, oxyd of iron, &c. ; the reft is carbonat cf lime. This variety is ufually burnt as lime. Variety z. Granularly foliated limeftone. Stru.-'hire lonietimes fl ity. Textuie foliated and j^ra- nular. Lultre 2 to i . HVanfparency 2 to i. Hard- nefs 7 to 8. Sp. gr. i.71 to 2.3376. Colour white, of various Ihades trom other colours. Variety I. Sparry limellone. Strufliire fparry. Texture foliated. Fragments rhomboidal. Luftre 2 to 3. Tranfparency from 2 to 4; fometimes I. Hardnefs 5 to 6. Sp. gr. from 2.693 102.718. Colour white : often with various (hades of other colours. To this variety belong all the cryftals ot c trbonat of lime. Variey 4. Striated limeftone. Texture ftriated or fibrou-. Luftre i to o. Tranf- parency 2 to i. Hardnefs 5 to 7. Sp. gr. commonly from 2.6 to 2.77. Colours various. Saline Stones. 9r Sulphat of lime. Variety 5. Swine (lone. Texture often earthy. Fiaifture often fplintery. Luftre I to o. Tranfparency o to 1. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Sp. gr. 2.701 to 2.7121. Colour Jark grey, of various (hades . When fcraped or pounded, it emits an urinous or garlic fmell. Variety 6. Oviform. This variety confifts of a number of fmall round bo- dies, clofely compafied together. Luftre o. Tranf- parency o or I. Hardnefi 6 to 7. spKCits. 2. Sulphat of lime. Gypfum — 5. L-nite. This mineral is found abundantly in Germany, France, England, Italy, &c. Itisiound fometimes in amorphous mad^s, fometimes in powder, and fometimes cryftallized. The primitive form o( its cryftals, according to Rome de LiCe, is a decahedron |, which may be conceived as two four-fided t Fig. 29 pyramids, applied bafe to bale, and which, inftead of terminating in pointed ("ummits, are truncated near their bafes ; fo that the fides of the pyramids are tra- peziums, and they terminate each in a rhomb. Thefe rhombs are the largeft faces of the cryftal. The angles of the rhombs are 52^ and 158". The inclination of two oppofite faces of one pyramid to the two fimilar faces of the other pyramid i» 145°, that of the other faces 1 10.* Sometimes fome ot the faces are elonga- fometimes it cryftallizes in fix-fided prifms, termi i. 144. \ Le Lievrtf four, tie Mm. N° ixviii. jlj. ted ; nated by three or four-fided fummits, or by an indeter- minate number of curvilinear faces. For a defcription and figure of thefe varieties, we refer to Rome de Lijle\. f/uj. The texture of fulph it of lime is moft commonly lo- liated. Luftre from o to 4. Tranfparency from o to 4. It caufes double refradlion. Its hardnefs does not exceed4. Its fp. gr. from 1.872 to 2.31 1. Colour commonly white or grey. Before the blow-pipe, it melts into a white enamel, provided the blue flame be made to play upon the edsjes of its laminK. When the flame is directed againft its faces, the mineral falls into powder J. It does not efi'crvefce with muriatic acid, except it be impure ; and it does not dilfolve in it. The following varieties of this mineral are deferving of attention. Variety I. Broad foliated fulphat. Texture broad foliated. Luftre glalfy, from 4 to 2. Tranfparency from 4 to 3. Hardnefs 4. Sp. gr. 2.31 1. Colour grey, often with a fhade ot yellow. Variety 2. Grano-foliated fulphat. Texture foliated, and at the fame time granular; fo that is ealily crumbles into powder. Luftre 2 to 3. Trani'parency 2 to 3. Hardnefs 4 to 3. Sp. gr. from 2. 274 to 2.310. Feels folt. Colour white or grey, of- ten with a tinge of yellow, blue, or green ; fometimes flefti red brown, orol ve green. Variety^. Fibrous fulpjiat. Texture fibrous. Fragments long fplintery. Luflre 2 to 3. Tranfparency 2 to i ; fometimes 3. Hardnefs 4. Brittle. Sp.gr. 2.300. C. lour white, often with a (hade of grey, yellow, or red ; fometimes flefh red, and fometimes honey yellow ; fometimes feveral of thefe colours meet in ftripe;. Variety 4. Compai5l fulphat. Texture compact. Luftre i or o. Tranfparency 2 to I 98 I'hofphatof lime. } Fif- 30. § Hauy, ^•nr. de Mil. N° xxviii. p. 310. fFig. 31. Order II. Earthi and i, fometlmes o. HarJnefs4. Sp. gr. from 1.87Z to Stones. 2.288. Feels dry, but not liarfli. Colour white, with a fliaJe of grey, yellow, blue, orgreen ; fometimes yellow; fometimes red ; fometimes fpotted, llripcd, or veined. Variety 5. P'arinaceous fulphat. Of the confidence of meal. Luftre o. Opaque. Scarcely finks in water. Is not gritty between tlie teeth. Feels dry and meagre. Colour white. When heated below rednefs, it becomes of a dazzling white. SPECIES 3. Pi ofphat of lime. j^patiic — Phofpbori^e — Chryfolile — of the French. This fubllance is found in Spain, where it forms whole mountains, and in different parts of Germany. It is fometimes amorphous, and fometimes crj'ftallized. The primitive form of its cryftals is a regular fix-fided prifm. X Its integrant molecule is a regular triangular prifm, whofe height is to a fide of its bafe as i to y'2 §. Sometimes the edges^ of the primitive hexagonal pnlm are wanting, and Imall fices in their place ; fometimes there are fniall faces mllead of the edges which termi- nate the prifm ; fometimes thefe two varieties arc unit- ed ; fometimes the terminating edges and the angles of the prifm are replaced by fmall faces f ; and fometimes 'Htuy Hid, '^* prifm is termm.ited by four-fided pyramids.* Its texture is foliated. Its fraiflure uneven, tending to conchoidal. External lullre from 2 to 3, internal 3 to 1. Tranfparency from 4 to 2. Caufes fingle re- tVadion. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Brittle. Sp. gr. from 3.8249 to 3.218. Colour commonly green or grey ; fometimes brown, red, blue, and even put pie. It is infufible by the blow-pipe. When its powder is thrown upon burning coals, it emits a yellowilh green phofphorcfcent light. It is foluble in muriatic acid ■without eflervefcence or decompofition, and the folution oftea becomes gelatinous. SPECIES 4. Fluat of lime. F'uor. This mineral is found abundantly in different coun- tries, [larticuhu ly in Dsibylhire. It is both amorphous and crylirillized. The primitive form of its cryftals in the regular O(flo- hedmn ; that of its integrant molecules the regular te- trahedron.* The varieties of i;s cryftals liitherto ob- ferved amount to 7. Thele are the primitive odohe- dfon; the cube; the rhoniboiJal dodecahedron; the cubo oflohedron f , which has b^ 'th the laces of the cube and of the odtoiiedron ; the ofiohtdron wanting the edges ; the cube wanting the edges, and either one face \, or two faces in place of each. Fur a defcnptiun and figure of thefe we refer to Mr Hauy f . The texture of Huat of lime is foliated. Luftre from 2 to 3, fometimes o. Tranfparency irom 2 to 4, lomt- limesi. Caufes fingle refraiJ^ion. H^rdneisS. Very brittle. Sp. gr. from 3.0943 10 3. 191 1. Colours nume- rous, red, violet, greet., leU yellow, blackilh purple. Its powder thrown upon hot coals emits a bluilh or giecnilh light. Two pieces of it rubbed in the daik phi>l|(ho- relice. It decrepitates when iieated. Uelorc the blow- pipe it melts into a iranfparent ulals^. It admits of a polilh, and is ollcn formed into vafes and other orn.iments. SPECIES 5. Bnrat of lime. Boracite. This mineral has been found at Kalkberg near Lu- Stppl. Vol. II. MINERALOGY nehurg, feated in a bed cf fulphat rf lime. It is cry llallized. The primitive form of its cryftals is th( s^i 99 Fluat of lime. • IJauy,ih!d. p. 325- tFig. 32. »F""K- 33 t Jiid. \ Jiid. 100 Eorat of lime. cubey. In general, all the edges and angles of the cube are truncated ; fometimes, however, only tlic al- ternate angles are truncated.* The fize of the cryftals does not exceed half an inch. The texture of tliis mineral is compart. Its fraflurc is flat conchoidal. External luftre 3 ; internal, greafy, 2. Tranfpaiency from 2 to 3. H irdnefs 9 to 10. Sp. gr. 2.566. Colourgreyilh white, fometimes pafling in- to greenilh white or purplilli. Wiien heated it becomt s clertric ; and the angles of the cube are alternately pofitive and negative f. Before the blow-pipe it froths, emits a greenilh lioht, and is converted into a yellowifti enamel, garnilhed with fmall points, which, if the heat be continued, dart out in fparks |). According to Wcftrum, who difcovered its compo- nent parts, it contains 68 boracic acid, 13. J magnefia, 1 1 lime, 1 alumina, 2 filica, I iron. S.\Hi!e Sr.oiics. 'Jour, iV Mm. W xxviji. p. 325- IVr^trurm. and yinn. de Chitn. ix> 59- 11 Le L'fvrp, 'Jour, de JV/i'/r. wid. 96 § spEciis 6. Nitrat of lime. Found abundantly mixed with native nitre. For a defcription fee the article Chemistry in this Supple- mer.t, n" 672. Genus II. barytic salts. This genus comprehends the combinations of barytes with acids. SPECIES I. Carbonat of barytes. ly'itherile. This mineral was difcovered by Dr Withering; hence Werner has given it the name . f wilheri.'e. It is found both amorphous and cr) ftallizcd. The cryftals are oc- tohedions or uodecdhedroiis, confifting of four or fix- fided pyramids applied bafe to b.,fe; fometimes the fix- fided pyramids are fcpaiated by a piifiii ; fometimes fe- veral of thele priims are joined in^eiher in the form of a liar. Its texture is fibrous. Its fraifture'conchoiJal. Its fragments long fplin'ery. Luftre 2. Tranfparency 2 to 3. Hardnels 5 to 6 Brittle. S|i. gr. 4.3 to 4.338. Colour gieenifh white. When heatedit becomes opavjue. Its powder pholphnrefccs when thrown on burning coals.* It is foluble w ith effervefcence in muriatic acid. The folution is colouiiefs. According to Pelletier it contains 62 barytes, 22 carbonic acid, 16 water. § Attn, di Chijn. ii. 116. lOI Nitrat of lime. lot G. II. Ba- rytic fain. i°3 Carbonat of barytes. n,uj. sPECiKs 2. Sulphat of barytes. BoroieLnUe. 100+ XV V • T Jour, dt M,„. N* xxi p. 46. IC4 This mineral is fcund abundamly in many countries, 5ulphat of particularly in Britain. It is fometimes in powder, of baryte». ten in amorphous maffes and often cryftalll/.ed. The primitive form of its cryftals is a rctflangular priim, 3 '1' vliole MINERALOGY. j88. • UiJ. and Ann, He Chim.Xii.2- riA -l^i L iM XI, l\. t Earths and whofebafes are rhombs, with angles of loi" 30' and Stones, yg'' 3o'-t '^\^<i varieties oi its cryftals are very nume- ^^~'^~£A rous. For a deicription and Hgure ot them we reler /ii i'urc to Rome Je Lifle \\ and Hauy.* Tlie inoft common va- ncone,S<.c. rieties ate the octohedron witli cuncit'crm lunimits, the p. 119. ^ fix or tour-lided pril'm, the liexangular table wiih be- II Crj/?<i/. 1. y^iijj edges. Sometimes t^ele cryltals are needle form. Its texture is commonly foliated. Lullie fiom o to 2. Tranfparcncy from 2 to o ; in fome cafes 3 or 4. Hardnefi from 5 to 6. Sp. gr. from 4.4 to 4.44. Co- lour commonly white, wi'.h a fliade ot yellow, red, blue, or brov^rn. When licated it decrepitate?. It is (uC\h\e />er fe by the blue Hanie ol the blow-pipe, and is converted into fulphurat of barylcs. St'lnble in no acid except the lulpliuric ; and precipitated Ironi it by water. yuriety i . Toliated fuiphat. Luftre 3 to 3. Tranfjiarency from 4 to 2, fome- times I. Coluurs whie, reddifli, bhiilh, yellowifli, blackilh, greenilh. Mr Werner fubdivides this variety into three, accciding to the nature ot the texture. Thefe three fubdivilions are granularly foliated, Jlra'igbt foliated, curve fol'uited. Variety 2. Fibrous fuiphat. Texture fibrous ; fibres converging to a common centre. Lullre liliiy or \^axy, 2. Tranfparcncy 2 to I. Hardnels 5. Colours yeliowifh, bluilh, rediiilh. Vaiitty 3. Cnmpaft lulphat. Texture compait. Lullre o to i. Tranfparency I toe. Feels meagie. Almoft conftantly impure. Co- lours light yellow, red, 01 blue. Variety 4. Earthy fuiphat. In the form of coarfe dully panicles, flightly cohe- ring. Colour reddilh or yellowifli white. Clafs I. 105 c. in. Strontitic falts. 107 .Sulphat of Aiontites. SPECIES 2. Snlphat of ftrontites. Clejlim. This mineral has been found in Pennfylvania, in Ger- many, in France, in Sicily, and Britain. It was firft difcovered near Bridol by Mr ClayGeld. Tiiere it is found in Inch .ibundance, that it has been employed in mending the roads. It occurs both amorphous and cryftallized. The cryftals are moll; commonly bevelled tables, Ibmetimes ihoinboidal cubes. Its texture is foliated. More or ^icholfons Jour. ili. 36- f SeitrSgf, ii. 97. i Bid. Ni- chulfons yournaL 99? Genus IV. MAGNESIAN SALTS. "mbination'; of magne- Thisgenus comprehends thi; fia and acids which occur in the mineral kingdom. On- ly two fpecies have hitherto been found ; namely, Genus III. Strontitic Salts. This genus comprehends all the cmbinations of ftrontites and acids which lorm a part of ilie mineral kingdom. 106 SPECIES I. Carbonat of ftrontites. Carbonatnf This mineral was firll difcovered in the lead mine of ftrontites. Stronticn in Argylelhire j and lince that lime it is laid to have been dilcovered, though not in great abundance, 111 other counti ies. It is tound amorphous, aud alio cry- ftallized in needles, which, according to Hauy, are le- guiar fix-fidtd prilms. Its texture is fibrous ; the fibres converge. Frafture uneven. Luftre 2. Tranfparency 2. Hardnefs 5. Sp. gr. from 3.4 to 3.66. Colour light green. Does not decrepitate when heated. Before the blow-pipe be- comes opaque and white, but does not melt. With borax it elfervefces, and melts into a tranfparent coloui- lefs glafs. ElFervelces with muriaiic acid, and is totally dilfolved. 'I'he loluiion tinges flame purple. lefs tranfparent. Hardnefs 5. Sp. gr. from 3.51 to 3.96. Colour mod commonly a fine fky blue ; fome- times reddilh ; fometimes white, or nearly colourlcfs.* Klaproth found a fpecimen of tliis mineral from Penn- fylvania compoli:d of j8 ftrontites, 42 fulphuric acid. I oof According to the analylls of Mr Clayfield, the fui- phat of ftrontites found near Brillol is compofed of 58.25 ftrontites, 41.75 fulphuric acid of 2.24, and a little iron.J 100.00 According to the analyfis of Vauquelin, the fuiphat of ftrontites found at Bouvron in Fiance, which was contaminated with . i of carbonat of lime, is compofed of 54 ftrontites, 45 fulphuric acid. § your, lie Mm. N'' xxivii. 6. 108 G. IV. Magncfian Salts. 109 SPECIES I. Sulphat of magnefia. Sulphat of It is fc-und in Spain, Bohemia, Biitain, &e. ; and °"S"<:fi»' enters into the compoftti in of many mineral waters. For a deicription ot it, we reter to Chemistry, n" 633. in this iiuppL SPECIES 2. NItrat of Magnefia. Found lomeiMies alficiafed with niire. fcription fee Chemistry, u° 674. GtNus V. aluminous salts. This genus comprehends thole combinations of alu mina and acids which occur in the mineral kingdom. SPECIES I. Alum. This fait is found in ciyltals, in fuft mafies, in flakes, and invifibly mixed with the foil. For a defcriptioni we reter to Chemistry, n° 636. Order III. AGGREGATES. This order comprehends all mechanical mixtures of earths und ft -nes found in the mineral kingdom. Thefe are exceedingly numerous: the mountains and hills, the mould on which vegetables grow, and indeed the greater part of the globe, may be confidered as compo- fed of them. A complete deicription of aggregaies be- longs rather to geology than mineralogy. It would be improper, therefore, to treat of them luUy here. But they caiiiiot be altogether omitted; becaufe aggre- gates are the firft fubltances which prefent themfelves to tlie view of the pracTical mineralogift, and becaufe, without being acquainted with the names and compo- nent parts oi many ef them, the molt valuable minera- loyicrtl work^ could not be underftood. Aggregates may be comprehended under four divi- Divifion oF fions : I. Mixtures of eartlis ; 2. Amorphous fragments aggregates, of ftones agglutinated together; 3. Cryftallized ftones, either agglutinated together or With amorphous ftones ; 4. Aggregates formed by fire. It will be exceedingly convenient For a de. no Nitrat of magiiefia. Ill G. V. Alu- minous falts. iia i^luim. 113 Order III. MINERALOGY. 114 Cby. "5 Porcelain clay. nd convenient to treat each of there feparately. We (lull therefore divide this order into four lediuns. Sf.CT. I. /Iggregatet of Earths, The mofl common eaithy aggregates maf be com- prel'.ended under the following genera : 1. Clay, 2. Colorific earths, 3. Mar), 4. Mould. Genus. I. clay. Clay IS a mixture of alumina and filica in various proportions. The alumina is in a ftate of an impalpable powder ; but the (ilica is alniod always in fniall Hones, large enough to be diftinguirtied by the eye. Clay, therefore, exhibits the charafler of alumina, and not of filica, even when this lafl ingredient predonunates. The particles of lilica are already combined with each other ; and they have fo (trong an affinity for each other, that few bodies can feparate them : whereas the alumina, not being combined, readily difplays tlic charaflers which diltinguifh it from other bodies. B. fides alumina and filica, cl.iy often contains carbonatof lime, cl magnefia, barytes, oxyd of iron, &c. And as clay is merely a mechnnical mixtnie, the propoition of its ingredients is exceedingly various. Clay hai been divided into the follow fpecies : sPtciEs I. P.ircelain clay. Its texture is eaitliy. lib lulire c. Opaque. Ilard- nefs 4. Sp. gr. troni 2 23 to 2.4. C'.lour white, fomctimes with a ^w&t of yeilow or red. Adheres flightly to the tongue. Teeis loft. Falls to powder in water. A fpecimen, analyfed by Halfetifiatz, contained 62 filic^i, 19 ahiitina, 12 maenelia, 7 lulphac of barytes. 515 * Ann* A Clilm. ZlT. 144- 116 Common chy. A fpecimen, analyfed by Mr Wedgexvood, contained 60 alumina, 20 filic:i, 12 air of water. 92 SPECIES 2. Common clay. Its texture is earthy. Luftre o. Opaque. Hard- nef< 3 to 6. Sp. j;r. 18 to 2.68. Adheres nightly to the tongue. Often feels greafy. Falls to powder in water. Colour, when pure, white : often tinged blue or yellow. Variety I. Potter's clay. Hirdnefs 3 to 4. Sp. gr. 1.8 to 2. Stains the fin- gers (lightly. Acquires lome pclilh by fri(!lion. Co- lour wliite; often witli a tinge ot yellow or blue ; fomc- times browniih, grecnilh, reddilh. Totally dilfufiblc in water ; and, when duly moillened, very duflile. Vari:ty 2. Indurated clay. Hardr.cfs 5 to 6. Does not dilfufe iifeif in water, but falls to powder. Difcovers but little du(ftility. Colours grey, yeUowilh, bluifti, greenilb, leddilh, brownifli. Var'tely 3, Shiftofe clay. Strnflure flaty. Sp. gr. from 2.6 to 2 63. Feels fmooth. Streak white or giey. Colour commonly bluifh, or yellowifii grey; iVmctimes blacLifti, reddifli, greenifh. Found in llrata ufujlly in coal mines. Tliis variety is fomctimes impregnated with bitumen. It is then called bituminoui yiiii/f . SPECIES 3. Lithomargs. irr Texture earthy. Fracture conchoidal. Luftre from I'''bon<ar- to 2. Opaque. Hardnefs 3 to 7. Sp.gr. when ^*' pretty hard, 2.815. Surface fmooth, and feels foapy. Adheres ftrorgly to the tongue. Falls to pieces, and then to powder, in water ; but does not diffufe itfelf through that liquid. Fufible per Je into a frothy mafs. Variety I. Friable lithomarga. Formed of icaly particles llightly cohering. Ludrc 1 to o. Hardnefs 3 to 4. Exceedingly light. Feels very fmooth, and alfumes a polilh from the nail. Co- lour whites fnmetimes tinged yellow or red. Variety 2. Indurated lithomarga. Hardnefs 4 to 7. The fofter lorts adhere very flrong. ly to the tongue when newly broken ; the harder very moderately. Colours grey, yellow, red, brown, blue. A fpecimen of lithomarga from Ofmund, analyfed by Bergman, contained 60.0 filica, 1 i.o alumina, 5.7 carbonat of lime, 4.7 oxyd of iron, 0.5 carbonat of magnefia, 18.0 w.-iter and air. 99-9 1 SPECIES 4. Bole. Texture earthy. Fradure conch idrl. Luftre o. Tranfparency fcarce I . Harcin?fs4. Sp. gr. trc m 1.4 to 2. Acquires a polifh by Indli n. S.arcely adhere'! to the tongue. Feel gre.ily. Colour yellow or brown ; fometimei red; f-imetme> fp"ited. The lemnian earth uh'cl'. bcloi^gs to this fpecies, ac- cording to the analylis of Bergman, contains 47.0 filica, 19.0 alu.tiina, 6.0 carbonat of magnefia, 5.4 carbonat of lime, 5.4 oxyd of iron, 17.0 water and air. f Opufc. {». 118 Bole. 99.8t SPECIES 5. Fullers earth. Texture earthy. Struiflure fomeiimes flaty. Fric- ture impcrfeflly conchoidal. Luftre o. Op.'que. Hardnefs 4. Receives a polilh from friction. D.ies not adhere to the tongue. Feels greai'y. Ci<lour ufu- ally light green. A fpecimen from Hampfliire, analyfed by Bergman, contained 51 8 filica, 25.0 alumina, 3.3 carbouMt cf lime, 3 7 oxyd of iror, 0.7 carbonat of magnefia, 155 nioiAuic. \ JliJ. p. "9 FulKr* earth. ICO.O J This J nu. 156. Yellow •halk. ■f Ann. Je dim. XXX- 13. IJ4 Green earth. lis G. III. Mul. TvIINERALOGY. Clafs L Th's eiith is ufeJ by fullers to take the greafe out caibonat confiderably exceeds the other ingredient, is of their cl lib before ihey apply foap. It is elfential to called mjrl. fullers earth th.il the particles of filica be very fi;ie. Its texture is earthy. Luftre o. Opaque. Hard- olherwife they would cut the cloth. Any clay, p'>f- nefs from 4 to 8 ; fometlmes in powder. Sp. gr. from feifed of this laft property, may be conlidered as/u/A-r/ 1.6 to 2.877. Colour ulually grey, often tinged with 110 G. II. Co- loroHc cirtlis. Til Red chalk. earth; for it is the alumina alone which ads upon the clo;h, on account of its Urong affinity for greafy lub- (lances. Gfncs II. Colorific Earths. The minerals belonging to this genus confift of clay, mixed with fu large a quantity of fome colouring ingre- dient as to render them uftlul as paints. The colour- ing maiter is commonly oxyd of iron, and fometimes charcoal. SPECIES I . Red chalk. RcJJi'e. Testnre earthy. Fraflure conchoidal. Op.ique. Hardnefs 4. luiir dark red. Feels n ugh. Stains the fingers. Adheres to the and water. And the good or bad qualities ot/oi/s de- tongue. FalU to powder in water. Does not become pends upon a proper mixture of thefe ingredients. The duiflile. When heated it becomes black, and at 159° iilica is feldoni in the Hate of an impalpable powder, but 313. 123 Black Chalk. other cokuis. EfFervelces with acids. S ime marls crumble into powder when expofed to the air ; others ret.iin their hardnefs for many years. Mails may be divided mto two fpecies : 1. Thofe which contain more filica th.iti Hliimina ; 2. 'I'hofe which contain more alumina than iilica. Mr K'rwaii lias call- ed the fiift of thcfe jUiceotn, the fecc nd arglllacfoui, marls. Attention Ihoidd l)e p .id to tins dillmihon when marls are ufed as a manuic. Genus IV. Mol^ld. By mouU is meant the foil on which vegetables grow. It Contains the following ingredients : iilica, alumina, Sp.gr. inconliderable. Co- lime, magnefia (fomelimeo), iron, carbon derived from decayed vegetable and animal fubilances, carbonic acid, L'lftr 136 G. IV. Mould. Wedgewood nieltb into a greer.ifli yellow Irothy enamel Compofed of cl.iy and oxyd of iron. SPECIES 2. Yellow clalk. Texture earthy. Fradure conchoidal. Hardnefs 3. Sp. gr. inconfiderable. Colour ochre yellow. Feels fmooih or greafy. Stains the lingers. Ad- heres to the tongue. Falls to peces in water. When heated becomes red ; and at 156 into a brown porous porcelain. According to Sage, it contains 50 alumina, 40 oxyd ot iron, 10 water, with fome fulphuric acid. Wedgewood melts SPECIES 3. Black chalk. Struflure flaty. Texture earthy. Fragments fplin- tery. Luftre o. Opaque. Hardnefs 5. Sp.gr. 2.144 to 2.277. Colour blick. Streak black. Feels i'mooth. Adheres flightly to the tongue. Does not moulder in water. When heated to rednefs it be- comes reddiih grey. Accoiding to Wiegleb, it is compofed of 64 50 filica, 1 1.25 alumina, 1 1 .00 charcoal, 2.75 oxyd of iron, 7.50 water. in grains rf a greater or Imaller lize : Its chief ufe feems to be to keep the foil open and pervious to moifture. If we pals over the carbon, the iron, and the carbonic acid, the goodnefs ot a foil depends upon its being able to retain the quantity of moiflure which is proper for the nourifhment of vegetables, and no more. Now the retentive power ot a foil increales with the proportion of its alumina, lime, or magnelia, and diminilhts as the proportion of its Iilica increafes. Hence it follows, that in a dry country, a feitile foil Ihould contain lei's filica, and more of the other earths, than in a wet country. Giobert found a fertile fod near Turin, where it rains annually 30 inches, to contain From 77 tf) 79 (ilica, 9 — 14 alumina, 5 — 12 lime. Near Pari?, where it rains about 20 inches annually, Mr TiUet fonnd a fertile foil to contain Coarfe fand 25 Fine fand 2 1 — 46.0 filica, 16.5 alumina, 37.5 lime. 97.00 1 Hardnefs 6 I 00.0 J f Kirivan The varieties of mould are too numerous to admit an o" Manura, accurate defcription : we Ihall content ourfelves, there- fore, with mentioning the mofl remarkable. SPECIES I. Sand. This confifts of fmall grains of filiceous flones not cohering together, nor fottened by water. When the grains are of a large fize, the foil is called ^raw/. 127 Sand. SPECIES 2. Clay. This confifts of common clay mixed with decayed ve- spECiEs 4. Green earth. Texture earthy. Luftre o. Opaque, to 7. Sp. gi. 2.637. Colour green. Commonly feels fmooth. Does not ftain the fingers Olttn tails to powder in water. When heated it be- getable and animal fubilances, comes reddiih brown; and at 147° Wedgewood melts «pecies " Loam into a black ccmpaa glafs. ^ j.^., ^^.^^ j^^^ norcohere fo ftrongly as clay, Compofed of clay, oxyds of iron and nickel. ^^^ J^^^ ^^^^^^j^ ^^^ ^1^^,^^ -^ ^^j,^j j^^^ .^^^^^ Genus III. Marl. are many varieties of it. The following are the moft A mixture of carboBat of lime and clay, in which the common. ITariety 118 Clay. 129 Loam. Order MINERALOGY. 130 TUl. 131 C. I. Sand- (tunc. I . Clayey loam ; called alfo Jlron^, Jliff", cold, and heavy, loam. It confitls of a mixtuie nt' clay and coarfe fand. Variety 2. Chalky loam. A mixture of clay, chalk, and coarfe land ; the chalk predominating. Variety 3. Sandy loam. A mixture of the lame ingredients ; the fand amount- ing to .8 or .9 of the wliole. SPECIES 4. Till. Till is a mixture of clay and oxyd of iron. It is of a red colour, very hard and heavy. Sect. II. Aggregates of amorphom Jlones. The aa;gregates which belong to this feiflion confift of amorphous Iragments of ftones cemented together. They may be 1 educed to the following genera : 1. S.indftore, 2. Puddingltone, 3. Amygdaloid, 4. Breccia. Genus I. Sandstone. sn Sometimes ftones occur, confiding of grains of lime -A^gre- ccmented totjether wltli liljcii. Theie Hones are allii Je- K^'_i4l^ nominated liliceous fanJUoi.es. SPECIES 4. Ferruginf'Us fanddoncs. Ferrugi- The iron which afts asacem.'nt infsrruginous fand- "oui. ftones is not far from a meullic (late. When iron is completely oxydatcd, it lofe^ the property of aifiing as a cement. This is llie reafon that lerruginous fand- llnnes, when expofed to the air, almofl always crumble into powder. Tiie colour of ferruginous findftones is ufiially dark red, yellow, or brown. Tlie grains of fand which com- pofe them are often |)relty large. Thtir hardnels is commonly inconfidcrable. 136 Genits II. Pudding Stone. G. II. Put{- Pebbles of qirirtz, fl-nt, or other (imilar dones of a '''"£ 1°"^- round or eliptical form, from the fize of rape leed to that of an egg, cemented together by a (iliceous ce- ment, often mixed with iron, have b.en denominated pudii'mg Jlones. Pudding (topes, of courfe, are not Inferior in hard- ncfs to quartz, flint, chalcedony, &c. (>i which the peb- Small grains of fand, confillirg of quartz, flint, horn- ble>. may confilL The colour of the cement is ufuilly ftone, filiceous lliillus, oriclCpar, and fomelinies of mi- yellow, brown, or red. Its fradure is conchnidil. ca, cemented together, are denominated fanddones The liner forts of pudding ftones are capable of a tine They feel rough and fandv ; and when not very hard, polilh ; the coarfe are ufed for mill-llones. ealily crumble into find. The cement or bafis by which »31 CalcnreoiiS. the grains of fand are united to each other is of four kinds J namely, lime, alumina, (ilica, iron. Sandllones, therefore, may be divided into four fpecies. SPECIES I C:ilcareons fandrtones. Genus III. Amygdaloid. g. III. Rounded or eliptical mafles of chalcedony, zeolite, Aniygd*- limcltoue, lithomarga, fteatites, green eartli, garnets, '°''*' lioriiblend, or opal, cemented together by a balis of in- durated clay, trap, mulkn, walken or kragg, confti- Calcareous I'anJItones are merely carbonat of lime or tute an am\udaloid marl, with a quantity of land interpofed between its Amygdaloids are opaque. They have no luftre. panicles Though the quantity of land, in many cafes, ThcT fr..auie is uneven or conchoidal. Hardnefs 6 to farexceedsthe lime.calcaieousfandllonesarefometinies 9. Their colours are as various as the ingredients of found cryftallized ; and, in fome cafes, the cryftals, as which they are compofed. might be expsfled, have fome of the forms which di ftinguifh carbonat of lime. Thus the calcareous fand- ftone of Fountainbleau is cryltallized in rhomboidal tables. It contains, according to the analyfis of Laf- fone 62.5 filictous fand, , 37.5 caibonat ot lime. 138 G. IV> «33 .Alunii- uou$. 134 Siliccoui. Calcareous fandftones have commonly an earthy tex- ture. Their furface is rough. J'heir hardnefs from 6 to 7. Their I'pccilic gravity about 2.5 or 2.6. Their colour giey ; f)m;iime5 yellowini or brown. They are fometimes burned for lime. species 2. Aluminous fandftones. The balis of argillaceous fandftones is alumina, or rather clay. Their ll-uflure is often ilatv. Their tex- ture is compafl, and either fine or coarfe grained, ac- cording to the fr/e ol l!ic fand of which they are chief- ly compofed. Their h^'dnefs is froni 6 to 8, or even 9. Their colour is iifu;<liy grey, yellow, or brown. They are often i rmed into mill-ftones, filtering- ftones, and coarfe whet-llones. sPEcifs 3. Siliceous fandftones. Siliceous I'ai.dlloiies conlift of grains of fand cement- ed togcthe' by (ilica, or feme fubdaiice which confifts chiefly of hlica or Hint. They are much harder than any of the otlier fpecies. Genus IV. breccia. Angular fragments of the iam^ fpecies of ftone agglu- Breccia, tinated togedier, conftitute a breccia. 'I'hus calcareous breccia confids of fragments of marble cemented toge- ther by means of lime. Sect. III. Aggregates of Chryflals. The miRc;rals l)elonging to this feiflion confift either of cryltals of different kinds cemented loyether, or o£ cryllals and dimorphous ftones cemented together. They may be reduced under the following genera. 1. Granite. 2. Sienite. 3. Granatine. 4. Gra-.iitell. 5. Gianilite. 6. Tr ip. 7. Porphyry. Genus I. granite. An aggregate of lelfp.itli, quarts., and mica, what- "'<« ever be ihe lize or the (ii;iire of the ingredients, is de nominated granite. Thi- ;i>;gregaie may be divo., into two fpecif-, namely, common granite, andy/'.^'^^', granite or gneils. SPiciES I. Common granite. 139 C. I. Grar 140 Conunoai. lu ftrutlurc is always granular. The fclfpar is often amor~ 5i3 M I K E R A Earthsand am0TpSou5, and coiiditutcs mofl frequently the greated stoi:ci. pjit of ilii aggregate. '•^^ '^^ Common granites differ much in their appearance, ac- cording to the iV/.e, proportion, colour, and liyure of their component parts. Tliey are commonly very hard: Their fpecific gravity varies from 2.5388 to 2.956^. SPECIES 2. Shiftofe granite or gneifs. LOG Y. Mica, Shorl. Mica, JiJ.e. lluiiibkhde. Jade, J.^de. Garnet. Mica, HoinhlenJc. Mica, Girnet. Ui.nblfiide, Garnet. Steatites, Shorl. Clafs T 141 Cncifs. Some of thefe aggregates l:ave received particular riames. The aggregate of quartz and inicii, when i'.s The ftrut^nre of gncifi is always (laty, and this con- ftrudnre is flaty, is called by Wemer yZi///c/c n,ica : by fliiutes its fpecific cl'iarader. In gneifs, the proportion ^\^^ Swedes, it is denominated y/f/^^iw, whatever be its of quartz and felfpar is nearly tijiul : the proportion Uru.'lure. 141 Ci. U. Sie- nite. The aggregate of hornblende and mica is called ^run- Jlein, from the dark gieen colour which it ufually has. Genus V. granilite. G Under the name oi' granili/e, Mr Kirwancomprehends mlitc. all aggregates containing more than three ingredients. Of thele the following are the moll remarkable. 145 V. Cra- 143 G.III. Gra- Qu ircz, Felfpar, Shotl. Quartz, Mica, Garnet. Quartz, Hornblende, Jade. Felfpar, Mica, Shorl. (^artz, Felfpar, Jade. Quartz, Sho.l, Hornblende, Quartz, Hornblende, Garnet. Felfpar, Mica, Hornblende. Quartz, Felfpar, Garnet. Quartz, Shorl, Jade. Quartz, jade. Garnet. Felfpar, Quartz, Serpentine Quartz, Mica, Shorl. Quartz, Shorl, Garner. Quartz, Hornblende, Hornllone. Felfpar, Quartz, Steatites. Quartz, Mica, Jade. Quartz, Felfpar, Mica, Shorl. Quartz, Mica, Shorl, Garnet. Qujirtz, Sulph.cfbarytes, Mica, Shorl. Quartz, Felfpar, Mica, Steatites. Quaitz, Felfpar, Mica, Garnet. Quartz, SulpiiT'bf barytes, Mica, Hornblende. of mica is fm.illell. It is evidently fubjcd to llie fame varieties with common granite. Genus II. Sienite. Mr Werner has given the name of Jienite to aggre- gates compnfed of felfpar, hornblende, and quartz ; or of fellpar, hornblende, quartz, and mica. Thefe aggre- gates wtre formerly confounded with quartz. Sienite is found both of a granular and flaty ftruc- ture : it might, therefme, like granite, be divided into two fpecies. In ficnite the quartz is commonly in by far the fmal left proportion. Genus III. cran.^tine. Mr Kirwan has applied the name ^ranntine to the following aggregates. u. Ouartz. Felfpar, Steatites. Garnet. Hornblende. Genus VI. trap. (p). g. VI. Under this genus we clafs not only what has com- Trap, monly been called tra/>, but alio wacken, and muUen, and kragftone of Kirwan. 147 species I. Comm-in trap. Common. This ftone is very common in Scotland, and is known by the name of nvhi'ijlone. Whole hills are formed of it ; and it occurs veiy frequently in large rounded de- tached fragments. Sometimes it alfumes the tnrm of immenfe columns, and is then called bafalt. The Giants Caufeway in Ireland, the illand of StafFa, and ilie fouth fide of Arthur's Seat in Scotland, are well known in- ftances of this- figure. Its te.<ture is earthy or compad. Its fraifture un- even. Its luftre commonly o. Opaque. Hardnefs 8 to 9. Not brittle. Sp. gr. from 2.78 to 3.021.* ' Colour black, with a fhade of grey, blue, or purple ; fometimes blackilh or reddiftj brown ; in fome cafes One of thefe agjrregates, namely, quartz, mica, gar- greenilh grey. By expofure to the atmolphere, it often T,:t, was called by Cronftedt norka or murhjien. becomes mve.^ed with a brownilh rind. Before the blowpipe, it melts per fe into a more or lefs black glafs. Trap confifts of fmall cryllah of hornblende, felfpar, olivine, Sec, ufually fet in a ground compofed apparent- ly of clay and oxyd of iron. A ffeclmen, in the form of bafaltes, from StafFa, analyfed by Dr Kennedy of E- dinburgh, contained 48 filica, 16 alumin.i, 16 oxyd of iron, 9 linie, 5 moifture, 4 foda, I muriatic acid. ' KirvioH, G.lV.Gra- Genus IV. granitell. BiteU. Mr Kirwan gives the name ol ^r/;ni/f// to all aggre- gates compofed of any two of the following ingre- dients: quarts, fellpith, mica, lliorl, hornblende, jide, garnet, fteatites. The mod remarkable of thefe are : Quartz, Felfpar. Quartz, Hornblende. Quartz, Steatites. Felfpar, Hornblende. Qiiartz, Mica. Quartz, Jade. Felfpar, Mica. Felfpar, Jade. Quartz, Miorl. Quartz, Garnet. Felfpar, Shorl. Felfpar, Garnet. 99 1 t EJh. Tranf. *: { f ) Kirw. 1. 23 1 and 43 l .—Fuujas de Si FmJ. FJfai fur l' H\Jl. Nat. des Roches de Trap.— Phil. Tranf. palTim, See alfo a very ingenious fet of experiments on the fulion of trap, by Sir James Hall in TranJ. Edin. V. 43. Order III. MINERALOGY Earths and A fpecinien from Salifbury rock, near Edinburgh, Stiincs. contained, according to the analylis of the fame gemle- ^■^^^^"^ man, 46.0 hlic i, 19.0 alumina, 17.0 "xyd of iron, 8 o lime, 4.0 moiltore, 3.5 foda, 1 .0 muiiatic acid. I Hornftnne porphyry. 2. i-itchdone porphyry. 3. HornHate porphyry. 4. Felfpar or petunfe por- phyry. 5. Clay porph) ry. (). Horrihlendc poiphyry. 7. 'i'rap porphyry. 8. Wacken porpwyry. 9. Mullen porphyry. 10. Krag porf hvry. I 1 . Argillilic porphyry. 12. Potlk'iie p.irjhyry. 13. Serpentine porphyry. 14. Sandllone'porphyry. Trarf. ' 90. 148 Wackcii. • Kirvi. I \ Kiriuan* 149 Mullen. } Kiriv. \, 150 Kragftone * Kiriv, i. 226. n. VII. I'orphyry 98.5 I Dr Kennedy ccnduiSed thefe analyfes will) great in- genuity and judgnjent ; and the dilcovery in which they terminated, that trap contains foda, is certainly of im- portance, and may lead to valuable confequences bolli in a geological and mineralogical view. SPECIES z. Wackeir* This ftone often forms confiderable parts of hills, and, like trap, is amorphous Its texture is earthy. Its Iraflurc ufually even. Luilre o. Opaque. Hardnefs 6 to 9. Sp. gr. from 2.535 to 2.893 f. Col.iur grey, with a (hade of green, black, red, brtwn. When ex- pofcd to the atmofphere, it withers and becomes more grey. It melts into a grey porous flag. SPECIES 3. Mullen \. This ftone is alio found in conliderable mafles, and fometimes has a tendency to a columnar form Lke ba- falt. Texture eai thy. Fraiflure uneven, and tine fplin- tery. Luftre o, except from fome (Lining particles of bafaltine. Opaque. Hardnefs from 7 to 9. Sp. gr. from 2.6 to 2.738. Colour alh 01 bluilh grey ; R rne- times mixed with ochro yellow, in confeqiience of the decompofition of the ftone. At 130° Wedgewood it mehs into a black compaft glafs. When mullen is expofed to the air, its furface be- comes coveted with a gieyilh white rind, fometimes ftightly ochry. SPECIES 4. Kragftone.* This ftone, which like the ether;., forms confiderable parts of rocks, was formed into a diftinft fpecies by Mr Kirwan. Its texture is earthy. It is exceedingly porous, and the pores ate often filled with the cryftals of other minerals. Fraftuie uneven. Luilre o. O- paque. Hardnefs 5 to 7. Sp.gr. 2.314. Feelsrough and harfh. Colour reddidi grey. Stieak yjliowilh grey. At 138° AVcdgewood it melts into a reddilh brown porcelain mafs. Genus VII. porphyry. Any ftone which contains fcattcred cryftals or grains of ifilpar, vilible to the nak d eye, is denoininated a porphyry. Befidcs felfpar, porphyries generally con- tain fm.'ll cryftals of quaitz, hornblende, and mica. Thefe crjllaU are ulually of a different colour from the (lone in which they are tcund, and they are (luck in it as in a cement. It is evident from ihi • definition, that the number of porphyries mult be j;reat. Each I'pe- cics receives its name from the ftone which forms its ba- fis. To dcfcribe them would be unnecell'ary. We lliall only give a catalogue of the principal (pedes. 1 he aggregates belonging to this fc^ion ccmpofe moft of the mountains ol the globe. In givin-^ an ac- count of them, we have adh"ered implicitly to thear- rangement molt generally received by mireraloglfts. It miift be acknowledged that this arrangement Is by no means complete, ai,d that f<-me of the gvnera aie too vague to be of much ufe. The nimiber of aggregates already difcovercd is too great for giving to eat h a par- ticular name. Perhaps it would be better hencetoitli to adopt the method propoled by Mr Hauy, namely, to conllitute the genera from that ingredient which en- ters moft abundantly into tlie aggregate, and which forms as it were its bafis, and to diiiinguilii the fpecies according to the nature and proportion of the cilier ingredients. According to this plan, the aggregates hitherto di(i:overed have been divided by Hauy into.the following genera : 1. Felfpathic rock. 2. Quartzous rock. 3. Micaceous rock. 4. Chloritous rock. 5. Serpentine rock. 6. Trappean rock. 7. Hornblendean rock. S. Petrofiliceous rock. 9. G.irnttic rock. 10. Calcareous rock. 1 1. Argillaceous rock. 12. Corneous rock. Sect. IV. Vulcanic uiggregatts. Aggregates formed by volcanoes may be reduced to the tollowing genera. 1. Lava. 2. Tufa. 3. Pumice. 4. Alhes. GeKUS I. LAVA. All fubftances which have ilfued out of a volcano In a ftate of full' n are called lavas. Tliey have been di- vided into three (pecies. SPECIES I. Vitreous lava. Found in fmall pieces. Texture glofly. Fraflure conchoidal. Luftre 3. Tranfparency from 3 to i. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Sp. gr. from 2 to 3. Colour blackilh, greenifb, or whitidi. Commonly (bmewliat porous. .Aggre- gates. I5i G. I. ijva. Vitreous. 154 CellnUr. SPECIES 2. Cellular lava. This fpecies is full of cells. Surface rough and full of cavities. Texture earthy. Luftre o. Opaque. Hardnefs 7 to 9. Sp. gr. varies, but docs not exceed 2.8. Colour brown or greyilli black. Commonly fomewhat magnetic. SPECIES 3. Compaft lava. '.^-f This fpecies is iht moft common of all ; it runs into '""P*'** the 5-20 MINERALOGY. Clafs III. Ccmbxif- the fecond by infenfible degrees ; and indeed is fcldom tible*. found of any confiderable lize witlioiit fome pores. It bears in general a very llronp refcmblance to trap. A fpecimen of the lava oi Catania in Sicily, analyfed by l)r Kennedy, contained 51.0 filica, 19.0 alumina, 14.5 oxyd of iron, 9.5 lime, 4.0 fdda, i.o muiiatic acid. Comb»f- tibki. f Trjnf. £Jin. V. 93- 99-ot ^. ., , A fpecimen of the lava of Sta. Venere m Sicily he found to contain 50.75 I'llica, 17.50 alumina, 14.25 oxyd ot iron, 10.00 lime, 4.00 foda, 1. 00 muriatic acid. \ Hid. 94. 97-5t- Thus we fee, that tlic refemblance between trap and lava holds not only in their external appearance, but alio in their component parts. Genus II. puzzolanv. Found in fmall pieces. Surface rough. Texture earthy and porous. Fraflure uneven. Luftre o. O- ^"^7^6^^ paque. H.iidnef^i 3. Very brittle. Sp. gr. fr.'m 2.57 G. II. Puj. to 2.8. Ci'lour brown or dark grey. Magnetic. Ea- zolaiia. fily melts into a black flag. When mixed with lime into a mortar, it p'^fTifles the property ot hardening even un 'er waier. This pro- perty it owes moll probably, as Mr Kir^'an fuppoles, to the iron which it contains. The iron decnmp'fes the water of the mortar, and by ihi^ means it becomes too hard to be acted upon by water in a Tcry (hort time. 157 Genus III. pumice. G. III. Po- This is a very light lubfiance cj.fled from volcanoes. ""'«• It is porous. Hardnefs 3. Brittle Sp.gr. below I. Colour giey or brown. In fume varieties the luftre and tranfparency are o: in others, the luftre is glaify, 2. Tranfparency from I to 2. _ TTT 'i^ OENUS IV. VOLCANIC ASHES. G.IV.Vol- Thefe are analogous to the alhes of common pit coal, canic afli«». Loofe and Imooth, very light, and fine. Slowly diffu- fible in water, and when wet fomewhat dudile. Genera. Class II. SALTS. UNDER this clafs we comprehend all the combina- Genus II. nons of alkalies with acids which exift in the mi- neral kingdom. As they have been already defcribed in the article Chemistry, Svppl. we ihall here only give a lift of their names. Genus I. potass. Genus III. Sp. I. Sulphat of potafs. 2. Nccrat of potafs. SODA. Sp. I . Carbonat of foda. 2. Sulphat of foda. 3. Muriat of foda. 4. Borax. AMMONIA. Sp. I. Sulphat of ammonia. 2. Muriat of ammonia. Class III. COMBUSTIBLES. 160 GcDcra. THE combuftible fubftances belonging to the mine- ral kingdom, excluding the metals, may be com- prehended under the following genera. ^ Sulphur. Carbon. Bitumen. Coal. Amber. i«i G. 1. Sul- phur. I 2- 3- 5- Genus I. sulphur. SPECIES 1. Native fulphur. This fubftance is found abundantly in many parts of th« world, eCpecially near volcanoes, as Hecla, jEtna, Vefuvius, the Lipari ifl.inds, &c. It is either in the ftate of powder, or maflive, or cryftallized. The pri- mitive form of its ciyftals is an oftohedron, compofed ■t Fig. 34. of tw,-. four-fided pyramids, joined bafe to bafef. The fides of thefe pyramids are Icalene triangles, and fo in- clined that the plane where the bafes of the pyramids join is a rhomb, whofe long diagonal is to its ihort as * Rome dt 5 to 4*. Sometimes the apices of the pyramids, to Lip,i. ufe tl.e l.mguage of De Lille, are tiuncated; lome- *9»- times they are feparated fioni each other by a prilm ; Hauy and X.efroy^ "Jour, de • — — ^— — — — ^— ^ Aiin. N° Xiix. as 7. fometimes they are truncated near their bafe°, and a low four-fided pyramid rifes from the truncature : this pyramid is alio ibmetimes truncated near its apex J. Fi- j pig. 35. nally, one of the edges of the pyramids is fometimes truncated. For figures of thefe varieties, and for the laws of their formation, we refer to Mr Lifroy\. f jaur. dt Colour yellow, with a fhade of green ; fometimes Min. N° reddini(q_). Luftre greafy, 2. Tranfparency varies ">*• 337- from o to 4. Caufes double refraftionj. Texture j Hauj. compaft. Hardnefs 4 to 5. Brittle — For its other properties, we refer to Chemistry in this Suppl. Someti.aies fulphur is mixed with dilfeient propor- tions of earths. Thefe combinations are hardly fuf- ceplible of accurate dcfcription. Sulphur combines alio with metals. Thefe combi- nations Ihall be defcribed in the fourth clafs. Genus II. carbon. i6» This genus comprehends all minerals compofed of 'G. II. pure carbon, or of carbon combined with a little earth. Carbon, SPECIES I. Diamond. Diamond. This mineral, which was well known to the ancients, is (q_) It then coQtains arfenic. Order II I MINERALOGY. Combuf- tiblcs. •f Fig. 36. t rig- 37- • Cryjl. ii. 191: f Jcur. dt Min. NO mix. 343- J Hauy, iiiJ. is found in different parts of Afia, particularly in the kingdoms of Golconda and Vifapour ; it is found alfo in Brazil. Ic ii always cryflalli/ed ; but fometimes fo imper- fedtly, that at the firll fight it might pafs for amor- SPECIIS I. Naphtha. Combuf- This fubRance is found fometimes on the furface of ^J^^^^^ the water of fpiing?, and fometimes ilfuingfrnm certain ijj; ftrata. It is found in great abundance in Potfia. Nipluhi. It is as fluid and tranlparent as water. Colour white phous. Its primitive form is a regular ddogonf; but or yellowilh white. Smell llrong, but not difigrecable. it more commonly aiiumes a fpheroidal form, and then Sp. gr. when white, .708* or .-zgf; wjicn yellowilli, ' ■"J^'/^^"'- has ufually 36 curvilinear triangular faces, fix of which .^475:!^. Feels greafy. Catches tire on llie approach """^^l^^^^ are raifed ujion each of the faces of the primitive oiflo- of flame, burns with a white flame, and leaves fcarce j ^rijfir..' gonj. Its integrant molecule, according to Hauy, is a any refiduum. regular tetrahedron. — For a more particular account of Infoluble in alcohol. Does not freeze at o" Fahrcn- the cryftals of this mineral, we refer the reader to Air heit. When pure naphtha is expofed to the air, it be- Rotne de Lific* and Mr Ihujf. comes yellow and then brown ; its confidence is incrca- Texture foliated. Lulf re 4. Tranfparency from 2 fed, and it pafles into petroleum*. ' Hauteit. to 4. Caufes Angle refraaion. Hardnefs_20. _Sp. species 2. Petroleum. gr. 3.5185 to 3.53 loj. Colour various; fometimes limpid, fometimes red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and even blackilh. o,..-. _, „, r'^...^,^,. ,,., , , , . , r ■ ^ in.. .Switzerland, uermany tIJ.iiiJ. When rubbed it becomes pndtively electric, even , , § Marvcau, before it has been cut by the lapidary, which is not Ann. dc [lie cafe with any other geni||. It is compofed ot puie carbon J. This fubftance is alfo found in Pcrfia, and likewife in many countries in Europe, particularly Italy, Fianc, Sweden, England, and Scot- Pct.-dlcum. dim. xxxi 72. 164 Mineral cburcoal. • Ibid. Anthracite. SPECIES 2. Mineral charcoal. Kilkenny coal — Wales culm. This mineral h.is been found in Hungary, Italy, France, Ireland, and Wales. It occurs in ftratified then called /ni/jrra/ <arf maffes, or in lumps neiled in clay. Colour black. Luftre 4, metallic. Opaque. Tex- ture foliated. Hardnefs 5 to 7. Sp. gr. 1.4 to 1.526. Often l\ains the fingers. Infoluble in acids. Defla- grates with nitre. Does not burn till wholly ignited, and then confunies ilowly without emitting flame or fmoke. It confifts almofl entirely of charcoal, wliich, as Mor- veau has proved, is an oxyd of carbon*. SPECIES 3. Anthracite (r). Anihracolite. This fubftance, as Dnlomieu informs us, is found ex- clullvely in the piimitive mountains. It is always amor- phous. Colour black or brownifli black. Lultre 3 to 4. Struiflure flaiy. Fragments rhomboidal. fiard- ntfs 6 to 7. Sp. gr. greater than that of coal. Often ftains die fingers. Burns precifely like the lafl fpecies, and leaves .40 of white alhes. According to Dolomieu, it is compofed of about 64.0 charcoal, 32.5 filica, 3.5 iron. Not fo fluid nor tranfparent as water. Colour yellow, either pale or with a tliade of red or green ; reddilh brown and icddilh black. Smell tliat ol naphtha, but lefs pleafant. Sp. gr. .8783*. When burned it yields '^rif* a foot, and leaves a fmall cjuantity ot coally refiduum. By expofure to the air it becomes like tar, and is t Hal.lcit, Hid. 169 Mincril t Jovr. dt Min. N° ixix. 338. \ Morvcau. thid. 166 G. III. Bi. tumeu. sPFCiEs 3. Mineral tar. This fubftance is found in many parts of Afia, Ame- J rica, and Europe. It is vil'ciJ, and of a black, brown- ilh black, or reddllli colour. Smell fometimes ftrr.iig, but often faint. Sp. gr. i.i. When burned, emits a difagreeable bituminous fmell. By expofure to the air it paifes into mintral pitch and viahha* . ' Hiuh.-ii, Hid. SPECIES 4. Mineral pitch and maltha. 170 This fubftance has a ftrong rel'emblance to common Mineral pitch. When the weather is warm it is foft, and has '""■'' *"'' iome tenacity ; it is then called adhefive mintral pitch : "^ ** when the weather is cold, it is brittle; its hardnefs is 5; and its tradure has a gl-'fiy lullre. In this ftate it is called maltha. Colour bhuk, dark brown, or reddidi. Liiftre c. Opaque. Sp. gr. trorn 1.45 to 2.07. Does not Ilain the tingers. On a white hot iron it flames wiili a ftrong fmell, and leaves a quantity of grey aflies. Ic is to tlie prefencc of the earths which ompofe thefe afhes that the great fpecific gravity of this bitumen is to be alcribed. By farther induration, it paflea into afthalt. 171 SPECIES 5. Afph.ilr. -VTplialt. This fubftance is found abundantly in many parts of Europe, Alia, and America, efpecially in the illand of Trinidad. Colour black or brownifh black. Luftre greafy 2. Opaque. Frachireconchoidal, oi a glalfy luftre. Hard- nefs trom 7 to 8. Very brittle. Sp. gr. 1.07 to 1.165*. *■*.''>«•«. Feel fmooth, but not greafy. Does not Ilain the tin- , . , , . , . ,.„, . , cers. Has little or no fmell, unlefs when rubbed or which ,s tound in dtfterent parts ot the ^^..^^^^ ^^.,,^^ ,,^,,j^j ^^^,j^^ ,.^^^,,j_ ^,,j i^^^^^^ . ^^j ous ftates ot conliftci.ce. I hete dii.e- ,,,,,,j p„,,^ burnswiihoutleavinganyall.es. J 00. of It is probable that the charcoal in the two laft fub- ftances is in the fame ftate in whicli it cxifts in plum- bago, combined with oxygen, but not containing fo much as charcoal does|. Genus III. ditumem. By bitumen we underllaiid, with mineralogifts in ge- neral, an oi earil^ in vanou rent Itates ibrin iliftinift I'pccies ; in oiir arrangement of which we lliall be guided by the obllrvations which Mr Hatchett has made in his valuable paper on bituminous * Niibalfm I fubftanccs*. 701/rM/, ii. Sui-pu Vol. II. «0I, J48. species 6. Elaftic bitumen. Mineral ccouichovc. This fubftance was lound about the year 1 7S6 in the 3 U L-ad Elaftic (n- tuuien. (r) This name was givea by Hauy from wSf** , a coal. MINERALOGY. ciafs I ir. Coml>uf. lead mine of Odio, ne.u- CaaUtown, Dcrbyfliirc. It libiis. ^vas firrt mentioned If Mr Dc Born. '"'^''''"'^ Colour ytUowilh or reJJUii biown, fometimes black- iili browr. In iis appearance it has a Rrong refeni- tlance to cawitcriouc >r Indian rubber ; hence its nanii. Coafillency various : lonieiiniej fo loft as to adliere to the fingeri ; iomctimes neaily a-, hard as alphalt. When foft it is elallic ; when hdrd brittle. Sp. gr. 0.9053 to t n.itibtti, 1.0233 X- ij,j. Inlbluble in -alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine, but foluble in oil of olives. Not alfei'led by nitric acid. When dirtilled, it yields a bituminous oil infoluble in » i^„,,i,^ alcohol ; the refiduum is c.irbonaceo\is.» rh,Jour. <k There is a variety rf this lubllance found in a rivu- 7"../. xixi. let near the mine ot Odin, which, when frefh cut, ex- 3^^- aaly refeniblcs fine cork in colour and texture; but in a few days alur being exp>.fcd to the air, becomes of a pale leddilli brown. This fubllance contains within it a laicleus of tlallic bitumen. It feems to be the (.lallic bitumen altered in its texture by the water f. Genus IV. coal. Tlic fubftances belonging to this yu-nus are compoled of carbon or rather charcoal, and biuinien. A fpecimen of the flaty kind from Airfhlre, called Combuf- fflcttt coal, was compofed of ^Ji^^i^lL/ 47.63 charcoal, 32 52 mjhha, 20.00 earths. + Hotdctl, iotJ, 17,1 G. IV. 174 Jet. ' Bnjfon f Hatchrit U 7'"r- * Min. N° iv. 41. 175 Caniiel coal. sptciEs I. Jet (s). Tliis fubftance is found in France, Spain, Germany, Britain, and other countries. It is found in detached kidneyforni malfes, of various fizes, from an inch to le- ven or eight feet in length. Ci^lour full blick. Luftre 3 to 4 ; internal glalfy. Opaque. Hardnefs 7 to 8. Not near fo brittle as afphalt. Texture fliiated. Frafture conchoidal. Sp. jrr. 1.250.* It has no odour except when heated, and then it refemhles the odour of afphahum. Melts in a ftrong heat, burns with a greenilh tlame, and leaves an ear.hy refiduum -j- Becomes fomewhat ekaric by fiiaionj. When ^r^ujuelin. diftilled yields a [xculiar acid §. This mineral i> lormed into buttons, beads, and other tririkets. The manufadure has been almoft confined to France {|. SPECIES 2. Cann'-' coal. This mineral is found in L ..icalhire, and in diffe- rent parts of Scotland, where it is known by the name oi parrot coal. Colour black. Luftre common, 2. Opaque. Struc- ture fnmetimes flaty. Texture compaft. Frafture con- choidal. Hardnefs 5 to 8. Brittle. Sp. gr. 1.232 to 1.426. Does not [lain the fingers 100.14 1 \liii.y.\. Cannel co.il is fufteptible oi polllh, and, like jet, is often wrought into trinkets. 176 sptciFs 3. Common coal. Common This very ufctul CDmbuillble is never found in the "^u"'- primitive mountains, but only in the fecond try moun- tains, or in plains formed of the fame materials with them. It is always in ftrata, and generally alternates with clay, fandlione, or limetlone. Colour black, more or lefs pertefl. Lufire ufually grealy or metallic, 2 to 4. Opaque. Strudure gene- rally flaty. Texture oiten foliated. Fraflure various. Hardnefs 4 to 6. Sp. gr. 1.25 to 1.37. Ufually llaius the fingers. Takes fire more llowly, and burns longer, than the lall fpecies. Cakes more or Ufs during com- bullion. Of this fpecies there are many varieties, diftingnidied in Britain by the names cf caking coal, rock coal, &c. Thefe arc toe well known to require any defcriptiuii. Mr Kirwan analyfed a variety of different kinds of coal; The refult of his expeiir.ients may be feen by the followina: table. Whiteha- ven coal. Wigr.n. Swanfey. l-eeirini. 5 7.0 4'.3 1-7 61-73 36-7 '•57 73-53 23-14 3-33 71-43 23-37 5.20 ch.ircoal. maltha Scafph. earths \. loo.o i 100.00 100.00 100.00 \ Mititral. 177 SPECIES 4. Spurious coal. Spurious This mineral is generally found amidll ftrata of ge- '°*'- nuine coal. It is alfo called /^rro/ coal m Scotland. C-ilourgreyilh black. Luflreotoi. StruiSture ufu- ally flaty. Texture earthy. Hardntfs 7 to !i. Sp. gr. 1.5 to 1.6. Generally explodes, and burfls when heated. Compofed of charcoal, maltha, and alphalt, and above .20 of ftony matter. 178 Genus V. amber. G. V. Am- SPECIES I. Common amber. ber. This fubftance, called e'eirlrum by the ancient.";, is found in different countries ; but mod abundantly in Kindles eafily, and burns with a bright white flame Piuflia, either on the fea ihore, or under ground at the like a candle (t), which lalls but a fliort time. It does depth of about ^oo feet, repofing on wW coa/.* It . j^;- not cake. It leaves a ftony or footy refiduum. A fpecimen of Lancalhire cannel coal, analyfed by Mr Kirwan, contained 75-20 charcoal, 21.68 maltha, 3.10 alumina and flica. f JHhifra/i u. .513. 99-98 t is in lumps of different fizes. Mia. ii. Colour yellmv. Luftre 3 to 2. Tr.mfparcncy 2 104. 66. Fraaureconchoidal. Hardnefs 5 to 6. Sp.gr. 1,078 to 1.0S5. Becomes ekaric by friaion. If a piece of amber be fixed upon the point of a knife, and th.en kindled, it burns to the end without meliingf. f ffauy, By dillillation it yields fuccinic acid. Class (s) It was called gagathes by Jhe ancients, from the river Gages in Licia, near which it was found ; Jayet in French, ozabache in Spanifh, ga^ath in German. (t) H-.;nce it has been called catmi coal. Candle, in the Lancalhire and Scotch diaka^ is pronounced itinmL Clafs IV. '79 Orders. l3o Gcncri. M I N E R A L O G Y. Cx-Ass IV. METALLIC ORES. THIS (lafi comprehends all the mineral bodies, com- pofeJ either entirely of metals, or of whicli metals CDnflitute the moll confiderable and important parr. It is from llie minerals belonging to this clafs tliat all nietah are extraded; for this reafon they have obtain- ed the name of ores. Tlie metals hitheito difcovered amount to 21 ; we fhall therelore tiivide this clafs into 21 orders, allotting a diftinci trder for the ores of every p.irticular metal. Metals cxifl in 01 es in one or other of the four fol- lowing Hates. I. In a metallic llite, and cither folita- ry or combined with each other. 2. Combined with (ulpl.nr. 3. In the (late of oxyds. 4. Combined with acids. Each order therefore may be divided into the four following genera. 3. Oxyds. 1. Alloys. Silts. 2. Suljjhurets. 4. It mud be obferved, however, that every metal has not hitherto been found in all ihefc four ftates, and that fomc of them are hardly fufceptible of them all. tiome of the orders therefore want one or more genera, as may be feen from the following table. Order I. Order I. 2. 3- 4- Order I. Order 2. 7, 4- ORDtR I. 2. 3- 4- Order I. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. Ordir. I . 2. Ordkk Or.DtR I. 2. .V I. Gold oris. Alloys. II. Si her ores. Alloys. .StiJ[)hurets. Oxyds. Silts. III. Platinum ores Alloys. I V. Ores if mercury Alloys. Sulphiirets. Oxyds. Salts. V. Copper ores. .Alleys. Sulpliuiets. Oxyds. Salts. VI. Iron ires. Alloys. Sulphurets. Carburets. Silicitcd iron. Oxyds. Salts. VII. Tin ores. Snlphurets. Oiyds. VUl. Lead ores. Sulphuicis. Oxvds. SnltS. IX. Z,'mc ores. Snlphurets. Oxyds. Salts. Order X. yf'ilimonial ores. 1 . Alloy;. 2. Sulphurets. 3. ()x>ds. 4. Sails. Order XI. Bifmuth ores. 1. Alloys. 2. Sulphurets. 3. Oxyds. Order XII. Arfenk ores. 1 . yVlloys. 2. Sulphurets. 3. Oxyds. Order XIII. Cobalt ores. 1 . Alloys. 2. Sulphurets. 3. Oxyds. 4. Salts. Order XIV. Kicktl on:. 1. Sulphurets. 2. Oxyds. 3. Salts. OrderXV. Mangancftores. 1. Oxyds. 2. Silts. OrperXVI. Tungsten ores. r. Oxyds. 2. SiltH. Order XVII. Ores of mo- lybdenum. I. Sulphnrets. Order XVIII. Ores of u- rainuvi. 1 . Oxyds. 2. Silts. Order XIX. Ores "f tli.i- (ii'v'.r. I. Oxyds. Order XX. Ores of tellu- rium. I. Alloys. Jrder XXI. Ores of^kro- mum. I. Oxyds. Order I. GOLD ORES. i8r No metal perhaps if we except iron, is more widely ^^'kcre fcattered through the mineral kingilom than gold.* found- Hitherto it has been found only in a metallic l^ale ; ' ^"S."""' moft commonly in grains, ramifications, leave-;, or morn- boiJal, cdohedral, or pyramidal cryllals. It is gene rally mixed with quart/, though there are inftnnces of its having occurred in calcareous rocks. It is nflt un- common alfo to find it dillemiuated through the ore; of other metals : efpecially iron, mercuiy, c(ipper, and zinc. The greatelf (piantity of gold is foui.d in the warmer regions o*' the earth. It abounds in the finds of many African rivers, and is very commfm in South America and India. Euwpe, however, is not dcllitute of this metal. Spain was famous in ancient times for its gold mines, and federal of ihe rivers in France con- tain it in their fandsf . But the principal gold mines | R;.iutn<ir, in Europe are thcfe of Hungary, and next to tii^.n thcfe ■^l^"'- P»r. of Salzburgh. Gold alfo has been difcovered in Swe- i7t8,p.68. den and Norway, and more lately in the county of l.f'/'i , icklow in Ireland j:. 1706,0.56. r. T All / 1 1 Mull, Hilt. Genus I. Alloys ot gold. n.-,s. Nl- SPECIES I. Nati -e gold. iba/fm'i Native gold is never completely pure ; it is alloyed j'""'"- "• with fome filver or copper, and fometimes with iron. ^^■'" In the native gold lound in Ireland, indeed, the qnan- ^ . >^ • lity (if alloy appears to have been exceedingly fmall. „oid. Its colour is yellow. Luftre metallic. Frafture hackly. Hardnefs 5. Sp. gr. from 12 to 19. Order II. SILVER ORES. 1S3 Silver is found mod crmmonly m quartz, limeflone, ■VThere hornllone ; or combined with the ores of other metals, found, moll commonly with copper, antimony, y.ir.c, cobalt, and lead. This latl metal indeed is feldom totally de{- titnte of I'ilver. Genus I. Alloys of filvcr. G.l.Native SPECIES I. Native filver.* filvcr. Nitive filver, fo called becaufe the filver is nearly in * ■^'"''' "' a fiate of purity, Arms the principal part of Ibme of f.° '~'' . , T ,, , , , - . , . ttnr. Act. the ticliell lilver mines in the wotkl. It is fometimes jj,„_ Sw- in fmall lumps ; fometimes cryllallized in cubes, hexa- c,a, 1738, hedrons, oiftohedront, or dodecahedrons ; fometimes in p. 4tO' leaves, or threads, often fo conneifted witli each other as to refemble branches of trees, and therefore railed dendrites. The filvcr in the famous mines of Potofi has this lall form. When newly extra<flod, it is no: unlike final! br.mchcs ol firf . f Brr^aa't The colour of native filvcr Is white ; often tarniflied. Phyf.Gn^r. Lullre metallic. Fradiire hackly. Hardnefs 6. Mal-7'J"--*„ kable. Sp. gr. from icto 10.338. Tliis filver in this fpicies ijairnoll condantly alloyed with from .03 to .05 of fomc other met.il, ficquciilly gold or arfciii;. 3 U 2 srfcis; Mm. N° xvi. p. 16. MINERALOGY. Clafs IV. 185 Alloy of Clvcr and gold. SPECIES 2. Alloy of filver and gold. Auriferous native Jilver. This alloy is not uncommon in filver mines. Its co- lour is ycUowilb white. Its luftre metallic. Hardnefs 5. Malleable. Sp. j^r. above 10.6. l)r Fordyce found a fpecimen iiom Noiv?ay compofed of 72 filver, 28 gold. Metallic ores. n. 118. • Phil. Iraiif. 1776, p. 186 Alloy of Clvcr and antimony. •(■ Kirivafl, ii. no. ^ Ramc dt L'ijl!y iii. 461. § H<iuy, ^otir. di Min. N° XXX. p. 473. I Xirivati, Hid. 1 Ofii/i. ii. 415- « Jour, dc lAin. Hid, 100' 6FECIES 3. Alloy of filver and antimonyf. yi>itln:oniulcJ filver ore. This alloy, which ib found in the filver mines of Spain and Germany, is fcmetimes in grai..s or lumps, and fometimi.-. cryltallized in fix-fided prifms, whofe fides are longitudinally channelkdj. Its colour is white. Its lulire metallic. Hardnefs 10. Brittle. Sp. gr. from 9.4406^ to io||. Texture foliated. Fraflure conchoidal. litfore the blow-pipe the antimony evaporates in a grey fmoke, and leaves a brownilh flag, which tinges borax green. If borax be ufc-d at firrt, a filver bead may be obtained. Tiiis alloy was long fiippofed to contain arfenic. Bergman examined it, and found only fiiver and anti- nii'Uy^. His analyfis has been cinhrmed by the ex- periments of Vauquelin and Selb*. According to Sclb, it U compofed of S9 filver, 1 1 antimony. 100 A fpecimen, analyfed by Klaproth, contained 84 filver, 16 antimony. Another fpecimen contained 76 filver, 24 antimony. SPECIES 2. Antimoniated filver ore*. Sulbhurel of Jilv:r nu'ith ar.llmony and lr$n. This ore, which occurs in Saxony and Hungary, jgg feems to be fulphuret of filver contaminated witli ami- Aiuimoni- mony and iroo, and ought therefore, in all probability, at<^d filver to be confidcred merely as a variety of the lall I'pccies. ""• It is fometimcs in malfes, but moie frequently cr) llalli- zed in fix-fided prifms, tables, or rhomboids ; generally indillinift and accumulated together. Its c.ilc ur is iron grey; often tarnifhed. Its luftre metallic. Fr.idurc uneven. Hardnefs 4 to 5. Biittle. Sp. gr. 7.2o8f. Before the blow-pipe the iulphur j. (j,^^^,. and antimony exhale, leaving a bead, which nwy be freed from iron by tufion with nitre and borax. A fpecimen of this ore, analyfed by Klaproth, con- tained 66.5 fi'vtr, 12.0 fulphur, 10 o antimony, 5.0 iron, l-o filica, 05 arfenic and copper. 95.0}: iSeilrSge, i. 166. SPECIES 3. Sulphuret of filver and copper*. ig^ Cupriferous fulphuraied Jilver ore. Sulphuret This ore, which is found in the Korbolokinfk moun °f ''''»"■ tains in S.beria, was firft defciibed by Mr Renovantz. f^,'3f " It is in amorphous malles, varying in fi^e from that of ■• j.j_ * the thumb to ihat of the fill. Its colour i- bluilh giey like lead. Luflre metallic. Haronefs 5 to 6. Brittle. Its powder, when rubbed on the iliir, gives it a black colour and a leaden ghfs. Before ihe blow-pipe the fulphuret of filver melts readi- ly ; that )f copper with difficulty. This ore is com- pofed of about 42 filver, 2 I copper, 35 fulphur. ^ Beitrage, ii. 301. 187 G. II. Sul- phurccs. Common fulpliuretof iilver. \ Kirivartf ii. US- ^ Cr^.al. iji. 441. • Brijfin. \ Cclkrt. loot } Briitlgt, i. 162. Genus II. sulphurbts of silver. SPECIES I. Common fulphuret ot filver:}:. Vitrious filver ore. This ore occurs in the Iilver mines of Germany and Hungary. It is fonietimes in maffes, fometimes in threads, and fometimes cryftallized. Its cryilah are either cubes or regufir odohedrons, whofe angles and edges are often varioufly truncated. For a deicription of ihe varieties produced by thefe truncatuies, we refer the leader to Rome de Lijl:^. Its colour is dark bluilh ^rev, inclining to black ; often tarniflied. Internal luftre metallic. Texture to- liated. Fracture uneven. Hardnefs 4 to 5. May be cut with a knife like lead. Flexible and malleable. Sp. gr. 6.909* to 7.215!. In a gentle heat the ful- phur evapor.ites. Melts when heated to rediief^. A fpecimen of thi.s ore, analyfed by Klaproth, con- tained 85 filver, 1 5 fulphur. ioo| 98 Genus III. oxvds of silver. g. 111. species I. Calcitorm filver oref. Oxyds. This ore was firft defcribed by Mr Widenman. Il Calciform isfomeiimes in malfeb, fometimes dilfeminated through ''*"""■ , . , T Ktriaan, other minerals. -_ jjj_ Its colour is greyilli black. Its flreak bright. Its luftre metallic. lis frai'ture uneven. Hardneis 4 to 5. Bnitle. Sp. gr. confiderable. EfFervefcts with acids. Melts eafily before the blow-pipe. Froths with bo- rax. According to Selb, it contains 72.5 filver, 15.5 copper, 12.0 carbonic acid. SPECIES 2. Red filver ore (u^. This ore is very comrrson in feveral German filvei 191 Red filver ore. mines. It occurs in maffes, dilfeminated and cryitHlli- zed. The primitive form of its cryllals ib a dodecahe- droijjj whofe fides are equal rhombs, and which may be ^ Fig. 38. con- (u) Kirxu. 11. xiz.—Scopo.'i dc Minera y^rgenti Rubra. — Sage, Jour, de Phyf. XXXIV. 331. and XLI. 370; and Niuv. Jjur. de Phyf. II. 284 IVeJl.-um, Jour, de PhyJ. XLIII. 291 — Klafrolh, Baira^e, I. 141. Order II. MINERALOGY. 525 Silver. * Rome d£ ZiJIc, iii. 447- t liiJ. ifHif. Na- UrtUc, N" 18. p. Il6. yeur. de Min. N^ xvii. p- 2- y HauyyihiJ. N° XII. p. 476. *Hjuy,ibid. N° mi. p. 5J8. ikid. \ Ann* de Chim. xviii. Si. confidered as a fix-fided rhomboldal prifni, terminated by thiee-l'idid rummits*. Som;tiiiies the prlfm is lengthened, and Ibmetimes its edges, or thofe of the teimiuailng I'ummits, or b-tli, are wanting. For a de- fcripti'in anJ figure of thcfe varieties, we refer to Di LJU\ and Hui^yX. r.sci-lou. is commonly red. Streak red. External luftrc me-.Uic, internal common. Tranfiiarency Irom 3 ti) I i f.^metimes opaijue. Fradure flat cnnclioidal. Hardnefi 5 to 7. Britle. Sp. gr. from 5.44} to 5.y92f . Becomes eli.ilric by frii.'lion, but only when iniulated||. Soluble in nitric acid without efFervef- ence*. Before the blow-ppe niclts, blackens, burns with a blue fl.ime, gives out a white fmoke with a flight garlic fmell, anJ leaves a fdvcr beadf. Variety I . Light red. Colour intermediate between blood and cochineal red ; fometimes variegated. Streak orange red. Pow- der black. Variety 2. Dark red. Colour commonly between dark cochineal red and lead grey ; fometimes nearly bl.ick and without any Ihade of red. Streak daik crimlbn red. This ore was long fuppofed to contain arfenic, Kla- proth firll afcertained its real compofitioiij; and his analyfis has been confirmed by Vautjuelin, who found a fpecimen compofed of 56 6748 filv^r, 16. 13CO antimony, 15 0666 fulphur, 12.12S6 oxygen. G. IV. S;>lt«- Muriat of filYnr. pipe it inflantly melts, and gradually evaporates, but Metallic may be reduced by adding an alkali. ^^^r^_v That this ore contains muriatic acid, has been long known. Mr Woulfe firft fhewed that it contained alfo fulphuric ac'dj;: and this difcovery has been confirmed ^phil. by Klaproth, according to whofe analyiis this ore is Tronf. compofed of 67.75 o^yd of filver, i??^- 6 00 oxyd of iron, 21.00 muriatic acid, .25 fulphuric acid, 1.75 alumina. Klaproth proved, that the filver and antimony are in the ftate ot oxyis; and Vauquelin, that tlie fulphur is combined partly with the oxyd of filver and partly with the oxyd of antimony. Klapioth obtained a little fulphuric acid ; but this acid, as Vauquelin, with his ufual ingenuity, demonftrated, was formed during the analyiis. This ore fometimes contains a minute portion of ar- • ^anyw/iji, fenic, but never more than .02*. Hid. p. 8. GeSUS IV. SALTS OF SILVER. SPECIES I. Mur'at of filver (x). Corneous Jilver ore. This ore occurs at Johann^eorgenftadt in Saxony, in Souih America, &c. It is often amorphou>^, fometimes nearly in po\^ der, and fometimes cryftallircd in cubes or parallek'pi|).'ds. lis col.-urs are various: when expnffd to the light it becomes brown. Litem il luftre ijreafy, 2 ; external, 2 to I. Acquires a gl fs when fcra, ed with a knife. Tranfpuency 2 to i. Texture foliated. Hardntf. 4 * Brijfon. to 5. Sp. gr. 4.745* to 4.804!. Before the blow- 96.75 f _ 1 Batr,ge, The alumina can only be confidered as mixed with '• '34. the ore. Sometimes its quantity amounts to .67 of the whole (J. S/i,V. p. IJ7- Order III. ORES OF PLATINUM(y)- Hitherto no mine of platinum has been difcovered. Jtj,j5. It ii found in fmall fcales or grains on the fa;ids ot the river Pinto, and near Carthagena in South America. It is always in a metallic ftate, and always combined with iron. 194 Genus I. alloys of platinum. g. I. Al- spEciES I. Native platinum. loys- Its colour is whitidi iron grey. Mgneiic. Sp. gr. Nitive pla- from 12 to 16. Soluble in nitro-muriatic and oxy- """""■ muriatic aciJs. Order IV. ORES OF MERCURY. Mercurv is employed in medicine; it ferves to fe- paiate filver and gold from their ores; the filvering of looking glaffes, gilding, &c. are [ertormed by means of it; and its fulphuret lornis a beautiful print. Mercury abounds in Europe, particularly in Spain, Germany, and Hungary : it is found alf in China ( z), the Phi'ippines*, and in Peru, and perhaps Chili (a) in S' uth America. The moft proJudive mines ot mercury are thofe of Idriaf; of Almaden, near CorJo. va in Spain, which were wrought by the Rom.ins (b); of the Pal.itina'ef ; and of Gu.mca \'elica in I'eru (c) Mercury has never been found in Britain, nor has any mine worth working been difcovered in France. It occurs moft ct^mmoniy in argillaceous Ihiftus, lime- ftones, and fanditoncs. Genus 1. alloys of mercury. SPECIES 1. Native mercury. Native mercury is found in moft mercurial mines : it is in fmall globules, fcattered through different kinds of ftones, clays, and ores. Fluid. Colour white. Sp.gr. about 13.6. SPECIES 195 Mine %. * Carrerit Voyage. \ Scopolif 'Jaur. de ATfn. N° iixvi. p. 915- Mil. N° vi. and vil. 196 G. I. Al- loys. Native mercury. (x) Kir-w. II. 113 — Laxmann. N v. Comtti. Pelropol. XIX. 482. — Mjnuet. Mem. Sfav. Etranp. IX. 717. (y) See Brniunrig^, Pbil. Tranf XLVI. 584.— /..r^a;//, ibid XLVIII. 638. aud L. \\%.—Mar^raf. Mem. Berlin, 1757. p. 314. — Ma.quer, Mem. Pur. 1758, p. 119. — Buffun, Juur. de Phyf. HI. 324. — Morvtau, Hid. VI. 193. — Bergman, Opufc. H. 166. — Ti'let. Mem. Par. 1 779, p. 373, and 383, and 545. — Crell, Cnll'i yln- nalt, 1784, 1 Band. 328. — IVidii, Man^hejler Memoirs, 111. 467. — Mujin Pujchkin, Ann. de dim. XXIV. 205. — Morviuu, ibi L XXV. 3. (z) Se: Enlncol.'e'j Letlres Edlficanies. (a) .See Molina's Natural Hijiory of Chi'i. (b) Sec Bowie's N.iiural Hijlory of Spain, and Jour, de Min. N" xxxi. p. 555. (cj See Ulloa's Memoirs concerning America. 197 Amalgam of filvtr. • Kirzvjrit ii. 213. ■f CrcnJl.Jl'i Mil. Crell'i An- nals, 1790. IvI I N E R EPECiES 2. Amalgam of filver.* Native amalgam. This mineral has been found in the fiver mine of Sahlberg f, in the province of DalecArlia, in Sweden ; in the mines of Deux Fonts f, in the Palatinate; and in other places. It is in thin plates, or grains, or crr- llallized in cubes, pirallelopipcd;, or pjrarr.ids. Its colour is filvery white or grey. Luftre metal- lic. Creaks when cut. Sp. pr. above 10. Tinj^ei gold white. Before the blow-pipe the mercury evapo- rates and leaves thj filver. A fpccimen of this amalgam, analyfed by Klaprolh, A L O G Y. GtNUs IV Clafs IV. Metallic Ores. contained 64 mercury, 36 filver. § Beilra^, i. 183. I«0 j 198 G. 11. Siil- phurctft. Common fulpliuict. * KiriviSitf U. 2:8. Sometimes it contains a mixture of alumina, and fometinics the proportion of mercury is fo great that the amalgam is nearly as foft as pafte. Genus II. sulphi-rets of mercury. SPE.CIES I. Common fulphuret.* A'litive cinnuLa r. This cie, which is found in almoft all mercurial mines, is fumetimes in veins, fometimes dilfemin.-Jted, fometimes in grains, and fomelinies cryftallized. The form of its cryllals is a tetrahedron or ihree-fided py- ramid, rnoft commonly wanting tlie fiinimit ; fometimes two oi thefe pyramids are joined bale to bale : and fometimes there is a ihree-fided ptiUii intcrpcfed be- tween themf. lis colour is red. Its llreak red and metallic. Luflre when cryftallized 2 to 3 ; "hen amorphous, olien o. Tranfparency, v^hen cryilallizcd, from i to 3 ; when amorphous, often o. Texture generally tolialed. Hard- nefs from 3 to 8. Sp. gr. from 5.419 to 10.1285. Before the blow-pipe evaporates with a blue tlame and fulphureous fnnU. Infoluble in nitric acid |. Variity. 1. Dark red. Colour cochineal red. Haidnefs 6 to 7. Sp. gr. when pure, 10.1285J; fometimes only 6.i8Sf. Vuihty Colour commonly 5-4i9t- Genus III. oxvds of mercury. SPECIES I. Hepatii: mercuiial ore.* This ore, which is the nioft common in the mines of Idria, is always amorphous, and is often mixed with Dative mercury and cinr.abar. Its colour is fi.mewhat red. I'.s ftreak dark red and bri'hter. Lultre commonly metallic. Haidnelslrom 6 to 8. Sp. gr. from 9.2301 f to 7.186 %■ When heated the mercury evaporates. Though this ore has never been accurately analyfed, chemills" h,ive concluded thrt the mercury which it i-ij/. xxiv- contains is in the ftatc of a red oxyd, becaufe it i» info- luble in nitric and f'luble in muriatic acid f. When pureft, it contains about .77 ofmercuiy <>. It contains alfo iome fulphnr and iron. Wernrr h<is divided this fpecie? into two varieties the conipail and the Jl''y- 1 he ftcond is often nothing more than bitum'nous fhale impregnated with oxyd of nvrcury f . MERCURIAL SALTS. SPECIES I. Muriat of incrcuiy.* Con!:ous meirtiry. 200 This ore, which occurs in the Palatinate, is fome- Mercurial limes in fcales, fometimes in grains, and forr.rtimes cry- S'llt'- (lallized. Its cryftals are either fmall four or fix-fided ^'"■'<" °^ prifms whofe fides are rhombs +, or cubes, or fonr-fided » .,. pyramids wauling their angles. They are always veiy ji. 226, fmall and generally donfufed. ^ Romi ile Its colours are various; but it is moft frequently ■^j"'^. >"• white. Its ludre, when wliite, is pe.irly. Somtlimss ^°'' opaque, and fometimes femitranfpaient. Evaporates belnre ihe blow pipe. Mr Wonlfe difcovered, that tliis ore generally con- tains fome fiilphuric acid J. Specimens have beenfW;/. found in which ihc quantiiy of fulphuiic aciJ exceeds TranfAxiU that ti tlie muriatic j. 618. Order V. COPPER ORES. Li/lc, iii. Ij4- } Ilatiy, "jonrm de M:n. n° xxxi. p- 518. C, Briffm. ^ Mifilrn- f Brijpin. } GilUrt. 199 G. HI. Oxyda. Hepatic mercurial ore. • Kirivan. ii. J24- i Brijfon. I Kirivan* H Sage, 2. Bright red. fcarlet. Sp. gv. or even 6.9022 f to 61. jfour. tfe Ml". H" xxwi. p. 919. ■* Kinvan, ii. a:6. Many of the moil ufeful uteni'ils are formed of cop- per : it enters laigeiy into tlie compofition of brals, bronze, and btll mcial; not to mention the dyes and paints of whicli it ia the bafis. 201 Copper mines abound in moft countries. They are Mines. wrc light in China, Japan, Sumatra; the north of Afri- ca ; in Chill and Mexico ; and in mod parts of Europe } efpecially Britain, Germany, Ruliir, Plungary. Copper is found moft commonly in rocks of horn- bknde, Ihillus, and quartz. »oi Genus I. alloys of copper. G. I. AI- SPECiEs I. Native copper.* '"Y'; Native copper occurs now and tlien in the preater ^ ""* 1 r o • • • ,7- topper, number ot copper mines: Sometimes it is in ma.'ies, . ^/r-mn Ibnutimes in plates and threads, which alfume a variety ji. iz-j of foims; and fometimes, as in Siberia, it is cryftiUized O'riheufcr. in ciiljes, or oilier forms nearly refembling cubes f. t ii<'<'y. Colour commonly ihat of copper, but fometimes dark ^^j!^' Sp brown. Lultre metallic. Streak brighter. Erasure ^xxi.' 509. hackley. I'lexible and malleabic. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Sp. gr. from 7.6 f to 8.5844^. } Kirtvan't 1JT, . , ^'"•- ^• SPECIES 2. White copper ore 5. 128. ^llcy of copper, iron, and arfeuic. H Hauy, This ore, which is laid to be uncommon, occurs in '^"'' P- 509' maffes. Colour v,hite. Liidre metallic. Fraiflure un- ,,,, ?°^ Hj ,- ,, n • 1 n 1^ , White cop- ardneJs 8 to 9. Lntile. Sp. gr. confider- „,(._ "^ able. ^ ^ Kir. Mm. Before the blmv-pipe gives out a white arfcnical ii. 152. fnioke, and melts into a greyifli black fla;;.* ''IViJenmM. 104 Genus II. sulphurets of copper. G. 11. Sul- SPECiES I. C'">mm-On Ailphnret of copper f. phiiretsof Vitreous copper ore. CoTi'n This ore, which is found in Coinwal, Hungary, and j-„iphurctoc Siberia, occurs in raalfe?, pl.ues, thread?, and cryllalli- coppc-r. zed in iix-fided prifnis, or lour-iided pyramids, joined t Kir-^van, bale to bafe. "■ i44- Coloui biuifli giey. Streak brighter grey. Z-.n^xc ^ xirtoan, metallic. Mardncls 4 to 7. Sp. gr. 5.452 % to 5.565 § ; 5 GdUrt. fomi-'limes fo low as 4. 1 jq.* Detonates with nitre. ' Kiriuan. Before the blow-pipe iv melts eafily ; and wiiile in fii- fion exhibits a g:ee',i peail, wliich, on cooling, is cover- ed with a brov\n ciuft Tinges borix green. Werner makci iwo varieties of this ore: the firft he calls Order 205 Copper pyrites. ii. 1..10. ^ Brifcn. ^ Kirxi-an, II M Min. ii. 141. 206 PurpL- cop- per ore. ^ Kirii-arty u. 142. t Uij. a. 143- I BtilrSgt, ii.-286. 207 Grey cop- per ore. ii. 146. H Romi Je h'ljle^ iii. 3IJ- ^our. tit Min. N° V. MINE R calls cowpuSi, fif)m its fr.iclure ; and the ftconJ, for the f.tme XiAb.n, he calli folutud. Tl'.is lall is fomcwhat darker coloured than the lirit, but in other rerpeifls they agree. SPECIES 3. Copper pyrite?.* Tellc'iu coppir ore. Thi:i rre, which is prouabiy nolhinj elie than ful- phuretof iri>n combined with cc pper, and wliii.h, therc- iorc, would bo more properly placed among iron ores, is iound i'roquently in co)>per mines, and mixed with common pyrites or I'ulphuiet of iron. It is fometimes amoiphuiij, and Ibmetiines cryllallized. Its cryitals arc cither three or foui-fided pyramids applied bafe to bafe, or fix-lided plates. Its colour is yellow; often tarnifiied. Its ir.leinal lu fire metallic. Hardtiefs 6 to 7; fometimes 9. Brittle. Sp. gr. 4.314! to 4.08 f. Dciligrates ; but doe^ not detonate with niut |,. Betore the blow-pipe decrepitates, gives a greetlifh fulphureous fmokc, and mehi into a black niaf>, which tinges borax giecn. Docs not etfervelce with niliic acid. SPECIES 3. Purple copper ore.* This ore ii Iound in niaifes, or plates, or difTemina- ted ; fometimes, alio, it is cr)llalli/.cd in odohedrons. Colour variinis, but moil cominonly purple ; iateriiaily reddilli. tjtieak leduilii and brlolit. Liiihe inttallic. Hardnefs 6 to 7. linttle. Sp. gr. 4 956 to 4.983 f. Elfei vefces with nitric acid, and tinges itgteeii. De- flagrates with nitre. Belore the biow-pipe nielcs readi- ly, without imoke, vapour, or fmell ; but ii not redu- ced. Tinges borax a bright green. A fpecimen of tuis ore, analyfed by Klaptoth, con- taitieJ 5^ coppei-, J 8 iron, 19 lulpliur, 5 oxygen. A L O G Y. 527 SPECIES 4. Grey copper ore ^. This ere is found in C.-rn\i'al, Saxony, Hungary, &c. It is oiten amorphous, but often alio cryllalnzcd. The primitive foim of its cryitals is the regular tetra- hedron ; but, in general either the angles or the edges, or both, are truncated or bevelled ||. Colour IKel grey ; oltcn tanullied, and then dark grey. Streak daric grey ; foniecimes reddilh brown. Powder blackilh ; fometimes with a tint of red. Luftre metallic. Hardnefs 7 i r 8. Very brittle. Sp. gr. 4.8648.* Deflagrates with nitre. Before the blow- pipe crackles., but at lall melts, cipecially if atlilled by borax. The bead gives a white fmoke, without any particular imcll ; tinges borax yellow or brownilli red, but does not unite with it. A fpecimen if this ore from Cremcit/, analyfed by Klaproth, contained 31 copper, 14 lilver, 34 antimony, 3 iron, 1 1 fulohur. 93 Napion, in an ore from the valley of Laazi, found Motalli copper, (liver, and antimony, nearly in the fame j)ro- O'-- portions, but more iron, andfome arfenic f . S.tvorc i, (Ii^^Tt!^ as B iron Born informs us, befides the ingrctiirts <r r;.",, v. 17^' Khproth's analyfu, found fome gold iiid mercury y\ grey copper ore % : and Klaproth himftlf found kaJ in | c.,:jI. ii. moll of the cih.:r fpecimcns wiiich he e.\amined. 498^ Genus III. oxyds op coppir. J''^^ SPECIES I. Red oxyd of copper $. Oiyiis"' F.'onil nJ copper ore—R.d copper g!ofs. Red oxyJ This ore is found in Cornwal, and many other coun- of coi)p';r. tries. It occurs in mafles, dilTeiniiiated, in fcales, and § A'i>ii.j/r, cryftal'.ized. The figure of its cryitals is molt common- "' ^^^' ly the regular oflohedron.* • //j„„ Colour commonly cochineal red. Sireak brick red. "Jo^r. dc Luftre femlmetallic. Tian.'partn^y, Mhen anurphous, ^'^": ^' generally o; «hen cryftalll/.cd, 3 or 4. Hardnefs from "^" •'■'' 4 to 7. Soluble with clTervekence in nitric acid. Be- f.^re the blow pipe rc;l:sca(iiy, and is reduced. Thia ore was fuppoled to be cnmpoled of carbor.ic acid and red oxyd of copper ; but a fpecimen, exanji- ned by Vauquelin, which conliiled of piirecryilals, con- tained no acid f . It mull therefore be confidered as an | nu. cxyd of copper. Werner has made three varieties of this ore, which, from their texture, he has denominated f(/;/;/ia<f?,y;/;<?/f.-/, and Jibrous. The firil is feldoni or never found cryllal- lized, and is opaque ; the f'econd occurs amorpiious, cryftallized, aii.i in fcales; the third is carmine, ruby, or fcailet red ; and occurs always in lliort capillary cry- ftals, or delicate flakes. This ore fometimes contains a mixture of red oxyd of iron ; it is theti called brick red copper ore, copper malm, or copper cckrc. This 01 e is fometimes mixed with bitumen. Its co- lour is then browi.iih black, and it is called pitch ore. SPECIES 3. Green oxyd of copper f. crec«oxyd Gran f and of Peru. of copper. This ore, which was brought from Peru by Dombey, § K„-.i^n, is a grafs green powder, mixed with grains of quartz. "• '49- When thrown on burning c-als, it communicates a green colour to the flame. It is fcluble both in nitric and muriatic acids without effervelcence. The folutic n is green. It was fuppofed to contain muriatic acid ;• • BtrtlotUt,. but Vauquelin has difcoveied, that the appearance of ■'^'^'"- •''•"■■ this acid was owing to the prefence of fome common '7'*6,462. fait, which is accidently mixed with the fand J. ) j^^r. dt (jENUS IV. SALTS OF COPPER. „,: ,,„ SPECIES I. Blue carb'^nat ot copper (t>). no Mountain blue — jiiur de cui-vre — B!ue calx of copper G. W. KidjJ'cr lazur. Salts. This ore, which occurs in the copper mines of Sibc- ''''"= ^''o- ria, Sweden, Gerniany, Hungary, Cornwa!, &c. is ei- "^J " "^ ther amorphous or CI) llaihzed. Tlie cryllals are fmall, and dil5icult to exam.ne. According to Rome de Lifle, their primitAe foini is an odohcdron, the fi^es of which are il'ofceles tiianple-., and two of them more inclined than the others jj. Be that as it may, the ciyll.ds cf §c,Ay?u/.iM. blue carbonat of copper are often rhomboid»l prifms, 3^3. either regu.ar, or terminated by diliedral fummits.* . ,,., Its colour is azure or fnialt blue. Streak blue. Hare!- . .,' '" nefs (dJ a./ :y. II. 12<j.-—AIorv(aii, Mem. Dijon, I'iz. 1 S./k. •J" p. too. 5*8 Clipper Orel. J Brijon. MINERALOGY. Clafs IV. nefs4.to6 Brink. Sp. gr. 3.608 J. It eflervcfces fomctimes olive green. Luflre glafTy. Tranfparency Metallic with nitric acid, and gives it a blue colour. Before the from 4 to 2. Fraciure conchoid..!. HardneU 4 to 7. ^^^O^^^ ' blow-pipc it blackens, but does not melt. Tinges bo- Beiore the blow-pipt deflagrates wuh an arfenicallnu-ke, rax green with effervefcences. and melts into a grey coloured bead. This bead, tufed The cryftals, according to Pelletier, are compofed of with borax, leaves a button ol pure copper ||. \ Klaprctl\ III Green car- boiiat of copper. • Brifon. \ Kirtvan. 66 to 70 copper, 18 — 20 cai bonic acid, 8 — 10 oxygen, 2 — 2 water. Fontana firft difcovered that this ore contained car- bonic acid gas. Fariety I . Earthy blue carbonat. Aiountitiii blue. This variety generally contains a mixture of lime. It is never cryftallized ; and fometimcs is almoll in the ftate of powder. Luftre o. Texture earthy. Fariety 2. Striated blue carbonat of copper. Lullre glalfy. Tranfparency, when cryllallized, 2 ; when amorphous, i. Texture Ilriatcd ; fometimes ap- proaching to the loliated. SPECIES 2. Green carbonat of copper (e). Oy\genaleJ carbonat of copper — Malachite. This ore is generally amorphous, but Ibmelimes it is cryllallized in four-fided prifms, terminated l>y iour- fided pyramids. Coluur green. Luftre filky. Hardnefs 5 to 7. Brittle. Sp. gr. 3.571* to 3.653$. Effervefces with nitric acid, and gives a blue colour to ammonia. Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates and blackens, but does not melt. Tinges borax yellowilh green. It is compofed of carbonic acid and green oxyd ot iron. Fariety I. Fibrous malachite. Texture fibrous. Opaque when amorjhnus ; when cryftallized its tranfparency is 2. Colour generally grafs green. Fariety 2. Compafl milachite. Texture compafl. Opaque. Colour varies from the dark emerald green to blackilh giecn. A ipecimen of malachiie from Siberia, analyfed by Klaproth, coniained 58.0 copper, 18.0 carbonic acid, 12.5 oxygen, 1 1.5 water. Klaproth difcovered that it was compofed of OJcyd ol Ol-fcrva- copper and aifenic acid. *''"" °" Sometimes this ore is combined with iron. It then Cernius/, p. 19. * Seltrugej ii. 290. Sulphat of copper. 213 Arfeniat of copper. \ Kirzran, ii. lii. 100* Tills fpecies is fometimes mixed with cLiy, chalk, and gypfum, in various proportions ; it is then knov.-n by the name of Ccfnmon mountain green. Its colour is verdigris green. J_,ullre o. Tranfpa- rency o to I. Hardnefs 3 to 4. Brittle. Texture earthy. Effervefces feebly with acids. Before the blovv- j)lpe it exhibits the fame phenomena with malachite. SPECIES 3. Sulphat of copper. For a defcnpiion of this L<\l, fee Chemistry, n° 64U. in this Supplement. SPECIES 4. Arfeniat of copper J. Olive copper ore. This ore is found at Carrarach in Cornwal. It is ge- nerally cryftallized in fix-fided compreffed prifms. Its colour ij olive green. Streak fometimes ftraw coloured, line iornis cryltallizes in cubes. Thefe cubes are of a dark green colour ; before the blow-pipe tliey iroth, give out an arfenical fmoke, and do not fo quickly form a grey bead as the arfeniat of copper.* • ibid. p. Order VI. IRON ORES. *'" To defcribe the ufes of iron, would be to write tlie hiftory of every art and mauufadurc, fince theie is not one which is not more or lefs dependent upon this ufe- iul metal. Nor is its abundarce inferior to its utility. 214 Itexittb almoft every v.here, and feems, as it were, the Mines, boiid which conn. its the mineral kingdom together. Genus I. alloys ok iron. g. I. Alloy,. SPECIES I. Native iion (f). Native Native iron has been iound in Siberia and in Peru iron- in immenfe maifes, which fecmed as if they had been ful'ed. Ihefe maifes e\idently did not originate in the place where they were Iound. Stt FiKE-Balls, Suppl. Colour bluilh wliite. Fraciure hackly. Luflre me- tallic. Malleable. Magnetic. Hardnefs 8 to 9. Sp. gr. 7.8. Proult has difcovered, that the native iron tound in Peru is alloyed with nickel f . %NUbolfei'i Genus 11. sulphurets of iron. Jour.'m. SPECIES I. Common fulphuret of iron.* 374- Pyrites. ^ j^i6 This mineral occurs very frequently both in ores and phurets." " mixed with other bodies, lor inllance in dates. It it Common otteu amorphous, and ofien alio cryltallized. The pri- fulphuretof niitive form of its cr) flals is cither a regular cube or an '■■""■ oitohedroii. The varieties of its loim hitherto defcri- ." •^'^■^''"» bed amount to 30 ; tor a defcription of which we refer 'fjLlti^P - the reader to Rome de Lijle \. rholo'gi'a. ^ Iti colour is )ellc.u. Its luftre metallic. Hardnefs t Crt/?a/. 8 to 10. Biittle. Sp. gr. 3.44 to 4.6. Soluble in' nitric acid with effcrvefcence. Scarce loluble in ful- phuric acid. Beiore the blow-pipe burns with a blue flame and a fulphuicous fmell, and leaves a brownilh bead, which tinges borax of afmutty green. Fariety I. Common pyrites. Fraiflure uneven. Hardnels 10. Decrepitates when heated. Emits a ftilfhureousfmell when rubbed. Not magnetic. It occurs olten in coal mines and in flates. Fariety z. S;rialed pyrites. Texture Ilriated. Kardneis 10. Not magnetic. Fariety 3. Capillary. Colour often Heel giey. Found in needle-form cry- ftals. Uncommon. N^jt magnetic. Fariety 4. Maj'netic pyrites. Found in malles. Texture compaifl. Hardnefs 8, 9. Slightly magnetic. Seems to contain lefs fulphur than the other varieties. In pyrites the pioporiionof the fulphur to the iron is vanaule, and tliis explains the variety of its cryftaU 208. Genus (e) A'/Vto. II. 17,1 —Fontana, Jour, de Phvf. XI. ^o<).— Klaproth, BeUrage, II. 287. (f) Pallas, Phil. Tranf. LXVI. s^Z— Rubin de Celts, ibid. LXXVIII. 37.— See alfo Sehreiber, Jour. de. Phyf. XLI. 3.; and Stelm, Pl„l. Tranf. LXIV. 461. Order VI. MINERALOGY. Iron Ores. CARBURET OF IRON. Plumbago.* f Brifon \ your* tie Min. N° xii. p- i6. 2l8 G. IV. Emery Genus III. SPECIES I. Graphite of Werner. This mineral is found in England, Germany, France, Spain, America, &c. It occurs in kidney-form lumps of various fizes. Its colour is dark iron grey or brown- ifli black ; when cut, bluifli grey. Luftre metallic, from3t04. Opaque. Structure flaty. Texture fine grained. Hardnefs 4 to 5. Brittle. Sp. gr. from 1.987 to 2.089; after being foaked In water 2.15; after being heated 2.3, and when heated after that 2.41 f. Feels fomewhat greafy. Stains the fingers, and marks (Irongly. The ufe of this mineral when manufaiSured into pencils is known to every perfon. Its compofition was dilcovered by Scheelc. When pure it contains 90 carbon, 10 iron. 100 But it is often exceedingly impure : A fpecimen, for inflance, from the mine of I'luflier, in France, analyfed by Vauquelin, contained 23 carbon, 2 iron, 38 filica, 37 alumina. 100 f Genus IV. iron combined with silica. SPECIES I. Emery.* This mineral is commonly dilfeminated through other foiTils but fometimes in the Eall Indies it occurs in • Kir-wan, large maffcs 11. ipj. t BrIJfm ii9 G. V. Oxydj. 220 Black nxyd of iron. I Kirtfan, ii. ii8. • Home' dc L'Jlc, Hi. 1-8. S ibu. • Htuy, your, lie Min. N» ixxiii. 659. \ Kirtfan't Min. ii. \ Hiiuy, your, de 'Mm. NO mi. ja?- 1(5 colour is bluifii grey, greyifii brown, or bluifh black, often covered with a yellowilh rind ; internally it difcovers red or purple fpots. Luftre i or o ; in fome parts 2, and metallic. Opaque. Hardnefs 14. Brittle. Sp. gr. 3.92 f. Betore the blow-pipe it blackens and gives a fmutty yellow tinge to borax. According to Wiegleb it contains 95.6 filica, 4.3 iron. 99.9 Genus V. oxyds of iron. This genus is very extcnfive ; for iron is much more frequently found in the ftate of an oxyd than in any other. SPECIES I. Black oxyd of iron J. Common magnetic iron Jlon: — Btackijh oHohedral iron ore. This fpecies of ore is very common in Sweden ; it is found alio in Switzerland, Norway, Rudia, &c. It occurs in malTes, plates, grains, and cryQallized. The primitive form of its cryftals is a regular oftohedronf. Sometimes two oppofite fides of the pyramids are tra- peziums, which renders the apex of ilie pyramids ciinci- form. Sometimes the cryllals pafs into rhomboidal pa- rallel'pipeds, and into dodecahedrons with rhomboidal faces ^. Its furface isbrownifh black ; internally bluifh grey. Powtler black.* Streak bl.ickilh grey, brighter. Lullre metallic. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Brittle. Sp. gr. from 4.094 to 4.68S f . Attrafled by the magnet, and ge- nerally polfeifed of more or Isfs magnetic virtue J. To SuFPL. Vol. II. this fpecies belongs the mn^net. Before the blow-p'pe it becomes browner, but does not melt. Tinges borax dark green. When pure it confids entirely of oiyd of iron ; and this oxyd appears to contain from .15 to .24 oxygen, and from .76 to .85 iron ^. Undoubtedly it confifts of a mixture of iron in two different ftatcs of oxyda- tion. It is often alfo mixed and contaminated with foreign ingredients. There are two varieties of this ore. The firft Is what we have jufl d-fcribed ; the fecond is in the form of fand and has therefore been called Magnetic fand.* This fubRance is found in Italy, Virginia, St Do- mingo, the Eiil Indies, and in the fand of the river Drn at Aberdeen in Scotland. It i; black, very hard, ir;ag- netic. Sp. gr. about 4 6. Not altered by the blow- pipe /i-r yj' ; melts into a black glals with potafs, and into a green glafs with microcrfmic fait, both opaquef . It probably contains foir.e filica, as Kirwan has fup- pofed f . SPECIES 2. Specular iron ore ^. Fir olig'Jte. This ore is found abundantly in the ifle of Elba near Tulcany. It is either in malTes or cryllallized. The primitive form of its cryftaU, and cf i's integrant riiclc- culcs, is the cube.* The varieties hitherto obferved a- mount to 7. Thefe are the rhomboidal parallelopiped ; the cube, with three triangular faces inllead of two 01 its angles diagonally oppofite ; tv.'o fii.fided pyramids, applied bafe to bafe, wanting the fumniits :j;, and fome- times the angles at the bafes, and fometimes the alter- nate edges of the pyramid ; a polyhedron of 24 fides, refcmbling a cube with three triangular faces for two angles diagonally oppofite, and two triangles for the rell of its angles. For a defcription and figure of thefe varieties, we refer to Rome de Lijle\ and H(iuy\. Colour fteel grey : often tarniflied, and beautifully iridefcent, refleding yellow, bine, red. Streak red. Powder dark red. Luftre metallic. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Not brittle. Sp. gr, 5.01 i6.t to 5.21S f. Slightly magnetic. Little altered by the blow-pipe. Tinges borax an obfcure yellow. Tills ore, according to Mr Mufliet, is compofed of 66.1 iron, 21.2 oxygen, 10.7 water and carbonic acid, 2.0 lime. Min. is. • Kir'a-an^ ii. — Dvf-u~ get, Jot r. de Mif,, N° nxi. p. 75. ■| Foureroy'f Ann. ,le Cbirti, ii. 127. I Min, ii. 161. 221 .Specular iron ore. \ Kirzv ii. 162. — Cou- drai, your, Je PLwf. iv. • H.uy, your, de Min. N" xxxiii. 660. } fig- 39- •f- Cryjl. iii. 189." \ liiid. 660. ■f- Hcuy, \ Brijfom. I 00.0 f t Pbilof. The quantity of oxygen liere ftatcd is probably too ■^•'^- "*■ fmall, owing to the unavoidable inaccuracy which rt- •5-S''" fults from the dry nuay of analyfis which Mr Mufliec followed. Micaceous iron ore Is generally confidered as a variety of this fpecies. Kirwan, however, fuppofes it to contain caibon, and to be a diliiniff fpecies. It is found in Saxony, and in the ifle of Elba, &c. generally in amorphous ma.'les, itipofed of th'n fix- fided lamincr. Colour iron gre^. Streak bluilh grey. Luftre metallic. Opaquf. Feel greafy. Hardnefs 5 to 7. Brittle. Sp. ;;r. from 4.5 to 5.07. Sli^^htly 3 X ma^i.etic. MINERALOGY, Iron Ores, magnetic. Infulible by the blow-pipe. Tinges boiax ^"^ ' greciiiih brown. SPECIES 3. Laniinateil fpecular iron ore. Fer l>yroccte oi Hauy. This ore, which is ibuntl at Mont d'or in Anvergnej vas ufually arrangtd under the lal\ fpecies ; biu has been Icparated iVom it, we think properly, by Mr Hauy, becaule the form of its ciyftals is incompatible with the fupp'jfuinn tli.it itieir primitive nucleus is a cube, as we have feen is the cafe with crmmin Ipecular iron ore. Its crylials aie thin oaagonal phies, bounded by fix linear trapeziums, alternately inclined different waysf. Colour llecl grey. Powder reddilh black. Luflre metallic ; furlace polilhed. I'raiflure glalfy. Very brittle \.. Hauy fuppofes that this ore has been pro- duced bv fire, and accordingly h is given it a name which denotes its oii^in. iii. lii. SPECIES 4. Brown iron ere «[. This fpecies of ore is found abundantly in Britain, I Hauyt JcHr. Je Min. N° srxi. 33. Brown iron ore. K ATiVTi'.ii. particuhily in Cumberland and Laiic^ilhire ; and it is *'3' alfo very common in other counties. It conlllls of the brown oxydofiron, more or kfs contaminated with other ina;redienis. Its colour is brown. Its llreak redJifh brown. Sp. gr. from 3.4771 to 3.951. Before the blow-pipe blackens, but docs not melt. Tinges borax greenilh yellow. Viiriety I. Brown haematites. The name hasniatites (bloodftone) was probably ap- plied by the ancients only to thofe ores which are ot a red colour, and have I'ome refemblance to clotted blood ; but by the moderns it is applied to all the ores ot iron ■which give a reddifli coloured povi'der, provided they be of a fibrous texture. Brown hxmatites occurs in mifics of various (hapes, and it is faid alfo to have been found cryftallized in five or fix-fided acute angled pyramids. Colour of the fur- face brown or black, fonietimes iridefcent ; internally nut brown. Powder reJ. Texture fibrous. Hardnefs 8 to 10. Brittle. Sp. gr. 3.7!>g f to 3.951 J. Not m.it;netic. 'i'liis variety has not been analyfed, but it feems to crnfill of brown oxyd of iron, oxyd of manganefe, and ^Kir^-cn's alumina^^. Jl'/ifl. ii. ■f Gelltrt. 164. \ Kir^^^^J,^^ ^cd iron ore. i K'lrtu. ii. >6«. Varie! ! 2. Conipafl brown iron (lone. This variety occurs in malfes cf very various and often fantallic.1l fliape!. Colour brown. Internal lulire metallic. Texture compaa. Harduefs 6 to 9. Brittle. Sp. gr. 3.4771 f t0 3-55't- „ ^ , . Variety 3. Brown Scaly iron ore. This variety is generally incumbent on other mine- rals. Colour brown. L'lftre metallic. Stains the fingers, marks llrongly. Feds umftuous. Texture to- liated. Hardnefs 3 to 5. Brittle. 60 light as often to float on wa'er. Fariely 4. Brown iron ochre. This variety occurs bctli niafilve and diireminated. Colour from nut brown to orange. Luilieo. S'rong- ly II ins (he fingers. Texture earthy. Hardnefs 3 to 4. When fiightly heated reddens. SPECIES 5. Red iron orcf. Colour red. Streak blood red. Sp. gr. from 3.423 Clafs IV. 105.005. Before the blow-pipe blackens, but does Metallic not melt. Tinges borax yellowilli olive gieen. When Ores, digefted iu ammonia, it becomes black and often mag- ^^^''^^^ nelic. Farlety I. Red hxmatites. Fotind in m.iifcs, and all the variety of forms of Ha- la<5l:tes. Colour between brownilh red and llcel grey. Powder red. Internal luftre metallic. Texture fi- brous. Hardnefs 9 to 10. Brittle. S^. ^t. ^.■]^\ \ CtlUri. to 5.005 X- \ Kirivon. When pure it confiils of red o.xyd of iron, but it of- ten contains mingariefe and alumina i . ^ Kinvan'e I'ariety 2. Conipaft rei.' ircn ore. Min.W. Found mallive and (lalaflitic ; fonietimes in cryftals 169. of various forms, but they feem to be only fecondary ; fcmetimes in columns like balalt. Ci lour betv\ecn brown red and fleel grey. Stains the fingers, Lullre i to o ; often fcniimetallic. Tex- ture compaift. Hardnefs 7 to 9. Brittle. Sp. gr. 3.423 to 3 76 f. Somttimes invefted with a rofy red f Kirii.an. ochre. P'ariity 3. Red ochre. Found fometinies in powder, fcmetimes indurated. Colour blood red. Stains the fingers. Lultre o. Tex- ture earthy. Hardnefs 3 to 5. Brittle. Variety 4. Red fcaly iion ore. This variety is generally found incumbent upon other iron ere?. Colour between cherry red and Iteel grey. Stains the fingers. Lullre filky, inclining to metallic. Texture foliated. Feels unduous. Hard- nefs 3 to 4. Biittle. Heavy. , , .,, , ilK SPECIES 6. Argillaceous iron ore f. Ar^illace- Oxyd of iron combined or 7iiixed "jj'uIj clay. ous iron This ore is exceedingly common ; and ih»ngh it ore. contains lefs iron than the fpecies already defcribed, it t .'f'"''- "• is, in this country at leafl, preferred to them, becaufe '^^' the method of extracftlng pure iron from it is ealier, or rather becaule it is better underilood. Colour moll commonly dark brown. Streak red or yellowilh brcwn. Sp. gr. fr( m 2.673 to 3.47 i J. Be- 1 Kirivan. fore the blow-pipe blackens, and tinges burax olive green and blackilli. It is compofed of oxyd of iron, alumina, lime, filica in various proportions. It gene- rally yields from 30 to ^o per cent, cf iron. Var'uty I . Common argillaceous iron ore. The minerals arranged under tliis variety difFer con- fiderably from eicli other in their extern.d characlers. They are found in niall'es of various lliapes, and often form large llrata. Colour various fiiades of grey, brown, yellow, and red. Streak reddilh yelloA- or d irk red. Lullre O. Hardnefs from 3 to 8. Smell earthy when breathed upon. Variety 2. Columnar or fcapiform iron ore. This variety is found in columns, adhering to each other, but ealily feparable : They are commonly incur- vated, and their furface is rough. Cokur brownilh red. Streak dark red. Slightly llains the fingers. Lullre o. Adheres llrongly to the tongue. Sound hollow. Feel dry. Texture earthy. Variety 3. Acinofe iron ore. This variety is found in maffe?, and Is commonly len- ticular. Colour generally brownilh red. Luftre me- tallic; nearly. Texture granular, Hardnefs 5 to 9. Brittle, Variety Order Tron Orel. VI. MINERALOGY. ta6 Lowland iron ore. * Kirtv* ii. 179. 227 G. VI. Salt). Sparry iroi ore. P'arkiy 4. Noduhr, or kidney-form iron ore. Elites or Eaglejlone. This variety, which was mentioned by the ancients, is generally found under the form of a rounded knob, more or lefi lefembling a kidney, though fometimcs it is quadrangular ; and it contains within it a kernel, which is; fometimes loofe, and fometimci adheres to the outfide rind. Colour of the (tone yellowilh brown; of the kernel ochre yellow. Surface generally fouled with earth. Lullre of the rind metallic ; of the kernel o. Hardnefs from 4 to 7. Brittle. Variety J. Filiform or granular iron ore. This variety occurs in rounded malfcs, from the fize of a pea to that of a nut. Surface rough. Colour com- monly dark brown. Streak yellowifh brown. Hard- nefs 5 to 6. Brittle. The oolitic ore found at Creufot, near mount Cenis, belongs to this variety. It is compofed of 50 lime, 30 iron, 20 alumina. SPECIES 7. Lowland iron ore.* This fpecies of ore is fuppnfed to confill of oxyd of iron, mixed with clay and phofphuret or phofphat of iron. It is called lowland ore, becaufe it is found only in low grounds ; whereas the laft fpecies is more com- monly in high grounds; and is therefore called high- land ore. This ore occurs in amorphous maffes, and alfo in grains or powder. Its colour is brown. Streak yellow- ilh brown. Luftre o, or common. Texture earthy. Hardnefs 3 to 5. Variety I . Meadow lowland ore. Colour blackiih or yellowilh brown : Both colours often meet in the fame fpecimen. Found in lumps of various fizes, often perforated. Fradlure compaift. Moderately heavy. Frequently yields from 32 to 38 /cr cent, of iron. Variety 2. Swampy iron ore. This variety is generally found under water. It is in lumps, which arc commonly perforated or corroded, and mixed with fand. Colour dark yellovvifh brown, or dark nut brown. Hurdnefs 3 to 4. Brittle, Sp. gr. 2.944. J' often contains .36 <>i iron. Variety 3. Moralfy iron ore. This variety is found either in a loofe form or in per- forated lumps. Colour light yellowilh brown. Stains the fingers. Hardnefs 3. Friable. Genus VI. salts or iron. SPECIES 1. Sparry iron ore (g). This ore is common in Germany, France, and Spain. It is found fometimes in amorphous mani-s, and fome- times cryftallized. Its colour is white ; but it becomes tarniflied by ex- pofure to the air, and th°n alfumes various colours. Streak grey or white. External luftre often metallic ; internal common or glady. Tranfparency i nr 2 ; fome- times o. Texture foliated. Fragrr.ents rhomboidal. Hsrdnefsj to 7. Brittle. Sp. gr. 3.6 tn 3.810. Not magnetic. Soluble in acids with very little effervef- cence. Before the blow-pipe decrepitates, becomes brownifh black, and magnetic ; but is fcarcely fufible. Tinges borax fmutty yellow, with fome cffervefceiice. This ore, as Bergman afcertained, corifills of iron, manganefe, lime, and carbonic acid. One fpecimen, according to his analyfis, contained 38 iron, 24 manganefe, 38 carbonat of lime. ICO Another contained 22 iron, 28 manganefe, 50 carbonat of lime. Whether the iron be combined with the carbonic acid is Hill a difputed point. The cryftals cf this ore are rhomboidal parallelepipeds ; which is precifcly the form of carbonat of lime. This amounts nearly to a demonftratioii, that the Citbonic acid is combined with the lime; and that, as Cronftedt and Hauy have fup- pofed, this ore is merely carbonat of lime, contamina- ted with a quantity of the oxyds of iron and manganefe. jjj spECirs 2. Arfcniat of iron. Arfeniat ol Mr Prouft has difcovered this ore in Spain. Its co- iron. lour is greenil!) white. Its texture granular. Infoluble in water and nitric acid. When melted on charcoal, the arfenical acid efcapes with cffervefcence t . * Am. di SPECIES 3. Sulpbat of iron. t^'jS- For a defcription of this fah, fee Chemistry, n" '''' 631. in this .?!//././. Fulphat ' iron. Order VH. TIN ORES (h). Trw is employed to cover plates of iron and copper, and to lilver the backs of looking glades : It enters in- to the compofition cf pewter ; and forms a very im- portant article in dyeing. Tin ores are by no means fo common as the ores of the metals which we have already dcfcribed. They are found only in the primitive niou>il.uns (1). Hence Minei. Werner fuppofcs them to be the molt ancient of all me- tallic ores. They occur nioft frequently in granite, fometimes in porphyry, but never in limcllone. 3X2 Almoll 30 (g) Kirw. II. 190. — Bergman, II. 1S4. — Dayen. Jour, de Phyf. VII. 213. — Razoivmo'wjyi, Mem. Lau- fanne, 1783, p. 149. (h) Geofroy, Mem. Par. i;^?, p. 103. — Morveau, /Inn. de Chim. XXIV. 127. (i) Geologi(\s lnvc divided mountains into three <:\:\iic%; primitive, ficondary, and tertiary. Tht priinilive occupy the centre of all extenlive chains; they are the highell, the mod rugged, and exhibit the moft pointed tops. They are conlidered as the molt ancient mountnir.s of the i^lobe. The fi-condary mountains occupy the outfidc of extenlive ranges. They are ufually compi^fed of flrat.i, more or leU inclined, and commonly red againll the fides of the primitive mountains. — 'fhe tertiiry mountains arc much fmallcr than the others, and are often folitary. Wc ufe the terms prhnitrve, Jecindary, &c. merely as proper 5T ^ Tin Ores. Almoft the only tin mines known to Europeans are ^-"^"^-^ thole of Cornwdl, Devonlhire, Saxony, Bohemia, Sile- li;i, Hun!;ary, Gallicia; lliofe of the illmd of Banca and the peninfula oi Malacca in India ; and ihole of Chili and Mexico in Amciica. MINERALOGY. Clafs IV. C. I." Sul- phiirctA. Sulphurct of tin and copper. • Kiriv. ii. aoo. Cornivatl, p. 21. J KJ-ipntb. Genus I. sulphurets of tin. SPECIES I. Sulpliurct of tin and copper.* Tin pyrites. Hitherto this ore has only been found in Corn- wal. There is a vein of it in that county, in tlie paiilh of S: Agnes, nine feet wide, and twenty yards bencaih thefiirtacc -f. Its colour is yellowifh grey, pafTing into the (leel grey. Nut unlike grey copper ure. Lnllre metallic. Hard- nei's 5 to 6. Very brittle. 6p.gr. 4.35$. Before the blowpipe it melts eafily, with a fulpLureous fmcll, into a blacii bead, and depcfits a bluilh oxyd on the charcoal. The compofition of ihis ore, as Klaprotli informs us, was firll difcovercd by Mr Rifpe. According to Kla- proth's analyfis, it is compofed of 34 tin» 36 copper, 25 Sulphur, 3 iron, 2 earth. G II. Or- yds. BrowB oxyd of tin. * Kirti. ii. ^97- Mm. N° xxxii. J76. 4 Cr\ftaUog» iii. 413. I Philof. ■Mag. iv. I J a. § Rem' Je ^i/lcy itfid. tinftone, we refer the reader to RomS tie Lljle and Mr Mitallic Day.* "'""-;^ Its colour is commonly brown. Streak grey. Hard- • /■/.-/.y; nefs 9 to 10. Sp. gr. 6.9 to 7.0. Brittle. iifjj. iUi. Variity I. Common tinftone. Colour datk brown ; fomstimes yellowilh grey, and fometinies nearly white. Streak light grey. Somewhat tranfparent when cryllaliii^ed. Ilardnefs 10. Sp. gr. 6.9 to 6.97. Before the blow p'pe it decrepitates, and on charcoal is partly reduced. Tinges borax white. According to Kliproth, it is coinpufid of 77-50''"' 21.50 oxygen, .25 iron, .75 filica. 100 § Genus II. oxyds of tim. SPECIES I. Brown oxyd of tin.* 7inJ}one — IVcodtin. This ore, which may be confidered as almoft the on- ly ore of tin, occurs in mafl'es, in rounded pieces, and cryftallized. Thefe cryltals are very irregular. Hauy fuppofes, that their primitive form is a cubef; but Ro- me de Lifle, with more probability, makes it an rdtohe- dron ; % and in this opinion Mr Day agrees with him || . The oftohedron is compofed of two four-fided pyra- mids, applied bafe to bafe. The fides of the pyramids are ifofceles triangles, the angle at the vertex of which is 70°, and each of the other angles 55°. The fides of the two pyramids are inclined to each other at an angle of 90'}. This primitive form, however, never occurs, but cryftals of tinftone are fometimes found, in which the two pyramids are feparated by a prifm . For a complete defcription of the varieties of the cryftals of 1 00.00 f Variety 2. Woodtin. This variety iias hitherto been found only in Corn- wal. It occurs always in fragments, which are general- ly rounded. Colour brown ; Ibmetimes inclining to yel- low. Streak yellowifli grey. Opaque. Texture fi- brous. Hardncfs 9. Sp. gr. 7.0. Before the blow, pipe becomes brownifli red ; decrepitates when red hot, but is not reduced. Klaproth C'btaincd from it .63 of tin ; and, in all pro- bability, it is an oxyd of tin nearly pure. Order VIII. ORES OF LEAD. The ufeful purpofes to which lead in its metallic Aate is applied, are too well known to require defcrip- tion. Its oxyds are employed in painting, in dyeing, and fomelimes alfo in medicine. Ores ot lead occur in great abundance in almoft every part ot the world. They are generally in veins ; fome- times in filiceous rocks, lometimes in calcareous rocks. Genus I. sulphurets of lead. SPECIES I. Galena, or pure fulphuret of lead J. This ore, which is very common, is found both in malies and cryftallized. The primitive form of its cry- ftals is a cube. Themoft common varieties are the cube, fometimes with its angles wanting, and the oiflohedron, compofed of two four-fided pyramids applied bafe to bafe : The fummits of tliefe pyramids art fometimes cu- ueiforni, and fometimes their folid angles are wanting ||. Its colour is commonly bluilh grey, like lead. Streak bluilli grey and metallic. Lullre metallic. Sometimes ftains ■j- BettrUgey ii. 2j6. »33 G. I. .Sul- phurets. G:il<;na, or pure ful- phuret of lead. \ Kirlu, ii. 216. II Rome Je Lijtcy iii, 364- proper names, without affirming or denying the truth or falfehood of the theory on which thefe names are found- ed. That the reader may liave a more accurate idea of the compofition of thefe different claffes of mountains, we have fui)joined a lift of the fubftances which, according to Werner, enter into the compofition of each. Granite, Gneifs, Micaceous fliiftus I. Primary Mountains. 4. Argillaceous fliiftus, 7. Shiftofe porphyry, 5. Syenite, 8. Quartz, 6. Porphyry, 9. Primitive limeftone, II. Secondary Mountains. 1. Argillaceous fliiftus, 3. Secondary limeftone, 2. Rubble ftone, 4. Shiftofe hornblende, III. Tertiary Mountains. 4. Sandftone, 7. Chalk, 5. Breccia, 8. Sulphat of lime, 6. Coal, 9. Rock fait. 10. Serpentine, 1 1 . Topaz rock. 5. Grunftein, 6. Amygdaloid. 1. Trap, 2. Argillaceous fliiftus, 3. StratiiieJ limeftone. 10. Ferruginous clay, 1 1. Potters earth. Order VIII. MINERALOGY. Ores of Lead. § fVat/o'u 234 Swlpliuret oflcaJ, with iilvcr aiul anti- mony. * Kirzv* ii. 119. t BcUragt, i. 172. ftains the fingers. Texture foliated. Fragments cuhi cal. H-rdnefs 5 to 7 ; foti.etimes even 9. Bii:tle Sp. gr. 6.884 to 7.786 §. Efu.rvefces with nitric and muriatic acids. Before the blow. pipe decrepit ites, and melts with a fulphureous fmcll; part links into t];e charcci'.l. It is compofed of from .45 to .83 lead, and from .086 to. 16 of fulphur. It generally contains fome filvcr, and fomsttnies :dfo antimony and zinc. Fariily I. Cc mmon galena. This variety ctrrefponds neaily wi'.h the ahove de- fcrlptlon. Sp. gr. 7.051 to i.-]'66. Sometimes ftains the fingers. CowpalJ galfna. Found only in .imcrphoiis riialies. Te.xture compail, inclining to ioli.tttd. Hardncfs 6 to 8. Sp. gr. 6.886 107.444. Lulirc common. Streak lead gray, brighter ami metallic. Often feels greafy, and lUins the fingers. SPECIES 2. Sulphiiret of lead, withfilverandantimony.* Plumhifcrous antimoniatetl fiver ori- Found In amorphous madcs. Colour grey. Hard- nefs 5 to C. Brittle. .Sp. gr. from 5.2 to 8. Variety I. Light grey filver ore. Colour light bluilli grey. StiL-ak light bluifli grey, and brighter. Lulirc mctHllir. Te.tture comp;iiJl. Be- fore the blow pipe paitly evaporate?, and leaves a filver bead on the charcoal, furrou;:Jed by yellow duft. According to Klaproth, it contains 48 06 lead, 20 40 filver, 7.83 antimony, 12.35 fulphur, 2.25 iron, 7.00 Hlumina, .25 filica. 51 ■ - |ind which is fuppofed to be common galeni deciyrd. Metallic IS fometimcs in llalaftites of various forms, and f me- ''"s- times cryllallizedinli.-:.(i.!edprifms, whi-h are gcre.-.d- ^^~'"^ ly truncated and confufed. Colour black, often with fome ft.-eaks cf red. S:r.- ik light bluifli grey. Internal luftre Hietaliic. Hardn.-fs 5 to 6 Brittle. Sygr.frt.m5.744. II to 5.77.« Ec„;,,,.^,„. lore the blow-p.pe decrepitates, meli^ eafily, and is re- • cdrt. duccd. According to the experiments of Laiimor.t, this rre is a fulphuret of lead (or rather i"u!| buret cf o;i)u of lead), mixed with fome phofphat of lead. SPECIES 5. Snlphuret of lead, bifmuih, and filver. Sulr"h.:Rt This ore, which occurs in the valley of Schapbach in of kMJ.bii- Saxony, was firli taken notice of by Selb, and after- '""'''• ^'"^ wards defcribcd by Weldenmannand Emerling. '"''''"• Its colour is light bluilh grey. Its luftre metallic. Its fraiSure uneven. Hardnefs 5. Melts ealily bef're tht; blow-pipe, emitting fome fnicke, and leaves a filver bead. A fpecimen, aualyfed by Mr Klaproth, contained 33.0 lead, 27.0 bifmuth, 15.0 filver, 16.3 fulphur, 4.3 iron, 0.9 copper. f Beitrngr^ ii. 297. 238 G. II. Ox- 98.09 t Variety 2. Dark grey filver ore. Colour iron grey, verging on black. Powder black, and ftains the fingers. Lutlrt o. Texture earthy. According to Klaproth, it contains 41. CO lead, 21.50 antimony, 29.25 filver, 22.00 fulphur, 1 .75 iron, 1.00 alumina, .75 filica. SPECIES 3. Blue lead ore.* This ore, which is found In Siberia, Germany, and Hungary, ami Is very rare, occuis fometlmes in maifes, and foinctimei cryft illiztd in llx-fided prifms. Colour betv een indigo blue and lead grey ; fometlmes inclining to blick. Internal Itillre met.illic. Streak brighter. Texture c( mpaifl. Hardnefs 6. Sp. gr. 5.461. f . Before the blow-pipe melts with a low blue flame and a fulphureous fmell, and is eafily reduced. SPKCits 4. Black lead ore f. This ore, which is found in Germany and Brittany, 96.5 t Genus II, oxyds of le.ad. SPECIES I. Lead ochre t. ,. ,, „ fnu* \ • \ • . - ■* O. II. Ox- Ihis ore, which is a mixture of the o.iyd of lead yrl«. Lead With various earths, is found maflive, and of various de- ochre. grees of hardr.efs. { Kiriu. ii. Its colour is either yellow, grey or red. Luftre o ^°^' Tranfparency o to i. Hardnefs 6 to 8 ; fomeiimes in ^°n?'A ^^V/""- r'""" t '^5 to 5-545 §■ Texture § K,r,.an. cnmpaft. Lftervefces with nitric and muriatic acids. Eahly reduced by the blow-pipe, leaving a black fla", unlets the lead be mixed with too great a proportion of earth. Genus III. salts oe le.\d *-'9 SPECIES I. Carbonat of lead f. ^;,j"- _ 1 his ore of lead, which is very common, is fometlmes of Lad. in maifes, and fometlmes cryftallizcd. But the crj ft '1. * ^''■^- "' lizuion is in general fo confufed, that th< primitive '°^' form ol the crylials has not yet been afcertaiucd (k). Its colour is white. External luftre, waxy or fiiky from 3 to I ; Intcrn.il i to 2. Generally fomewhat tranfparent. Hardnefs 5 to 6. Brittle. Sp.gr. firm 5.349 II to 6.92 §. Effervefces with nitric and muriatic n jr,w„ acids when they are heated. Sclable in fat oils. Black- \ c2rt encd by lulphuret of ammonia.* Decrepitates «hen • P,lU,irr, heated. Before the blow-pipe, in a filvcr fpoon, it be- ^"-^ <>' comes red by the yellow cone of the fl.imr, while tiie *-'"'• '''• blue cone renders it yellow f. On charcoal it is imme- ■'*• diately reduced. t .*''.*"'- It contain, from .60 to .85 cf lead, and from . 1 8 to Taim."^ .24 of carbonic acid. It is gcneially contaminated with "v. 189- curbonat of hme and oxyd of iron. SPECIES (r) See I/auy, Jour, de Min. N^ XXXI. 502. .ind Rome dc UJic, III. 38c 534 Orr« of l.cad. 240 riiof].h;it of liail. f Kirtv. ii. »07. f KUifrolb. \ Fourcroyy Ann. lie C/iim, ii. 107. tpr.ciEs 2. Pliorphat of lead f . 'J'hi4 ore, wliich is found in Siberia, Scotland, Eng- land, Geimany, Carinthii, Erittany, &c. is fometinies amorpbdiis, and lometimcb cr) Utilized. Tlie primitive form c.f iis cryQals accordinj^ to Rome de Liflc, is a dod:caliedron,conliftiiigorafix-lidedrcaHnpularprifni, terminated by lix-fided pyramids, the fides of which are ifofcclts triangles (l). Sometimes the pyramids are trunc.ited andeven altngcther wanting. The cryftals cf this ore are ofien acicular. Its colour is commonly green; fomctimes yellowifti or brnwnith, or ;;reyilh wliitc. Sireak commonly greer.ifli v.-hitc. Powder yellowilh. External lullre, waxy, 2 to 3. Somewhat tianfpaicnt, except when its colour is grcyirti white. Plaidnefs 5 to 6. Brittle. Sp. gr. from ? 86.* to 6.27 f. Infoluble in water and iulphu- ric acid, and nearly infoluble in nitric acid ; foluble in hot muriatic acid, with a flight effervefcence |. Before the blow-pipe it eafily melts on charcoal, and cryllalli- zes on cooling : with foda the lead is in fome nieafure reduced. The compofition of this ore was firft difcovered by Gahn. According to Fourcroy's analyfis, a fpecimen from Erlenbach in Alface, confifts of 56 phofphat of lead, 2 phofphat of iron. 2 water. MINERALOGY. According to Fourcroy, from whom the whole this defcripiion has been taken, it is compofed of 65 arfeniat of lead, 27 phofphat of lead, 5 phofphat of iron, 3 water. 100 ' • Ann . A C^f'n.ii. 23. 243 Molybdat of lead. SPECIES 5. Molybdat of lead (m). This ore, which is found in Carinthia and at Lead- hills in Scotland, was firft mentioned in 1781 by Mr Jacquin (n). It occurs either in malfes, or cryftalli- zcd in cubic, or rhomboidal, or oiflohedral plates. Its colour is yellow. Sireak white. LuRre waxy. Generally fomewhat tranfparcnt. Texture foliited. Fraflureconchoidal. Hardnefs 5 to 6. Sp.gr.^.^H6f;-fMiicqaart. when purified from its gangue by nitric acid, 5.706 J. } Hauhitt. Soluble in fixed alkalies and in nitric acid. Commu- nicates a blue colour to hot fulphuric acid. Soluble in muriatic acid, and decompofed by it. Before the blow- pipe decrepit^i.tes, melts into a yellowilh grey mafs, and globules of lead are reduced ||. p Macqaart. Klaproth firft proved that this ore was molybdat of lead. A very pure fpecimen, analyfed by him, contained 64.42 oxyd of lead, 34.25 molybdic acid. I ^ nij. 441 Arfcniit of lead. § A'iVb-. ii. ■209. • Pri>ujl, Jrmr. d: riiyf. XIX. J94- 242 Phofphat and arfc- iiiat of lead. + Kirtv. ii. 210. } Srijpjn 100 Or it contains 79 oxyd cf lead, 1 oxyd of iron, 18 phofphoric acid, 2 water. 100 f SPECIES 3. Arfeniat of lead ^. This ore, which has hitherto been found only in An- dalufia in Spain, and always in quartz or feldfpir, is in ■ fmall malTe:. Colour meadow green, often pafling into wax yellow. Luftre waxy, 2. Tranfparency 2. Be- fore the blow pipe it melts, and retains its colour, and does not cryflallize on cooling. When heated to white- nefs, the arfenic acid efcapes, and the lead is reduced.* SPECIES 4. Phofphat and arfeniat of lead. ylrftnio phofphat of lead. \ This ore, which has been found in Auvergne in France, is either in malfcs, or cryllallized in fmall fix- fided prifms, with curvilineal faces. Colour yellowifh green, or Ihews alternate layers of pale and light green. Powder yellowifti. Thecryftals are fomewhat iranfparent ; but when maffive, this ore is opaque. Hardnefs 5 to 7. Brittle. Sp. gr. 6.8465 J. Soluble in hot muriatic acid, but not in nitric. When heated it decrepitates. Before the blow-pipe melts ea- fily, effervefces emits a white fmoke, with an arfer.ical fmcll. Some particles of lead are reduced, a brown fluid remains, which cryllallizes on cooling like phof- phat of lead. According to the analyfis of Mr Hatchett, it is com- "• 27J- pofed of 58-40 oxyd of lead, 38 00 molybdic acid, 2.10 oxyd of iron, .28 filica. 98.78* Macquart found a fpecimen to contain 58.74 lead, 4.76 oxygen, 28.00 molybdic acid, 4.50 carbonat of lime, 4. CO filica. • Ph;!. Tranf. Ixxxvi. 32Ji 100.00 f Its gangue is carbonat of lime. SPECIES 6. Sulphat of lead J. This ore, which is found in Anglefey and in Anda. lufia, is generally cryftallized. The cryilals are regular odohedrons ^, and very minute. Colour white. Luftre 4. Tranfparency 4. Before the blow-pipe it is immediately reduced. The compofition of this ore was firft afcertained by Dr Withering. Order IX. ORES OF ZINC. Hitherto zinc has not been applied to a great v.i- riety of ufes. It enters into the compofition of brafs ; it is ufed in medicine ; and Morveau has ihewn that its oxyd Min. N° xvii. 32. 244 Sulphat of lead. \ Kiriv. Min. ii. 211. § Hmy, your, tie Min. N<» xxxi- 508J (l) Cryjial. III. 391. See alfo Haufs remarks on the fame fubjeft in the Jour. Je Min. N" XXXI, 506. (m) kiriu. II. 212. — Klaproth, Jnn. de Chim. VIII. 103. — Hatchett, P hill Tranf. 1796, p. 285. (n) In his 3I:Jcdlanea Aujlnaca, Vol. II. p. 139. Order IX. MINERALOGY. 145 G. I. Sul- phurets. Cninmoii ful|;hurct of zinc. • Kiriv ii. ij. 329. • Hauy, Jour, de Min. N" zxxiii- 669. • fig. 40- t »>g- 41- f See Hauy. itid and Rome de Lifle, iii. 65. 5 Brijon. yoi/r. ./f Jdift, Hid' * Sergma/tj Jj- 34J- t-atf/347. oxyd might be employed with advantage as a white painr. Ores of zinc are very abundant ; they generally ac- company lead ores, pari iciilaily galena. C.~»laniinc, or oxyd < f zinc, has never been dilcovared iu the primi- tive mountains. Genus I. sulphurets of zinc. SPECIES I. Common fiilpliurct of zinc* Bi'enJc. This ore very commonly accompanies fulphuret of lead. It occurs both in amorphous nialles and cryftal- lized. The primitive form of its cryltat.s is a rhomboi- dal dodecahedron, confifting of a fix-fided prifm, termi- nated by three-lided pyI■amid^. All the faces of the cryllals are equal rhombs. This dodecahedron may be mechanically divided into four equal rhornhoidal paral- lelopipcd?, and each ot thefe into fix tetrahedrons, wh'ife faces are equal ifnfceles triangles. The figure of its in- tegrant panicles is the tetrahedron, (imilar to thefe.* The piincipal varieties of its cryftals are the letrahe- dion ; the oilohedron : the oftohedron with its edges wanting;* a 24- Tided cr) Hal, i 2 ot whofe faces are tra- pezoids, and 12 elongated triangles ;■[ and, lalUy a 28- fided figure, which ii the lall variety, augmented by four equilateral triangles f. Colour yellow, brown, or black. Streak reddifh, browni(h, or grey. Lullre commonly metal'ic. Ge- nerally fomewhat tranfparent. Texture foliated. Hard- nefs 6 to 8. Sp. gr. 3.93 :(: 104. 1665 ^. Before the blow-pipe decrepi'ate^, and gives out white flowers of zinc, but does not melt. Borax does not alfe(fl it. When breathed upon, lofes its lullre, and recovers it very tlowly ||. Varijy I. Ytllow blende. Colour commonly fulphur yellow, often paffing into olive green or brov.iii'li red. Powder pale yellow. Streak yellowilh or reddiih grey, not metallic. Luftre metallic. Tranfparency 2 to 4. Often phofphorefces when fcraped cr rubbed.* According to Btrninian, it is compofed of 64 zinc, 20 lulphur, 5 iron, 4 fluor acid, 1 filica, 6 water. lOOf Varieiy 2. Brown blende. Colour different fhades of Brown. Surface often t.tr- niihed. Powder brownlfh grey. Streak reddifh or yellnvilh grey, net metallic. Luftre commonly metal- lic. Tranfparcncy o to 2. A fpecimen of this variety, analyfed by Bergman,, contained 44 -zinc, 17 lulphur, 24 filica, 5 iron, 5 alumina, 5 water. nifhed blue ; tips of the ctyftals often blood red. Pov.-. der brownith black. Streak reddiih, brownilh, or gicy. Luflre common or metallic. Ttanfparency o to i ; the red parts 2. Hardnefs 8. A fpecimen of this variety, analyfed by Bergman, contained 52 zinc, 26 fulphur, 4 copper, 8 iron, 6 fiHca, 4 water. 100 J Genus II. oxyds of zinc. SPECIES I. White oxyd of zinc -j. 53S \ Berrtian, "• 335- 24fi G. II. Oxyds. White ox- yd of zinc, f Kiriv. ii. ■^ii-Berg. ii. 321. f your, de Min. N° xxxii. 596.L Calam'me. This ore is cither found loofe, or in mp.lTes, or cry- ftallized. The primitive form of its cryi^als appear?, from the mechanical divilion of one of tiiem by Mr Hauy, to be an oflohedron conipofed of two four- fided pyramids, whofe lldes are equilateral triangles f. But the crytlals arc minute, and their figure not very diftind. They are either four or fi;<-(lded tables with bcvelkd edges, fix-fided prifms, or three-fided pyra- mids. Colour commonly white, grey, or yellow. Luftre often o, fometimes 2 or i. Opaque. The cryttals are fomewhat trarfparent. Hardnefs from 4 to 9, fometimes iii powder. Sp. gr. from 2.585 to 3.674 J. Wlien heated, becomes ele(flric, without triftion, like the tourmaline f. Not blackened by fulphuret of am- monia. Soluble in fulphutic acid. Before the blow- pipe decrepitates, and does not melt. This ore confilU of oxyd of zinc more or lefs conta- minated with iron, filica, lime, and other foreign in- gredients. In one fpecimen Berjzman found the fol- lowing ingredients : 84 oxyd of zinc, 3 oxyd of iron, 12 filica, I alumina. . '°°^ . . ^ Bergman^ In another fpecimen, which gelatinized with acids, ii. 32^. like zeolite, Klaproth found 66 oxyd of zinc, 33 filica. I Kiriuam: f Mituyt Jour, de Mm. iHif. 99 \nid.y^i. 100 X Varbly 3. Black blende. Colour black, or biownilh black ; furface often tar- In another fpecimen, analyfed by Pelletier, the con- tents were 52 filica, 36 oxyd of zinc, 12 water. '':°' . . . . *J«'r-dt Mr Kirwan has divided this fpecies into three varie- piyf. xv ties. 42S. Viriety r . Priable diamine. In mafTcs wiiich cafilv riumble between the fingers. Luftre o. Opaque. Texture eai thy. When its co- lour is white, it is ptirc 01yd of zinc ; when yellow, it is mi-xed with oxyd ><( iron. The white" ften becomes yellow wiien placed in a red he it, but relume; if. colour on cooling. Common in China, where it is called a<o^ kan or ore cf Tuiemi^o. farieiy- MINERALOGY. Clafs IV. 147 G.III. Silts. Sulphuc of ziiic. 148 G.I. Alloys Native .in- timoiiy. • KJriv, 345- Farieiy 2. Compact calamine. Colour different (hades of prey ; fometimes yellow or brownifh red. Luftre o. Opaque. Texture com- pact. Variily 3. Striated calamine. This variety alone is found cryllallized ; but, like the others, it is alfo often amorphous. Colour white, and alio various fliadesof grey, yellow, and red. Some- what tranfparent. Texture Itriated. Luftre 2 lo i . Genus III. salts of zinc. SPECIES 1. iSulphat ot zinc. For a defcription of this fait, we refer to Che- mistry, n" 643. Suppl. Order X. ORES OF ANTIMONY. Aktimony is much ufed to give hardnefs to thofe metals which othcrwile would be too foft for certain purpofes : pi inters types, for inllance, are comppfed of lead and antimony. It is iifed alio in medicine. Ores of antimony are found abundantly in Germany, Hungary, France, Spain, Britain, Sweden, Norway, &c. They often accompany galena and hxmatites. They are found both in the fccondary and primitive ftratified mountains. Tlieir gangue (o) is often quartz and fulphat of barytes. Genus I. alloys of antimony. SPECIES I. Native antimony*. This mineral, which was firft difcovered by Dr Swab, has been found in Sweden and in France, both in maf- fes and kidney-fliaped lumps. Colour white, between that of tin and fllver. I^ulbe metallic. Texture folia- ted. Hardnefs 6. Sp. gr. above 6. Deflagrates with nitre. Btfoie the blow-pipe melts and evapo- rates, depofiting a white o.\yd of antimony. It conlifls of antimony, alloyed with 3 or ^ per cent. of arfenic. contains a large proportion of quartz »>r otlier ftony matter. When pure, it is compofed of about 74 antimony, 26 fulphur. 149 G. II. ^ul- pliurct?. Grey ure of anti- mony. • Kir-w. ii. 147- f Rome de Life, iii. 49- ^ *,i*''''Lr^"tallic, and brighter. alfo Hauy, *four, fie Min. N° icxxii. 6g6. ^ Urijfm. SULPHURETS OF ANTIMONY. I. Grey ore of antiriiuny*. 0.S0 Plumofe antimonizi Genus II. SPECIES This ore, which is the moft common, and indeed al- molf the only ore of antimony, occurs both maffive, dilfsminated, and cryllallized. Itscryltiilsarefour-fided prilm?, fomcwhat flattened, whole fides are nearly rec- tangles, terminated by fhort four-fided pyramids, whofe fides are trapeziumsf . Sometimes two of the edges aie wanting, which renders the prifm fix-fided:(:. Colour grey. Luftie metallic. Streak grey, me- Powder black or greyifh black. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Sp.gr. from 4.1327 to 4516^. Often ftains the fingers. Before the blow-pipe melts eafily, burns with a blue flame, and depofits a white oxyd on the charcoal. AVfien placed in an open vef- fcl, over a llow hre, the fulphur evaporates, and leaves a grey oxyd of antimony. This oxyd, if fufed with tartar, is reduced. Werner has divided this fpecies into three varie- ties. Varicly I. Compaff fulphuret. Colour bluilh grey, furface olten tarnillied, and then it is blue or pnrplilli. Luftre i to 2. Texture compaiff. Fradlure fine grained, uneven. Powder black, dull, and earthy. Slightly ftains the fingers. Varicly 2. Foliated fulphuret. Colour light fteel grey. Luftre 3 to 4. Texture foliated. Powder as that of the laft variety. Varicly 3. Striated fulphuret. Colour dark ftecl grey, and light bluilh grey ; furface often tarnifbed, and then it is dark blue or purplifh. Luftre 3 to 2. Texture ftriated. Powder greyilh black. This variety alone has been hitherto found cryftal- lized. SPECIES 2. Plumofe antimonial oref . Sulphurcts of antimony and arfenic. This fpecies, which is fometimes found mixed with ore. the cryftals of fulphurated antimony, is in the form of t ■^"■'"- "• brittle, capillary, or lanuginous cryftals, often fo fmall ^■'°' that they cannot be diftimflly feen without a micro- fcope. Colour fteel or bluifli grey, often tarniflied, and then brown or greyifh black. Luftre i, feniimetallic. Be- fore the blow-pipe emits a fmoke, which depofits a whitifh and yellowilh powder on the charcoal: it then melts into a black flag. It is fuppofed to confift of fulphur, antimony, arfe- nic, and fome tilver. SPECIES 3. Red antimonial oref . Red*anti- Hydrofulph'.tret of antimony. monial ore. This fpecies is generally found in cavities of fulphu- '^ Kiriu.n. rated antimonial ore. It is cryftallized in delicate 25°- needles, often diverging from a common centre. Colour red. Luftre 2, filky. Sp. gr. 4.7. Before the blow-pipe melts eafily, and evaporates with a ful- phureous fmell. This ore has not been analyfed. Mineraloglfts have fuppofed it to be a natural kcrmes. Il fo, we may con- clude, from the experiments of BerthoUet*, that it is . ^„„_ j, a hydrofulphuret of antimony, and coniequently com- Ch,m.-i3.\. pofed of oxyd of antimony, fulphur, and fulphurated 2J9. hydrogen gas. Genus III. OXVDS OF ANTIMONY. g'^IH Tliere is a fubftance found incumbent on fulphuret Oxyds of of antimony, ci a yellow colour, and an earthy appear- antimony, ance, v.'hich has been fuppofed an oxyd of antimony, and denominated antimonial ochre. But hitherto it This ore, when taken out of the mine, almoft always has not been analyied. Genus (o) The word gang is ufed by German mineralogifts to denote a metallic vein. Now, it is not often that tliefe veins confift entirely of ore; in general, they contain ftony matter befides. For inftance, fn the copper iiuiie at Airthry. near Stirling, the copper ore is merely a narrow ftripe in the middle of the vein, and the reft of it is filled up with fulphat of barytes. We ufe the word gangue (as the French do), to denote, not the melallic v.'m, but the Jony matter which accompanies the ore in the vien. The gangue of the copper ore at Airthry is fuiphat of barytes. Order XI. MINERALOGY Genus IV. salts of antimony. SPEcrEs I. Muriat of antini'^ny*. This ore, which has been found in Bohemia, is fome- times in quadrangular tables ; fometimes in acicular cry- ftals grouped like zeolites; and fometimes in prifnis. Colour pale yellowifh or greyilh white. Lullre 3 to I, neaily metallic. Tranfparer.cy 2. Texture toliaied. Melts eafily by the flame of a candle, and emits a white vapourf . Before tlie blow-pipe decrepitates ; when powdered, and juft ready to melt, it evaporates, and leaves a whice powder around. Between two pie- ces of coal it is reducible to a metallic ftate. Ores of Bifmuth. G.IV. Silts. Muriic uf antini»ny. • Kirt\!. ii. 1 Hatiy, 'Jour, dt Mm. N» Kxxii. 609. A fpecimen, analyfed by Klaprotb, contained 95 bifmuth, 5 fulphur. I oof t B-.:ir:^-, •Pott, Oh- jfrv. Cljym, IJ4— Gm/. froy, AJcm. P'>r. 1 75 J. 1>. Z96. Order XL ORES OF BISMUTH*. Bismuth is employed in the manufaflure of pewter, of printers types, in foldering; and perhaps alfo its pro- It is commonly accompanied by q'jartr, afbedos, or '• ^56- fparry iron ore. '^S^'- G. lil. Genus III. oxyds of bismuth. Oxyds. SPECIES I. Yellow oxydot bifmuth J. J^^'dTf „, . Jiifmuth ochre. bifmuth. J Ins ore generally accompanies the two fpecies al- 1 Ktr-.v. ready defcribcd. It is found in two Hates ; eiilier of "-265. an earthy confilience, or cryftallized in cubes or qua- drangular plates. Colour ulually greenini yellow, fometimes grey. So- luble in nitrous acid wiiliout effervelcence, and may in perty of rendering other metals more fufible, might ^ g""^'" nieafure be precipitated by the effufion of make it ufeful in anatomical injcdions. The quantity *^'^'' »J4 G. I. Al- loys. Na- tive bif- muth. • Kiriv. ii 364. + Brijfon. \ Kirtvan. confumed in commerce is not great. It has been found only in tlie primitive mountains, and is by no means common. When unaccompanied by any ether metal, it does not form veins, but kidiiey- form ma(ri;s. It often accompanies cobalt. Its gaugue is commonly quartz. Its ores are not very abundant. They have been found chieily in Sweden, Norway, Tranfylvania, Germany, France, and England. Genus I. alloys of bismuth. SPECIES I. Native bifmuth*. This mineral, which is found at Schneeberg, Johann- Order XII. ORES OF ARSENIC. Arsenic is ufed as an alloy for feveral other metals^ efpccially copper. It is fometimes employed to facili- tate the hifiun of glafs, or to render it opaque, in order to form an enamel. Preparations of arfenic are em- ployed as paints ; and, like moil other violent poifons, it has been introduced into medicine. This metal is fcattered in great abundance over the mineral kingdom, accompanying almoft every other me- tal, and forming alfo fometimes peculiar veins of its own. georgenftadt, &c. in Germany, has commonly the form Of courle it occurs in almoft every fpecies of moun- of fmall plates lying above one another. Sometimes it is cryftallized in four-fided tables, or indifiind cubes. Colour white with a Ihade of red ; furfacc often tar- niflied red, yellow, or purple. Luftre metallic, 3 to 2. Opaque. I'exture foliated or ftiiated. Harduefs 6. Sp, gr. 9.0 2 af to 9.5 7t. F.xceedingly fulible. Be- tain, ajid is accompanied by a variety of gangues. Genus I. SPECIES G. II. Sal- phurcis. Ci)ninion fuIpSurLt of bifmuth. • Kiriu. ii. a66 — Sa^e, Mem. Pjr. 1782, 307. ■]■ Kirivdn. \ Brijin. • GUht, Jtur. Jc Mil,. N° izxii. 5 8 J. ALLOYS OF ARSENIC. C.I. Alloy,. I- Native arfenicf. Native ar- This mineral is found in different parts of Germany, fenic. It occurs generally in mafTes of various fliapes, kidney- + ■''"■'"■ "• fore the blow-pipe gives a filvery white bead, and at form, botryoidal, &c. **-5* laft evaporates in a yellowifk white fmoke, which is de- Colour that of fteel. Its furface quickly becomes tar- pofited on the charcoal. It is generally accompanied by cobalt, and fometimes contains arfenic. v^>^..jui iiitii. ui iLi-i-i. ii:> luiiatc quicNiy oecomes tar- nifhed by expofure to the air. Luftre met.iUic (when frelh), 3 to 2. Streak bluilh grey, metallic, and bright. Powder dull and black. Texture compaft. Hardnefs 7 to 8. Brittle. Sp. gr. 5.67t to 5.72491. Gives f /T-Vw-m. an arfenical fniell when llruck. Before the blow-pipe J BriJ,a. emits a white fmoke, ditfufes a gailic fmell, burns with a blue flame, gradually evaporates, depo/iting a white powder. § ^' •"<"""• It is always alloyed with fome iron^, and often con- Rjab'iu tains lilver, and fometimes gold. i^.,.' n TT *J^ LrENUS 11. SULPHURETS OF ARSENIC. O.ll.^ul- SPECiEs 1. Orpiinent (p). phurcts. Auri[<igmer.tum. Oipimeut. This ore, which is found in Hungary, Wallachia, G«orgia, and Turkey in Alia, is either mallive or cry- flalli/.cd. The cryllals are confufed, and their figure powder becomes white when it cor^ls, and lelumes its cannot be eafily determined; fome of them appear oc- tormer colour when the llanie is direaed upon it*. toliedrons, and others minute four-fided prifms. This ore, according to Sage, contains 60 bifmuth, Its colour is yellow. Streak orange yellow. Luflre And, according to La Peroufc, it holds 36 fulphur. waxy, 2 to 3. Tranfparcncy from o to 2. Te-^tnre filiated. Hardnefs 4 to 8. Sp. gr. f:om 3.048* to 9;^ 3-5-2'i- Efiervefces with hot nitric aciJ. Burns with Genus II. sulphurets of bismuth. SPECIES I. Common fulphuret of bifmuth*. This ore, which is found in Sweden, Saxony, and Bohemia, occurs fometimes in amorphous maffes, and fometimes in necdleform cryftals. Colour commonly bluifh grey, fometimes white; furface often tarnilhed yellow, red, and purple. Powder black and fliininy;. Luftre metallic, 2 to 3. Streak obfcurcly metallx. Texture foliated. Hardnefs 5. Brittle. Sj). gr. 6.i3ii- to 6.4672^. AVhen held to the flame of a candle, it melts with a blue flame and fulphureous fmell. Before the blow-pipe emits a red- dilh yellow fmoke, which adheres to the charcoal. This SuppL. Vol. II. Y \ CcUcrt. (p) K'lriu, II. 260. — Allertidc Auripigminto.—Scopoli in Aitno Sto Hijl. Natural:, p. 59, B.rg. II. 29; M 1 N a bhiirti white fi.ime. • Before ihe blowpipe mcli?, fmakes, and evaporates, kaving only ii little earth and fome traces ot iion. Compoi'ed cf. Bo fiilpliur, 10 arfenic. MotiJUc Orci. 2J9- Reilgar. • Kirti: ii. 261 — Brr^. ii. 397- I CrypU. iii- 34- \ m.'. Afm. N° xxxii. 61 2- 160 G. III. Oxyds. Vhitc ox- y<l of ar- il nic. * Kinu. ii< SPECIES 2. Realgar.* This mineral is found in Sicily, about Mount Vefu- vlus, in Hungary, TiHnf\lvania, and varioub paits ot Gern^any. It is either niaiTive or crydalli/.ed. The primitive foim of the ciylUls is, according to Rome de Lifle, a f ur-fided rhoniboidal frifm, terminated by fourlidcd pyramids, the fides of which iire rhombs f- Itcommorly appearsin4, 6, 8, 10, or 12 fidcd prifms, terminated by ffur-fided lummits J. Colourrcd. Streak yellowilh red. Powder fcai let. Lulhe 3 to 2. Tr^nfparency from 2 to 3 ; fonietimes o. Hardnefs 5 to 6. Sp. gr. 3.3384!). It is an eleftric /<:r yj, and becomes negatively elcflnc by fric- tion II . Nitric acid deprives it of its cclour. Before the blow.pipe it melts eafily, bums wiih a blue flame and garlic fmell, and f on evaporates. E R A L O G Y. Clafs IV. Its colour, when frcfli broken, is whitifh or bhiifh grey, fometinies with a (hide of red ; when expifcd to the air it focn becomes tarnillii'd. Streak bluilli grey ^ ~ and metallic. Lulhe fcarcely metallic, o to i. Tex- tutecompacl. Ilardnefs 10. Difficultly frangible. Sp. gr. when amorphous, 5.309 105.571 § ; when crydal- § A'/rw. ii. lized 7.72C7 +. When llruck it srives out an arfenical ^'°' 11'' '-' -•it j*'iuy* fnuli. Before the bli)W.pi|ie it gives out an arienical y^^^/j, vapour, becomes magnetic, and melts ealily, unlefs it J^^,■„. >jo contains a great qu.inliiy ot iron. Tinges borax dark xixii. ^88. blue, and a fmall metallic bead is obtained. A fpecimen of this ore from Cornwall, examined by Mr Klaproth, contained 20 cobalt, 24 iron, 33 arfenic, Compofed of 20 fulphur, 80 arfenic. Genus SPECIF.S 100 III. 1. oxYDs or oxy ARSENIC. Nativi calx of crjenic. This ore is found in various parts of Germany, Hun- gj tno-eiher 77 with fcmebifmuth and llony matter.* Another fpecimen from Tunaberg, according to thi analyfisof the fame chemift, contained ^^.'^ arfenic, 44.0 cobalt, .5 fulphur. loof Genus II. sulphurets of cobalt. SPECIES I. White cobalt ore .f. Sufihuiet of cola'l, arfenic, andiron. The delcriptions v.'hich difi'erent iriineralogifts have given of tills ore are fo variou', that it is impolllble not to fiippofe that diftinft fubftances have been confound- • KUfroiVs CorriivaU, p. 61. gary, &c. either in powder, or mallive, or crylliUized f Btitrage, ii. 307. 26a G. II. Sul- phurets. White co- balt ore. I Kir-a: ii. 173.— Sj^f your, de Phyf. XXxix. 3.sS—Bcrg. in prifmatic needles. ii. 285. Cokiur white or grey, often with a tint of red, yel- low, green, or bl.ick. Lullre common, I to 2. Tranf- parencyitoo; whencryftallized, 2. Texture earthy. Hardiiefs 6. Brittle. Sp. gr. 3.7t. Soliible in hot diluted nitric acid without effei velcence. Soluble at- Co° Fahreneit in 80 times its weight of water. Be- fore the blow-pipe fublinies, but docs not inflame. Tinges borax yellow. Order XIII. COBALT ORES. It occurs either in malTes, or cryftallized in cubes, ■'^" dodecahedrons, oiflohedrons, and icof.ihedrons. Colour tin white, fometimes tarnilhcd reddifli or yel- lowifh. Powder fteel grey. L'lllie partly metallic, and trom 2 to 4 ; partly o or i. Texture foliated. Hardnefs 8 to 9. Sp. gr. from 6.284 f to 6.45091. | ^'/"m,. Before the blow-pipe generally gives out an arfenical ' '"'■^" vapour, and does not melt. The analyfes that iiave been given of this ore are ve- ry various. Sometimes it has been lour.d to contain no arfenic nor iron, and fometimes, to contain both. A fpecimen from Tunaberg in Sweden, which ought to belong to this fpecies, wis analyfed by Taffaert, and Cobalt is employed to tinge glafs of a blue colour, ^^^^^ ^^ ^^j^,-^ ^{ ^^ arfenic, 36.6 cobalt, 5.6 iron, 6.5 fulphur. 2')I 4;.1..-Ul.iys. Cobalt al- loytJ with arfenic. t Kirw, ii. 370. \ Rone ic Lf., iii. and is n'eful in painting upon porcelain Cobalt ores are found almoft exclulively in the llra- tified mountains, except one,ipecies, luiphuret ct co- balt, which alTefls the primitive mountains. They are rot very abundant ; and for that reaibn cobalt is more valuable than many of the other metals which have been already treated of. They are commonly accom- panied by nickel, bifmuth, or iron. They are mod abundant in Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Hun- gary ; they have been found alfo in Britain and France. but nut in any great quantity. Genus I. alloys of cobalt, species I. Cobalt alloyed with arfenic -I". Dull grey cohult ore. This ore, which occurs in diilerent parts of Germa- ny, is either amorphous or cryftalli/ed. The forms of its cryft^ls are the cube ; fometimes the cube with its angles, or edge;, or both wanting ; and the oflohe- dron J, 97-8t Klaproth found a fpecimen of the fame ore to con' tain ^^.^ arfenic, 44.0 cob, lit, 0.5 fulphur. f Ann, de C/jim, xxviii. 100* ^ Biltrage, ii. 307- Genus species i. 263 G. III. Oxyds. Black co- ioo.q| iii. oxyds of cobalt. Black cobalt ore or ochre §, Th.is ore, which occurs in different parts of Germa- i,^]^ ^^^ ^j. ny, is either in the form (f a powder, or indurated. ochre. Colour black, often with a (hade of blue, grey, brown, S Kiriv. ii. or green. Lutlreotoi. Streak brighter. Hardnefs 273- (of the indurated) from 410 8. Sp. gr. 3 to 4. So- luble in muriatic acid. Tinges borax blue. SPECIES Order XIV. MINERALOGY. Ores of Nickel. 264 Brown co- balt ore. * KirTv, ii> !176. 265 Yellow co- balt ore. t IM. z66 G. IV. Salts. Arfenlat of cobalt. I /</. 278. acid; and by ammopia. tlie alkaline blue. The acid folmion is green; t67 G. I. Sul- J>hurc-t3. Sulphiirct of nickel with arfc- nic and jion. • J6iJ. 286. I Brijfon, s68 G. II. Oxydi. Nickel •chre. * Kir-.i'. il. 3S4. SPECIES z. Brown cob.ilt ore.* Colour greyifli or dark leather brown. Streak bright- er, unfluous. Communicates a pale blue tinge in fu- fion, SPECIES 3. Yellow cobalt ore f. Colour yellow. Dull and earthy. Hardnefs 4 to 5. Texture earthy. Streak brighter, ur.fluous. Gives a weak blue tinge. Genus IV. salts of cobalt. SPECIES I. Arfeniat of cobalt :};, Ri:ti cobalt ore. This fpecies, like moll other ores of cobalt, has nei- ther been accurately defcribednor analyfed. It is found in malfes of various (liapes, and cryftalli- zed in quadrangular tables or acicular prifms. Colour red. Luftre from 2 to 3, lometimes o. Tranfparency o to 2. Hardr.efs 5 to 7. Brittle. Be- fore the blow-pipe becomes blackilh grey. Diliufes a weak arfenical fmell. Tinges borax blue. Order XIV. ORES OF NICKEL. Hitherto nickel has been found in too fmall quan. tities to be applied to any ufe ; of courfe there are, pro- perly fpeaking, no mines of nickel. It occurs only (as far as is yet known) in the fecondary mountains, and it commonly accompanies cobalt. It has been found in different parts of Germany, in Sweden, Sibeiia, Spain, France, and Britain. Genus I. sulphorets of nickel. SPECIES I. Sulphuret ot nickel with arfenic and iron. Ki'pfcr nickel.* This, which is the moll common ore of nickel, oc- curs either maflive or diifeminated, but never cryllal- ^^1-^^. having been found abundantly in Germany, France^ Colour often that of copper, fometimes yellowidi Spain, Britain, Sweden, Norway, Siberia, and other white or grey. Recent traiflure often filver white. Luftre metallic, 2 to 3. Texture compaft. Hardnefs 8. Sp. gr. 6. 6086 to 6.6481 \. Soluble in nitric and nitro-muriatic acids. Solution green. Before the blow- pipe exhales an arfenicnl fmokc, and melts into a bead which darkens by expofure to the air. It is compofed ot various proportions of nickel, ar- fenic, iron, cobalt, fulphur; often contains bifmuth, and fometimes filver and copper. Genus II. oxyds of nickel. SPECIES I. Nickel ochre* This mineral occurs either in ilie form of a powder, or indurated, and then is either amorphous, orcryftal- lized in acicular form cryftals. The powder is general- ly found on the furfacc of other nickel ores. Colour diflcrent Ihades of green. Luftre I to o. Texture earthy. Sp. gr, confiderable. Slowly dil- folvcs in acids : folulion green. Before the blow-pipe does not melt ; but gives a yellowilh or reddilh brown tinge to borax. This ore often contains fulphat of nickel, which is filuble in water. The folution, when evaporated, gives oblong rhomboid.il cryftals, from which .-ilkalies preci- pitate a greyifh green oxyd. This oxyd is ibluble by Ikfctallig Ort«. G. III. Salf;. Genus III. salts or nickel. SPECIES I. Aifeniat of nickel f. This ore, which was lately difcovercd at Regendorff Arrci'iht of by Mr Gmelin, is found in (hapelefs malfes, and is of- nickel, ten mixed witii plates of fulphat of barytc?. t Kir-w. U. Colour pale grey, here and there n.ixed with pale ^^^' green. Streak white. Luftre o. Ttiture compafl. Hardnefs 7. Difficultly frangible. Sp. gr. confider- able. Adheres fllghtly to the tonpiie, and gives aii eat thy fmell when breathed on. Soluble in hot nitric and mm iatic acids : folution gieen. Contains fome cobalt and alumina. Order XV. ORES OF MANGANESE (o^ ). Hitherto manganefe, in itsmetallic (late, has fcarce- ly been put to any ufe ; but under the form of an oxyd it has become of great importance. The oxyd of man- ganefe has the property of rendering colourlefs a varie- ty of bodies which injure the tranfparency of glafs ; and it has been long ufed in glafs manutadories for this pur- pofe under the name oi glafs foap. By means of the fame oxyd, oxy-muriatic acid is prepared, whicli has rendered manganefe of great importance in bleaching. Not to mention the utility of manganefe to the chemift, die property which it has of facilitating the oxydation of other metah, and of rendering iron more fulible will probably make it, in no very remote period, of very confiderable importance in numerous manufaclorits. Ores of manganefe occur often in ftrata, boih in the primitive and fecondary mountains ; fcarcely ever, how. ever, we believe, in thofe mountains which are confider- ed as the moft ancient of all. They are very common. countries. Genus I. oxvds of manganese. Hitherto manganefe has only been found in the (late '^^' of oxyd. La Peroufe, indeed, fufpefled that he liad found it in a metallic ftate : but probably there was fome miftake or other in his obfervations. 170 G. I. Ox- I7t SPECIES I, Oxyd of manganefe combined with barytes. **"''' "'^^ This fpecies, which exifts in great abundance in Ro- ^^"|^J^^^^' maneche near the river Soane in Fr.mec, is found maf- w,th b*. five, (orminga ftratum in fome places more ihau i 2 rytca. feet thick. Colour greyifli black or brownifh black, of great in- tenfity. Luftre, external, o; internal, metallic, i. Soon tarnilhes by expofure to the air, and then becomes intenfely black. Texture granular. Fracture uneven; fometimes conchoidal. Often porous. H.irdnefs 11. Diflkultly frangible. Sp. gr. from 3.950 to 4.10. Ab- foi bs water, When taken out of water after a minute's immei (ion, it has a ftrong argillaceous fmell. Condu..^s electricity neai ly as well as if it wei e in a met.iUic ftate J. Iiifufiblc by the blow-pip;. Tinfjes fod.i red ; the Cf'lour difappears before tlie blue cone of llame, and is reproduced by the at'lion of the yellow Hame. 3 Y 2 From (q^) Pott. MifceUii. Berolns, VI. 40 — Margrajf, Mem. Berlin, 1 77 3, p. 3,— Z.a Pirsufi, Jour. Jc Phyf. XVI. J56. and XV. 67. and XXVIII. 68.— %<•, Mem. Par. 1785, 235. 54° Ores of ^lajigancfc MINERALOGY. From the analyfis of Vauquelin, it appears that it is compofed of 50.0 white o.vyd of manganefe, 33.7 oxygen, 14.7 barytes, 1.2 filica, .4 chaicoal. Clafs IV. ^ Dolcmtev^ ^cur. de Min. N° xix. 42. ^-^ Grey ore of niangaiicfc. ii. ^i)\. 1 00.0 f SPECIES 2. Grey ore of manpanefe.* This ore occurs both mafflve and dilleminated ; it is alfo fonietimes cryllaUized in (lender four-fided prifins or needles. Ci'lour ufually diifky fteel grey ; fometimes whitifh grey, or reJJilh grey. Stieak and powder black. Ex- ternal luftre 3 to 2 ; internal metallic, 2 to i . Texture "ftriated or foliated. Hardnefs 4 to 5. Brittle. Sp. t^««7«/m. gr. from 4 073 f to 4.8165 %. Before the blow-pipe XBrijfun. darkens: tinges borax reddilh brown. A fpecimen of oxyd of manganefe from the moun- tains ot Vofges, which probably belonged to this fpe- cies, and which was analyfedby Vauquelin, was com- poled of 82 oxyd of manganefe, 7 carbonat of lime, 6 filica, 5 water. 100 ^ Sometimes it contains a little barytes and iron. SPECIES 3. Black or brown ore of manganefe.* This ore is found fometimes in the flate of powder, and fometimes indurated in amorphous malles of vari- ous figures. Colour either black, fometimes with a fliade ot blue or brown ; or reddifh brown. Streak of the harder forts metallic ; of the others, black. Luftre o to 1 ; internal (when it is indurated), metallic. Tex- ture compaift. Hardnefs 5 to 7. Sp. gr. 3.7076 to 3.9039; that of the powdery fometimes only 2. Be- spixiEs 2. Red ore of manganefe f. CmluHat of manganffc and iron. This fpecies has been found in Piedmont and in the ^.^ Pyrenees. It is fometimes in powder, fometimes maf- Red ore of live, fometimes cryftallized in rliomboidal prifms or manganefe. needles. t Kirtvm, Colour pale rofy red, mixed with white. Powder 'IV"/^' nearly white. Luftre o. 1 raulparency i. Hardneis ^^^„ <7-„ 8. Sp. gr. 3.233. Effervefces with nitric and muria- tic acids. When heated to rednefs becomes reddifti brown. Tinges borax red. A fpecimen, analyfed by Ruprecht, contained ^^ filiea, 2,^ oxyd of manganefe, 7 oxyd of iron, I.; alumina. Mem. Tu- rin, VI. 303. § ^our. de Mir,. N° ivii. 13. 273 Black or brown ore of manga- nefe. * Kirvjan, ji. 291 — IVedgnvooJ, mi. Trarf. Jxsiii. 284. 98-5^ Order XVI. ORES OF TUNGSTEN. As no eafy method has hitherto been difcovered of reducing tunghen to a metallic ft.ite, we u;ed not be furprized thu it has been applied to no ufe. Ores of tungften are by no means coinmoa. They have hither- to been found only in thi primitive mountains. Their gangue is commonly quartz. They very often accom- pany tin ores. § 'Jour, de Pi'yf. xiii- 22. Genus I. oxyds of tungsten. SPECIES I. Wi..ltian] (r). O.syds of luiigsten, iron, and manganefe — Tungstat of iron Y"' and maugnneje. This fpecies is found in uilFerent parts of Germany, in Sweden, Britaip, France, and Spain ; and is almoft conftaiitiy i-cccnipanied by ures of tin. It occurs both mafllvc and cry ft,.llized. The primitive form of its cry- ftals, according to the obfervations of Mr Hauy, is a 276 G. I. Or- Wolf. ram. fore the blow-pipe it exhibits the fame phenomena as reftangular parallelopip^d:}:, whofelength is 8.66, whofe | n^. 42. the iaft fpecies. A fpecimen of this ore, analyfed by Weftrum, con breadth tained 45.00 manganefe, 14.C0 oxyd of iron, 1 1. 00 filica, 7.25 alumina, 2.00 lime, 1.50 oxyd of copper, 18.00 air and water. 274 G.H. da'ifs. Carbonat of manga- nefe. + Kirtvan, li. 297. Genus SPECIES. 98.75 II. SALTS OF MANGANESE. I. C^ibonat of manganefe I . While ore of manganefe. This fpecies occurs in Sweden, Norway, and Tran- fylvania. It is eithei In the form of loofe fcales, or maffive, or crylluUizsd in needles. Colour white, or reddifh white. Texture either ra- diated or fcily. Luftre of the fcaly 2. Tranlparency I to 2. Hardnefs of the maffive 6 to 9. Sp.gr. 2.794. Effervefces with mineral acids. Healed to rednefs, blackens. Tinges borax violet. li IS 5, and thickntls 4.33.* It is not common, • j^^r. de however, to find cryftals of thisperiedl form ; in many Min. N° cafes 'he angles, and fometimes the edges, of the cry- xix. 8. ftal are wanting J ; owing, as Mr Hauy has (hewn, to jpj the fuperpofitioii of plates, whofe edges or angles de- cre;ife acccrding to a certain law -|-. t?""'- d' Cv'lour brown or brownifh black. Streak reddifh Mm. N° brcwn. Powder ftains paper with the i'ame colour. "'='• ^• Lultre external, 2 ; internal, 2 to 3 ; nearly metallic. Texture foliated. Eafily feparated into plates by per- cuflion. Hardnefs 6 to 8. Sp. gr. irom 7.006 * to • Kirwan, 7.333 ■\. Moderately eleiflric by communication. Not | Hauy. magnetic. Intufible by "ihe blow-pipe. Forms with borax a greenilh ghbuie, and with microcofmic fait a tranfparent globule of a deep red ^. ^Vau^ueUn, The ipecimcn of this ore examined by Meflrs d'El- Jmr. <.> huyarts, was compofed of 6^ oxyd of tunc ften, 22 oxyd oi ni^.nganefe, 13 oxyd 01 iron. Min. N=' xix. II. 100 Another (r) Kiriij. 11. ■ilG.—De Lvyart, Mem. T/rjuloufi, II. 1^1.— Cmeltn, Crell's Jvur. EngVilh tizn[. 111. 127, 205, and 293. — La Fercufe Jour, de Min. W^ IV. p. 23. Order XVII. Another fpecimen from Pays le Mines in France, acalyfed by Vauquelin and He.ht, contained 67.00 oxyJ of tungften, 18.00 bl.ick oxyd of iron, 6. 25 black oxyd of manganefe, 1.50 filica, 7.25 oxyd of the iron and manganefe. MINERALOGY. 5^1 bliiifh black. A piece of relln rubbed wi'h this mire- Mctuliic *ftjur* lie- Min. NO la. ir. 277 G. II. .Sails. Tuiigftat of lime. t ^our. Jc Mm. N° xxiiii. 657. § Scicllt. 178 Brown tungftat. 279 G. I. Sul- phurct. Common fulphurct. * Kjrfr, t £rij[cn 100.00 § Genus II. salts of tungsten. spEcifs I. Tungftai of lime (s). Tungjten. This ore, which is now exceedingly fcarce, has hi- therto been found only in Sweden and Germany. It is either mafTivc or cryflailized ; and, according to Hauy, the primitive form of its cryftals is the oftohedron f . Colour yellowilh white or grey. Luftre 3 to 2. Tranlparency 2 to 3. Texture foliated. Hardnefs 6 to 9. Sp. gr. 5.8 to 6.0665. Becomes yc'low when digelled with niliic or muriatic acids. In.'ufible by the blow-pipe. With borax forms a colourlef* glafs, unlefs the borax exceed, and then it is brown. With micro- cofmic fait it forms a blue glafs, which lofes its colour by the yellow rlanie, but recovers it in the blue ilame J. It is compofcd of about 70 oxyd of tungften, 30 lime, 100 with a little filica and iron ; SPECIES 2. Brown tungftat. This ore is ft und in Cornwal, ;ind is either maffive or compnT.-.J of fmall ciylialline grains. Colour grey, variegated w;th yellow and brown. Luftre 2, waxy. Hardnefs 6 to 7. Sp. gr. 5.57. Its powder become; yellow when digefted in aqua regia. According to Klaproth, it is compofed of S8 oxyd of tungften, 1 1.5 lime. 99-5 Order XVII. ORES OF MOLYBDENUM. If ever molybdenum be found in abundance, it will probably be ullful in dyting and painting. At pre- fent it is very fcaree, having only been found in Swe- den, Germany, Carniola, and among the Alpes. Like tin and tungllen, it afFeifls the primitive mountains. Genus I. svlphurft of molybdenum. SPECIES I. C'lmin n fulphuret (t). Mcly'nleiia. This ore, which is the ciily fpecies of molybdenum ore at prefent known, is fcund cominonly mafiive; fome- tinies, however, it i.'i cryrtal'i/ed in liexahcdral tables. Colour light lead grey ; lomeiimcs with a Ih ide of red. Stri.ik bluifh grey, metallic. Powder bluifti. Luftre metallic, 3102. Texture foliated. Lamellx fiightly flexible. Hardnefs 4. Sp. gr. 4.569* to ^•'ii^5\- Feels greafy; ftains the fingers. Marks ral becomes politively electric {. Iiifoluble in fu'phu- <J'«- ric and muriatic acids : but in a boiling heat colours w,Vv7~ them green. Eifervefces witli waim nitric acid, lea- jcur^J: ving a grey oxyd iindifl-ilved. Before the blow-pipe, on Min. N" a filver fpoon, emits a white fmoke, which condsnles in- ^"- ^°• to a white powder, which becomes blue in the inter.ial, and lofcs its colour in the external, flame. Scarcely af- fefted by borax or microcofmic filt. EfTervefces with foda, and gives it a reddifti pearl colour. Compofed of about 60 molybdenum, 40 fulphur. 100 ■ • Klafrttb. Order XVIfl. ORES OF URANIUM. Uranium has hitherto been found only in Germany, and has not been applied to any ufe. 'I'he only two mines where it has occurred are in the primitive moun- tains. Genus I. oxyds ok uranium. SPECIES I. Sulphurec of uianiumf. Pii.hhleiitU. This ore, which has been found at Johanngeorgen- ftadt in Saxony, and Joachimfthal in Bohemia, is either mainve or ftratified with other minerals. Colour black or brownifh black ; fometimes v/ith a fhade of grey or blue. Streak darker. Powder opaque and black. Luftre femimetallic, from 3 to i. Frac- ture conchoidal. Hardnefs 7 to 8. Very brittle. Sp. gr. from 6.3785J, to 7.5, and even higher ij. Imper- ieiflly ioluble mi fulphuric and muriatic acids ; perfcdiy in nitric acid and aqua regia. Solution wine yellow. Infufible with alkalies in a ciucible : infiifible by the blow-pipe per fe. With borax and foda forms a grey opaque flag ; with microcofmic fait, a green glafs. Compofed of oxyd of uranium and fulphur, and mix- ed with iron and filica, and fometimes lead. A fpecimen o! this ore from Joachimfthal, analyfed lately by Klaproth, contained '6Ci.^ uranium, 6.0 fulphuret of lead, 5.0 filica, 2 5 oxyd of iron, jEo C.I.Oxyds. Sulphurcc of ur.inium. f JCir^'a/i, ii. 30J- 'Jnur. de M:n. N° xxxli. 610. § Kl.ipntb, Beitriige^ ii. 197. lOOiO SPECIES 2. Yellow oxyd of uranium J. Uranitic ochre. This ore is generally found on the furface of the laft fpecies at Johanngeorgenftadt, .tnd is cither maflive or in powder. Colour yellow, red, or brown. Streak of the yellow forts yellow ; of the red, orange yellow. Luftre o. Slightly ftains the fingers. Feels meagre. Texture earthy. Hardnefs 3 to 4. Sp. gr. 3.2438 ||. Infu- fible by the blow-pipe ; but in a ftrong heat becomes brownifh grey. Compofed of oxyd of uranium and oxyd of iron. G r N u s • Beilragff ii. 121. 281 YcUrtW oxyd of uranium. I JCir-uun, ii- jOj. your, Je (3) Kir-vj. II. 314 — ScLeU's IVorii (French tranflation), II. 81. — Bergman, ibid. p. 94. — Crell, Chem. Amialen. 1784. 2 Band 195. (t) A'/rw. ir. -1,22.— Scheie's IVorh (French tranflation), I. 236.— P<-//<r/irT, Jour, de Phyf. XXVII. 434 Jlfemann, ibid. XXXIII, 392. — Sas'- ibid. 389, — Kla^rolh and Mude<r, ulna, de C/.'im. III. I20. 543 MINERALOGY. Clafa IV. Ores of Tit;iiiii'm. G. II. Salts. Carboiiat of uranium, ti. 304. " Jour. Je M'«- N' XV. 17. t nu. u° xii. Jl. I Jcur. Je Mill. N» xxxii. 614, I IM. G. 1. Ords. Red oxyd oftitanium. XV. iS. ani Xixii. 615. i Fig. 44. • Klafrtth. •f f^fiuijuelin and J^<vi6a 2R4 Mcnacha> nitc GesVS 11, SA'TS or URANIVM. BPECiES I. Cnrbonat of uranium^. This fiiblUnce is alfo found at Johanngei rgenftadr, and near Eibenftock and lllieinbroidcnbdchj). It is fonictiints amorphous, but mm e cnmnionly cryftallized. It> ciyllah are fquaie pldtes, otlohedrotis, and fix-fided prifms. Colour green; fometimes nearly white ; fometimes, tliouqh rarely, J ellovv. Streak greL'nifli white. Luftre 3 to 2 ; internal, 2; fometimes ptarly ; fometimes near- ly niLlallic. Tranfparencjr z 103, Texture foliated, ilardnefs y to 6. Brittle. Soluble in nitric acid with- out efTervefcenre. lofufible by alkalies, Compofed of carbonat of uranium, with fome oxyd of copper. When its colour is yellow it contains no copper. Order XIX. ORES OF TITANIUM. Titanium has been known for fo fhort a time, and its properties are yet fo imperfcclly afcertained, tli.U many of its ufes muft remain to be difcovercd. Its oxyd, as we learn from Mr D ircet, has been employed in painting on porcelain*. Hitherto it has been found only in the primitive mountains, the Crapacksf, the Alpes (u), and the Pyrenees^. It has been found aU fo in Brittany II and in Cornwal. Genus I. oxvds of titanium. SPECIES I. Red oxyd of Titanium. Rcdjhorl — .S.y en'tte. This ore has been Ibiind in Hungary, the Pyrenees, the Alpes, and in Brittany in France. It is generally cryftallized. The primitive form of its cryftals, ac- cording to the obfervations of Mr Hauy, is a rectangu- lar prilh), whofe bafe is a fquare ; and the form of its molecules is a triangular prifm, whofe bafe is a right angled ifofceles triargle, and the height is to any of the fides of the bafe about the right angle as n/iz to ,y/j, or nearly as 3 : 2<|[. Sometimes the cryftals of tita- nium are fix-lided, and fometimes four-fided, prifms, and often they are implicated together J. Colour red or brownilh red. Powder brick or orange red. Lurtre 3. Tranfparency commonly o ; fometimes I. Texture loliated. Hardnefs 9. Brittle. Sp.gr. from 4.18* to 4.2469!. Not affefled by the mineral acids. When fufed with carbonat of potafs, and dilu- ted with water, a white powder precipitates, heavier than the titanium employed. Before the blow-pipe it does not melt, but becomes opaque and brown. With microcofniic fait it forms a globule of glafs, which ap. pears black ) but its fragments are violet. With borax it forms a deep yellow glafs, with a tint of brown. AViih foda it divides and mixes, but does not form a trar.fparent glafs. When pure, it is compofed entirely of oxyd of tita- mum. SPECIES 2. Menachanite (x). Oxyd of titanium combimi! iv'ith iron. This fublVancc has been found abundantly in the val- ley of Menachan in Cornwal ; and heucs was called me- nachanite by Mr Gregnr, i|ie Jifcoverer of It. It is in Mctillij fnull gtains, like gunpowder, of no determinate Ihipe, ''''':«• and mixed with a tine grey find. Colour black. Eafily ^^^^"""^ pulverized. Powder attrafled by ilie magnet. Sp. gr. 4.427, Does not detonate \rith nitre. With two parts ot tixed alkali it melts into an olive coloured mafs, from which nitric acid precipitates a white powder. The mi- neral acids only extrad from It a little iron. Diluted fulphuric acid, mixed with the powder, in fuch a pro- portion that the mafs ii not too liquid, and then eva- porated to drynefs, produces a blue coloured mafs. Be- fore the blow-pipe does not decrepitate nor melt. Ic tinges microcofniic fait green; but the colour becomes brown on cooling : yet microcofmic fait does not dif- folve it. Soluble in borax, and alters its colour in the fame manner. According to the analyfis of Mr Gregor, it is com- pofed of 46 oxyd of iron, 45 oxyd of titanium. 91 with fome filica and manganefef. ^M'Gngtr According to Mr Klaproth's analyfis, it is compof- ^J""^- *, ed of CI. 00 oxyd of iron, J'iyfxxxit. 45,25 oxyd of titanium, 3.50 filica, .25 oxyd of manganefe. 1 00.0c J AP'iti^^S'* A mineral, nearly of the fame nature with the one "• *3^* juft defcribed, has been found in Bavaria. Its fpecific gravity, however, is only 3.7. According to the ana- lyfis of Vauquelin and Hecht, it is compofed of 49 oxyd of titanium, 35 ifon, 2 manganefe, 14 oxygen combined with the iron and manganefe. lOOjJ ^Jour.Je Min. N"* SPECIES 3. Calcareo filiceous ore of titanium. J"^- 57- Oxyd of titanium combined iviib lime andjilica — Tilanite\. ^g^ This ore has hitherto been found only near Paflau. Calcareo It was difcovered by ProfelFor Hunger. It is fome- ^''"0".* ore times mafflve, but more commonly cryftallized in four- "'"t^"'""^' fided prifms, not longer than one-fourth of an inch. jj_ ^^""' Colour reddifli, yellowifli, or blackilh brown ; fome- times whitifb grey. Powder whitilh grey, Luftre waxy or nearly metallic, 2 to 3, Tranfparency from o to 2. Texture foliated. Hardnefs 9 or more. Brittle. Sp. gr, 3.510. Muriatic acid, by repeated digeftion, ditfolves one-third of it. Ammonia precipitates from this folution a clammy yellowilh fubftance, Infufible by the blow-pipe, and alfo in a clay crucible ; but in charcoal is converted into a black opaque porous flag. According to the analyfis of Klaproth, it is compo- fed of 33 oxyd of titanium, 35 filica, 33 l'™e. 101 Ordek (v) Dehmieu, Jour, de Min. N*^ XLII. 4^1, and Saujure, Voyages, N° 1894, (x) Kirw. II. 326.— Grffor, Jour, de Phyf. XXXIX. 72. and iSi.Scimeifert CrelPt Canals (Englifij tranfiation), III. 252. Order XX. Ores of Tellurium. Order XX. MINERALOGY. ORES OF TELLURIUiM. Order XXI. aS6 G. I. Al- loys. White gold ore of Fatzbay. • ///.«. Je Ctiim. XXV. 3*7- Hitherto telluriiim has only been found in Tran- fylvania. It occurs in three different mines; that (^i Fatzbay, OtTenbanya, andNagyag, wliicli are coniiJer- ed as gdlJ min;s, becaufe they contain Icfs or n;ore of that metal. Its gangue is commonly 4'.iariz. Genus I. ai-lovs of tellurium. SPECIES I. White ^okl ore of Fatzbay. Alloy of teHiiriiim and iron, tvi.b Jome ^oUl. This fpccies is generally miiTtve. Its colmir is be- tween tin white anJ lead picy. Lul\re corifiderable, me- tallic. Textuie (granular*. According to Klaproih's analyfis, it is compofed cf 72.0 iff n, 25.5 tellurium, 2.5 gold. 543 Metallic f/i/./. j8o. loo.of 287 Graphic golden ore of Olftii- baiiya. \ Ann. ds Cbim. XXV. 328- H DtBarn, i^irivans Mil. li. lOI. |i Ann, dc Cbim. XXV. 280. SPECIES 2. Graphic golden ore of Offenbanya. Tellurium alloyed ivith gold and Jilvcr. This ore is compnled oi flat prifmatic cryrtals; tlie arrangement of which has fume refcniblance to Turkilh letters. Hence the name of tlie ore. Colour tin white, with a tinge of brafs yellowj. Luftre metriUic, 3. Hardnefs 4 to 5. Biittle. Sp. gr. 5.72 j. Before the blow-pipe decreintatcs, and melts like lead. Bums with a lively broun flame and dfa- grecable fniell, and at lall vaiiilhe^ in a white fmoke, leaving only a whitiih earth||. According to Ivl.iproth's analyfis, is is compofed of 60 tellurium, 30 gold, _ 10 lilver. lOOiJ The yellow gold ore of Nagyag would belong to this fpecies were it not that it contains lead. Its compofi- tion, according to Klapioth's analyfis, is as follows ; 45.0 tellurium, 27.0 gold, 19.5 lead, f>.^ fdver. ♦ JtiJ. 288 Grey folia- ted gi,lj ore of Nagyag. f Khprclk, Ann. /r Ctim XXV. 319- \D. Born, Kirii .tn'i Mm. U.S19. iAn, .A CVi.'M. <HJ. a8o. 100. o and an atom of fulphur*. SPECIES 3. Grey foliated gold ore of Nagyag. This ore is found in pl.ites, ot different degrees of ihickneff, adhering to one another, but eafily feparable: thefe aie fomctimes hcxaliedral, and often accumulated fo as to leave cells btt'.veen ihem. Colour deep lead grey, patting to iron Hack, fpotted. Lullre metallic, moderate. Texture f 'liated ; leaves fli^htly flexible |-. Hardncf. 6. Sp.gr. 8.919. Stains the fingers. Soluble in acids with etfcrvefcence|. According to Klaprc.th, it is compofed of 50.0 lead, 3^.0 telluiiura, 8. J gold, 7.5 lulphur, 1.0 filvcr and copper. ORES OF CKROMUM, Chromum has hitherto been found in tcofmall qu3r. tities for its extenfive application to the arts. Whiiv cver it becomes plentiful, its properties will render il oi great impoitdnce both to the dyer and painter. Na. turc has iifed it 10 colour fome of her moft beautiful mi- neral producTions : And can art copy after a better mo- del ? Hidieno it has been found only in two places, near Ekaicvinbourg in Siberia, and in the department of the Var in France. In the firll cf thefe places, and probably ah'o in the fecond, its gangue is quartz. GT s39 INUS 1. SALTS OF CHKCMUM. G. I. .Salts. SPECIES I. Chromat of lead. Chromutof Jled lead >te of Silnrij. lead. This fingular mineral, which has now b:-comc fcarce, is found in the gold mines of Bejcfof near Ekaieiin- bourg in Siberia, cryttallized in four-fided piifms, feme- times terminated by tou; -iided pyramids, fometimes nor. Colour red, with a (hade of yeihw. Streak and powder a beautiful orange yellow. Lufire from 2 to 3. Tranfpartncy 2 to 3. Struclute foli ited, Tex- ture compaa. Fracture uneven. Hardnefs 5 to ,^. Sp.gr. 6.0269! to s-lit- Does not effervcfce with +/>„-r,„ acids. Before tiie blow-p.pe decrepitates ; fome lead is \ J}},fjL:L,. reonced, and the mineral is converted to a black l]jg, which tinges borax green. According to the analyfis of Vauqueiin, it is compo- »'-'<l «t 65.12 oxyd of lead, 34.88 chromic acid. 100.00 K ytwr. dc Min. N° xixiv. 760. SPECIES 2. Chromat of iron. Tiiis mineral, which has been found only neir Gaf- fin in the department of Var in France, is in irregul.ir 1,0 ^ , ■ Chromat of Loloiir brown, not unlike that of brown blende, iron. Luitre metallic. Hardnefs moderate. Sp. gr. 4.0326 Melts with difficulty before the l>Iow-pipe ; to borax it communicates a duty green. Infohible in nitric ac:d Melted with potafs, and diliblvcd in water, the folutioii alfumes a be.iutiful orange yellow colour. It is compoled oX di'.G chromic acid, 36.0 oxyd of iron. 99.6t Chap. IV. Of the Chemical Analysis of Minerals. f Taf.tirti. 'Ann. de Cbim. Xlli.. 320. lOO.OJ The progrefs which the art of analyfing minerals ,„, has made within tliefe laft twenty years is truly alio- Analyil.c* nilhing. To feparate five ..r fix fubltances intiniateU mineral., combined togeth.cr, to fxhibit each of them fcparatelv, to afctriain the precile quantify of each, and even to' de-.eft the preicnce and the weight of f.ibllmces which do not approach ^^.th part of ti.e compound, would, at no very remote period, have been confidcred as a' hopelefs, il not an impoffible, t.ifk ; yet this can now be done wiih iha mod rigid accuracy. The firll perfon who undertook the analyfis of mi- '9» nerals was M.irgralf of Berlin. His attempts were in- ^''"' ^^ deed rude ; but tiicir importance wjs foon perceived by ^'"ii'"=^' oiicr chemirts, panicuLily by Bergman and Schede. whofc MINERALOGY. Chap, IV. 544 Aiialyfisof whofe ioduftry and adJrefs brought the art of analyfing it comes over, niuft be fet afide ; it contains the nitric Analyds of Minerals. ' • -. .. . ^ ^ „. •■,.,,, •_.-.■ r_ i , • i ■ ., ii,r:.,..,i. 293 1 niprovctl by KU- proth. 194 And other clicmifts. minerals to a connjsrable deijree cf perfeftion 15ut ihcir methcvU, though they had very confider- able merit, and, confidjring the Hate of the tcieiice, are wonderful prod's of the genius ot tlie inventors, were often tedious and uncertain, and could not, in all cafes be applied with confidence. Thefe defefts were per- ceived by Mr Klaprolh ot Berlin, who applied hin.felf to tlie analyfis of minerals with a perlcvering indulliy which nothing could fatigue, and an ingenuity and ac- curacy which ni. thing could perplei. He corrctfted what w.is wrong, and fupplied what was wanting, in the analytical method ; invented new procelTss, difco- vcrcd new inftiuments ; and it is to his labours, more than 10 thofe of any otlier chemift, that the degree of peifecTion, to which the unalyds of minerals has attain- ed, is to be afciibed. Many improvements, however, were introduced by other cliemifts, efpecially by Mr. acid. TliC other impurities remain behind in the cu- Minerals. cuiblte. Sulphuric acid, when pure, di/Fclves indigo without altering its colour, docs net attack mercury while cold, and caufes no precipitate in pure alkaline fo- lutions. 5. Nitric acid often contains both fulphuric and mu- riatic acidi. It is ealily purified by throwing into it about three parts of litharge in fine powder for every ICO parts of the acid, allowinj» the nii.vture to remaia f^r 24 hours, fiiaking it occalionally, and then diftilling it. The iulphutic a;id muriatic acids combine with the lead, and remain behind in the retort. Pure nitric acid rccafions no precipitate in the folutlons of barytes and filver. 6. The muriatic acid of commerce ufually contains fulphuric acid, oxynmriatic acid, and oxyd of iron. It may be purified by diftillation with a little muriat of Vauquclin, whofe analyfcs m point of accuracy and in- foda ; taking caie to fet afide the firft portion which genuity rival thofe of Klaproth himfelf. comes over. \Vl;en pure it caufes no precipitate in the We Ihall, in this chapter, give a Ihort defcription of folution cf baiyte?, i,or cf pure alkalies, and does not the moll perfeift method of analyfing minerals, as far attack mercury while col.l 295 Method of obtaining chemical a- yents pure. as we are acquainted witli it. V/e flidl divide the chap- ter into four feJli( ns. lu the lirll, v.e (lull give an ac- count of the inflruments ufed inaualyfes; in thefecond, v>'e fliill treat cf the ir.ethod of analyfing (lones ; in the third, of analyling combultibles ; and in the fourth, of the analyfes of ore;. Skct. I. Of ihs Injlniments of Analyfa. 1. The chemical agents, by means of which tlie an- alyfis of minerals is accomplilhcd, ought to be prepared with the greatcfl; care, becaufe upon their purity the ex;idnefs of the operation entirely depends. Thefe a- gents are the three alk-ilies, bojh pure and combined with carbonic acid ; the fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids ; hydrofulphuret of pocafs and fulphurated hydro- gen gas dilfoived in water; prulhc alkali, and a few neutral ialts. 1. Potafs and foda may be obtained pure, ei:her by means of alcohol, or by the method defciibed in the article Chemistry, n" 372. Suppl.. Thefe alkalies are known to be pure when their folution in pure water occa- fions no precipitate in lime and barytic water; when the precipitate which it produces in a foluiion of filver is completely dilfoived by nitric acid ; and, laftly, when faturated with carbonic acid it depofrts no filica. 2. Ammonia is procured by diltilling one part of mu- riat ot ammonia with two pirts of quicklime, and recei- ving the gas in a dilh ccntiining a quantity of pure wa- ter, eq'jal in weight to tlie muriat emplojed. Its pu- rity i» known by the i^n\i^ tells which afcertain the pu- rity of fixed alkalies. 3. The ciibonats of potafs and foda may be formed by dillolving the pota.s and foda of commerce in pure water, faturating the folution with carbonic acid, and ctyllallizmg tlrem repeatedly. When pure, thefe cry- ftals elTlorelce in the air ; and the precipitate which they occafion in folutions of baryiet and of filver is com- pletely foluble in nitric acid. Carbonat of ammonia is obtair:(.d by diftiUing together one part of muriat of am- monia i'.nd two parts of carbonat cf lime. <). The fulphuiic acid ot commerce often contains nitric acid, pot:d"s, lead, &c. It may be purified by di- ftillation in a low cucurbite. 7. Hydrofulpliurct of potafs is made by faturating a folution of pure potafs with fulphurated hydrogen gas; and water may be faturated wi;h fulphurated hydrogen gas in the fame manner. See ChemIstry, n" 857. iiupl>l. 8. The method of preparing piuffic alkali, oxalic acid, and the other fubllances uled in analyfes, has been already defcribed in the article Chemistry, Suppl. it is unneccflary therefore to repeat it here. j^g II. Before a mineral is fubmitted to analyfis, it ought How to re- to be reduced to an impalpable powder. This is by no '1".<^« ''^« means an eafy tafk when the (lone is extremely liard. """"'^' "" It ought to be r.iifeJ to a bright red or white heat in '"'^^ a crucible, and then inllantly thrown into cold water. Tiiis fudden tr.^.nfition makes it crack and bi'eak into pieces. If thofe pieces are not fmall enough, the ope- ration may be repeated on each till they are reduced to the proper fizc. Thefe fragments are then to be beaten to imall pieces in a poli(hed flee] mortnr ; the cavity of which Ihould be cylindiical, and the (letlpedle fliould fit it exaiftly, in order to prevent any of the (lone from efcaping during the aft of pounding. As foon as the (lone is reduced to pretty fmall pieces, it ought to be put into a mortar of rock cryftal or flint, and redu- ced to a coarfe powder. This mortar fliould be about four inches in diameter, and rather more than an inch in depth. The peftle iliould be formed of the fame (lone with the mortar, and care fliould be tiken to know exaftly the iii'^redients of which this mortar is conipo- fed. Klaproth's mortar is of flint. We have given its analyfis in n" 32, of this article. When the (tone has been reduced to a coarfe pow- der, a certain quantity, whofe v eight h known exaftly, 100 grains for inllance, ought to be taken and reduced to as line a powder as poflible. This is bell done by pounding imall qu.intities of it at once, not exceeding 10 grains. The pc.wder is as fine as poflible when it feels foft, adheres together, and as it ueie forms a cake under the peftle. It ought then to be weighed exaifl- ly. It will almoft always be found heavier after being pounded than it was before ; owing to a certain quan- tity cf the lubftance of the mortar v hich has been 1 ub- The firft portion, when bed off during the grinding and mixed with theptjw. der, Chap. IV. MINERALOGY. Analyfisof der. This additional weight mufl be carefully noted; Mincrali. ^nd aficr (lie aii.ilyfis, ;i pcrtion of the ingredients cf the moi t;»r, coi refponding to it, mufl be fubtrafled. III. It is nccelfary to liave a crucible of pure filver, or, what is far preferable, of platinum, capable of hold- ing r.ither more than fcven cubic inches of water, and provided with a cover of the fame metal. There Ihould alfo be ready a fpatula of the fame metal about four inches long. The dilhes in which the folutions, evaporations, &c. are performed, ouv'lit to be of glaf- or porcelain. Thofe of porcelain are cheaper, becaule tliey are not fo apt to break. Thofe wliith Mr Vauqiielin ufes are ol pnice- lain ; they are fcftions of fphercs, and are glazed both within and without, except that part of the bottom which is immediately cxpol'ed to the fire. Sect. II. Analyfn of Jioncs (y). Ingrcdieuti The only fubrtanccs which enter into the compofi- iif ftoncs. tion of the fmiple ftoucs, as tar at lead .is analylis has difcovered, are the li^; earths, filica, alumina, zirconi.), glucina, lime, and magnelia; and the oxyds of iron, m.mganefe, nickel, chiomum, and copper (z . Seldom more th.»n f'ur or five ol thefe fubllances are found com- bined together in the fame (lone : we Ihall fuppofe, however, in order to prevent unneceif.iry repetitions, that they are all contained in the mineral which we are 899 Method of <lccon\po- going to analyfe. Let loo or 200 grains of the (lone to be analyfed, pre vioufly reduced to a fine powder, be mixed widi three times its weight of pure pctafs and a little witer, and cxpofed in tiie filver or platinum crucible to a ftrong heat. The heat fhould at fiilt be applied flowly, and the matter fhould be conftantly ftirred, to prevent the potah from fwelling and throwing any part out cf the crucible. When the whole water is evaporated, the mixture fhould be kept for half an hour or three quar- ters in a ftrong red heat. If the matter in the crucible meltJ completely, and appears as liquid as water, we may be certain that tlie ilone which we are analyfing conlllU chiefly of lilica ; if it remains opaque, and ot tiie confidence of parte, the other earths are moll abundant ; if it remains in the form of a powder, alumina is the prevalent earth. If the matter in the crucible be of a dark or brownilh red colour, it contains oxyd of iron ; if it is grafs gieen, manganefe is prefent ; if it is yellowilh green, it con- tains chromum. When the crucible lia? been taken from the fire and wiped on the outfule, it is to be placed in a capfulc of porcelain, and filled with water. This water is to be renewed from time to time till all the matter is detach- ed from the crucible. Tlie water dilfolves a part of the combination of the alkali with the filica and alumina of the (lone, and if a fiillicicnt (juantity were ufcd, it would diffolve tlie whole of that combination. Muiiatic acid is now to be poured in till the whole cf the matter is dilfolved. At tirll a flaky precipitate appe.irs, bjcaufe the acid combines witli the alkali SUPPL. \'o[,. II. which kept it in folution. Then an cfFervefccnce takes place, owini; to ilie decompolition of fome carbonal of potafb formed during the fufion. At the fame time the (laky prccij>itite is redllfulved ; ab is alfo that put of the matter which, not having licen dilfolved in the water, had remained at the bottom of tlie difii in tlie form of a powder. This powder, if it confifls only of filica and alumina, diilblves without efTervefccncc ; but if it contaiub lime, an efFervefcence takes pljce. If this folution in muriatic acid be colourlcfs, v.-e may conclude that it contains no metallic oxyd, or only a very fmall portion ; if its colour be purplilh red, it con- tains manganefe ; orange red indicates ihe prefcnce of iron ; and golden yellow the prefince of chromum. This folution is to be poured into a capiule of porce- lain, covered with paper, and evapornteJ to drynefs in a fand bath. When the evaporation io drawing towards its completion, the liquor airumcsthe form of jelly. It mull then be Itirred conllantly with a glafs or porcelain rod, in order to facilitate the diftngagemer.t cf ;lie acid and water, and to prevent one part of the matter from being too much, and another not fufhciently dried. Without this precaution, the filica and alumina wouM not be completely feparated from each ether. When the matter is reduced almoft to a dry powder, a large quantity of pure water is to be poured on it; and, after expofure to a il'ght heat, ttie whole is to b; P'Uied on a filter. The powder which remains upon the filler is to be walhed repeatedly, till the water with which it has been walhed ceafes to piecipit::te filver from its folutions. This powder i^ the whole ci{ the Jtlica which the Ilone that we are atialyfing contained. It mud firft be dried between folds of blotting paper, then heated red hot in a platinum or filver crucible, and weighed while it is yet warm. It ought to be a fitte powder, of a white colour, not adhering to the fingers, and entirely foluble in acids. If it be col. Hired, it is contaminated with fome metallic oxyd ; and fliews, that the evaporation to drynefs has been performed at too high a temperature. To feparate this oxyd, the filica mull be boiled with an acid and then walhed and dried as before. The acid folution mull be added to the vva- ter which paifed through the filter, and which we lliall denominate A. The watery folution A is to be evaporated till its quantity docs not exceed 30 cubic inches, or nearly an Englifh pint. A folution ot carbonat of potafs is then to be poured into it till no more matter precipitates. It ought to be boilcil a few nioments to enable all the precipitate to fall to the bottom. W.hen the whole of the precipitate has coilefled at the bottom, the fuper- natant liquid is to be decanted eft"; and water being fubllituted in its place, the precipitate and water are to be thrown upon a filler. When the water has tun off", the filter with the precipitate ui)on it is to be placed betweei) folds of blotting paper. When the precipi- tate has acquired fome conlillence, it is to be carefully coUe^fted by an ivory knife, mixed with a folution of pure potafs, and boiled in a poicelain capfule. Jf any 3 Z alumina 545 Analyfis of Mineral}. 500 How the fiijca is fe- parated, ( p ) Part of this feflion is to be confidered as an abftraft of a treatife of Vauquelin on the aiialy fis of ftcncs, publifhed in the y/nna/ej de Chimh, Vol. XXX. p. 66. (/. ) Barytes has alfii been difcovered in one laigle ftone, ihe fjiirc'iu ; but its prcfence in fton;s is fj un- common, tiiat it can fcarcely be looked for. The method of detecting it Ihall be noticed afterwards. 54<> MINERALOGY. Chap. IV. 301 And the alumina, 303 X-inic, Aiialyfisof aluFT.ina or glucina be prefsnt, they will be dilHilveil io Minerals, t^j potafs ; while ihe other fiibftances reninin untouch- ed in the Icrin i;t' a powder, whicii we Ihall call B. Into the Iblution of potafs as much acid niuft be poured as will not only faturate the potaft, but alio com- pletely rediliolve any precipitate which may have at Rrll appeared. Carbonat of ammonia is now to be added in f.ich fjuantily that tho liquid ih?.ll tade of it. liy this addition the whole of the alumina will he precipi- tated in whit^ Hakes, and the glucina will remain dil- folved, provided tlie quantity of carbonat ol anmionia ufed be not too fmall. Tlie liquid is now to be filter- ed, and the alumina which will reinain on the hlier is to be walhcd, dric<l, heated red hot, and then weighed. To fee if it be really alimima, dill' Ive it in fulphuiic acid, and add a fiilRcicnt quantity of fulphat or acetite of potafs ; if it be alumina, the whole of it will be ,jjj converted into cryftals of alum. Gluciiia, Lt;' the liquid winch has palfed through the filter be boiled for f iine time, and the glucina, if it contains any, will be precipitated in a light powder, which may be dried and weighed. Wlun pure, it is a line, foft, veiy light, tailclels powder, which does not concrete when heated, as alumira does. Theicfiduum B may contain lime, magnefia, and one or more metallic oxyds. Let it be dilfolved in weak fulphuric acid, and the folution evaporated to drynefs. I'our a fmall quantity of water on it. The water will dilf Ive the fulphat of magnefia, and the metallic ful- phats ; but the fulj>hut of lime will remain luidiir^lved. Let it be heated red hot in a crucible, and weighed. The lime amounts to 0.41 of the weigiit. Let the fi'lution containing the remaining fulphats be diluted with a large quantity of water, let a fmall excefs of acid be added, and then let a faturated car- bonat of potafs he poured in. The oxyds of chronium, iron, and ijickel, v/ill be precipitated, and the magnefia and oxyd of manganefe will remain diflblved. The pre- cipitate we Ihall call C. Into the folution let a folution of hydrofulphuret of potafs be poured, and the manganefe wiil be (necipita- ted in the Rate cf a liydrofulj buret. Let it be cilci- .. - ned in cont«d with air, and weighed. The magnefia Magnefia, ^^^ ^^itn be precipitated by pure potafs, waflied, ex- pi fed to a red heat, .ind then v/eighed. Let the refiduuni C be boiled repeatedly with nitric acid, then mixed with pure potals ; and after being heated, let the liquid be decanted off. Let the preci- pitare, which conlills of the oxyds of iron and nickel, be walhed with pure warer; and let this water be added to the iialution of the latric acid and potaA. That fo- lution contains the chromuai converted into an acid. Add to this fulution an excefs of muriatic acid, and eva- porate till the liquid alfumes a green colour; then add a pure alkali : The chromum precipitates in the Hate of an o.'iyd, and may be dried, and weighed. Let the precipitate, confilting of the oxyds of iron and nicki.1, be dilfolved in muriatic acid ; add an excefs of ammonia: \he oxyd of iron precipitatts. Let it be wafhed, dried, and weighed. Evaporate the folution, and t)ie oxyd of nickel will alfo precipitate ; and its weight may be afcertained in the lame manner with the other ingredients. The weights cf all the ingredients obtained are now to be added together, and their fum total compared with \Iariga- atfe, 30s 336 C'hroir.um, SO? Iron, JCK Anduitfccl. the weight of the matter fubmitled to analyfis. If the Analyfuof two are equal, or if they differ only by .03 or .04 parts. Minerals, we may conclude that the analylis has been properly peifoimed: but if the lofs of weight be conliderable, lomething or other has been loff. The analyfis mull thcrelore be repeated with all polfible care. If there is flill the fame lofs of weight, we may conclude that the (lone contain; lome fublUnce, which has cithtr evapo- rated by the heat, f)r is foluble in water. 509 A frelh portion of the Hone mull therefore be bro- Method of ken into fmall pieces, and expofed in a porcelain cru- deteiJling cil)le to a Urong heat. If it contains water, or any '°^" other volatile lubllance, they will come over into the re- ceiver ; and their nature and weight may be afcertained. Il nothing comes over into the receiver, or rf what comes over is not equal to the weight wanting, we may conclude that the Hone contains fome ingredient which is foluble in water. To difcover whether it contains /o/o/}, let the flone, Method of reduced to an inipalpaSile powder, be bciled five or fix afccrtain- limes in fucc-. (Hon, with veiy llrong fulphuiic acid, ap ingwhe- plying a preity llrong hedt towards the end oi the ope '''"' """'^ ratioii, in order to txp:l tlii excels of acid ; but taking '^°"'^"' caie th It it be not llr.mg enough to decompofe the falts which hdve been formed. \Vater is now to be poured on, and the refiduum, which does not didolve, is to be walhed with v/ater t:ll it becom-is tallelefs. 'I'lie vvateiy folution is to be fil- tered, and ev.iporated to drynefs, in order to drive oft' any excefs of acid which may be ])refent. The filts ate to be again dilfolved in water; and the folution, after being boiled for a feu moments, is to be filteied and evaporated to a conhllence proper for cryftf.Uizing. If the (tone contains a fulBciei.t (juantity of alumina, and if potiifs be prel'ent, cryltals of alum will be formed ; and the quantity ot pot.ls m.iy be difeovered by weigh- ing them, it being nearly -,'^th of their v-'ei^ht. If the flone does not contain alumina, or not in fuificient quan- tity, a folution ot puie alumii:a in liilph'iric acid mud be added. Sometimes the alum, evtu when potafs is prel'ent, does net rppear ior feveral days, or even weeks; and frmietimes, wlitn a great quantity of Hlumin.i is pre- fent, it the folution has been too much concentrated by evrtpoiaiion, th« fulpii.u of alumina prevents the alum from cryllalli/.ing at all. Care, the.elore, mull be ta- ken to prevent this lalt iource of error. The alum ob- tained may be dili'olved in water, and barytic water pome J into it as long as any precipitate forms. The liquor is to be filtered, and evaporated to drynefs. The leiid'iuifi will conlill of potafs and a little caibonat of potai~. The potals iT>ay be dilfolved in a little water. This foluti' n, evaporated to drynels, gives us the pot- afs pure ; which may be examined and weighed. .,j if no iryllals of .-.lum can be obtained, we mull look Or foda. for feme other fubftaice than poraA. The (tone, for iiiilance, may contain f .da. The prefence of this al- kali may be difeovered by decompofmg the folution in fulphuric acid, already defcrilied, by means of ammo- nia. The liquid which remains is to be evaporated to drynefs, and thi lefiduum i:, to be calcined in a cru- cible. By this method, the fulphat of ammonia will be volatilized, ai d the foda will remain. It may be re- dili'olved in water, cryllallized, and examined. If fulphuric acid does not attack the Hone, as is ff- ten the cafe, it mult be decompofed by fufion witli fo- da. ,,fli *. ri /., />/.?(". /■>'//./// Mim;ilvi.(ii;v 1'i.ate vxa-tti Chap. IV. MINERALOGY. 547 /.iri'jyfii cf Minerali. kia, in th: faR-.e raannir .is fcitrioriy direfteJ wkli pet- als. Th e in ; alter lulion, is lo be dilnt-'d with .^11 Anal) lit cf faline fionis, Of Caibo- ' Khpnth'. 260. .114 w,i:er, ;jnd then if.urateil with rulpliuric acid. The folu'ioii is to b« evapiracjj to Jrvhcf!-, llii relidiuim again dill'lvcd in water, and evaporated. Sulpiiat of fdJa will cryltdlizc firll; ;tud liy .1 Ilcor.d ev.iporatiin, i; the lion; contains potals and aluniiua, cryllals of .I'.uni will be dcpofited. Tin pref^nce «f potafs may be difcnvered, by mix- in^ witii 4 foinsuhat cmcentrated fulution of muiiat of pLuir.iim, the fait obtained, cither by decompiifing the ilone iniiiwdiately by an ajid, or by f ituralint; with an acid ilie maticr obtained by fafing the ftone with foda. It any pciafj be prefent, a very red precipitate wii! be forrred. This prtclpiiale is a triple fait, cotn- pofed of ptiali, muiiatic acid, and oxyj of plalinum. Ainni 'PiJ, mdted, produces the fanic piecipiiate; but ammonia has not hi'.hcito teen difcovered in ilones. In this ni in;.er may fiinple lloncs and ?;jgre;;aie5 be analyled. As to laliiie flones, their analyfis midk vary according lo ih;." acid wliicli they contain. But almoft all of them in -v be dcconipofcd b) one or other of two intthods ; of cacli cf v.hich we (hall give an e.vamplc. ). Analjlls of Carbonat of Slrontite;. Kiapoili anal; fed ihis mineral by diifolving ico parts of It in diluted nuiriati ■ acid: dnrinsr the foliition, 30 parts ( f carbonic acid efcaoed. The fohiti )n cry- U.tUr/cd in i.cedle.s, and \vhen di<f Ived in alcohol, Inunt Willi a pnrp'e flame. Therefore ii ccniained I'rontites. lie d tj. Ivcd .1 grain of fnlphat ol petals in fix oiirces ol v.aicr, and let fa'l into it throe ilrops of tf.e nniri.itic fohitioi,. No precipit.ite appeared till nest day. There- fore the folution contained no barytes ; for if it had, a jiccipitate Wf uld h.iv.: appeared immediately. He then dccompofed tht muriatic acid folution, by nixing il v.'ilh cirl)onac of potafs. Caibonat of rtron- tiics precipitated. By the application rf a llrong lieat, the caibinic acid was driven off. The whc^le of ihe cat ill which remained wjs dilfolved in wnter. It cry- llallized ; and when dried, weighed Ocjl". II. Analyfis of Sulphat of Strontites, Mr Vauqnelin analyftd an impure fpecimen of this mil tial as lollows ; On 200 pans of the iri'ner.al, diluted nitric acid was ponied. A violent effervcfcence took place, and p.irt 1 f the mineral was dilfolved. The tindiliolved portion, after biing iicated rtd hot, weighed 167. Therefore 33 parts were dilfolved. The nitric folution was evaporated to drynefj : A rt ddilh f.ibllance remained, which indicated the prefence rf ox)d of lion. Tliis fubllance w.is redilfolved in wa- lei, and fonie ammonia mixed with it; a reddilh pre- tipita'e appeared, which, wliendiitd, weighed I, and was oxyd of iron. 'l"he remainder of the folution w.is ptecipit.iltd by carbonat of potafs. Tlic precipitate weighed, v.htn diied, 20, and polielfed the |)ropeit'es of caibonat if lime. Tlicrelcic :oo jiarts of this mi- ir.'ial contain p.o of caibonat ci liinc, 1 of oxyd of iron, and the lematndcr cf tlie 33 p.i.-ti he concluded to be water. The 167 parts, which wcie infoluble in nitric acid, were mixed with 500 pails of carbonat of poiaA, and 70CO parts cf water, and boiled for a conliderable lime. The f ilution was then altered, and ilic refidui'm wafii- Aralyfitof cd and dried. The liquid fcarcely ctrcrveli:cd with a- i-'H"-!;"*- clds ; but with baiytes it produced a c>fioiis precipi- tate, totally indilToluble in muiiatic acid. Th€ie.*^cie it contait.cJ liilphuric acij. 'Hie nndilfolved re.'iduum, v.'h.cn diied, weighed i zj pirt?. It dilfolved completely in muriatic acid. The i'olution cryliallized in needles ; when didblved in alco- hol, it burnt with a purple flome ; and, in (horr, had all ill.: properties of muriat of ftrontitcs. Therefore theft: I 29 parts Were carbonat of ftrontitcs. Now, loopart-J of this caTbonat contain 30 of carbonic acid ; therefore 129 contain 38.7. Therefore the mineral m\iCi con- tain in 200 pans 90.3 of flrontites. Now, the infoluble reiiduum of 1C7 parts v.-as pure fulphat of ftrontites; and we have ften that it cont lin- ed 0C.3 of llrontites. Tlierclore the fjlphuric acid niuil arp(-unl to 76.7 partsf. -j-yiwr. eij Nearly in the lame manner as in the firft cf thefsex- -''■«■ ^>'° amplcs, may the analyfis of caibonat of lime andbary'es -^^"''•'•I'-'- be J erformed ; and nearly in tiie l^rne manner witii 'ho fec< nd, we may analyfe the fulplia's of lime and barytes. ,, . Piiofphat of lime may be dilfolved in muriatic acid, phofpluw, and the lin.e precipitated by Iblp'iuric acid, and its quantity afcertained by decompi fiag the fulphat of lime obtained. The liquid foiution may be evaporated to the confillence of honey, m'xed with charcoal powder, and dillillcd in a ifrong heat. By this means pholpho- rus will be obtained. The iiiijinrlties wirh which the pholphat may be contaminate J will partly remain undif- folved, and be pai;ly dilfolved, in muriatic acid. They may be deteiffed and alcerlained by the rules laid dowit in the fecond fetiion of tlrs chapter. The fluat cf lime miy be miietl with fulpburic acid and diflilled. The fluoric acid will come over in the form cf gas, and its weigl'.t may be afcertained. Wha: rennins in the retort, which \\iU confdl chiefly of ful- phat of lime, may be analyled by the rules already laid down. The borat of lime may be dilfolved in nitric or fu!- pluiiic acid. The folution may be evaporated to dry- rat.. iitfs, and the b'iracic acid ftparated from the refiduiini by means ol alci Iml, which will dilfolve it without sit- ing on any of the rither ipgredieut«. The rem.iiader of tiie dry niafi may be analyfed by the lules laid down in Stiff. II. ot this Chapter. Sect. III. 0/ lis Jn-ih/it cf Comhujij.'fj. The only combuftibles of whofe analyfis it will bi necelfary to fpeak arc coals and fuliliur ; for the m-- thod of analyling the diamond and oil has already been given in the article Chi.mistrv, Su/i/).'. ^ig Coal is comp' fed of carbon, biuimen, and fome pnr- E.irtht of tion of earth. The earths may be detected by burnirg eoalliuw completely a portion cf the coal to be analyfed. The •^^''^ineJ. alhcs wliich leniain after incincation confill of the eaithy pjit. 'i'Jitir nature may be afcertained by the rules l.iid down in Sect. II. of this Chapter. For the metfoii i.f ;,kiitaining the pro^iortion of carbon and. bitumen in coal, we are indebted to Mr -,9 Kii '.van . Mithod of When r.itre is he.ited red hot, and charcoal is thrown dctccVing on it, a vit>ient deionaiion takes place j and if the quan- '' ■'"='""'« lily of charcoal be fulljcicnt, tlie iiitte is completely dc- ofcharcoil* ccjcp' fee'. Nov, it requires a certain quantity of pure ,„,] hUu- ". "^l 2 taibon men. Hudtj, .•ir -Vnd bo-- 548 Aiialyf • of AliiitraU. tycjv. E- tf.i/iT. xi. 6i6l MINERALOGY. lA edit. ^ Miner J' /oi^v, ii, s'ii. Met),iHl cf aiulyfmg li.liihur. carbon to deeompofe a given weight of nitre. From ihesxperiments nt Lavoilier, it fullows, ih.it when the detonation is performeJ in clofe vellels under water, 13.21 parts of chircoal are capable ofdecompolinj; 100 parti of nitre.* But when the detonation is pertorm- ed in an open crucible, a Imallsr pioportirn of charcoal is neccJiaiy, bec.uil; part of the nitre is deconipifed by the adion of ihe furrcundinj' air. Schecle toumi, that under tliefe circumftance-. 10 parts of plumbago were fulhcient to decojiipofe 96 parts of nitre, and Mr Kir- wan fi'ii'.d, ihat nearly the fime quantity of charcoal was rufiiJent fcr producing the fame tffjit. M,.ciiuer lon<; ago obferveJ, that no volatile oily matter uill dL-tonatc with nitre, unlef:, it be previoufly reduced toachdrco.il ; and th.u then its efTea upon nitre is precifcly pioporii. nal to the charco.il which it con- tains, f. Mr Kii wan, upon trying the cxpetin.ent with ve''elable pich And vi'iUha, found, that tlicfc fubllances did not detonate wiUi nitre, but merely burn upon its furface with a white or yellow flame ; and that after they were confumed, nearly the fame quantity of char- coal was nccelfary to deeompofe the nitre which would have been required if no bitumen had been ufed at all J. Now coals are chiefly compofed of ch.ircoal and bitu- men. It occurred therefore to Mr Kirwan, that the quantity of charcoal which any coal contains may be afcertaincd by detonating it with nitre: For fince the bitumen of the coal has no eifeift in d.-compofing nitre, it is evident that the detonation and decompofition muil be owing to the charcoal ot the coal; and that therefore the quantity of coal necefury to deeompofe a given portion of nitre will indicate the quantity of car- bon which it contains : and the proportion of ch.ircoal and earth which any coal contains b:ing ai<:ertained, its bituminous part may be eafily had from calculation. The crucible whidi he ufed in his experiments was large ; it was placed in a wind furnace at a dilhince from the flue, snd the heat in every experiment was as t<iual as polTible. The moment the nitre was red hot, the coal, previoufly reduced to fmall pieces of the iize of a pin head, was projected in portions of one or two grains at a time, till the nitre would no longer deto- nate; and every experiment was repeated feveral times to enfure accuracy. He foimd, th.it 480 grains of nitre required 50 grains of Killtenny coal to deccmpol'e it by this me- thod. Tiiereibre 10 grains would havedecompoicd 96 of nitre ; precifcly the quantity of charcoal which would have produced the fame efFecl. Therefore Kilkenny coal is Tiiipofed almod entirely of charcoal. Cannei coal, when incinerated left a refiduum of 3.12 in the 100 parts of earthy alhes. 66.5 grains of it were required to deeompofe 4S0 grains ot nitre; but 50 parts of charcoal would have been fuSicient : there- fore 66.5 grains of cannel coal contain 50 grains of charcoal, and 2.08 of esrth ; the remaining 14.42 grains muft be bitumen. In this manner may the coin- pofiti^n c f any other coal be afcert.iined. As for fulphur, in order to alcertain any accidental impurities with which it may be contaminated, it ought to be boiled in thirty times its weight of v/ater, after- wards in diluted muriatic acid, and laltly in diluted ni- trii-murialic acid. Tlie!'e fiibftances will deprive it of ail its impurities without a(5ling on the fulf.hur itfelf, at leaft. if the proper cautions be attended to. The Chap. IV. fulphur may then l)e dried and weighed. The defl Analyfis of ciency in weight will mark the qtiaiititv of the fubllan- Minerals ces which contaminate the i'ulphnr- The folutior.s may be evaporated and examined, according to tlie rules laid down in the fecond and fourth tedious of this chapter. Sect. IV. Of the analyfts of Ores. 311 The method of analyfi; g ores mnil vary cnnfider- No raicral ably, acconling to the metals which they are fufpsifleii mctliod of to contain. A general method, thtreiore, 01 analyfing anaiyfing would be of no ufe, even if it could be given, becatife '■'''"• it would be too complicated ever to be pr.iCtifed. We ni.ill content ourfclves witli exhibiting a fiithcient num- ber of the analyles oi ores, to lake in niott of tlie cafes which can occur. He wiio wilhes for more information on the fnljeft, may cont'ult the treatile of Bergman on the Analyfs of ores ; Mr Kivwan'.'. trtatiie on the lame fubjed; and, above all, he ought to ftiidy the nume- rous analjfss of ores which ha. e been publilhed by Mr Klaproth. I. Analyfes of Red Silver Ore. Mr Vauquelin analyfed this ore as follows : Metluid of Wi reduced 100 parts of it to fine powder, poured analyfing over it 500 parts of nitric acid previoufly diluted wiih "<* iilvcr water, and applied a gentle heat to the mixture. 'I'he °"' colour of the powder, which before the ni.xiure with nitric acid was a deep purple, became gradually ligliter, till at la!l it was pure v/hite. During this ch inge no nitrous pas was extricated ; hence he concluded, that the metals in the ore were in the Hate of oxyds. When tlie nitric acid, even though b.^iled gently, did not appear to be capable ot dilfilving any more of the powder, it was decanted off, and the leliduum, af- ter beins; carefully wafhed, weighed 42.06. Upon thefe 42.06 parts concentrated muriatic acid was poured ; and by the application of heat, a confi- derable portion was diliolved. The rtfiduutn was re- peatedly wafned with muriatic acid, and then dried. Its weight was 14.6666. One portion of thefe 14.6666 parts, when thrown upon burning coals, burnt with a blue flame and fulphureous fmell. Another portion fublimed in a clofe vcffel without leaving any reliduum. In rtiort, they iiad all tlie properties c f fulphur. There- f)re 100 parts of red filver ore contain 14.O666 of lul- phur. The muriatic add folution was nov? diluted with a great quantity cf water; i^ lecanie milky, and depofited a white fl.'.ky powder, which when w.dhed and dried weich.ed 21.25. This pov/der, vvlien heated with tar- tar in a crucible, was converted into abhiifli white brittle metal, of a foliated texture, and pcfrL-trnig all the other properties of antimony. Red fiiver ore therefore con- tains 2 I 2J of oxyd of antimony. The folution iu nitric acid remained now to be e.Ta- mined. When muriatic acid was poured into it, a copious white precipit ite appeared, which, when wafh- ed and dried, weighed 72.66. It had all the properties of murlat of filver. According to Mr Kit wan's tallies, 72.66 of muriat of filver contain 60.57 of oxyd ot filver. Therefore red filver ore, according 10 this analyfts, is compofed of 60.57 oxyd of lllver, 21.25 oxyd of antimony, 14.66 fulphur. '96.48 Tht Chap. IV. MINERALOGY. Analyfisof Minerals. 35.1 Analylis of antinionia- tcd Clvcr ore. Aniilyfis (if grey cop- per ore. The lofs-, which amounts to 3.52 parts, is to be afcri- lied to unavoidable errors wLicli attend fuch experi- ments. II. Antitnoniated S:lver Ore. Klaproth analyled this ore as follows : On 100 parts of the ore, reduced to a fine powder, he poured diluted nitric acid, raifed the mixture to a boiling heat, and after jjouiiiig off the acid, added new quantities repeatedly, till it would dilfolve nothing more. Tiie reliduuni was of a greyilh yellow colour, and weighed, when dry, 26. 'J hofe 26 parts he digefted in a mixture of nitric and muriatic acid ; pirt was dilfolved and pait Hill remain- ed in the form of a powder. This reliduum, when Widhed and dried, weighed 13 parts. It had ihe pro- perties of fulphur ; and when burnt, left a reliduum of one part, which had the properties ot lilica. Antimo- niated filver ore, therelorc, contains, in the 100 part;, 12 parts of fulphur and i of lilica. When the nitromuiiatic folution was diluted with about 20 times its weight of water, a white precipitate appeared; which, wht.n heated to rednel«, became yel- low. Its weight was 13. No part evapurated at a red heat: therefoie it contained nn arfenic. On burning co.ils, efpecially when ioda was added, part was reduced to a metal, having the properties ot antimony ; and in a pretty liigh heat, the whole cvapoiated in a grey fmoke. Thefe 1 3 parts were thciefore oxyd of antimo- ny : They conta'n about 10 patts of metallic antimo- ny ; and as the Rate of oxyd was produced by the ac- tion of the nitric acid, we may conclude, that aatimo- niated filver ore contains 10 p.irts of antimony. The nitric acid foluti..n rem.iined Hill to be exami- ned, it was ot a gre.n col; ur. AViien a folution of common fait was poured in, a white precipitate was ob- tained, which piliefiid the propeities of muriat of fil- ■ver. When dried, it weighed by. 75 parts ; and when reduced, 65.81 parts of pure filver were obtained from it. Antimi)niated lilver ore, therefore, contains 65. Si of filver. Into the nitric acid folution, thus deprived of the filver, he dropped a Ittle of the folution of fulphat of foda ; but no piecipiiatc appeared. Therefore it con- tain ;d no lead He fupcriaiurated it with pure ammonia, on which a grey precipitate .iiipcaiev!. When dried, it weighed 5 parts. This, on buni'ng coals, gave out an arl'cnical imsU. It was redillolved in nitric acid ; fulpiiuiated alkali occafioned a fniutly brown precipitate; and ptuf- lic alkali a prullian blue, which, after torrefaftion, was magnetic. Hence he conclude, that thefe 5 parts W'ere a combination ot iron and arfenic .icid. The nitric loluiion, which hud been luperfaturated with ammonia, was bluv ; he therefore fufpeiScd th.it it cont lined cupper. T'> difcover this, he faturaied it with fulphuiic .icid, and put into it a pohlhed plate of iron. The quantity of copper was fo fmall, that none could be cuilcfted on the iron. III. Grey Copper Ore. Klaproth an.ilyfcd this >•■:« as fallows : Three hundred gr.iin^ of it, not completely freed from its matrix, were reduced to a hne pnwJer ; four times their weight of nitric acid was poured ud them, and the whole was digefted. The acid was then poured f'ff, . and an equal quantity again digelled on the refiduum. The two acid folutions were mixed together. The r-j- fiJuuni was of a ycllowilh grey colour, and weighed 188 grains. On this refiduum fi.x times its weight of muriatic acid was boiled. The refiduum was wafn-d, firil with mu- riatic acid, and alterwards with alcohol, and the wafh- ings added to the muriatic acid fr lution. The refidu- um, when diied, weighed 105.5 gr^'ins. Part of it burned with a blue H.ime ; and was therefore fulphur. The refiduum amounted to 80.25 gi'iiins. and had the properties of fiiica. When melted with black flux, about -}ths of a grain of filver were ob ained from it. Tiius 300 parts of grey copper ore cci;tain 25.25 gr. of fulphur, and 79.5 of fiiica. The muriatic acid folution, which v/as of a ligf.t yel- 1 iw colour, was concentrated by diltill.ition, a few cry- Itals <if muriat of filver appeared in it, which contained about :jth grain of filver. The folution, thus concen- trated, was diluted with a great quant ty of water ; a white precipitate was depofited, which, when dried, weighed 97.25 grains. It poffefied the properties of oxyd of antimony, and contained 75 grains of antimo- ny. Therefoie 300 grains of giey copper ore contain 70 of antimony. The nitric acid folution was of a clear green cclour. A folution of common fstlt occafioned a wliitc precipi- tate, wliich was muriat of filver, and from which 31.5 grains of filver were obtained. A little fulphat of potafs, and afterwards fulphuric Kcid, were added, to fee whether the folution contained le.id ; but no precipitate appeared. The folution was then fupeifaturated with ammonia ; a loofe flaky brownilli red precipitate appeared, which, when heated to rednefs, became browniih black, and weighed 9:jlh grains. This precipitate was diii olved in muriatic acid; half a grain 01 matter rem;Mnec! un- dilfolveil, which was fiiica. The muriatic acid folution, when pruQic alkali was added, afforded a blue precipi- tate; and Ioda afterwards precipitated i 5 grains of alu- mina. Therefore 300 grains of prey copper ore con- tain 7.25 grains of iion, and 1.5 of alumina. lato the nitric filuti.n fuptiiaturated with ammo- ni.i, and which was if an a/ure blue colour, a prlilheJ plate of iron was put: By this method 69 grains of copper were ob'sincd. IV. Sulphuret of Tin, Klapro'h analyfed this ore as follows:* On 1^0 trains of the ore reduced to powder, fix times ihcir weight of nitro-muriaiic acid, cnmpofed of 2 parts of muriatic, and 1 of nitric acid, were poured. There remained nndillolved 43 grains, which liad the appearance oi lu'pliur; but containing green fp.i?s, was fufpefl?d not to be pure. Alter a gentle oombuftion, 13 grains reni;.lncd ; 8 of which were dilfolved in nitro. muri itic acid, and added to the firfl folution. The rc- maini.ig 5 were fepa'aicd by the fibre, and heated along with wax. By thia miihod about a grain of mut- ter was obtained, which was attrac^t-d l>y the niignet ; and which therefore was iron. The refiduum wen^iied 3 grains, and was a mixture • f alumina ai d lilica. Thus 1 20 grains of fulphuret of tin contain 30 grams of ful- piiur, I of iron, and 3 of alumina and lilica. The 549- >-.a;)Us of Mi.'icrals. t/Qrti in tit t\J,b cf Ccrnicailj p. 48- Analyfw o£ fiilpliiirct of till. 550 AnaljrCs ot Mir.tralB. 316 Analyfis cf pluiuSlfe- rcus iiitti- moniafcd river ore. MINERALOGY. Chap. IV. The nitro-muriatic foluiicn was completely preclpi- poratlon ; and then adding a fohition of fulphat of foda, Ar.»lyni cf tated bypotafs. The precipitate was of a greyllh Kre<;a :i whirc precipitate v as obtained, wliidi had die pro- ^^JJlt|".j|^ colour. It was wadied and dried, and again diU'olved pertico of lulphat of lead, and weighed 43 grains. Il in diluted muiiatic acid. Into the folution a cylinder contained 32 grains of purclcnd. of pure tin was put, which wei;;hedex:naiy 217 grair s. He now poured ammonia into the foluti. n ; a pale The fol-Jtion became gradually colonrlcfs, and a quan. brown precipitate was obtained, which weighed 40 lily of cnpper precipitated on tiie cylinder of (in, which grains, and which appeared to confi;^ of oxyd of iron Wiighed 44 grains. To fee whether it was pure, a and alumina. He itdiliulved it in ni:ric acid, precipi- qujr.tity of nitric acid was dig:(led on it ; the whole lated the iron by piullir alkali, and tic alumina by io- wasdi.Tolved, except one grain of tin. Tlierefore 120 da. Tlu alumina after being h.eated to redr.cfs, weigh- gralns of fulphuret of tin contains 43 grain? of copper, ed 28 gr..ins ; confequcndy ihe oxyd of iron was iz grains, which is equivalent to 9 grains of iron. VI. Molybdnt of Lead. f ^l'"- Mr Halchett analyfcd this ore as follows f : Isiivi. 120. On 250 grains of the ore, reduced to a fine powder, 327 he pomed an ounce of ftrong fulphuric acid, and digefl- Analyfis of cd the mixture in a llrong heat for an hour. When "y''Jyl^_'i^' the folution v/as cool, and had fettled, he decanted tt ' I'lF, and wafli^d the undilfolved powder with pure wa- tei, ti'l it came away tallelcfs. This operation was re- peatsil twice mure; fo that three cuncis of fulpliuric acid were ufed. All lh;ie fokuions weie mixed toge- ther, and filtered. Four ounces of a folution of carbonat of foda were poured upon tbc powder which remained undiHblved, and which conlhled ot lulphat ot lead. The mixture The cylinder of tin now weighed only 128 grains fo that <S9 grains had been diffolvtd. Into 1 he folution a cylinder of 7.inc was put ; upon which a quantity ot tin precipitated. When wallied and dried, it weigiied 130 prains. The tin he melted v.ith tallow and pow- dered charcoal ; and when cold, he wall-.ed cfF tlie char- co.tl. Among the tin globules were found tome bl.ick flocculi cf iron, which weighed one grain. Dedufling this grain, and the 09 grains of the tin cylinder which had been dilFolvcd, we lee that the 122 grains of ful- phuret of tin contained 40 grains ( f tin bcfides the grain which had been detefied in the copper. V. Plumbiferous Antimoniated Silver Ore. Klaproih analyfed this ore as follows : He d^gefted 400 grains ot it, reduced to a fipe pow. of lead. der, firit in five times its weijjht of nitric acid, and then was boiled for an hour, and llien poured r(F. The in twice its weight of the fame acid. He then diluted powder was then walhcd, and diiutea nitric acid poured thislal^ portion cf acid with ciglit times its weight of on it: The whole wa» ciiifolvec, except a little white water, and continued the digeltion. The undiflblved powder, wliich, when waliied, and oried on a filter by refiduum, when Wdllicd and dried, weighed 326 grains, the heat ot boding tvater, weighed feven tenths of a On this refiduum he boiled muriatic acid repeatedly, grain. It poflelfed the properliis of I'llica. The iolution, on coding, depolited acicular cryllals. The nitric acid Iblution was faturatcd with pure fo- Thefe he carefully tiparaced, and put by. The undif- da; a white precipitate was obtiip.ed, which, when folved reliduum weighed 51 grains. It had the pro- wafhed, and dried tor an hour in a heat rather below perties of fulphur. When burned, it lel't one giain of rednels, weighed 146 giaint. It polf^lled tiie proper- lilica. ties ot oxyd ot lead. The muriatic acid folution was concentrated to half To fee whether liiis oxyd of lead contained any iron, its former bullc by dillillatinn : this made it depofite it was didolved in dduted nitiic acid, and the lead pre- more acicular cryllals. He continued the dillillation cipitated by fulphuric acid. Die Ibkuion wis then fa- ns long as any cryrtals contiiiaed to appear. He lurated with ammonia ; a brown powder precipitated, then colleiled the wliole of ihefe cryflals together, which, when dried, weighed one grain, and had ll>e They had the properties of rniiiiat of lead. When properties of oxyd of iron. mixed with twice their weight uf blaclc llux, and heat- Thefulphutic acid iolution was of a pale blue colour : cd in a crucible lined with charcoal, they yielded i6og It was diluted with 16 times its weight ot puie water. jrains ot lead. Sulphuret ot ammonia was now added to the muria- tic acid f)lution ; an orange-coloured piecipitaie ap- and then faturatcd with ammonia. It became of a deep blue colour, and appeared tui bid. In 24 hours a [lale yellow precipitate lublided, which, when collected on a peared, which Ihewed that the folution contained anti- filter, and dried by a boiling water lieat, weighed 4.3 inony. It was precipitated by a copious elfulion of graiii"^. its colour was yellowitli brown. Miriatic acid water, and by loda. The oxyd of antimony being re- dilfolved it, and prulliat of potafs precipitated it from duced to :>. mafs with Spanifli loap, mixed with black its folution in the Hate of prullitn blue. It was ihere- Hux, and heated in a lined crucible, yielded 28.5 grains fore oxyd of iron, ot antitn(>ny. The fulphuric acid folution, ftturated with ammonia, Into the niti ic acid f >luti on, obtained by the firft part was gradually evaporated to a dry fait. This fdlt was ri the procels, a folution of muriai of foda was drop- a mixture of molybdat ot ammonia and fulpliat of aui- ped ; a while precipitate was depolited, and over it aci- moiiia. A ftrong heat was apjdied, and the dillillation cular cryllals. Thefe cryllals he dilTolved, by pouring continued till the whole of the lulphat of ammonia wa; lo-.ling water on the ])recipitaie. The water was add- driven off; and to be ceitain that this was tiie cafe, ed to the nitric acid folution. The white precipitate the fire was railed till the retcit became red hot. The ■<vas muriat ol filver : when heated with twice its weight refiduum in the retort was a black blillered mafs ; three cf foda, it jielJed 81.5 grains ot filver. ounces of nitric acid, diluted with water, were poured Hi now coiicenirattd the nitiic acid folution by tva- upoi) it, and diftilled off. The opeiation was again re- peated. I Chap. IV. M I N E R A L O G Y. S5^ Analyfis of peated . By lliis methuil the oxyd of niflybdenum was Muicrals. converted into a yellow powdsr, which was yellow acid ot" molybdenum. It weighed 95 grains. \'II. Giey Ore of Maiiganefe. } Jour, dc Min. N° Mr Vaiiquelin analyfed this ore as follows J. ivii. p. 12. Wiisn 200 grains of it were expofed to a ftiong hent ■J P . in a reicrt, ihcre came over 10 grains of water, and 18 ercy oreof '-""''''^ inches <if oxygen gas, mixed with a little carbo- maiigaiidt. nic ai:id fras. The mineral now wtii^hed only 176 grains. Therefore the weight of the pas was 1 4 grains. On 200 grains of the fame mineral muriatic acid was poured, and heat applied. 75 cubic inches of oxy-mu- lialic acid gas came over, wliich, though mixed with fome carbonic acid gas, enflamed metals when reduced to powder. When no more gas came over, the refidn- um was boiled. The whole was diifolved, except a ■white powder, which weighed 12 grains, and which pofreffsd the pre perties of filica. Caibonat of potafs was poured into tiie folution ; a white precipitate was obtained, which became black by expofure to the air, and weighed 288 grains. Strong nitric acid was boiled on it repeatedly to dryrefs. It became cf a deep black colour, and, when well waflied with water and dried, weighed 164 grains. 'J'his pow- der was black oxyd of maiiganefe. To iee whether it contained iron, nitric acid, with a little fiigar, was poured upon it, and digefted on it. The acid diffolved it completely. Therefore no oxyd of iron was prefent. Into the water with which the black oxyd of man- ganefe had been wafned, carbonat oi [oiafs was pour- ed ; a white powder precipit.ited, which, when dried, weighed 149 grains, and which pofretitdthe properties of carbonat of lime. VHI. Wol.'"ram. 319 Aiialyfisof MefTrs Vauquelin and H edit analyfed this mineral wolfram, as follows : On 200 parts of Wflfram in powder, three times its weight of muiiatic acid were poured, and the mixture boiled for a quarter ot an hour: a yellow powder ap- peared, and the ff hition was of a brown colour. The acid was allowed to cool, and then carefully decanted off, and the rtfiduiim wafhed. The refiduum was liien di- gelled for fome hours with ammonia, which diffolved a part of it. The refiduum was walhed, and new muria- tic acid again poured over it ; then the refiduum was digefted with ammonia, as before : and the operation was continued till the whole wolfram was diffolved. All the ammoniacal i( lutior.s being joined to};ethcr, were evaporated todrynefs, and the fait which remain- ed was Calcined: a yellow powder was obtained : it weighed 134 grains, and was yellow acid of tungden. Into the mutiaiic acid folulions, wliicli were all mix. ed together, a fufficient quactity of fulphuric acid was poured to decompcfe all the fal'.s. The folution was then evaporated to drynefs ; and the files which were obtained by this evaporation weie redill'tlved in water. A wlilte powder remained, v.liich ^veighed three grains, Analyfis of and wliiLh portelFed the properties of hlica. MaicraU. The excefi of acid of ihc foluiion was faturated wirh carbonat ot potafs; the liquor b:came brown, but n >- thing precipitated. When boiled, a red powder preci- pitaied, and the brown colour difappeared. The ad- dition of more caibonat of potafs caufed a farther pre- cipitation of a yeilowilh powder. This precipitate con- filted of the oxyds of iron and manganefe combined. Nitilc acid was dillillcd ctf it repeatedly ; itwasthen boiled in acetous acid. The acetous folution was pre- cipitated by jiotafs. Nitric acid was again diftilled off it, and it was again boiled in acetous acid. This pro- cefs was repeated till nitric acid produced no further change. The different powder^ uhicli could not be diffulvedin the acetous acid were colleifted, mixed with a little oil, and healed red hot. The powder became black, and was attrafted by the magnet. It was there- fore oxyd of iron. It weighed 36 grains. The acetous folution crntained the oxyd of manga- nefe : It was precipitated by an alkali, anJ, whea dri- ed, weighed 12.5 grains. IX. Oxyd of Titanium and Iron. Vauquelin analyftd this ore as follows : AnalyGs of A hundred parts tf the ore, reduced to a fine pow- "sy<l >f ci- der, and mixed with 400 parts ot pot iU, were melteo '*""">' ^"^ in a filvcr crucible for an hour and .1 half. When cod, the mixture was diluted with water ; a poA der remain- ed of a brick red colour, which, when waihcd and dii- ed, weighed 124 parts. The watery folution had a fine green colour; wlien an excels cf muriatic acid was added, it becanie red. By evaporation the liquor loft its colour. When evapo- rated to drynefs, a fait remained, which was totally dif- folved by water. From this folution caib r.at cf p.n- afs precipitated two parts, which had the properties of oxyd of manganefe. The 124 parts t.f refiduum v.-ere boiled in a folution of pure potafs tor an hour. The folution was faturated with an acid, filtcrtd, and carbonat cf p. t ifs added, which precipitated thiee parts. Thefe had the proper- ties of oxyd of titanium. The remainder of the 124 parts of refiduu:n, which ftill was undilfolved, was boiled with diluted muriatic acid. The liquor became yellon', and depolited 46 parts of a white p.^wder, with a lint of red. This powder was foluble in Uiljjhuric and muriatic acid? : from thefe folutions, it was precipitated ot a biick red colour by the infufion of nut galls ; of a green colour by fulphu- ret of ammonia and prulFiat of potafs ; and of a white colour by caibonat of potafs and pure ammonia. .\ I od of tin made thefe lolutions red ; a red of zinc made them violet. Thefe 46 parts, theicfore, are oxyd cf titanium. The muriatic f.ilution, from which thefe 46 parts were depofited, formed, with pruffiat of potafs, a pruf- fian blue ; and ammonia precipitated from it 50 pans, which had the properties of yellow oxyd cf iron. INDEX. 552 INDEX. /JC/AVSE iron ore, n" 225. •*^ ^tHnolite, lliorUiccous, 89. lamellar, 90. ghury, 91. /lihrnantine fpar, 26. JEdflitt, 65. JEtiies, 225. yf^aric mineral, 96. uigatf, IcelinJ, ^$. yfii;ue mari?!e, 36. ytlumina, native, 27. Anulgam, native, 197. Amber, 1 78. Amiantiii, 85- Amph'ibok, 53. Amygililoid, 137* Anakhne, 68. Andrcol'tte, 62. AnihracUs, 1 65. Ariibracolite, 1 65. Antimonicited lilver ore, 186. Antimony, native, 248. . grey oi^s o'j 249. Apatite, 98. .^jaa marina, 36. and 61. Argillaceous iion ore, 225. Argilllte, 79. Arfeniat of lead, 241. Arfen'ic, native, 257. Arfcn'w-phnfphat of lead, 242. Ajbeflimte, 86. Ajhijloid, 88. AJhJlus, 85. Ajphalt, 171. Auriferous native filver, 181. Aurifii^mentum, 258, Axinile, 1 1 . ^2a« de cuivre, 210. B. ^/j/(j/} ruby, 28. Barofclenhc, 1 04. Barytes, carbonat of, 103. Ailphat of, 104. Bafan'ilt, 93. Bafaltine, 52. Avi/, 61. Bitumen, 166. elallic, 172. Bifmulh, native, 254. ochre, 256. B ack chalk, 123. Blail'tfi oclohedral iron (lone, 220. Blende, Zi,^. Bli.e calx ot copper, 210. Bolt, 1 18. Boracile, 1 00. Breccia, 138. i?Wii red cipper ore, 208. Briltlenefs, n° 12. Broiun iron ore, 223. C. Calamine, 246. Calciform filver ore, 1 90. Cauiiel coal, 171. 176. Carbon, 162. Carbonat of lead, 239. 6'a/'/ eye, 33. Celejiiiw, 107. Cey Unite, 29. 67'«.'^, 96. Chalcedony, 42. C/vr/, 41. Chlorite, 7 7 . Chryfiberil, 63. Chryfolite, 83 98. oriental, 63. Chryfoprajium, 33. Cinnabar, native, I9S. C/ay, 1 14. 127. porcelain, 115. common, 116. potters, 1 16. Coa/, 173. cannel, 171. Kilkenny, 164. parrot, 171. 1 76. ipuiiou.':, 177. Cobalt ore, black, 263. — — brown, 264. • dull grey, 261. red, 266. — white, 262. yellow, 265. Colour, 8 . Columnar iron ore, 225. Copper pyrites, 205. ■ malm, 208. Felfpar^ n° 58. argentine, 49. ochre, 20S. Corivindum, 26. Cork, mountain, 85. Cornelian, 42. Corneous mercury, 200. filver ore, 192. Corundum, 26. Culm, Wales, 1 64. Cupriferous fulphuratej ore, 189. Cy anile, 63 . Cymophane, 74. D. Delphinite, 73. Diamond, 163. Du£lUity, 12. E. Eagle ftone, 225. Emerald, 61. Emery, 2 1 8. F. Feel, I 7 . Eel/ite, SI- Fer oligifte, 221. pyrocete, 222. Flint, 32. Florid red copper ore, 208. Fluor, 99. FraSure, 13. Fragments, 16. Fullers earth, 119. G. Galena, 233. Ganjue, page 536, note. Garnet, n° 70. -. white, 60. Glacies marlse, 5a. Gneifs, 140. Gold, native, 182. Granntine, I42. Granatite, 47. Granilite, 1 44. Granite, 138. Granittll, 143. Granular iron ore, 225. Graphite, 211 . Green earth, 123. fand of Peru, 209. Grey copper ore, 207. Gypjuiv, 97. H. Humatites, 223. 224. Hardnefi, I I. Hepatic mercurial ore, 199. Hornblende, 53. bafaltic, 52. refplendent, 54. Hornjlate, 40. Hornjlone, 4 1 . (hiftofc, 92. Hyacinth, 93. blanche cruciforme, 62. Hyalite, 64. Hydrofulpburet 251. Lepidoliti, n» 59. Leucite, 60. Lilalite, 59. Lime, burat of, loo. carbonat of, 96. fluat of, 99. phofphat of, 98, . i\ilph;lC of, 97. Lim:Jlon?, 96. Lithomar^a, 1 1 7. Eoam, 128. Lowland iron ere, 226. Lujlre, 10. Lydian ftone, 92. M. Magnetic iron ftone, 220. fand, 220. Malic hit e, 211. Maltha, 170. Manganeje, black or brown oie oi, 273. grey ore of, 272. — — red ore of, 275. white ore of, 274, Marl, 124. Meadow lowland ore, 226. Mcnachanite, 284. Menalites, 34. Mercury, 195. Mica, 50. AFicaccous iron ore, 221. Micarcll, 4J. j^J/zw^f/a/ caoutchouc, 172. pitch, 170. tar, 169. Molybdena, 279. Molybdat of lead, 243. Morajfy iron ore, 227. Mould, 125. .A/own/ain blue, 210. green, 21 1. Mountains, different, p. 531, Note. of antimony, Mullen, 149, Muriat of antimony, 252. I. Mufcovy glafs, 50. Jade, 84. Jl^r/^n, 81. filver Jargon, 93. N. Ja/pcr, 43. Naphtha, 167. y^/, 1 74. Nickel ochre, 268. /;o« ore, 214. O. K. Objidian, 55. Olive copper ore, 213. Olivine, 83. Opal, 33. Orpiment, 258. O-viJurm, 96. 84. Oxygenated carbonat of copper, 211. P. PeMlende, 280. Peridot, 83. /T/^U 81. Kraggstone, 1 50. Kupjer lazur, 21c. nickel, 267. L. Eapis nephrlticus, lazuli, 69. Lava, 152. Lazulite, 69. Lead ochre, 238. Index. Pari/ite, n° 56. Petroleum, 168. Petrofikxy 41. Phofphat of le^ld, 240. Phofphorile, 9^. Pierre a fufil, 32. — — de croix, 47. Pifiform, 225. Pilchjlone, 34. Platinum, native, 193. Plutubago, 217. Plumbifcrous aiuimoniated filver ore, 234. Plumofe antimonial ore, 2jo. Porphyry, 151. (hillofe, 40, PolJIon-, 76. Prchniie, 72. Pudding Jlove, 136. Pumice, 157. Pazzolaiio, 156. Py riles, 216. Pyromaclnis, 32. Pyroxen, 87. <^ ^tartz, 30. el.irtic, 31. R. Realgar, 259. /?!?</ antimonial ore, 251. chalk, 121. copper glafs, 208. iron ore, 224. lead ore of Siberia, 289. MINERALOGY. 553 /?fi/ filver ore, n° 191. Reddle, 121. i?ofi crjftal, 30. Rubeliite, 39. /e«^j., 28. bahifs, 28. boheniian, 30. occidental, 36. oiftohedral, 28. oiiental, 25. fpinell, 28. S. Sagenil:, 283. Sand, 127. Sandjlonc, 1 3 1 . Sappare, 74. Supphjr, oriental, 25. occidental, 36. Scipiform iron ore, 225. Seafioth, 81. Selenite, 97. Serpentine, 75. SkiUcr ipar, 54. ShiJIus, argillaceous, 79. Wor/, 46. green, 73. — — prifroaric hexagon, 52. • red, 39. 283. Shorlite, 38. Sienite, 142. 5'/7f.v, 32. Siliceous Ipar, 78. Silver, n.ltive, 184. Sinopk, 30. S/a/i-, n" 79. Smaragdite, 80. Sommile, 37. Sound, 18. Sparry iron ore, 227. Specular iron ore, 221. laminated, 222. Spinel!, 28. Slaurolite, 62. Slaurolithe, 47. Staurotide, 47. Steatites, 82. Stilbite, 67. Streak, 9. Strontiles, carbonat of, 106. fulphat of, 107. Stru&ure, 1 5 . Sulphat of lead, 244. zinc, 247. Sulphur, 161. Surface, 6. Sivampy iron ore, 226. Swine/lone, 96. T. Ti^/f, 5 1 . Talcite, 51. Telefta, 25. Texture, 1 4. ThalUle, 73. Tkumerjiortef 7 1 . T;//, 129. T'/iz pyrites, 231. Tinjlone, 232. Titanilr, n" 2R5. Topaz, ancient, 83. — — — falfe, 30. occidental, 36. ^— ^— oriental, 25. Saxon, 36. Tourmaline, 48. Tranfparency, 7. Tr,!/, 146. TripAi, 44. 7'f//a, tellaceous, 96. Tungjlen, 277. V. Vefuvian, 60. Vitreous filver ore, 187. . copper ore, 204. Volcanic adies, 158. l/ranitie ochre, 281. W. Waelen, 1 48 . /^/i/'/f copper ore, 203. lead fpar, 239. Wither ile, 102. Wolfram, 276. Wood tin, 232. Y. Tanolite, 71. Te/loau chalk, 122. copper ore, 208. Z. Zeolite, 66. Zillertite, 52. Zircon, 93. Mingun, n Mlqutlon M I Q_ MINGUN ^,jWj, on the N fide of the mouth of They have the ifland Anticofti N. lat. 50° ij', W. long. 63"^ the river St Lawrence S. diftant 10 leagues. Z^'. — Morse. MINGO-TOWN, an Indian town on the W. bank of the Ohio river, 86 miles N. E. of Will's-Town, by tlie Indian Path, and 40 fouth-wefterly of Pittlburg. It Itsndi a few miles up a fmall creek, where there are fprings that yield the petrol, a bituminous liquid. — ib. MINGOES, an Indian nation who inhabit near the foutheni branch of the Sciota river. Warriors, 50. —ib. MINISINK, a village in Newjerfey, on the N. W. corner of the State, and on the wellern fide of Dela- ware river ; about 5 miles below Montague, and 57 N. W. of Brunfu-ick.— Z,^. MiNisiNK, a townlhip in Orange county, New-York, bounded eallerly by the Wallkill, and foulhcrly by the St itc of New-Jerfey. It contains 2,215 inhabiiants ; of whom 320 are entitled to be eleiftors, and 51 are flavcs. — ib. MIQLIELON, a fmall dcfert ifiand, 8 miles S. W. of Cape May in Newfoundland ifland. It is the mod wellerly of what have been called the 3 itlands of St Pierre or St Peter, and is notfo high as the other two; SuPfL. Vol. II. M I R but its foil is very indifferent, and it is not more than Mirateao. three-fourths of a league in length. There is a paflage *>^''^^^*' or channel from the weftward along by the N. end of this iiiand into Fortune Bay on the S. coall ot New- foundland. N. lat. 47" 4', W. long. 55° 55'. It is fometimcs called Muguehn. — ib. MIRABEAU (Hunnore Gabriel, O.mtede), well known both by his writings, and the aiftive part which he took in bringing about the French revolu'.ion, was born in 1749 of a noble family. Throughout life, he difplayed a fplrit averfe from every reftrainr, and was one of thcfe unhappy geniufes in wlmni the moll bril- liant talents ferve only as a iconrgc to thenilelves and all around them. It is t'>ld by his democraiical pane- gyrills, as a wonderful proof of famiW lyrannv under the old government, that not lefs than 67 lettres de ca- chet had been obtained by Mirabeau :he father againft this fun and others of his relatives. This ftory, if true, proves, with at leall equal force, what many anecdotes confirm, that, for his (hare of them, the fon was not lefs indebted to his own ungovernable difpofition than to the leverity of his parent. He was indeed a monfter of wickedncfs. Debauchery, gaming, impiety, and eve- ry kind of fenfuality, were net enough for him. He was delUtute of decency in his vices ; and to fupply his 4 A expences. MIR [ Mirabtau. expjnces, fcrupled not to perform tricks which would ^■^''^^"*-' difgrace a thief-catcher. His father and mother difa- greeing, commenced a procefs of feparatlon ; when Mi- rabeau, jull hberatcd from prifon for a grofs mifde- meanor, was in want of money. He went to his father, fided with him againft his mother, on whom he poured a torrent of inveiitives ; and, for loo guineas, wiote his lather's memorial for the court. He then went to his mother ; and by a limilar conduft got the fame fum from her ; and both memorials were prefented. That the father of fuch a man (hould frequently get him fbut up in prifon, can excite no furprife ; for confine- inent only could withhold him from the perpetration of crimes, Tlie talents of Mirabeau led him frequently to em- ploy his pen ; and his publications form the chief epo- chas of his life. Hii lii If publication was, i. i'Jfai fur le Defpolifme, " An Elfay on Defpotifm," in Svo. Next, in one of liis confinements, he wrote, 2. a work in 2 vols Svo, On Letlres dc Cachet. 3. ConJuLrations Jur rOrdre de Cinc'tnnatus, 8vo. A remonftrance againll the Older of Cincinnatus, propofed at one time to be eftabliflied in America. The public opinion in Ame- rica favoured this remonftrance, and it proved elitflual. 4. His next woik was in favour of the Dutch, when Jofeph H. demanded the opening of the Scheldt, in be- half of the Brabangons. It is entitled, Doiites fur la Liberie de I'Efcant, 8vo. 5. Lettre a I' Emfereur Jo- feph II. fur fan Rcglcment concernanl P Emigration ; a pamphlet of forty pages, in Svo. 6. De la Ca'ijft d'Efcompte ; a volume in Hvo, written againft that elta- blilhment. 7. De la Banque d'Efpagne, Svo; a remon- ftrance againft ellablilhing a French bank in Spain. A conlroverfy arifing upon this fubjeft, he wrote again upon it. S. Two pamphlets on the monopoly of the water company in Paris. Soon after the publication of thefe works, he was fent in a public charadler to the court of Berlin ; where he conduced the king's affairs juft as he had formerly done tbofe of his father and mother, fully ready to fa- crifice all parties, and to fell himfelf to the higheft bid- der. With Inch a difpofition, he could not long avoid the notice of the Prulllan illuminees; and Nicolai Bief- ter, Gedicke, and Leuchfenring, foon bscanie his con- ftant companions. At Brunfwick he met with Mau- villon, the worthy difciple of Philo Knigge, and at that time a profeifor in the Caroline college. This was the man who initiated the profligate Marquis in the lalt myfteries of illuminifm. Mirabeau was ftillat Berlin when Frederick l\. died. That monarch, as is well known, was a naturalilt, who holding this life for his all, encouraged the propagation of infidelity in his dominions, fiom wliich refulted the ■very worlt confequences to the peace of fociety. Of this truth his fuccellor Frederick William was duly fen- hble i and determined to fupport the church eftablith- ment in tlie moft peremptory manner, confiftent with the principles of religious toleration. He publiihed, therefore, focn after his accelhon, anedidl on religion, which is a model worthy of imitation in every country ; but it was attacked with the greateft virulence in num- berlefs publications. It was called an unjuftifiable ty- ranny over the confciences of men ; the dogmas fup. ported by it were termed abfurd fuperftitions ; the king's private characlerand his religious opinions were 554 'J MIR ridiculed and fcandaloufly abufed. The mod daring of Mirabeau. thefe attacks was a colleiflion of anonymous letters on '^^^•'''^^ the conftitution of the Prulllan ftates, univerfully be- lieved to be the conipofitiun of Mirabeau, who certainly wrote a French tranllacion, with a preface and notes more impudent than the work itfelt. The monarch is declared to be a tyrant ; the people of the PruQian do- minions are addrelled as a parcel of tame wretches, crouching under oppreffion ; and the inhabitants of Si- lefia, reprclented as ilill in a worfe condition, are re- peatedly called upon to roufe themfelves, and alTert their rights. About this time he publifhed, 9. An Effui fur le Se8e des llluniina ; one of the ftrangeft and moft impu- dent books that ever appeared. In it he defcribes a fedl exifting in Germany, called the Illuminated; and fays, that they are the moft abfurd and grofs fanatics imaginable, waging war with every appearance of lea- fon, and maintaining the moft ridiculous fuperjlitions . He gives fome account of thefe, and of their rituals and ceremonies, as if he had feen them all ; yet no fuch fociety as he defcribes ever exifted : and Mirabeau employed liis powers of deception, merely to fcreen from obfervation the real illuminati, by holding out to the rulers of flates this i^nis fuluus of his ow n brain. For a while the eflay certainly contributed to blind the eyes of the German princes ; and Nicolai, with others of the junto, adopting the whim, called Mirabeau's fa- natics Ohfcuranteii, and joined with him in placing on the lift of Ohfcuranten feveral perfons whom they wilhed to make ridiculous. Long before his initiation in the myfteries of illu- minifm, Mirabeau had been acquainted with all the re- volutionary powers of the mafonic lodges ; nor did he vi'hen initialed, undervalue thofe which flowed, or might flow, from Weilhaupt's inventive genius. On his re- turn to France, he began to introduce the new myfte- ries among fome of his mafonic brethren. His firft af- fcciate was the Abbe Talleyrand de Peiigord, who had already begun to aft the part of Judas in the firft order of the church. But to have only introduced the my- fteries was not fufhcient for the Marquis; he would have teachers come from Germany, who were better verfed than he was in the illuminizing arts. Well ac- quainted with the reafons that had induced the chiefs of the Older to defer the converfion of France, he found means to convince them, that the time was now come for the accomplilhment of their views ; and at his requeft a deputation was fent by Spartacus to illumi- nize that great kingdom. See Illuminati, n" 40, 41, Suppl. When the affembly of Notables was convened at Pa- ris, Mirabeau foretold that it would fnon be followed by a meeting of the States ; and at thjt period he pub- liflied a volume againft the ftockjobbing, then carried to a great height, intitled, 10. Denonciation de ragiatage au Roi, et a I'j-ljjenillee de Notables, 8vo. A lettre de cachet was ilfued againft him in confequence of this pub- lication ; but he eluded purluit, and publifhed a pam- phlet as a fequel to the book. His next work was againft M. Necker, 11. Lettre a M. de C retells, fur I Admin'iflration de M. Neckr, a pamphlet in 8vo. 12. A volume, in 8vo. againft the Stadtholderdiip : ^u:i Bataves, fur le Stadlhoiiderat. 1 3 . Obfervatiuns fur la matfon de force appeUe Bicetre, an Svo pamphlet. 14. Another MIR C 555 ] Mirabtau. Another trafl, iniitled, Confeih a un jeune Prince qui lampoon M S '' fent la necejfile de reja'ire Jon educatlm. 15. He now proceeJed to a larger and more arduous work than any he had yet publifhed, en the Pruflian monarchy under Frederick the Great: De la Manurchie Piufficniie fius Frederic le Grand. 4 vols, ^to, or eight in 8vo. In this work, he undertakes to define precu'ely how a mo- narchy Ihould be conftituted. When the orders were illued for convening the States general, Mirabeau re- turned into Provence : and at iheiame time publifhed, 16. Hijlo'ire Secretle de la Gourde Berlin, two volumes ot' letters on the Secret Hillory of the Court of Berlin. This work was condemned by the parliament of Paiis, for the unreferved manner in which it delivered the cha- ratSlers of many foreign piinces. As the eledions pro- ceeded, he oUered hinifclf a candidate in his own order at Aix ; but he was fo abhorred by the nobleffe, that they not only reje>5ted him, but even drove him from their pretence. This allront fettled his meafures, and he determined on their ruin. He went to the commons, difclaimed his being a gentleitian, fet up a little fhop in the market-place of Aix, where he fold trifles; and now, fully refolved what line he fliould purfue, he courted the commons, by joining in all their excelies againlt the noble/fe, and was at lalt returned a member of the af- fembly. In confequence of this, he went to Paris ; where the part he took was adive, and fuch as tended, in general, to accelerate all the violences of the revolution. He now publifhed, periodically, 17. his Lettres a fes Com- mettani. Letters to liis Conftituents, which form, when colleiSed, 5 vols, Svo. It is fuppofed, that the fatal meafure of the juniflion of the three orders into one na- tional aflembly, was greatly promoted by thefe letters. The public events ot thefe times, and the part taken in them by Mirabeau, are the fubjeft of general hiftory. He lived to fee the conflitution of 1789 eftabliflied, but not to fee its confcquences — the deftrudion of the mo- narchy, the death of the king, and the ruin of all pro- perty ! He was accufed, as well as the duke of Or- leans, of luring the mob which attacked Verfailles on the 5th and 6th of Oilober 1789 ; but with him was alfo acquitted by the tribunal of the Chatelet. The domi- nion of his eloquence in the National Aflembly had long been abfolute, and on the 29th of January 1791, he was eleifled prefident. At the latter end of March, in the fame year, he was feized by a fever, and died on the 2d of April. The talents of Mirabeau will not be doubted, though they were certainly rather brilliant than profound. To be noticed, and to lead, were thefole objeftsof his am- bition ; and for the attainment of them, he took the fide of the difcontented, as the beft field lor his match- lefs eloquence. Yet there was no man more devoted to the principles of a court than this Marquis, provided he could have a (hare in the adminiftration ; and a lliare he would have obtained, if any thing mod;^rate would have fatibficd him: But he thought nothing worthy of him but a place of active truft, and a high department ; na- tions which all knew him not qu.dified to fill. Want- ing knowledge of great thing'', he was learned only in the bullling detail of intrigue, and would, at any time, have facrificed his deareft friend, and the interells of his country, tor an opportunity of exercillng his brilliant eloquence, and indulging his propenfity to faiire aud But the greatell obftacle to his advancement Mirago- under llie old government was the abject worthlefincfs ^"=» of liis charatfler. Drinking was the only vice in which •»n-n- • he did not indulge ; and from this he was reflraincd by v^i-iv-JI£^ his exhaufted conflitution. To his brother, the Vif- count, who was frequently i.Ttoxicatcd, the Marquis one day faid, " How can you, brother, fo expcfe your- felf ?" «' What (replied the Vifcount) ! how infatiable are you? Nature has given you every vice; and hav- ing left me only this one, you grudge it me !" INIIRAGOANE, a town on the N. fide of the fouih peninfula of the illand of St Domingo, and S. fide of the Bight of Leogane, at the head of a bay of its name. It is on the road from J;reniie to Port au Prince, about 31 leagues E. by S. cf the former, and 23 VV. by S. of the latter. N. lat. 1 8" 27'. — Morse. MIRAMICHI, or Mirachi, a pert, bay and river on the N. E. coall of New-Brunfwick. The port is at the mouth of the river. The entrance into the bay is very wide; it has Point Portage for its northern en- trance, and its fouthern fide is formed by Eicuminas point, which is 53 miles N. E. of Shediac hsrbour, and 34 S. E. of the mouth of Nipifighit river, which empties into Chaleur bay. There is a falmcn filhery in Mi- ramichi river. — ib. MIllAY Bay, on the coaft of the ifland of Cape Breton, is to the S. from Morienne Bay. Large vcf- fels may go up 6 leagues, and have good anchorage, and lie fecure from all winds. N. lat. 46° s'> W. long. 59° 49'._;3. MIREBALAIS, an interior town in the French part of the ifland of St Domingo, fituated nearly 12 leagues N. of Port au Prince, on the road from that ci- ty to Varettes ; from which laft it is 14 leagues fouth- eaft ib. MISCOTHINS, a fmall tribe of Indians who in- habit between Lake Michigan and the MillilFippi. — ib. MISERY, an ifle between Salem and Cape Ann in Malfachufetts ib. MISKO, an ifland on the fouth-weft fide of Chaleur Bay, at its mouth. — ib. MISSINABE Lake is fituated in the north part of North-America, in lat. 48" 29' 42" N. aud long. 84° 2' 42" W — ib. MissiNABE Houfe is fituated on the eafl fide cf Moofe river, 8 miles from Millinabe lake, and 80 W. by S. of Frederick Hoofe ; and is a Ration belonging to the Hudfon Bay Company. — ib. MISSIQLTASH River. Nova- Scotia and New. Brunfwick provinces are feparated by the ieveral wind- ings of this river, from its confluence with Beau Bafin (at the head of Chignedto channel) to i:s rife or main fource; and from thence by a due eafl line to tl.e bay of Verte, in the ftraits of Northumberland. — ib. MISSISSIPPI Ri-jer. This noble river, which, with its eallern branches, waters \\vc cighthi of tlie U- nited States, forms their weftern btiunJary, and fe- parates them from the Spanifh Pnnince of Louifiana and the Indian country. Its fourres have never been explored ; cf courfe its length is unknown. It is con- jcilured, however, to be upwards of 3,000 miles long. The tributary ftreams which fall into it from the well and call, are numerous, the largcft of which are the Miffouri from the well, and the Illinois, Ohio, and Ten- ncUee from the call. The country on both fides of die 4 A 2 Milllflippi, M I S [ 55(> 3 M I X MiUburi, Miffiilippi, and on its tributary dreams, is equal in II goodnel'sto any in N. America. This river isnaviga- Miftral. ^^jg jg 5j Anthony's Falls without any cbftruiftion, and Ibme travellers defcribe it as navigable above them. On both fides of this river are fait firings or licks, which product; excellent fait; and on its branches are innumerable fuch fprings. Bslides the coal mines in the upper parts of the Ohio country, there are gre.it quantities of coal on the upper branches of this river. An illand of confiderablc li/.e is formed by its mouths, befides many fmaller illes. Thefe mouths are lituated between the latitude of 29° and 30° N. and between the longitude of 89" and 90° \V. — ib. MISSOURI River, in Louifuna, falls into the Mif- fjlTippi from the wetbvard, 18 miles below the mouth of the IHir.tlis, 195 above the mouth of the Ohio, and about ii6o miles from the Balize, or mouths of the Miffiffippi in the gulf of Mexico. We have not fufiicicnt knowledge of this river to give any cor- real account of the extent of its navigation. In Capt. Hutchins's map, it is faid to be navigable 1300 miles. — ik MISSOURIS, one of the Indian nations who inha- bit the banks ot the above river, having, it is faid, 1500 warriors. — ii>. MISTAKE B.y, a luge bay on the weft fide of the entrance of Davis's Straits, and to the north of Hud- fon's Scrairs ; from which it is feparated by a peninfula of the north main on the W. and Refolution Illand on the fouth. It is to the N. E. of Nieva Ifland, and N. W. of Cape Elizabeth. — ii. MISTAKEN Cdf>e, the fouth point of the eaftern- moft of the Hermit's ICands, is about 3 leagues E. N. E. from Cape Horn, at the extremity of S. America. Between thefe, it is fuppofed, there is a paflage into Nalfau Bay. — ik Mistaken Point, to the weftward of Cape Race, at the S. E, point of the Ifland of Newfoundland, and to the eallward of Cape Pine, is fo called becaufe it has been frequently miftaken by feamen for Cape Race vhen they firft make the ifland from the fcuthv/ard, though it is 2 leagues VV. N. W. from it. — il>. MISTIC, or Myftic, a fliort river which falls into the north fide of Bollon harbour, by a brond mouth on the eaft fide of the peninfula of Charleltovm. It is na- vigable for floops 4 miles to the induftrious town of Medford ; and is crolfed, a mile above its mouth, by a bridge 130 rods in length, through v.hich velfels pafs by means of a draw. — ih. KISTINSINS, an Indian nation who inhabit on the fouthern fide of tlie lake of the fame name in Lower Canada. — ib. MISTISSINNY Lake, in Canada, on the S. E. fide of which is a Canadian Houfe, or ftation for trade, — /i. MISTRAL, the name of a wind, which is men- tioned in almoft every account that we have of Pro- vence, and which is remarkable for blowing almoit the vhole year from north-well or weft-north-weft, in a cli- mate where the wind ihould be variable. It is faid to contribute to the falubrity of the air, by diiperfing the exhalations of the marflies and ftagnant waters, fo com- xnon in the fouth of Languedoc and Provence ; but at times it is alfo very injurious, or at leaft very trouble- fome. It Is not, however, on either of thefe accounts that it is introduced into this Woik, but for the fake of the caufes afligned by S.uifllire for its conflancy, whicli may be applied to other v.inds that nearly re- femble it ; and which he found might be reduced to three. «' The firft and moft effcdual caufe (he fays) is the fituation of the Gulf of Lyons, the banks ol whicli are the principal theatre of its ravages. This Gulf, in fail, is fituated at the bottom of a funnel, formed by the Alps and Pyrenees. All the winds blowing from any point between weft and north, are forced by thefe mountains to unite in the Gult. Thus, winds which would not have prevailed but at one extremity of the Gulf, or even much beyond it, are obliged to take this route, after having undergone the repercufllon of thefe mountains ; and the middle of the Gulf, inftead of the calm which it might have enjoyed, is expofed to the united efFurts of two ftreams of wind, defcending in dif- ferent direftlons. Hence arife tliofe whirlwinds which feem to charafterife the miftral, and appear to have in- duced the ancients to call it Circhis, a turbine ejus ac vertigine. See ylul. Gelliui, 1. ii. cap. 22. " The fecond caufe is, the general flope cf the grounds, del'cending from all fides towards the Gulf; which becoming all at once lower and more foutherly than the unds extending behind it, is, from thefe joint circum.rtances, rendered the hotteft point of all the ad- jacent country: and, as the air on the fuiface ot the earth always tends from tlie colder ti) the witrrner re- gions, the Gulf of Lyons is aftually the centre towards v/hith the air from all colder points between eaft and weft muft prefs. This caufe, then, alone would be pro- duftive of winds direfled to the Gulf, even if the re- percufllon of the mountains did not exert its influence. " Finally, it is well known, that in all gulfs the land- winds blow more forcibly than cppofite to plains and promontories, whatever be the fituation oi thofe gulfs. I apprehend, indeed, on ftridl examination (fays our au- thor), that this caufe is blended with the preceding ; but as the faifl is generally admitted, and in Ibme cafes can be explained only by rcafons drawn from the effecls of heat, it may not imprope.ly, peiliaps, be diftiniSly menlioned. It is, at leaft, necelfary to fuppofe, that feveral caufes produce the miftral, in order to under- ftand why, notwilhftanding the variablenefs of the fea- foBs and temperatures, that wind is {o Angularly con- ftant in Lower Languedoc and Lower Provence. A very remarkable inftance of tliis conftancy is recorded by the Abbe Papon, in his Voyage ek Provence, torn, ii. p. 81. He alferts, that during the years 1769 and 1770, the miftral continued for fourteen months fuccef- fively. But the three caufes which I have Rated, taken feparately, will explain its frequency, and united, will account tor its force." MITCHELL'S Eddy, the firft falls of Merrimack river, 20 miles from its mouth, and 8 above the new- bridge which connefts Haverhill with Bradiord. Thus far it is navigible for fliips of burden Morse. MITCHIGAMAS, an Indian nation, who with the Piorias inhabit near the fettlements in the Illinois coun- try. — ih. ■ MIXT Angle, or Figure, is one contained by both right and curved lines. M1XI Miftral, II Mixt. MOD [ 557 3 M O H Mist Number, is one that is partly an integer and coaft of S. America, not far from the Conflables, and partly a fradiion ; as 34- MixT Ratio, or Pro^orlton, is when the fum of the antecedent and confequent is compared v.ith the difler- ence of theantecedei.t and confequent; ., C 4 : 3 : : 12 : 9 as if < ^ ? / \_ a : b : : c : d , r 7 : I : : 21 : 3 »^^" \aib:a-h -.-.c+d-.c-d. MOAGKS IJlands, on the N. coait vi S. America, in the entrance of tiie Gulf of Venezuela. They ex- tend fiom N. to S. and l!e weft of the Ifland of Aru- ba ; are 8 or 9 in number, and all, except one, low, flat and full of trees. The Ibuthernmoll is the large ll. — Mom. in Hbcut lai. 5° N. long. 52° W. tb. MCERIrf, a lake in Egypt, occafionally mentioned in that article (^Z'nyv/;, and generally fuppofed the produftlon of human art. Of this, however, Mr Brown lays it bears no mark. " Tlie Riape, as far as was diltin- guilhable, fetms, not inaccurately laid down in D'An- ville's map, unltfs it be, that the end neareft the Nile fliould run more in a north weft and fouth-eaft direc- tion. The length may probably be between 30 and 40 miles ; the breadth, at the wideft part he could gain, was 50CO toifes, as taken with a fex-ant ; that is, near- ly fix miles. The utmoll poffible extent of circuit muft of courfe be 30 leagues. On the north-eaft and i'outh is a rocky ridge, in every appearance primeval. Mceris, II Mohacz. like the works of men. Several fiihermen, in miferable boats, are conft.tntly employed on the lake. The wa- ter is brackilh, like mod bodies of water under the fame circumrtances. It is, in tlie language of the country, Birket-el-keruti, probably from its extremities bearir fome refemblance to horns. mg MOFUSSEL, a relative term, fignifying the fub- MOBILE, a large navigable river, formed by tvvo In Ihort, nothing can prefent an appearance more un. main branches the Alabama, and Tombigbee, in the fouth weftern part of Georgia, juft below a confider- able i(l.,nd, the fouth point of which is in about lat. 31° 26' N. and long. 87? 55' VV. Thence purfuing a fouth courfe into Weft- Florida, tiie confluent ftream enters tlie Gulf of Mexico, at Mobile Point in lat. 30° 17'N. J I leagues below the town of Mobile. Large vclfels cannot go within 7 miles of the town. The breadth ordinate lands or diftridts, oppofed to' Sudder, which of the bay is in general about 3 or 4 leagues. Vaft is tlie head. numbers of large alligators bafk on the flioref, as well MOGHULBUGHKITUM, or Muhulbucltiiunt, a as fwim in the rivers and lagoons. From the north- creek which runs weftward to Alleghany river, in Penn- eaftern fource of the waters of the Alabama to Mobile fyUania. It is paffable in flat-bottomed boats to the Point, at the mouth of Mobile Bay, is, according to the fettlements in Northumberland county. Wheelinj? is beft maps, about 460 miles : large boats can navigate its northern branch. — Morse. 350 miles, and canoes much farther. — ib. MOHACZ, Mohatz, or Mohoz, a town in the Mobile, a city of Welt-Florida, formerly of con- Lower Hungary, upon the Danube, between the river fiderable fplendor and iiriportaiice, but now in a ftate Sarwiza to the north, and the Drave to the fouth ; four of decline. It is pretty regular, of an oblong figure, German miles from either, fu from Eifeck to the north, and fituatedon the W. bank of the river. The Bay of and nine from Colocoa to the fouth. Tliis otherwife Mobile terminates a little to the north-eaftward of tlie fmall place is memorable for two great battles here town, in a number of marfhes and lagoons ; which fub- fought ; the frrft between Lewis king of Hungary and jeifl the people to fevers and agues in the hot feafon. Solynian the Magnificent, in 1526: in which that un- it is 33 miles north of Mobile point, about 40 below fortunate Prince Lewis (being about 20 years old), the junelion of the two principal branches of Mobile 'with 25,000 men, fought 300,000 Turks ; when, be- river, and 30 W. N. W. of Penlacola. There are ma- ing overpowered by numbers, 22,000 of the Chriftian ny very elegant houfes here, inhabited by French, army were fliin upon the place ; 5000 waggons, eighty Englilh, Scotch, and Irlfh. Fort Conde, which ftands great cannon, 600 fmall ones, with all tlieir tents and very near the bay, towards the lower end of the town, baggage, were taken by the vigors ; and the Ki.^" in is a regular fortrefs of brick ; and there is a neat fquare his flight over the brook Curafs, fell into a quasrmire of barracks for the officers and foldiers. Mobile, when and was f«allowed up. After which, Solyman took in polfeirion of the Britilli, fent yearly to London fkins and flew 200,000 Hungarians, and got fuch a footlnjj and furs to the value of from 12 to ^'15,000 fterling. in that kingdom, tliat he could never lie expelled. This It Airrendered to the Spanifh forces in 1780. — ib. fatal battle was fought Odober 29. The fecond, in MOBJACK Bay, lets up N. W. from Chefapeak fome part, retrieves the lofs and infamy of the former. Bay, into Glcucefter county, Virginia, on the north The Duke of Loraine being il-nt by the Emperor, with fide of York river. — ib. cxprefs orders to pafs the Drave and take Eileck, his MOCASSIMAH, in Bengal, revenue fettled by a highncfs, July 10, 1687, with great di.-liculty paifej divifinn of the produce. MOCHULKAH, bond or obligation. MOCOA, a city of Terra Firma, S. America, fitua- ted at the main fource of Oronoko river, there called loirchia. — Morse. MOCOMOKO, or Little Oronoko, a river to the S. E. of the great river Oioaoko, on the eaft coall of S. America, 4 leagues weftward of Amacum. — ib. MODER and Daughters JJiands, a long ifland 2 leagues eaft by fouth of the Father, or Vaader Ifland, with 3 fmall ones, fo called, near Cayenne, en the eaft men upon the place of battle, beiides what were drown ed that river, then exticmely fwelled with rains ; but find- ing the Prime Vifier encamped at Efleck, with an army of 100,000 men, io ftrongly, that it was not poflible to attack him in that port without the ruin of the Chri- ftlan .army, he retreated, and rcpaffed it the 23d of the fame month ; where, upon the 29th, the Prime Vifier palfed that river at Elfcck ; and upon Auguft t2th, there followed a bloody fight, in which the Turks loft 1 00 pieces of cannon, 1 2 mortars, all their ammunition, provifions, tents, baggage, and trcafure, and about Sooo M O II [ 55« 3 M O L Mohswlt. ed In palTing the river, which could never be known. ^^~''"^^ After which vidor)-, General Duncwalr, September 30th, found Eileck totally deferted by the Turks, and took podellion of it. MOHAWK River, in New York, rifes to the north- ward of Fort Slanwix, ^bout 8 miles from Black, or Sable river, a water of Lake Ontario, and runs fouth- wardly 20 miles to the fort, then eailward no miles, and aiter receiving many tributary llreams, tails into Hudfon river, by three mouths oppollte to the cities of Lanfinburgh and Troy, from '; to 10 miles N. of Al- bany. The produce that is conveyed down this river, is landed at Scheneflady, on its S. bank, and is thence conveyed by land 16 miles, over a barren, fandy, llirub plain to Albany. It is in contemplation either to cut a canal from Schenedady 10 the navigable waters of Hudfon river, or to eftablilh a turnpike road between Schenedady and Albany. This fine river is now navi- gable for boats, from Scheneflady, nearly or quite to its fource, the locks and canals round the Little Falls, 56 miles above Albany, having been completed in the Autumn of lyyj ; fo that boats full loaded now pafs them. Tlie canal round them is nearly -^- of a mile, cutalmoft the whole diftance through an uncommonly hard rock. The opening of this navigation is of great advantage to the commerce of the State. A (hore of at lead 1000 miles in length, is, in confequence of it, walhed by boatable waters, exclufive of all the great lakes and many millions of acres of excellent tillage land, rapidly fettling, are accommodated with water communication for conveying their produce to market. The intervales on both fides of this river, are of vari- ous width, and now and then interrupted by the pro- jeaion of the hills quite to the banks of the river, are fome of the richeft and bell lands in the world. The fine farms which embrace thcfe intervales, are owned and cultivated principally by Dutch people, whole mode of managing them would admit of great improvement. The manure of their barns they conlider as a nuifance, and inllead of fpreading it on their upland, which they think of little value, (their meadow lands do not re- quire it) they either let it remain for years in heaps, and remove their barns, when accefs to them becomes difficult, or elfe throw it into the river, or the guUies and llreams which communicate with it. The banks of this river were formerly thickly fettled with Indians. At the period when Albany was firft fettled, it has been faid by refpeftable authority, that there were 800 war- riors in Scheneflady ; and that 300 warriors lived with- in a fpace which is now occupied as one farm. The Cohoez in this liver are a great curicfity. They are 3 miles from its entrance into the Hudfon. The river is abiiut 1000 feet wide ; the rock over which it pours, as over a mill dam, extends from S. W. to N. E. al- nioft in a line from one fide of the river to the other, and is about 40 feet perpendicular height, and inclu- ding the defcent above, the fall is as much as 60 or 70 feet. About a mile below the falls, is a handfome bridge, finifhed in July, 1795- Itis 1 100 feet in length, 24 in breadth, and 15 feet above the bed of the river, which for the moft part is rock, and is fupported by thirteen fjllJ ftoiie pillars. It is a free bridge, and in- cluding the expence of cutting through a ledge on the N. E. lideof the river, coft 12,000 dollars. The ri- ver inimediately below the bridge, divides into three Mole branches, which form feveral large iflands. The Mohawk, branches are fordable at low water, but are dangerous. From the bridge you have a fine view of the Cohoez on the N. W. — Morse. Mohawk, a branch of Delaware river. Its courfe from its fource in Lake Uttayantha is o. W. 45 miles, thence S. E. 12 miles, when it mingles with the Po- pachton branch ; thence the confluent ftream is called Delaware. — ili. Mohawks, an Indian nation, acknowledged by the other tribes of the Six Nations to be " the true old heads of the conlederacy." Tliey were formerly very powerful, and inhabited on Mohawk river. As they were llrongly attached to tlie Johnfon family, on ac count of Sir William Johnfon, a part ot them emigra- ted to Canada with Sir John Johnfon, as early as the year 1776. About 300 of this nation now relide in Upper Canada. — il>. MOHEGAN, fituated between Norwich and New- London, in Connedlicut. This is tlie refidence of the remains of the Mohegan tribe of Indians. A confi- derable part of the remains of this tribe lately remo- ved to Oneida with the late Mr Occom. — iL MOHER, in Bengal, a gold coin, worth about 33 fliillings. MOHERIR, a writer of accounts. MOHICCONS, a tribe of Indians who inhabit on a branch of the Sufquehannah, between Chagnet and Owegy. They were reckoned by Hutchins, about 30 years ago, at 100, but by Imlay, in 1773, at only 70 fighting men. They were formerly a confederate tribe ot the Delawares. Alfoan Indian tribe, in the N. W. Territory, who inhabit near Sandufky, and between the Sciota and Mufkingum ; warriors, 60. — Mo ne. MOINEAU, a flat baftion laifed before a curtin when it is too long, and the baftions of the angles too remote to be able to defend one another. Sometimes the moineau is joined to the curtin, and fometimes it is divided from it by a moat. Here mufquetry are placed to fire each way. MOINS, a river of Loulfiana, which empties from the N. W. into tlie Mifliflippi, in lat. 40 20 N. The Sioux Indians defcend by this river. — Morse. MOISIE R'mtr, on the N. Ihore of the St Lawrence, is about 3 leagues W. S. W. of Little Saguena river, from which to the W. N. W. within the Seven Illands, is a bay fo called from thefe illands. — ib. MOLE (See Talpa, Encycl.), is an animal exceed- ingly troublefoine, both to gardeners and farmers; and there are perfons who contrive to make a livelihood by the trade of nwli catching. Thefe men, it is well known, are genenilly quacks and cheats ; and the fecrcts which they fell for extirpating thole deflructive animals are of very little avail. Even poifon feldom produces any con- fideruble effeifl ; becaule the mole, while it does not drink, lives only on roots and worms. Under the word Mole {Encycl. ), fome diredions will be found for clear, ing fields ot this dellruftive animal ; but the following are perhaps preferable, as they feem to have been the rei'olt of much experience ; Immediately at day-break, it will be neceflary to make a tour round the garden or meadow, from which it is wilhed to extirpate the moles ; for at that time they will be all found at work, as may be feen by the hills newly threwn up. If the perfon is then clofe to the M O L c 559 : M O N Mole, the hill, he mud proceed as the gardeners do, and turn ^~<'^*^ up with a (Iroke of the Ipade ihe hill together with the digger. The palFage is then cut through before the animal is aware of the attack ; und therciore it has not power to efcape. It the niole-liill be frclh, even though the animal may not be throwing up eaith, the perlon ought not to lofe his time in waiting, but liiould imme- diately proceed to the operation above nientiined. If you tind a frelh hill Itanding by itlelf, which feuns to Ihcw by lis lituation that it has no communication with any other, which is always the cafe when the mole lias worked from the furface downwards in endeavour- ing to procure a more convenient habitation, alter the hill has been turned up with the fpade, a bucket of water Ihould be poured over the mouth of the pafl'age. By thefe means the animal, which is at no great dif- tance, will be obliged to come forth, and may be eahly caught with the hand. You may difcover alfo whether a hill has any com- munication with another, if you apply your ear to it, and then cough or make a loud noife. If it has no communication with the neighbouring hills, you will hear the terrified animal make a noife by its motion. It will then be impoiEble for it to efcape ; and you may either pour water into the hole, or turn up the hill with a fpade, until the mole is found ; tor, in general, it ne- ver goes deeper into the earth than from htteen to eigh- teen inches. When any of the beds in a garden have been newly watered, the mole, attraifled by the coolnefs and moi- flure, readily repairs thither, and takes up its rehdence in them, making a pailage at the depth of fcarcely aa inch below the furtace. In that cafe it may ealily be caught. When you fee it at work, you need only tread behind the animal with your feet on the palFage to prevent its retreat, and then turn up the hill with a fpade ; by which means you will be fure to catch it. When you dig alter it with a fpade, the animal forces its way downwards into the earth in a perpendicular di- reflion, in order that it may the better efcape the threa- tened danger. In that cafe it will not be necelFary to dig long, but to pour water over the place, which will foon make the animal return upwards. People, in general, are not aware of the great mif- chief occafioned in fields and gardens by thefe animals. We are, however, informed by Buffon, that in the year 1740 he planted fifteen or futeen acres of land witli acorns, and that the greater part of them were in a little time carried away by the moles to their fubterra- nean retreats. In many of thefe there were found half a bulhel, and in others a buihel. butFon, after this cir- cumftance, caufed a great number of iron traps to be conftruifted ; by which, in lefs tlian three weeks, he caught 1300. To this inftance of the devaftation oc- cafioned by thefe animals, we may add the loUowing: In the year 1742 they were fo numerous in fome parts of Holland, that one farmer alone caught between five and fix thoufand ot them. The dcftr uelion occalioned by thefe animals is, however, no new phenomenon. We are informed by hillory, that the inhabitants of the ifland of Tenedos, the Trojans, and the j'Eolians, were infefted by them in the earlieft ages. For this reafon a temple was ercifled to Apoilo Smynthius, the deftroy- er of moles. See Economifche Hcfie, Vol. VII. Part 5. and Vol. IX. Part 4.; or Phil. Magazine, N" 5. MOLE, The, is fituated in the N. W. part of the ifland of St Domingo, 2 leagues E. of Cape St Nichi - las, and is olten called by that name. The Mole, though inferior, by a great deal, to Cape Francois and , Port au Prince, is the firlt port in the ifland for fafety in time of war, being ftrongly fortified both by nature and art. Count D'Efiaing, under whofe direftion theie works were conllruc'led, intended to have eftab- lilhed here the feat ol the French government ; but the produftions ot its dependencies were of too little value to engage his fuccctfors to carry his plan into effefl ; fo that It is now no more than a garrifon. It has a beau- tiful and late prirt, and is confidered as the heakhieft fituation in St Domingo, by realbn of the purity of its fprings. The exports from Jan. i, 1789 to Decem- ber 31, of the fame year, were only 265,6151b. cofTce — 26,86ilb. cotton — 2,8231b. indigo, atd other fmall articles to the value of i 29 livres. The value of duties on exportation 1,250 dollars 21 cents. It is 4 leagues W. of Jean Rabel, 1 1 N. W. of Bombarde, 36 W. of Cape Fiancois, and 17I W. by S. of Port de Paix. N. lat. 19 50, W. long. 75 48 Morse. MOLINE's Gut, on the S. W. fide of the ifland of St Chriftopher's in the W. Indies, is the firft rivulet to the S. E. of Brimllone Hill, near the mouth of which is anchorage in 5 and 10 fathoms, and a clear fliore ; but to the eaflward of it are fome funken rocks. — ib. MOMENTS, in the new doflrine of infinites, de- note the indefinitely fmall parts of quantity ; or they are the fame with what are otherwife called intinitefimals and differences, or increments and decrements ; being the momentary increments or decrements of quantity confidered as in a continual flux. Moments are the generative principles of magnitude ; they have no determined magnitude of their own, but are only inceptive of magnitude. Hence, as it is the fame thing if, inftead of thefe moments, the velocities of their increafes and decreafes he made ufe of, or the finite quantities that are propor- tional to fuch velocities ; the method of proceeding which confiders the motions, changes, or fluxions of quantities, is denominated by Sir Ifaac Newton, the method of Jluxinns. Leibnitz, and moft foreigners, confidering thefe infi- nitely Irnall parts, or infinitefimals, as the differences oi two quantities, and tlience endeavouring to find the differences of quantities, i.e. fome moments, or quan- tities indefinitely fmall, which taken an infinite number of times fliall equal given quantities, call thefe moments differences ; and the method of procedure, the differen. tial calculus. MONA, or La Guer.on, or The Mone, a fmall ifland, I ly leagues S. W. of Point I'Epee, which is the It.uth- wellernmoll point of the ifland of St Domingo, and i4[- leagues W. of the S. W. point of the ifland of Porto Rico. It is 2 leagues from E. to W. and a little more from N. to S. It has feveral ports for fmall velFcls, plenty of good water, and all that would be necelFary tor fettlements of culture, and the biecJing of cattle. Its fruit trees, and |)articularly the orange, are much extolled. A league and a half N. \V. of Mona is a ve- ry fmall ifland, called Monique, or the Little Monkey. — Morse. MONADNOCK, Great, a mountain fitu.ited in Che- fliire county, New-liampihire, between tlie tovns of Jaffiay Mole, .11 r..onad- i.uck. M O N [ 560 ] M O N Monad- nuck, II Monge- arti. Jjffray and Dublin, 10 miles N. of the Maffiichufetts line, and 22 miles E. of Conneaicut river. The foot of the hill is 1395 f'.-et, and its fummit 3254 feet, above the level of the fea. Its bafe is 5 m les in diameter, ■ from N. to S. and 3 from E. to W. On the lidcs are feme ;i;ipearances of fubterranecus tires. Its fummit is a bald rock. — ib. MoNADNOCK, Upprr Great, a high moimtain, in Ca- naan, in the N. E. corner of the Slate of Vermont.—;*. MONAHAN, a towiilhip in York county, Pennfyl- vania. — ib, MONDAY Buy, on the S. fliore of the flraits of Magellan, in that parj cf the Rraits called the Long Beich, and 4 leajrucs W. of Piifpot Bay. It is near- ly S. of Buckley Poml, on the N. fide (f ihe Ibait, and affords good anciiorage in ;o (athrms. — ib. Monday, a cape in the above S'.rait?, 7 leagues W. N. W. of Cape North. S. lat. 53 12, W. long. 75 20. ~ib. MONGEARTS, one of the tribes of wandering Arabs whi.h inhabit the Sahara, or Great Delert of Africa. Their time is wholly occupied by tending their cattle ; and becaufe they are little (killed in the ufe ot arms, Mongairt is a term of contempt among the people by whom iliey are lurrounded. I'hsir country, with iis produce, will be defcribed under ihe title Sahara ill this Su/>^lei!ient ; it is the bufinefs of this article mere- ly to exhibit the manners ot the people. They are all Mahometans, and ofTcr up prayers three times aday, fometimes oftener ; but having no mofques, thele prayers are never pronounced in public, except when the horde is vilited by a pricfl, who fcldom comes but upon account of the children's education. Then all the Arabs alfenible at the hour of prayer, place them- fclves in a line, turn to the ealf, and, wanting water in the defert, rub their face and arms with fand ; while the prieft recites aloud the general prayer. It is the fame as that which is reheailed by the public crier in the mofques in civilized countiies. The priefls are employed in travelling about the country to inftruci the children. There is nothing like force in their education. The litile boys meet in the mcrnii.g of their own accord, at the place of inftruc- lion, which is to them a place of recreation. They go there wiih a fmall board infcribed with the Arabic cha- raffeis, .ind a few maxims of the Koran. The cldeft, and the bell informed, receive their leffbns direiflly from the priclls, and afterwards communicate them to their fellows. They are never correded ; becaufe it would be a crime to beat a child, who, according to the re- ceived notions, has not fufficient reafon to didinguilh good from evil. This lenity extends even to the ihil- dren of Chriftian';, though in a (tale of flavery. They are treated in all refpefts like the children ot Arabs ; and the man who fliould be raih enough to flrike one of them, would endanger his life. Very difi'jrent is their treatment of Negro childrv:n ; who may indeed join in all the amufements of the young Arabs, and even at- tend the public fchools ; but if they be guilty of a fault, they are feverely puniflied. When the child . f a Mongeait becomes tired of the places of public inflruftion, he quits them at pleafure, and, wiihout feeling conftraint, or hearing reproach, goes and employs himfelf in tending his father's flocks : and accordingly there are very few among them who can read. Thofe who perfevere in the fludy of the Koran are made priefts, after having pafl an examina- tion before the learned elders, and enjoy tlie greateft public confideration. They have no need of cattle ; for thofe of the nation being theirs, they find their fub- fiftence everywhere. It is generally at feven or eight years of age that children undergo the painful operation of circumcifion. Their head is alfo fhaved, nothing being left but four locki of hair; one of which is cut off in a meeting of the family, at each remarkable adlion performed by the child. If, at the age of 12 or 13, he kill a wild boar, or otlier bead of prey, that fliould fall upon his flock, he lofes one of his locks. If, in the paffage of a river, a camel be carried away by the llieam, and he fave it by fwimming to its aflilance, another is cut off. If he kill a lion, a tiger, or a warrior of an hollile nation, in a furprife or an attack, he is confidered as a man, and his head is entirely Ihaved. Different from the other Arabs their neighbours, and indeed Irom the Maliometans in general, the M in- gearts trouble no man on account of his religion. The only one which they do not tolerate is the Jewifli ; and were a Jew to enter their territory, and have the mif- fortune to be taken, he wouKI certainly be burnt alive. According to M. Saugnier, the women are much more refpedtcd among the M<ngearts than among the neighbouring nations ; but the evidences which he gives of that refpcift are very extraordinary. AVhen a Mongeait is dcliroiis of undertaking the care of a family, he pitches upon the girl that pleafes him the moll, and alks her of her father v.-itliout fur- ther formality ; nor can the latter refuie her, unlefs the man who pretends to her hand have done fomething contrary to the laws of the nation. The girl is con- duced by her parents to the tent of her future huf- band, where there is always an abundant lepafl prepared for the ceremony. Prefents are made to the father ; but if the fon-in law be poor, his wife's family afTift him, and furniih him with the means of increafmg his flocks; if, on the contrary, he be rich, and the father poor, he fupports the v.hole family in his own tent. The em- ployment of the wife, thus married, is to prepare the food ; to fpin the goats and camels liair, of which the tents are made ; to milk the cattle ; to pick up the ne- ceifary fupply of wood for the night ; and when the hour of repaft i? come, to wait upon her hufb-ind. She then eats by herfelf what has been left by him and his male flaves. She is, indeed, in no great da'.ger of ha- ving a rival brought into the family ; for though poly- gamy be allowed by his religion, the poverty of the Mon- geart generally prevents him from taking a plurality of wives. She is, however, liable to be divorced at will when fhe does not bear boys ; but if (lie have the good fortune to have one or rjiore male children, her huf^ band's regard for her is inconceivable. She has no longer a divorce to fear, has an abfolute authority in the tent, and pa/Tes her whole time in converfation, fleep, or dancing, as fhe thinks fit. The captive ne- grefi'es do all her work, and are no longer affifted in their labour by the Arab's wife, who treats them, on the contrary, with the greatell harflinefs and arrogance. When a woman is not agreeable to her hufband, or when he is dlfagreeable to her, they have it in their power to part. The formality in this cafe confills in the M O N C 561 ] M O N Monge- the wife's retiring 10 her parents. If the hufband be without appeal. As to hiir.felf, he cannot be tiied but attached to her, he goes thither in qiieft of her ; but if by the chiefs of feveral hcrd« aflcnibled. It ii his bu- fhe perfifl in refufing to return, (lie is free, and at hber- linefs to dcterrr.ine the fpcts vliere the tents are to be ty to marry another. If, however, (lie have had a pitched, the morr.ent of departure and the place where child, efpecially a boy, (lie has not the farce privilege; the caravan is to Hop. It the pafturage do not fuffice in that cafe, if her retreat fhould laft more than eight for the herds of all the horde, it divides, and the clief days it might be punllhed with death. afilgns the ground for the difierent encampments. They When a man beats his wife, it is a fure fign that he are very often compoled of no more than f;;ven orei"ht is fincerely attached to her, and that he dees not mean tents, according to the (juality of the "round they m^et to part with her ; if he content himfelf with reproaches, with. The tent of the chief is always the lars'tft and the wife lliinks herfelf defpifed, and inlallibly retiies to mnll lofty, and is placed in the centre of the divifio^s her parents. Hence it is, that in the moft trifling dil- When it is determined upon to quit an encampment' putes the women are cruelly beaten : they prefer it to which never happens till the pafture is eihaufled the the complaints that the hulband might make to their chief fets oil" to choofe another fpot. In thefe removals parents; this proof being the moll certain one of a the women alone do all the work. Early in the morninE; man'i fondnefs for his wite. When a girl marries, llie they fold up the tent, and load every thing upon the makes up her mind to fuch treatment, deeming it much camels backs ; they then move flowly on, that the ca'l- niore lupportable than the humiliations Ihe would otlier- tie may have time to feed upon the way. wife experience from her tarnily, in confequeiice of her '"■ " " ' bufbancl's complaints. The conjugal fidelity of the Mongeart v.xmen is in- corruptible. Differing in their opinions from many Great rcfpecl is paid by the Mongearts to all old men, who enjoy the fame prerogatives a^ the pricfts and fuch Arabs as have vifited the tomb cf Mdhomet at Mecca. Together with the chief they are the judge? other Mahometans, they believe themfelves immortal ofti.ehcrde, and take cognizance of all offences, t.'je like the men; but they do not flatter themfelves with pain cf death being the only punirtimer.t which they the pollibility of happinefs in the other world, uiikfs cannot decree. An alfembly of feveral chiefs is the they (hall have been faithl'ul to their hufbands in this, only tribunal which can inHia c.ipital punifliment ; but Women, who have been f-ilfe to their hufband's bed, as the accufed has generally a number of friends, it fel- will be doomed, they think, to eternal lldvery to the dom happens that he is capitally conviiSed. more virtuous part of their iex, without ever partaking, A war between two Mongeart tribes feldom happens in the fmalleft degree, of their blifs. and is never bloody : but the different families deftroy Mongeart women often vifit one another; and on one another faft enough in their inteiline broils. They theie occa'.icns, the honour confifts in letting the fe- are all tliicves ; and indeed theft is a crime onlv in the male who comes to fee her friend or relation do all the day time, being authorifed by law dnrine the n'rht, in workof the tent. The vifitor afFumes the management order to compel them to take care of their cat'tle. of every tiling, drefies the vi>f>uals, churns the butter. Could they find redrcfs when robbed by nigh', they andkeepsherlclf continually employed; while heririend would be lefs vigilant ; and their herds and flocks would entertains her with an account of the different affairs of be more expofjid to the wild bealls tliat over run their the family or nation. The heartii.efs ol the welcome country ; but being obliged to be on their ^iiard even is meafured by the extent of the work fubmitted to the againft their neareft neighbours, they are always ready guett, who generally prepares double the ufual quanti- to repel both the Hon and the tiger. Theft, even in ty of food; fo that the Arab is obliged to invite his the d.iy-time, is fo far from being punifli.d, uiilef- de- neighbours to partake of the repall. The flaves are tcdcd at the inftant of commiJion, that when any thine always pleafed with thefe entertainments, a larger por- is llolen unperceived, it becomes the lawful pr petty of lion then coming to their lot. It is the bufinels of the the thief. In vain would the rightful owner recognize vifitor to do the honours ; nor will the fuffer any body it in his neighbour's tent; he cannot reclaim it; it ceafes about her to remain diffatisfied. to be his from the moment he has been neglit^ent in its The laws of hofpitali'y are obferved among the Mon- care. Hence arifes this people's Inclination tor r ipine ; gearts as among all the wandering Arabs. Indeed they they do not think they commit a crime, and only fol- are carried to fuch a l.-ngfh, tliat v.-ere a man to enter low, in this regard, a cuftom allowed by their laws, the tent r<( him whr-m he had wounded, or even killed, When an Arab is' going to maiket, r r on his return he would there meet with a facred and inviolable aly. from thei'cc, if he d.) not take the greatcfl care to keep lum, although furrounded by tholl- who mult naturally hisjouriiey a fecret, he is often attacked. Neighbour- defiro his ruin. The tent of the chief is always that ing Araljs are defirous of prcfiting by his indu(lrv to which flrangers, upon tlieir arrival in the liorde, are and as there are no perfons in the country appointed to direfled. But the chiet could not entertain, at his own apprehend robbers, the hope of booty fpurs lliem on to expence, all the llrani.:ers that hap| en to pafs ; and the attack. That they may have nnthine to fear, th.ey therefore every tent in tlie horde is obliged to furnilh lie in wait, when the night is coming en, for l:im wlioni liim with two pounds of ground b^ii!ey/fr week, to tliey mean to pill ig.\ Their intention is never to kill; enable hmi to ma'ut.iin the ancient hofp-tality. they only endeavour to furprize, to difarm, and to makj The chiefs of h irdes are always the ddell of their themfelves mailers of every thing tlip.t comes in their families. The difference of wealth is not confidered ; wiy. But it fomctimcs happi:!?, that the man they the chief often liaving feveral individuals at his lioufe intend to plunder, boMig acquainted wi'li the cuftoms richer than himfeU", wlio nevcnhelefs obey him in every of his country, keeps an attentive ear, (lands on his particular. He is, properly fpcaking, their king : ex- gtiard, llreb upon lii^ aifaihints at tiie firll motion he ob- amines their difference with the old men, and judges ferves, and then fights dcfperately with his dagger. The Si/ppL. V'i>i,. II. 4 B report M O N C 562 ] M O N Monge- report of tlie mufket almoft always brings out tlie tieigh- 2"s. bourinff Arabs, who, ia virtue of the laws of hol'int:!!!- ^•"'^''^^ ty, lake ihs defence cf the weaker lide. They run up well arrncJ ; and then woe to ilic nggreflbrs, if they do not favE tl.cnifelves by a fpeedy fliglit. The fitcki and herds of ihs Mongearts are compo- fid of noiiiiiig but llijep, goats, ;uid camels ; all animals patient of thiift. H jrfcs are vei y fcarce in ihefe can- tons, none but the pol'.'cff.'rs cf numerous herds being able to keep thcni ; bccaufc, for want of water, it is neccifary to have milk in fulFicicnt abundance to give it ihem to drink. Great care is taken to piefeive the ca- mel's urine, both to mix with milk, and to vvalli the different velfels in which they put their food. Deteft- able as is this mixture of milk and uiinc, they are often reduced to the ufe of it ; hun-er and thirft give a re- iifh to every thhig. The only workmen ufeful to this nation are black- fmiths or goldfmiths, as ihey nny be called indifferent- ly. TheMongearts not being fufficienily laborious to apply ihemfelvLG to fuch occupations, thcfc workmen come from Billdulgvrid, and diiperfe iliemlelves allover the di£Fer<.nt parts of the defeit. Wherever there are tents they are fure to find work. They are (ed for no- thinc, and receive befides the hiie for their labour. They m.ikj tr:nk:ti for the women, fuch as ear-rings and bracelets "■:-"■ mend die broken vtlTels, by rivetting them, and clean the arm:. They ai e gen-rnlly paid in fkins, goats and camels hair, 01 oftrich leather?, accord- ing to their agieement. Thofe who have filver pay them a tenth piit of its weight for any thing wrought out of that meial. On their return they lell what they have earned ; four or tive excurfions at moft enabling them to live afterwards at their eafe in their ov;n coun- try. The Mongearts always carry a leathern bag, fufpend- cd from their neck, in uhich they put their tinder, their pipe, and their tobacco. Their daggers are elegant ; the liilt is always black, and inlaid witli ivory ; the l)lade is crooked, and fiiarp on either fide ; the fheath is of brafs on one fide, and of filver on the other, and «)f very tolerable worknianfhip. They wear fibies when they can get them, and prefer thofe of Spanilh make. Their muiksts are always highly ornamented ; the ft' ck is very fmall, and inlaid on every fide with ivory, and the barrel embolfed with brafs or filver, according to the opulence of the owner. There is a fpring to the lock, covering the priming, to prevent the piece from going off, coctrary to the intention of him who carries it. 'i'he pocr, who do not poffefs mufkets, wear dag- gers, made like the Flemifli knives, withleathern (heaths. 'J'hey arm thcmielves alfo with a thick ftick, to the end of which they fix a kind of iron wedge. Tiiis weapon is exceedingly dangerous at clofe quarters. Others carry z\^ays, or llender javelins. In a word, the prin- cipal riciies of an Arab, and his higheft gratifications, are a handfomc mufket and a good dagger. He prefers them to neatnefs of apparel ; for as to dref;, it is indif- ferent to him whether he be clothed in Guinea blues, woollen [lufff, or goats fkins. Their arms being their principal orn iraenr, they take particular care to put the rnu(ke;s in leathern bags, by way of keeping them in good order, and prcferving them from the ruft. All the riches of the Mongearts confift in their herds ; and accordingly they take the greatelt care to preferve them. If a beaft be fick, every thing is done to cure it ; no care is fpared ; it ia even treated with more at- tention than a man : but when it evidently appears that there is no hope of faving its life, they kill and eat it. If it be a camel, the neighbours are called in to partake v. of the icpaft ; if a goat, the inhabitants of the tent fuf- fice for its confumption. An animal that dies without Ihedding blood is unclean. Its throat mufl be cut ; the peifcn v.'ho kills it turning to the call, and pronoun- cing beforehand the firll words of the general prayer. An animal killed by a wild boar is unclean ; nor is it eaten althougli its blood has been (hed, becaufe the wild boar is itfelf an unclean beaft. That fpecies is fo numerous in the defart, that tl.ey do more mifchief than all the other wild beafts together. The Arabs kill as many as they can; but never tafte their flcfh. Whatever loffes an Arab may meet with, he is never heard to complain ; he riles fuperior to poverty, fup- ports hunger, thirft, and fatigue, with patience, and his courage is proof againft every event. God will have it fo, fays he : he employs, however, every means in his power to avert mislcrtune ; and often expi fes himfelf 10 the greatcft dangers to procure matters ol no real utility. When a fathe*- cf a family dies, all the efl^iis in his tent are feized upon by the eldtft fon piefentat his dcceafe. Gold, iilver, trinkets, every thing difappears. and the abfcnt children have only an equal Ih.^re in the divifion of the cattle and the flaves. The girls are en- tirely excluded from all participation, and lake up their rcfidence with their eldell brother. If the deceafed leave children in helplefs infancy, the mother takes them with her to her lifter's, if (he have a filler mar- ried ; if not, to her own maternal roof. 'l"he dead man's poirelllons, however, are not loft ; the chief of the horde takes care cf them, and delivers them in equal portions to the heirs, as foon as they are old enough to manage their own property. If an Arab die without male children, his wife returns to her relations, and his brother inheiits his tffcds. The Mongeai ts have a rooted abhorrence of the Spa- niards, and never fail to m-.lfacie every man of that na- tion who is fo unlcrtiinate as to be Ihipwrecked, on their coalls, while they referve the women for fjle at Morocco. The realbn of this hatred is, iJiat the inha- bitants of the Canaries make frequent dcfcents on the Mongeart coafts, and carry off men, women, cattle, and every thing that they meet with ; and thefe pecple, be- ing ignorant of the fate ol their countrymen, retaliate by death on all Spaniards that iall into their hands, whilft tiiey treat the Britifh and French as well as they can. MONGON, on the coaft of Peru, on the S. PaciSc Ocean, is 10 leagues N. of the harbour of Guarmey, and 4 leagues from Bermcjo Ifland, which lies between the former places. Cafma is 4 leagues N. of it. Mon- gon is known at fea by a great mountain juft over it, which is feen farther than any others on this part of the coaft. — Morse. MoNGON, Ca^f, on the S. fide of the ifland of St Domingo, is 3000 fathoms N. of Point Bahoruco and the river Nayauco, and nearly S. of the little part of Petit Trou. — ii. MONHEGAN, or Maihe_;an, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic Ocean, 12 miles fouth-cafterly of Pemaquid Point, in Lincoln co. Diftrid cf Maine, andinlat.43 Monge- arts, II Morihe- •ran. I\^ O N C 563 ] M O N lU. MonctoH, 42. North of it are a number of fmatl ides at the mouth of St George's river. Captain Smith landed his party herein 1(^14. The chimneys and remains of the houftrs are vet to be fecn. — it'. MONETOU IJlands, in the N. W. Territory, lie towards the E. fide ot Michigan Lake, towards its N. end, and foulh'vard of Beaver Wands ib. MONKTON, a townlhip in Addifon county, Ver- mount, E. of Fcrrifturg, and contains 450 icliabit- snts. — ib. MosKTON, a townfhip in Annapolis county, Nova- Scotia, inhabited by Acadians, and a few families frcm New-England. It lies partly on the bafon of Annapolis, and partly on St JIary's Bay, and con- fids chiefly of wood land ar.d fait marlh. It contains about 60 families. — U>. MONCLOVA, a town of New-Leon, N. .-America, fituatcd S. E. of Conchos. — ib. MONMOUTH, a large maritime county of New- Jcrfcy, of a triangular fhapc, 80 miles in length, .ind from 1^ to 40 in breadth ; bounded noith by part of Raritan Bay, N, W. by MidJIefex co. S. W. by Bur- lington, and E. by the ocean. It is divided into 6 towndiips, and contains 16,918 inhabitant?, including 1596 flavcs. The face of the county is generally level. liaving but few hills. high lands of N ivefnik and Centre-Hill. The mod noted of thefe are the A great part of the county is cfa fandy foil ; but other parts are fertile. There is a very curious cave, now in ruins, at the incuth of Navefink river, 30 feet long and ij wide, and contains three arched apartments. — ib. Monmouth, or Freehold, a poll-town of Ncw-jer- fey, and capital of the above co. lituated 22 miles N. E. by E. of AUentown, j+ead of Trenton, 14 S. W. by S. of Shrcwfljury, and 64 N. E. by E. of Philadel- phia. It contains a court houle and gaol, and a few compad dwellinghoufcs. This town is remarkable for the battle fought within its limits on the 27th of June, 1778, between the armies of Ger.eral Walhington and Sir Henry Clinton. The latter having evacuated Phi- hidelphia, was on his march to New- York. The lofs of the Americans, in killed and wounded, was about 250; that of tlie Britilh, inclufivc of prifoners, was about 3 jc. The Britidi purfued their march the night after, without the lofs of their covering party or bag- gage. — ib. MoNMouTif, a fmall pod-town in Lincoln co. faii- nted on tlie call fide of AnJrol'cogo|,i river, 15 miles W. by S. of H,<ll)well court-houfc, 5 weltcrly of V,^inihrcp, to N. E. by N. of Greene, 49 N. of Port- land, and iSo N. by E. of Bodon ib. Mos MOUTH Cape, on the call lide of the Straits of Migellan, about half way from the fouthetn entrance of the fecoiid Narrows to ilie fouth-caft angle of the draits oppofite to Cape Forward. — ib. Monmouth Ijl.ind, oii^ o{ the 4 idands of Royal Reach, in the Siraiis of Magellan, and the lecond from iIm- weltward. — ib. MONNIER (Peter Chirks Lc), was born at P.iris on the 20ih of Novcnibcr 17 15. Tlie profcdion cf his lather, or the rank which he held in focicty, ve li ue not Icarntd ; and we sre equally ignorant <>l the mode in ivhicli he educated his fon. Ail that we know is, that y ung M'>r.i'icr, Ironi his carhell year?, devoted himlUf to the dudy ci' adronomy ; and that, when ouly fixteen years of age, he made his fird obfervatioii, vi/. Moiuiicr. ot the oppofnion cf Saturn. At the age of twenty he '"■^^^"V' was nominated a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Pari?. In the year 1735 he accompanied Maupertuis in the celebrated expedition to Lapland, to rneafure a degree of latitude. In 1748 he went to Scotland with Lord MaccUsdcld, to obferve the annu- lar eclipfe of the fun, which was mod vilible in th.it country ; and he was the fird aftronomer who had the pleafure to meafure the diameter of the moon on the difli of the fun. Louis XV. it is well known, was extremely fond of adronomy, and greatly honoured its profelfors : helov. ed and edeemed Le Monnier. I have feen the king himfelf (lays Lalande) come out of his cabinet, and look around for Le Monnier; and when his youn';er brotlier was picfented to him on his appointment to the office of tirft phylician, his Majedy was plcafed to wim him the merit and reputation of his brother the adro- nomcr. All the remarkable celedial phenomena were always oblervcd by the king, in company with Lc INIonnier. Thus he obferved with him, at his chateau of St Hubert, the two celebrated tianfits of Venus thro' the dilhof the fun in the years 1761 and 1-69; a; ap- pears from the Memoirs of the Royal Patiiian Acade- niy of Sciences. It well deferves to he here recorded in what manner the king behaved dnrin'j thefe imncr- tant obfervations, and how little he dillurbed his ailrc- nomcrs (the celebrated La Condamine being llkcwife permitted to obferve the tranfrt in his prefence) in this occupation ; the proper time for which, if permitted to pafs by, could not be recalled. Le Monnier relates in his Dilfert.ition, that " his Majedy perceiving that we judged the lall contacts to be cf the greated i.Tiport- ance, a profound lilence at that moment reifned around us." At the tranfit of Venus in 1 769, th^king allow- ed the Marquis de Chabert, an intelligent and expert naval odicer, who was jud returned from a literary voy- age to the Levant, to adld at the obfervation. In a court like that of Louis XV. fo fcrupuloully obfervant of etiquette, thefe will be allowed to have been mod didinguilhed marks of honour, and of royal favour and condefcenlion. In the year 1 750, Le Monnier was ordered to draw a meridian at the royal Chateau of Bellevue, where the king frequently made obfervations. The monarch on this ocrafion rewarded him with a prefent of ic,ooo livrcs ; but Le Monnier applied this fum of money likcwife in a manner that redounded to the honour of his niunificerit fovercign and of his country, by procur- ing new and accurate inllritments, with which he af- terwards made his bed and mod remarkable obferva- tions. In 1742, the king gave him in Paris Ru? de la Pojle, a beautiful free dwelling, where, till t!ic break- ing out cf the revolution, he rtfided, and purfued his aftronomical labours, and where his indruments in pare yet remain. Some of them the prefent French govern- nient has, at the inlLance of Lalande, purchafedfor the National Obfervatory. In 1751, the king prefented him With a block fi marble, eight feet in height, fii feet in breadth, and filtecn inclies in thickncfi, to be uled lor fixing his mural quadrant of five feet. This marble wall, together wiih the indruments appended to it, turns on a large brafs ball and focket, by which the quadr.uit may be dircaed from fouifi to north ; thus 4 B 3 lerving M O N C 564 ] M O N Monnitr. fcrving to reflify the large mural quadrant of eight feet, genes exclaimed to his mafter Antifthenes, You cannot Monnier. ^-•"^^^ which is immoveably made fall to a wall towards the find a ftick (hong enough to drive me away from you!" "«.^-'<^*-' fQmj,_ What a noble trait in the charader of Lalande, who With thefe quadrants Le Monnier obferved, for the in 1797 wrote llkewife an eulogium on Le Monnier in long period of forty years, the moon with unwearied the (lyle of a grateful pupil, penetrated with fentiraents perfeverance at all hours of the night. It is requifite, of profound veneration and efteem for his beloved ma- te be a diligent aftronomer, to be able to conceive to fter ; but Le Monnier would not read it. This is not what numberlcfs inconveniences the philofopher is ex- the place to give a circumftantial account of this intri- pofed during an uninterrupted feries of lunar obferva- cate quarrel; we (hall only further remark, that La- tions. As the moon during a revolution may pafs lande was the warm friend and admirer of the no lefs through the meridian at all hours of the day or night ; eminent aftronomer La Caille, whom Le Monnier mor- the aftronomer who, day after day, profecutes fuch ob- tally hated. An intimate friendfliip likewife fubfifted fervations, muft be prepared at all, even the moll In- between Le Monnier and D'Alembert j but Lalande convenient, hours, and faciifice to them his fleep and had no fiiendly intercourfewith the latter all his enjoyments. How fecluded from all the plea- fures of focial intercourfe, and how fatiguing fuch a mode of life i>, thofe aftronomers, indeed, know not who then only fct their pendulum clocks in motion, when fome of the eclipfes of the fun, moon, or of the fatellites of Jupiter, are to be viewed. At this time, and in the prelent ftate cf the fcience, thcfe are juft the Among the fcholars of Le Monnier may likewife be reckoned Henwart, the celebrated geometrician and profeflbr of mathematics at Utrecht ; who, in a letter to Von Zach, aftronomer to the Duke of Saxe Gotha, dated the 26th of May 1797, fays, " Le Monnier is a penetrating and philofophical aftronomer: I learned much from him in Paris ; though I lodged with the inoftinfigni'ficantobfervations; and an able aftronomer, late De I'Ifle, where I frequently made obfervations well fupplied with accurate inltruments, may every day, in company with MeQier. Le Monnier was the friend if he take into his view the whole of his profeft'ion, of D'Alembert; and confequently an oppofer of La- make more important and more neceflary ob(ervations. lande." Le Monnier was Lalande's preceptor, and worthy This great man, who had, for fome years, ceafed to of fuch a fcholar ; and he promoted his ftudies by his exift either for the fcience of aftronomy, or for the corn- advice, and by every other means in his power. Le fort of his friend Monnier's penetrating mind, indeed, prefaged in young Normandy, in i Lalande, then only futeen years old, what in the fc quel has been fo Iplendidly confirmed. In his twentieth year, he became, on the recommendation of his precep- tor, a member of the Royal Academy : and in 1752 he died at Lizeaux", in the province of 99, aged 84 years. He left behind him fome valuable manufcripts, and a number of good obfervations ; with refpeft to which he had always been very whimfical, and of which in his latter years he ne- ver would publifh any thing. He had by him a feries was piopofed by him as the fittcft perfon to be fent to of lunar obfervations, and a multitude of obfervations of Berlin, to make with La Caille's, who had been fent the ftars, for a catalogue of the ftars, which he had an- to the Cape of Good Hope, correfpondent obfervations, nounced fo early as the year 1741 ; among which was for the purpofe of determining the parallaxes of the twice to be found the new planet Uranus: (See La- moon, then but imperfectly known. Le Monnier lent hwde's JJlrommie, Tables, p. 188, (a). The more he his pupil for tliis expedition his mural quadrant of five was requefted to communicate his obfervations, the feet. His zeal for aftronomy knew no bounds. For more obftinate he became ; he even threatened to de- this'reafon Lalande, in his Notice des Travaux du C. ftroy them. At the breaking out of the revolution, Le Monnier, fays of himfelf : " Je fuis moi-meme k pr'in- Lalande Was greatly alarmed for the fafety of thefe pa- eipal refultat ds Jon zile pour I' apouomie." pers ; he wifhed to preferve them from deftruflion, and Le Monnier was naturally of a very irritable temper: made an attempt to get them into his polTeffion ; but as ardently as be loved his friends, as eafily could he be all his endeavours were in vain. He was only al le to offended; and his hatred was then implacable. La- learn, that Le Monnier had hidden them under the lande, as he himfelf expreffes it, had the misfortune to roof of his houfe. Le Monnrer having been firft feized incur the difpleafure of his beloved preceptor ; and he with a fit of the apoplexy fo early as the loth of No- never after could regain his favour. But Lalande's gra- vember 179J, Lalande apprehended, left, if no one ex- titude and refpe(fl tor him always continued undimi- cept hinifeif (liould know where he had hidden his pa- nilhed, and were on every occafion with unremitting per?, the infirm old man might perhaps have himfelf conrtancy publicly declared : patiently he endured from forgLt it. He hopes, however, that La Grange, who bim undeferved ill treatment ; fo much did he love and married his fecond daughter, may have fome informa- efteera his inftructor and mafter to the day of his death, tion concerning them. Le Monnier left behind him no " I have not ceafed to exclaim {writes Lalande), as Dio- fon. MON- (a) Such is the French and German account of his difcovery of this planet ; but our readers have been very inattentive, if they have not perceived, in various articles of this W^ork, complete proofs nf the pbgiarifm ot our aiunor 01 i^enies unort iVieu:oa -wiin me Deijh (f ... that in 1800 there was no evidence whate er f n which lo found that claim, and that the difcovery was then uaiverfaJly allowed to have beea made by Herfchel, M O N C 56s ] M O N Monocacy, MONOCACY, a river which after a S. S. W. I courff, empties into the I'atowmac, about 50 miles Monfcle- above Georgetown. — Morse. ^j;;;^;^ monomial, in algebra, is a fimple or fingle no- minal, confilling of only one term ; as a or u x, or a^ l/x^, &c. MONONGAHELA Riv-r, a branch of the Ohio, IS 400 yards wide at its junction with the Alleghany at Pittft)urg. It is deep, gentle and navigable with hat- teaux and barges beyond Red Stone Creek, and Hill further with lighter craft. It rifes at the foot of the Laurel Mountain in Virginia, thence meandering in a N. by E. direftion, paifes into Pennfylvania, and re- ceives Cheat river from the S. S. E. thence winding in a N. by W. courfe, feparates Fayette and Wellmore- land from Wafhington county, and palling into Alle- ghany county, joins the Alleghany river at Pittftiurgh and forms the Ohio. It is 300 yards wide 12 or 15 miles from its month, wheie it receives the Youghio- gany from the fouth-eaft, which is navigable with bat- teaui: and barges to the foot of Laurel hill. Thence to Red Stone, at Fort Byrd, by water is 50 miles, by land 30. Thence to the mouth of Cheat river, by water 40 miles, by land 28; the width continuing at 300 yards, and the navigation good for boats. 'I'hence llie width is about 200 yards to the weftern fork 50 miles higher, and the navigation frequently in- terrupted by rapids j which, however, with a fwell of 2 or 3 feet, become very palfable for boats. It then ad- mits light boats, except In dry fsafons, 65 miles fur- ther, to the head of Tygart's Valley, prefenting only fome fmall rapids and falls of one or 2 feet perjiendicu- lar, and IclFening in its width to 20 yards. The weft- ern fork is navigable in the winter, towards the nonhern branch of the Little Kinhaway, and will admit a good waggon road to it. From the navigable waters of the Ibuth-eallernnioll branch of the Monong.ihcla, there is a portage of 10 miles to the fouth branch of Patow- mac liver. The hills oppolile Pittlburg on the banks of this river, vvhicii are at lead 300 feet high, appear to be one folid body of coal. — Morse. MONONGALIA, a county in the N. W. part of Virginia, about 40 miles long and 30 broad, and con- tains 4,768 inh.ibitants ; including I54ilives. — ;/». MONOTRiGLVPH, a term in architeaure, de- noting the fpace of one triglyph between two pilailerb, or two columns. MONPOX, a city of Terra Firma, about 75 miles S. E. by E. of Toiu. — Morsi. MONSEAG Bay, m Lincoln county, Dirtii>ft of Maine, is ftparated from Sheeplcut river, by the illand of Jeiemyfqnam. — ib. MONSELEMINES, arc a people which inhabit that part of BiLi dulgkrid fee Eiuycl.) that borders on the t«rritoiies of the Emperor of Morocco. They are a mixed race, being defcendcd from the ancient A- rabs and fugitive Moors ; and they occupy a fpace of land, of which the limits .ire indicated by li fty columns placed at iiUervals towards the delait. The.r territory extends from about 30 leagues beyond Cape Non, to the dilUnce of 20 l.:.igue;> from St Croix or Agader. Though of different qu.ilities, it i«, for tlic moll part, very fertile, and produces the necellarics "t hie with little cultivaiiun. The plains are watered by an ina> nite number of flreams, and aboucd with palm, date, Mmifclc- fig, and almond trees. The gardens produce excellent ii'i"«s. grapes, which are dried by tt.e Arabs, and converted into brandy by the Jews. Great quantities of oil, wax, and tobacco, appear in the public markets. More induftrious and more laborious than their neigh- bours, the Monfelemine nation cultivates the earth. The chiefs of families choofe the ground mcft fit for culti- vation. Its furfare is tuined tlightly over with a kind of hoe, and then the feed is fown upon it: the field is furrounded with bufhes, to mark the fpot, and to pre- ferve it from the cattle of the wandering Arabs. When the crop is ripe, which is generally at the end of Au- guft, tliree months after the fowing of the f<.ed, it is cut about fix inches from the ear, and formed into little bundles ; during which time every one labours without intermiffion from morning to night. The corn is brought before the tent, thrafhed, winnowed, and pla- ced in the magazines. When the harveft is over, they fet fire to the long ftubble, and abandon the field for two or three years. Their magazines are large holes in the earth, formed like the fruftum of a cone, the in- fides of which are hardened by burning wood in them, before the half winnowed corn be depofited. When filled with corn, they are covered with planks placed clofe to each other ; over which a layer of earth is laid level with the foil, to prevent it from being difcovered by enemies. In thefe magazines every one fhares in proportion to the number of men he employed in the common labour. The inhabitants of the plains remain by the cultivat- ed fields in feed lime, and return at the time of harveft. During tlie intervals they wanJer in all direiflicns with their caltle, taking only neceffarics along with them, and h iving recourfe to the magazines when they re- quire a fupply. The more opulent people, and the ar- tizans who are engaged in fcdentary occupations, dwell in town?, which are all fituated upon the declivity of hills. Their houles are built of ftone and earth, ac- cording to the Mcorilh conllruflion, low and covered w ith floping terracss ; yet they are f'o much injured by the heavy rains which prevail for three months of the year, as to be rendered uninhabitable in 15 or ::o years. Thofe who re fide in towns arc generally weavers, fhoe- niakers, goldfmiths, potters, d:c. and have no cattle ; but the more opulent perfons have flocks and herds of cows, horfe«, cinicl', fheep, goats, befides poultry, which are kept by their llaves at a diftance from the town«. In the towns they take two meals a day ; one at ttn o'clock, and the ether at the letting of the fun, though the inhabitants of the country only cat in the evening. In the towns th:y fleep in mats upon the flours of their apartments, and make ufe of linen ; but the inhabitants of the country llecp upon terraces in the open air. The palforal families of the country pracffife hofpitality like thofe of tliedefart, and make th.c tra- veller pay nothing lor his entertainment. In the towns this pradice is impoAible, as the cc'nc<)uife of tlrangers, elpeci.illy on maiket-d.iys, would loon impoverilh the inhibita:ts. In this manner hofpitality is always ci- tinguilhed among a trading and commercial people. It is only where the fuperfluity vi commodities runs nc- celfarily to waftc, that it is ever pra..Tlfed in a great ex- tent J but where every commodity can find a market, every M O N C 566 ] M O N Monfcic- every kinJ of property acquires a definite value, and miiiL-^. ^,in J,, prefeived wirh the fame care as money. ^•"^"^''''''^ J5y ^i. Saugnier the government oi the Monrelcmines is fiid to be republican; but he writes inconfulently about it. In one place, he lays thit they choofe their chiefs annually ; in another, th.it in the lime of war they choofe from the nntives or fugitive Moors indifcri- minately, chiefs, "liof: ;u:ihnrity lafls no longer than the campaign, during which it is abfohue ; and he af- terwards reprclcnts their gc vernment as a kind of theo- cracy, dunn:; war as well as peace. But we mufl fol- low him in liis detail, as it has been well arranged in a late anonymous publication, entiiled, yln H'Jlorkul Shich «/" Dijlovcria in Jlj'tka. At the end of each campaign, he fiys the chief gives an account of his aiflions to the aUcmbled aged men, and is rewarded or punillaed according to his con- duel ; afier whidi his fuctelfor is appointed, and he Icrvos in the army he commanded as an undiftinguifhed individual. The country is populous, and would be ftill mote lb, were it not tor the contintial wars which its inhabitants are obliged to fuppon againil the Emperor of Morocco. The liberty they enjoy imparts energy and courage to tlieir chara(5ler, and renders their arms invincible to the Moors. They conlider it as the moll invaluable polFcirion, and defend it to the lafl extremity. The nature of the country, furrounded on every fide by ftccp and arid mountains, contributes to frullrate the efforts of their enemies. The Monfelemine, riclier than the fubjefl of Morocco, is always well clothed and armed. He pays no tribute, enjoys die f'ruit of Jiis la- bour and commerce, and, as no contributions are requi- (ite for the charges of the Hate, whatever he acquires is his own. The fugitive Moors are never arined, ex- cept when they go to battle ; but the natives go conti- nually armed, whether they refuie in the country, refort to the markets, attend the afl'emblies of the nation, or pay vilits. As the Monfelemine territory Is the retreat of the rich Moors, who wifh to fly from the tyranny of the Emperor of Morocco, ihey are too well acquainted with the Moorifh cuflonis to be fiirprifed by that prince. No fijoner does a Moorilh army take the field, than the in- habitants of the country cantons mount their horfes, and occupy the palTes of the mountains ; while the wo- men and flaves, efcoi ted by a fufhcient number of war- liors, retire to the interior parts of the country, or, if they be hard prelfed, to the defart. Among the pa- Itorr.l tribes there are many that addi.5t theml'elves en- tirely to arms, anil ferve ai cavalry in the time of war. During peace they efcort caravans, or exercife them- lelves in militaiy evolutions, and the management cf their horfiss. Being almolt always on hotfeback, and wearing no boots, they have a callous lump on that part of the leg that comes in contact with the iron of the lliirup. 'I'heir horfes, v/hich (hey lireak in an ad- mirable manner, are the btft in the world : as tiiey are treated with gre.^t care by their maflcrs, they know them, and are obcd'ent to their voice, and will admit no ftranger to mount them. The Monfilemines derive their origin and name from Moitilama, a contemporary of M ihcniet i and, in their love of hbeity, as well as in many of iheir culloms, re- f;mb!s the Arabs of remoter times. They refpeft the prophet like other Mahometans ; but neither believe Monrde- that he was infallible, nor that his defeendants are all J^^ll^^^L, infpired by God, nor that their will Ihould be a law, nor that fuch f-iilh is necefTary in order to be a good Mahometan. Their priifls are refpe^^ed, and in old age generally become the civil judge-, of the nation; but the influence of the high pried is almoft deipotic. Though he has no troops, he may command the nation ; and war and peace depend upon his will. Though he has no property, every thing is at h's difpolal : he re- quires nothing from any one, and yet all are inclined to give. He adminillers jiUlice according to ilie opinion of his counlel, without pretending to be infpired by ths prophet. On Friday thi Monfelemines afTemble in their mofques to pray : this is likewife the day of their principal market, when their merchandize is expofetl to fale in the public fquares, where the old men judge without appeal, when difputes arife. Different from their neighbours of Morocco and Sahara, the Monfele- mines never attempt to make profelytes. Their Chii- flian llaves are treated v.ith hmnanity ; but they ow; this to the avarice of their mailers. Thefe dctell Chti- llians, but they love money, and are afraid left fick- nef's or death Ihould deprive them of the ranfom of the flave, or of the advantage of his labour. Among the inhabitants of the defart, a Chrillian, that adopts the religion of Mahomet, is admitted as a citizen and mem- ber of the family, and is prefented with cattle to foiTii an eflablifliment. The Monfelemines pay more atten- tion to the value of their projierty than the fituaticn of the infidel. A Chrillian who enters a mofque at Mo- rocco is put to death, or forced to afFume the turban. The Monfelemines would turn him civilly out, and con- tent tlicmfelvcs with inipofing the higheft poilible fine. Among the Moors, a Chrillian difcovered in an intrigue with a woman of that nation fullers death, or fubmits to converfion ; but the Monfelemines prefer money to reli- gion. From them the Chiilliaii has nothing to fear : the v.'oman alone is punllhed, being put into a fack, and thrown into the fea. If a Chrillian flave among the neighbouring nations defends himfelf againft his mailer, he is punifhed with death ; but money laves him among the Monfelemines ; he would at moll receive a flight correiflion. The Jews are allowed the free exercife of their reli- gion among the Monfelemines, hut are treated with tht fame indignity as among other Mahometan tribes. A Jew is not permitted to carry arms ; and if he fhould make ufe of them againll an Arab, he would be p'l- nilhed with death, and probably involve his family in his fate. The Jews inhabit the towns only, where they folio v,f trade and various aits, but are not allowed to cultivate the earth. Polygamy is permitted, as in other Mahometan coun- tries ; but the lituation of the women is more refpe<5l- able, and they are not fo much feduded as among the Moors. They mingle more in fociety, walk at large, and vifit their friends; neither are their apartments fo inviolable. Among the Monfelemines, that degrading piciure of humanity is never feen which fometimes oc- curs in Morocco, a woman drawing the plough with an als, a mule, or feme other beall of burden. More hap. py than the women of the Saiiara, and treated with greater M O N [567 ] M O N greater attention by their huftands, iliey are more hu- Poir.te des Dunes (Down Point) on the other ; iibcut mane in their difpofition!-. Like ether Arab women, 6,500 iathoms a'.undir. The bay ij aboi.t 1 <c- ihey lliiin the edges of their eyelids black with henna, fathoms deep, and its winding is nearly 4 lea-'ues and paint ihclr faces red and yellow. Their children About 900 lathoms from the cape, defcenuice the^bav' are b. ought up with great care, and are i;ot obligsd to we tind the little ifland of Idn.is Chrill, aco fathoms cxliibit proofs of their courage before they can be con- frLin the lljore. One nuy lail between tlie't«o \\i:h fidered as men, as is the cutloin in the defart. Avarice 2, 4, and 5 I'athoins water; and ibout 250 failiom's is the principal defefl in the chara^^tcr of the Monftle- iuuher on, is antlioiagein f.om C to 10 fathoms'. A mine'. They hoard thtir m.ncy with the uiinoll care, le.igue and a quarter from Cape la Graiise, i, a battery bury it in the earth, and in many c^fes die wiUinut dif- intended to protscl a lacd:!:g place, ot 100 fatlioms covering their fcciet even to their children. Mifcrs, wide, wl.icli is below, and cppofite the town tf Monte fays M. Saugnier, (hoiild go to tliat country, where C'lndl. '1 l.e town oJMoi.te Chtill, ftandip" ut Soo they would learn meansof economy ; which would fiiew iaihon:s liom the fea fide, lifes in an amphitheatre on them, that, in comparifon with the Monfelemines, they tl'-c fide of the coaft, wliicli is very high iUl round this aie themJelves perfed prodigals. bay. The town is 2C0 fathoms Iquare, which fpace is The medicinal applications of the Monfelemines, divided into 9 parti, cut by two llreets lunnir"- frcm E. which differ not from thofe of the Mongearts and 1° W. and twootl.ers from N. to S. It was founded iri Other inhabitants of the deftrt, are extremely fimple, 'SJJi 'abandoned in iCc6, and now but a poor place, def- but appear fufficienlly complex from the mummery cf titute ol every le.'uurce but that of cattle raifed in its ter- the priefts, who are the depofitoiies of their medical >itory, and fold to the French. Tiie town and territory fcience. Flslh wcunds are ciuterilej with a hot iron, contain about 3,000 fouls. There is a trilling garrifon at and then covered with herbs dipped in tuitles oil and Monte Chiill. About a league from the battery, follow. tar. In headachs, a ccniprefs is applied with fuch vio- "'^g the winding of the bay, is the river of Monte Chrift lence that the blood Itarts from the forehead. In in- or more properly, the river Ya(;ui. The land round the ternal difeafes, the general remedle; are regin)en, reft, town is baiicn and fandy ; and the ri\er contains great and a lew maxims of the Koran myfterioulJy applied to numbers ol crocodiles. Monte Chiift is a pore well the affedled paits. MONSON, a townftiip in Hampfliire county, M.if- known to Ameiican fmugglets, and carries on a great commerce Irom its vicinity to the French [ lantations. In the time ot peace, all the produce of the plain of Ma- riboux litnated between Port Daupl.in and Mancenille Bay, is fiiippcd here, aid in a war between France and Britain, it uUd to be a grund matket, to which all the Irench in iIil- north part of the illand fcnt their pro- duce, and whe.-L pui chafers were always ready. ib. MoNTL CAnJf, a chain of mountains which extend paiaikl to the noith coaQ of the iflar.d of St Domin- go, troni the bay cf Monte Chiill, to the bay of Sa- niana on the E. Two larpe livets run in cppofile di- fachufetts, E. of Biinihcld, and 80 miles foutli wed by well of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1760, and contains 1331 inhabitants. — Morje. MONSIES, the tliird tribe in rank of the Delaware nation of Indians — :b. MONTAGUE, a tcwnfliip in HampOiire co. M.if- fachufctts, on the E. binlcof Conneflicut river, be- tween Sunderland and Wentlel, about iS miles noith of Northampton, and 97 miles welf by north oi Bollon. It was incorporated in 1753, and cor tains 906 inha- bitants. A company was iijcorporated in 1792 to build reilions along the fouthernTide ol this chain^ The n- a bridge over the river here. The woik has not yet ver Monte Chi ill or Yaqui in a W. by S. direiflion and been completed— z;. Vuna river in an E. by S. courfe to the bay ot Sarnana. Montague, the northernmoft townlhip in New- They both rile near La Vega, and have numerous Jerfey, is iauated m Sull'ex c«. on the eall fide of De- branches — ib. laware river, about 5 miles N. E. 01 Minifink, and 17 MONTLGO Bay is on the N. fide of the ifland of north cf Newtown. It contains 543 inhabit.int.-, in- JiH^aica, 20 miles E. by N. of Lucea harbour and 21 eluding 25 llives.—zi^. ^ W. ot Martha Brae. This was formeily a tlo'urilhing MoNT.tGOE, the l.irgeft of the fmall iflands in Prince and opulent town: it confilled of 22c h.oufe- jj cV ^\"illiam's Sour.d, on tlie N. W. coall of Is'orthAme- \Wiich were capital fiores, and contained ab<iul 600 rica. — ib, while inhabiiuius. 'Jhe number of topfail velicls which MOTAUK Point, the ea Hern ex'remity of L' ng- dtaied annually nt this p:irt were about 150, cl which llland, New-York. A tra't here, called T-jr:ic Ht I, 70 were ca| ital lhi[>s ; but ia this account are iucIudcJ It.is been ceded to llie U States for the purpolc of build- J'urt 01 thole which entered at Kingflon. This fine town inp a light houfe th.erer.n — \b. w..b almoft totally deftroyed by an accidental fire, MONTE Ciiriji, a cape, bay, trwn, and tlver, on July, 1795; the dam'.gc was ellimatcd at /'ioo.ooo the r.orth lide of ihe ifland of St Domingo. The c, pe Iter.ing. — -.b. is a very lilgh hill, in the foim < f a tent, called by the MONTEREY Eav, in North California, was vifit- French, Cnpe la Grange, ci Burn. It is lituated in lat. ed in 1786 by La Perngfe, who places it in 36" 58' 19 54 30 N. and in long. 74 9 30 W. cf Paris. A 43" N. Lat. and IJ4" 40' W. Long. fr. m Paris. It flrip oi' level land joins it to the teriitory of Monte i' foinicd by New-year Point to tlie north, and by that Chilli, audit is owing to til's that the cape has been of Cyprus to the foutli ; has an opening of eight lea 'ucs tjkcn for an ifland. It is 14 leagues N. E. by E. of in lliis dirc«ftion, and neaily fu of depth to the call- Cape Francois, where it may be leen in a clear day, ward, where the land is fandy .ii.d low. The fea brcks with the naked eye. After doubling this cape, we there as far as the foot cf the fandy dow.s with which find the bay of Monte Cinlll running nearly S. \V. the coafl is furroundcd, with a roaiing wliich may le It is foimcd by Cape la Grange, on cue fide, and licard more iban a league off. The lands niTih and fouih M O N [ 568 ] M O N Monterey, fouth of this bay are higli, and covered with trees. '•'^'^^'^^ Thofe fliips which are defirous of touching there ought to fo'.low the fouth coall, and after having doubled tiie Point of Pines, which ftretchcsto the northward, they Pet hglit of the prefider.cy, and may come to .\n an- ihor ill ten fathoms within it, and a httle witl-.in the Ijnd cf tliis point, which (holtcrs from tlie wiids frcm the offing. The Spanifli lliips, which propofe to make a h^ng rtay at Monterey, iirc accu[\omed to bring up witliin one or two c.iblcs lengths of the lind, ir. fix fa- thom?, and make fall to an anch ir, which they bury in the fand of the beach ; they have then nothing to fear from the fcutherly winds, which are fomitimes very ftrong ; but, as they blow from the coaft, do not ex- pofe them to any danger. The two French frigates, which our author comirnnded, found bottom over the whole bay, and anchored four leagues from the land, in 60 fathoms, foft muddy ground; but there is a very hea- vy fea, and it is only an anchorage fit for a few hours, in waiting for day, or the clearing up of the fog. At full and change ot the moon it is higli watei at half pad one o'clock : the tide rifes feven feet ; and as thii bay is very open, the current in it is nearly imperceptible. It abounds with whales ; a genus of filhes, of which cur fcientific voyagers knew fo little, that they were furprif- ed at their fpouting water ! The coalls of Monterey Bay are almofl continually enveloped in fogs, which caufe great difficulty in the approach to them. But, for this circumflance, there would be few more eafy to land upon ; there is not any rock concealed under water that extends a cable's length from the fliore ; and if the fog be too thick, there is the refource of coming to an anchor, and there waiting for a clear, which will enable you to get a good fight of the Spanifli fettlement, fitu;i.ted in the angle formed by the fouth and eafl coaft. The fea was covered with pelicans. Thefc birds, it feems never go farther than five or fix leagues from the land ; and navigators, who fhall hereafter meet wi h them during a fog, may reft alFured that they are within that diftance of it. A lieutenant-colonel, whofe relidence is at Monterey, is governor of the Californias : the extent of his govern- ment is more than 800 leagues in circumference, but his real fu'ij';<ns confift only of 282 cavalry, whofe duty it is to garnfon five fmall forts, and to furnifh detach- ments of four or five men to eacli of the 25 miffions, or parilhes, eftabliflicd in old and new California. So fmall are tlie means which are adequate to the reftraln- ing about 50,000 wandering Indians in this vaft part of America, among wi.om, nearly 10,000 have embra- ced Chriftianity. Thefe Indians are, in general, fmall and weak (a), and difcover none of that love of liberty and independence which chara,5lerifes the northern na- tions of whofe arts and induftry they are alfo deftitute. Their col.'ur very nearly approaches that of the ne- groes whofe hair is not woi.lly ; the hair of thefe people ib llrong, and of great lengih ; they cut it ionr or five inches irom the roots. Several among them have a beard; others, according to the milfionary fathers, have never had any ; and this is a quellion whicii is even un- decided in the country. Tlie c;ovcrnor, who had tra- velled a great way into the interior of thi.fe lands, and who had pafTed 1 5 years of his life among the favages, Moiitcref. affured our author, that thofe who had no beards had ^-^'''^^~' plucked them up with bivalve fhells, that fcrved them as pincers : the prefidcnt of the miffions, who had re- fided an equal length of time in California, maintain- ed the contrary ; — it was difficult, therefore, for tra- vellers to djcide between them." The difficulty, furely, was not great. By tiicir own account, the governor had travelled much farther into the country than the nuffionary ; and his report being confirmed by the evi- dence of their own fenfes, was intitled to unlimited credit. Thefe Indians are extremely fKilful in drawing the bow; they killed, in the prefence oi the French, the fmalleft birds : it is true, they difplay an inexpreffible patience in apprc^aching them ; they conceal themfelvcs, and, as it were, glide along near to the game, feldom fliooting till within 15 paces. Their induftry in hunt- ing the larger animals is ftill more admirable. Peioufe faw an Indian, with a ftag's head fixed upon his own, walk on all-fours, as if he were browfing tlie grafs; and he played this pantomime to fuch perfection, that all the French hunters would have fired at him at 30 paces, had they not been prevented. In this manner they ap- proach herds of ftags within a very fmall diftance, and kill them with a fiight of arrows. Before the Spanilh fettlements, the Indians of Cali- fornia cultivated nothing but maize, and almoft entirely lived by fifhing and hunting. There is not any conn- try in the world which more abounds in fifh and game of every dofcription : hares, rabbits, and ftags are very common there ; feals and otters are alf ) found there in prodigious numbers ; but to the northward, and during the winter, they kill a very great number of bears, foxes, wolves, and wild cats. The thickets and plains abound with fmall grey tufted partridges, which, like thofe in Europe, live in fuciety, but in large companies of three or four hundred ; they are fat, and extremely well flavoured. The trees ferve as habitations to the moft delightful birds; and the ornithologifts of the voy- age ftuffed a great variety of fparrows, titmice, fpeckled wood-peckers, and tropic birds. Among the birds of prey are found the white-headed eagle, the great and fmall falcon, the gofs hawk, the iparrow hawk, the black vulture, the large owl, and the raven. On the ponds and fea-fhore are feen the v/ilj duck, the grey and white pelican with yellow tufts, different f;:)ecies of gulls, cormorants, curlews, ring-plovers, fmall fea water hens, and herons ; together witlj the bee-eater, which, according to moft ornithologifts, i:, peculiar to the old continent. The country about Monterey Bay is inexpreffibly fertile. The crops cf maize, barley, corn, and peafe, cannot be equalled but by thofe of Chili ; the Europe- an cultivators can have no conception of a fimilar fer- tility ; the medium produce of corn is from feventy to eighty f^r one ; the extremes fixty and a hundred. Fruit trees are ftill very rare there, but the climate is extremely fuitable to them : it diilcrs a I'ttle from that cf the fouthern Frencii provinces. The foreft trees are, the ftcne-pine, cyprus, evergreen oak, and occidental plane tiec. There is no underwood; and a verdant car- pet, (a) The chief furgeon of the expedition fays they vcct Jlrong, but (lupid. M O N [ 569 ] M O N Monterey, pet, ever which it is very agreeable to walk, covers the ^■^"^'^^^ ground. Tiiere are alfo vail favannahs, abounding with all fjits of game. I'eroufe writes with great refpefl of the wife and pi- ous conduift of the Spanilh niiUionaries at Monterey, who fo faithfully fulfil the purpofe of their inllitution. Totally unlike the monks at Conception in Chili (fee that article in this Siippl.), they have left the lazy life of a cloiller, to give themfelves up to cares, fatigues, and folicitudes of every kind. They invited the otiicers of the frigates to dine with them at their monadery, contiguous to which (lands the Indian village, confifl- ing of ab •ut 50 cabins, which ferve as dwellinaj-places to 740 perfons of both fexes, compriiing their children, wliicli conipofe the miffion of Saint Charles, or of Mon- terey. Thefe cabins are the moll niiferaljle that are to be met with among any people ; tliey are round, fix iect in diameter, by four in height ; feme ll.ikes, of the ilze of an arm, fixed in the earth, ard which approach each other in an arch at the top, compofe the timber work of it; eight or ten bundles of flraw, very ill ar- ranged over thefe Hakes, defend the inhabitants, well or ill, from the rain and wind ; and more than half of this cabin remains open when the weather is fine ; their only precautii^n is to have each of them two or tjiree bundles of flraw at hand by way of referve. All the exhortations of the millionaiies have never been able to procure a change of tiiis general architec- ture of the two Californias. The Indians fay, that they like plenty of air; that it is convenient to fet fire to their houfjs when they are devoured in them by too great a quantity of fleas; and that ihey can build an- other in lefs than two hour;;. The independent Indians, who as hunters fo frequently change their places of abode, have a ftronger motive. The monks gave the mod complete information re- fpedling the government of this fpecies of religious com- munity ; for no other name can be given to the legifla- tion they have edablifhed. They are fuperiors both in fpiritual and temporal affairs : the produifls of the land are entirely entrufled to their adminillration. There are feven hoars allotted to labour in the day, two hours to prayers, and four or five on Sundays and fellivals, which are altogether dedicated to reft and divine wor- fhlp. Corporal punilhments are infliifled on the Indians of both fexes who negleft pious exercifes ; and fcveral hns, the punidiment of which in Europe is referved on- ly to Divine Jullice, are punillied with chains or the ftocks. The Indians, as well as the miifionaries, rife with the fun, and go to prayers and mafs, which l.ill an hour; and during this lime there is cooked in the middle of the fquare, in three large kettles, barley meal, the grain of which has been roafted previous to being ground ; this fpecies of boiled food, which the Indians call atole, and of which they are very fond, is feafoned neither wiih fait nor butter, and to us would prove a very infi- pid mefs. Every cabin fends to take the portion lor all its inhabitants in a velTel made of bark : there is not the leaft confufion or diforder ; and when the coppers are empty, they dlftributc that which Qlcks to the bot- tnni to the children who have beft retained their lelFons of catcchifm. Tli's meal continues three ([uarters of an hour, after which tliey all return to thtir labours; fome go to plough the earth with Oien, ethers to dig SuirL. Vol. II. the garden; in a word, everyone it employed in diffe- Mctitfrey. rent domeftlc occupations, and always under the fuper- ">^^^*- intendance of one or two of the religious. The women are charged with little clfe but the care of their houfcwiiery, their children, and roalting and grinding the fevcral grains : this laft operation is very long and laboridus becaufe they have no other mcai.J of doing it but by crufhiug the grain in pieces with a cylinder upon a Hone. M. de Langle, being a witncf» of this operation, made the millionaries a prefent of hi« mill ; and a greater iervice could not have been render- ed them, as by thefe means four women would in ;i day perform the work of a hundred, and time cnoiigli will remain to fpin the wool of their Iheep, ai.d to ma- nufactuie coarfe (luffs. At noon the dinner was announced by the bell; the Indians quilted llieir work, and lent to fetch their ra- tions in the iame velfels as at breakfall : but thi-> fecond mefi was thicker than the fiift ; there was mixed in it coin and maize, and peafeand beans; the Indians name it poiijfole. They return again to their labour irom two- o'clock till four or five; afterwards they attend even- ing prayers, uhich continue near an hour, and are fol- lowed by a new ration of alole like that at breakfaft. Thefe three dillributions are fufficient for the fubfill- ence of the far greater number of Indians ; and this very economical fuup might perhaps be very profitably adopted in our years of fcarc ty ; i'ome (eafoning would certainly be neceifary to be added to it, their whole knowledge of cookery confift'pg in being able to roaft the grain betbre it is reduced into meal. As the Indian v.'omen have no vellils of earth or metal for this opera- tion, they perform it in large bafkets made of bark, over a little lighted charcoal ; they turn thele vellels with fo much r?pidity and addrefs, that they effeifl the fwelling and burfting oi the grain without burning the ba(ket, though it u made of very conibuftible ma- terials. The corn is diftributed to them every morning ; and the fmHl'eft dilhonefly, when they give it out, is i>u- nilhed by whipping : but it is very feldom, indeed, they are expofed 10 it. Theie punifhments are adjudged by Indian magiilrates, called caciqua ; there are in every million three of them, cholen by the people from a- mongft thofe whom the mifTionaries have not excluded : but thefe caciques are like the governors of a plantation, patlive beings, blind executors of tl.e will of their fupe- riors ; and their principal fun(5lions confift in ferving as beadles in the ciiurch, and their maintaining order and an air of contemplation. The women are never whip- ped in public, but in an inclofed and fomewhai dillant place, left perhaps their cries might infpire too lively a compafilon, which might llimulate the men to revolt ; thefe laft, on the contrary, are expofed to the view of all their fellow. citizens, tliat their punilhmcnt may ferve as an example. In general they alk pardon ; in which cafe tlie executioner lelfens the force ot his lalhes, but the number of them is never receded from. The rewards are particular fni ill dillributionsof grain, of which thty make little thin cakes, baked on burn- ing coals : and on the gnat fellivals the ration is in beef; many of them eat it l.iw, cfpeeially the fat, wliich they ellecni equal to the bell butter or cheefc. 'I'hey llcin all animals with the greatcft addrefs ; and when they are fat, ihey make, like the ravens, a croaking of 4 C plealurc M O N [57 Mo«ttrfy. pleafure, Jcvoiiring, at the fame time, ll.e moft delicate '*'^'^^^*^ parts with thtir eyes. They arc l'ie<iutnily peimtttcJ to hunt anJ filli on tlieir own account; ami on their return they gercrilly make the millinaries ibii-c prefent in game and filh ; but they always proportion the (|uairity to what is al)- folurcly necsdary tor th.ern, always taking cars to in- crcalc it if they liear of any new guells who are on a vidt to their I'uperiors. The women rear fowls about their cabins, the eggs of which they give iheir children. Thefe fowls are the properly of the Indians, as well as their clotli;s, and other liule articles I'-f hnurchold fur- niture, and thofe n^cefTary for tlie chace. There is no inftance ot their having robbed each other, thougli their fafteuings to the doors coniill imly of a fimple bundle of ftraw, which they place aciofs llie entrance when all the inhabitants are abfent. The men in the millions have facrificcd much more to Chrillianity than the women ; becaufe they were ac- cuftomed to polygamy, and were even in the culloni of cfpouling all the lilUra of a family. The women, on the other hand, have acquired the advantage of exclu- livcly reccivii.g the c^relfes of one man only. With this, however, it would appear tliat they are not fitis- fied ; for the religious ha\ e found it neceflary to con- flitute themfelves the guardians of female vinu;. At an hour after fupper, they have the caie of fliutting up, under lock and key, all thofe wliofe hufbands are ab- fent, as well as the young girls above nine years of age; and during the day they are cntrufted to the fuperin- tendaiicj oi the matrons. So many precautions are flill infulHcient ; tor our voyagers faw men in the ftockt, ;ind women in irons, for having deceived the vigil ince ci ihefc female argulfes, who had not been fufficiently iharp-fighted. The converted Indians have preferved all the ancient ufages which their new religion does not prohibit; the fame cabins, the fame games, the fame drelks : that of the richelt confills ot an otter's flcin cloak, which co- vers their loins, and defceuds below their groin ; the moll lazy have only a .'implc piece of linen cloth, with which they are furnilhed by the miflion, for the pur- pofe cf hiding their nakednefs ; and a fmall cloak of rabbit's fkin covers their Ih.iulders, wliich is faftciud with a pack-thread under the chin ; the hesd and the reit of the body is abfolutely naked ; fome of them, however, have hats of ftraw, very neatly matted. The won:eii's drefs is a cloak of deer fkin, ill tanned ; thofe of the miffions have a cullcm of makins^ a fmall bod- dice, with fleeves, of them: it is their only apparel, with a fmall apron of rulhes, and a petticoat of flag's fliin, which covers their loins, and defcends to the middle of the leg. The young girls, under nine years of age, have merely a fimple girdle ; and the children of the other fix are quite naked. The independent lavages are very frequently at war; but the lear cf the Spaniards makes them rerpe(fl their miaioris; and this, perhaps, is not one of the leall c.iufes cf the angtnentailcn of the Chriflian villages. Their arms are inc bow, and arrow pointed with a Hint very (kilfuliy worked : th;l"e bows are made cf wood, and Ikrung with the (inews of an ox. Our author was af- fured, that they neither eat their prifonsrs, nor tlieir enemies killed in battle; thit, neverthelefs, when they bad vanquifned, and put to death on the field of battle, ] M O N chieff, or very courageous men, they have eaten fome Montc\-i- pieces of them, lefs as a fign of hatred or revenge, than ^^"^ as a homage which tiiey p lid to their valour, and in the full perfuallon that tliis tood would be likely to increafe their owncouiage. They fcalp the vanquilh- ed as in Canada, and pluck out their eyes ; whicii they have the art cf prefcrving free from corruption, and which they carefully keep as precious figns of their vic- tory. Their cullom is to burn their dead, and to de- pofit their allies in morals. MONTEVIDEO, a bay and town of La Plata or Paraguay, in S. America, lituated on llie northern fide of La Plata river, in lat. 34 30 S. It lies E. of Buenos Ayres, and has its name from a mountain which overlocks it, about 20 leagues from Cape Santa Maria at the mouth of the Plata. — Morsf. MONTGOMERY, a new county in the Upper dlf- triifl of Georgia. — ib. Montgomery, a county of New-York, at firfl called Tryon, but its name was changed to Montgomery in 17S4, by acfl of the Lcgiilature. It confillcd of 1 1 townlliips which contained 28,848 inhabitants, accord- ing to the cenfus of i 79 1 . Since that period the coun- ties of Herkemer and Otfcgo have been erefted out of it. It is now bounded N. and W. by litrkemer, E. by Saratoga, S. by Schoharie, and S. W. by Otfego county. By the State cenfus of 1796, it is divided into 8 townfhips ; and of the inhabitants of thefe 3,379 are qualified eleiflors. Chief town, Johnfton. — i//. MoNTCOMEXv, a towiilliip in Ulfter county, New. York, bounded eafterly by New-Windfor and New- burgh, and contains 3,563 inhabitants, including 236 flave?. By the State cenlus of 1796, 497 of the inha- bit.mts were qualified eledors. — ib. Mo>)TGOMF.Rv, a fort in New-York State, fituated in the High Lands, on the W. bank of Hudfon's ri- ver, on the N. fide of Popelop's creek, on which are fome iron-works, oppofit St Anihony's Nofe, 6 miles S. of Weft-Point, and 52 from New-York city. Tlio fort is now in ruins. It was reduced by tlie Britifti in Oiffober, 1777. — i5. Montgomery, atownlliipin Franklin county, Ver- mont. — if). Montgomery, a townfhip in Hampfhire county, MalTachufets, too miles from Bofton. It was incor- porated in 1780, and contains 449 inhabitants. — ib. r.IoNTGOMERY, a county in Pennfylvania, 33 miles in length, and 17 in breadth, N. W. of Philadelp!ii;i county. It is divided into 26 townfhips, and contains 22,929 inhabitant?, including 114 (laves. In this county are 96 grift-mills, 61 faw-mills, 4 forges, 6 fulling-mills, and :o paper-miils. Chief town, Nor- riftnwn. — ii. Montgomery, a townfhlp in the above county. There is alfo a townlliip of this name in Franklin coun- ty. — ii. Montgomery, a county in Salifoury diftrlft, N. Carolina, containing 4,725 inhabitants, including 834 (laves. — Montgomery, a county of Virginia, S. of Bote- tourt county. It is about 100 miles in lengtli, and 44 in breadth, and contains fome lead mines. Chief town, Chriftianfburg. — ii. Montgomery Court Hotife'\n Virginia, is 28 miles from j\nfon court-houfe, 46 from Wythe court-houfe. M O N [ 5V ] M O O Montgo- mery, II Montreal. and 40 from Sulifbury. It is on the potl-roaJ from Rich- mond to Kentucky. A poft-office is kept here— ;i. Montgomery, a county ot" Maryland, on P.itow- m»c river. It contains 18x03 inhabitants, including 6030 (laves. — 16. Montgomery Coirt Honfe, in tlie above court) 28 miles S. E. by S. of Frederick llown, 14 N. by \V. of Georgetown on tliu PatoA-niac, and 35 fouth-v.-e;l- erly of Baltimore. — ih. Montgomery, a new county in TenneffiC State, Mero diilrict. This and Rob-ntfon counry, are the territory formerly c.illcd Tme^e Cou::ty, the Piame of vhich ccalls fince the State ha-> taken that name. — ;'/•. MONT.MORIN, a new town on the north bank of Ohio river, 1 8 mills below Pittlburg, liiuated on a beau- tiful plain, very feitile, and abriuniJing with coal. — ih. MONTPELIER, a townJhip in Caledonia county, Vermont, on the N. E. fide ot Onion river. It has 118 inhabitants, and is 43 miles from Lake Cham- plain. — ib. MONTREAL, the fecond city in rank in Lower Canada, Hands on an ifland in the river St Lawrence, which is 10 leagues in length and 4 in breadth, and has its name trom a very high mountain about the mid- dle ot it, which it fecms to overlook like a monarch from his throne; hence the French called it Monl-real or R'^yiil Mounla'm. While the French had polTeffion of Canada, both the city and idand of Montreal be- longed to private proprietors, who had improved them fo well that the whole illand had become a delightful fpot, and produced every thing that could adminifter to tlic convenience of lile. Tlie city, around wliich is a very good wall, built by Louis XIV. of France, forms an oblong fquare, divided by regular and vvdl formed llreets ; and when taken by tjie Britilh, the houfes were built in a very handfome manner ; and every houfe might be feen at one view from the har- bour, or from the fouthcrnraofl fide of the river, as the hill on the fide of which the town Hands falls gradual- ly to the water. Montreal contains about 600 houfes, few of them elegant ; but fince it fell into the hands of the Britilh in 1760, it has fuffered much fr. m fire. A regiment ol men are llationed here, and llie govern- ment of the place borders on the military. It is about half a league from the fouth (hnre of the river, 170 miles I'outh-weftof Qjiebec, Trois Rivieres being about halfway; 110 nortli by weft of Crown Point; 308 north by weft of Bofton, and 350 north by eaft of Ni- agara. North lat. 45 35, weft long. 73 11. The ri- ver St Lawrence is about 3 miles wide at Montreal. There is an idand near the middle of the river oppofite the city, at the lower end of which is a mill with S pair ol ftones, all kept in motion, at the fame lime, by 1 wheel. The works are fald to have coft /'i 1,000 fter- ling. A large mound of Hone, S:c. built out into the river, ftops a fufticicncy cf water to keep the mill in continual motion. And what is very curious, at the end of this mound or dam, vefTels pafs againft the llream, while the mill is in motion. Ptihaps there is not another mill of the kind in the world. — ib. Montreal, a river which runs north eaft ward into lake Superior, on the foutjiern fide of the lake. — ib. Montrf AL Bay lies towards the eaft end of lake Su- perior, liaving ail illand at the noith-weft fide of its en- trance, and north-eaft of Caribou illand. — ib. MONTROUIS, a town in the w:ft pari of the iHanJ Mentronis, of Si Domingo, at the head of^the Bight of Leogane, I" 5 leagues louth-ca:l of St Maik, and 15 norlii-weil of ^"^ Port au Prince. — ib. MONTSERRAT, oneof the Catibbee iflanJs, and is the frnalkft of iheni in the Atlantic Ocean. C.jlum- bus diicovered it in 1493. It is of an oval foim, 3 leagues in length, and as many in breadth, ccntain-ng about 30,000 acres of land, cf which almoft .'j-ds are very mountainous, or very barren. The cultivation of lugar occupies 6,ooo acres ; cotton, provifioii an I paltur-ige havj 2,000 acres allotted for each. No other tropicd ftaphs are rai;cJ. The produftions were, on an average, from 1784 to 178S, 2,757 lihds. cf fu- gar, of i6cwt. each, 1,107 liurcheons of rum, and 275 bales of cotton. The total expoits from Montfcr- rat and Nevis in 1787 were in value /.'i 14, 141 : 16 : 8, cf Wliich the value of ^13,981 : 12 . 6 Wrts expotted to the Ameiican States. Tlic iuhabitanis of Montferrat aiT)Ouiit to 1,300 whites, and about io,oco negroes. The firit fjttlers, in 1632, were Iiillmien, and the prefent inhabitants are chiefly their defcendanis, or other natives of Ireland fince fettled there, by wiiich means the irilli language is preferved there even among the negroes. Tfie liland is furrounded with rocks, and the riding before it is very precarious and dangerous on the approach of a tornado, having no haven. It has only 3 roads, viz. Plymouth, Old Harbour, and Ker's Bay ; where they are obliged to (•blerve the fatne methods as at St Chrlftophcr\ in loading or unloading the veffels. It lies 30 miles fouth-weft of Antigua; the fame dlllance fouth-eaft of Nivi-, and Is fubjeif to Great-Britain. N. lat. 16 47, weft long. 62 12. — ib. MONTSIOUGE, a river or bay in Lincoln county, Diftrift of Maine, which communicates with the ri- vers Sheepfcut and Kennebeck. — MONTVl LLE, a townflvp in New-London county, Connecticut, about 10 miles N. of New-London city. It has 2,053 inhabitants. — ib. MONUMENT Bay, on the eaft coaft of Malfarhu- fetts, is formed by the bending of Cape Cod. It is fp.acious and convenient for the proteAion of (hipping. — ib. MOORE, a county of N. Caro'lna, in Fayette dif- tricfl. It contains 3,770 inhabitants, including 371. (laves. Chief town, Alfordfton. — ib. Moore CourtHouff, in the above county, where n. poft-office is kept, is 38 miles from Randolph court- houfe, and 40 from Fayetteville. — ib. MOOREFIELD, in New-Jerley, 13 miles eafterlj- of Philadelphia.— /i. MOOKE Fori, a place fo called in S. Carolina, is a ftupenduus LlufF, or high perpendicular bank of caith, on the Carolina fliore of Savannah river, per- haps 90 or 100 feet above the common fuiface of the water, exhibiting the fingular and p'.eafing fpeflaclc to a llranger, cf prodigious walls of parti-coloured earths, chiclly clays and marl, as red, biown, yellow, blue, purple, white, &i:. in horizontal l^rata, one over the other. A fort formerly Itood here, before the crcflion of one at Augnfta, from which it ftood a little to the north-ealh Tlic water now occupies the fpot on wliicli the fort ftood. — <,'■. Moore's Crc^-L is 16 miles from Wilmington, in N. Carolina. Here Gen. M'Donald, with about 2,000 4 C 2 royalills. MOO C 572 ] MOO MoorficMs, royaliils, were defeated (after a retreat of 80 miles, K and a defperate engagement) by Gen. Moore, at the Moor*, jjj^j pf 800 continentals. Gen. M'Donald and the flow'.r of his men wcie killed. — ib. MOORFIELDS, a poft-town and the capital of Hardy county, Virginia, fituated on theeall lide of the fouth branch of Patowmac river. It contains, a court- houfe, a gaol, and between 60 and 70 houles. It is 25 miles from Romney, 75 from Winciieller, and 180 . from Riclimond — ii. MOORS, in common language, are the natives of MoRocci), of whom an account is given under that title in the EncyclopteJi.i ; but there is another people, a mixed race, c lUed alfo Moors, who lead a wander- ing and palloral life iji the habitable parts of the Great Defeit, and in the countries adjacent to it. Of the ori- gin c f thefe MocTilh tribes, as dillinguilhed from the inhabitants of Barbary, nothing fanher feems to be known than what is related by John Leo the African ; whofe acC'Unt niay^e abridged as loUows : Before the Arabian conqucll, about the middle of the feventh century, all the inh ibitanls of iVfrica, whe- ther they were defcendcd from Numidians, Phtcucians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, or Goths, were com- prehended under the general name of Mtiiiri or Moors. All thefe nations were converted to the religion of Ma- homet, during the Arabian empire under the Kaliphs. About this time many ot the Numidian tribe'^, who led a wandering life in the defert, and fupported themfelves vpon tlie produce c.f their cattle, retired fiuthward acrofs the Great Dcfart, to avoid the fury of the Ara- bians ; and by one of thofe tribes, fays Leo (that of Zanhaea^ were difcovered, and conquered, the Negro nations on the Niger. By the Niger, is here undoubt- edly meant the river of Senegal which in the Mandingo language is called Bqfing, or the Black River. To what extent thele people are now fpread over the African continent, it is ditHcult to altertain. There isreafonto believe, that their dominion llrctclies from wcfi to eafl, in a nairow line or belr, from the mouth of the Senegal (on the northern fide cf that river) to the confines of Abyffinia. Mr Park defcribes them as refemblir.g, in comple.\ion, the Mulattoes ot the Well Indies, and as having cruelty and low cunning piftured in their countenances. " From the daring wildnefs in their eyes (fays he), a ftranger would immediately fet them down as a nation of lunatics. The treachery and malevolence of their charafier are manifclfed in their plundering cxcurficns ag.nnllthe Negro villages. Often- times, without the fmalleft provocation, and fometimes under the fairell pmleffions of friendlhip, they will fud- tlenly feize upon the Negroes cattle, and even on the inhabitants themfelves. The Negroes very leldom re- taliate. The enterpriung boldnefs of the !Moois, their knowledge of the country, and, above all, the Uipciior flei-tnefs of their horfes make them fuch formidable ene- mies, that the petty Negro ilates, which bordfr upon the defert, are m continual alarm while the Moorilh trlbei are in t!:e vicinity, and are too much awed to think of refihance. " Like the roving Arabs, the Moors frequently re- movL- from one place to another, according to the fea- fon ot the year, or the convenience of paRurage. In the month of February, when tlie heat of the fan fcorcli- es up every fort of vegetation in the deferr, they ftrike their tents, and approach the Negro country to the Moofe, fouth ; where they refide until the rains commence, in the month of July. At this time, having purchafcd corn, and other neceffaries from the Negroes, in ex- change tor fait, they again dcjiart to the northward, and continue in the defert until the rains are over, and that part of the country becomes burnt up and barren. " This wandering and relllefs way of life, while it inures them tohardlhips, ftrengihens, at the fame time, the bonds of their little fociety, and creates in them an averfion towards (Irangtrs, which isalmoft infurmount- able. Cut off from all intercourfe with civilized na- tions, and boalting an advantage over the Negroes, by pon'ellliig, though in a very limited degree, liii. know- ledge ot letters, they are at once the vainell and proud- eft, and perhaps the moll bigotted, ferocious, and into- lerant, ot all the nations on the earth ; combining in their character the blind fuperilition of the Negro, with the favage cruelty and treachery of the Arab." But for them Mr Park would have accomplKhed the utmoll obje(5i of his miffion, and have reached Tombufloo, and even Houlf.i, with no other danger than what arifes ne- ccd'jnly from the climate, from wild bealls, and from the poor accommodation afforded in the huts of the hof- pitable Negroes. The wandering Moors, however, have all been taught to regard the Cliriflian name wiih in- conceivable abhorrence ; and to confider it nearly as lawful to murder a European as it would be to kill a dog. It is, therefore, much lefs furpiifmg that our tr.ivcUer did not proceed farther along the banks of the N:ger, than that he efcaped the I'nares of fo relentlefs a people. MOOSE River, rifes in Mifinabe lake, a fiiort dif- tance from Michipicoten river, a water oi lake Supe- rior, and purfues a north-eaftern courfe, receiving, a- bout 12 miles from its mouth, a large fouth branch, and empties into the fouthern part of James's Bay, N. America, by the fame mouth with Abbitibee river. Moofe Fort, and a faftory ate fituated at the mouth of this river, N. lat. 51 16, well long. 81 51 ; and Brunf- wick Houfe is on its well bank about lat. 50 30. Round the bottom of James's Bay, from Albany Fort and river, on the well fide, to Rupert's rirer on the ealt fide, the woods afford large timber trees of vari- ous kinds, as oak, all), befides the pine, cedar, fpruce, &c. Up Moofe river beyond Brunlwick houfe is a fall of 50 feet, above which it is deep and navigable for a great diftance ; the foil and the climate above the fall are faid to be very good. — Mone. MoosE River, a fliort dream in Grafton county, New-Hamplhire, which runs north-eaderly from the White Mountains into Amarifcoggin river — ib. MOOSEHEAD Luke, or Moufi Pond, in Lincoln county, Didrift of Maine, is an irregular ihaped body of water, which gives rife to the ealtern branch of Ken- nebec river, which unites with the other, above Nor- ridgev.'ock, about 20 miles foulh of the lake. The lake is faid to be three times as large as Lake George. There are very high mountains to the north and welt of the lake ; and from thefe the waters run by many channels into the St Lawrence. — ib, MOOSEHILLOCK, the highed of the chain of mountains in New.H,inipfhire, tlie White Mountains excepted. It takes its name trom its having been ior- mcrly a raniarkable range for moofe, and lies 70 miles weft L M O R Moofe, weft of the White Mountains. From its N. W. fiJe proceeds Baker's river, a branch of Pemigewafl':t, which is the principal branch of Merrimack. On this mountain fnow has been feen from the town of Newbu- ry, Vermont, on the 30th of June and 31ft of Aiigull ; and on the mountains intervening, fnow, it is faid, lies the whole year. — ii. MOOSE JJIam/, on the coaft of the Diftria of Maine, ai the mouth of Schoodick river, contains about 30 families. On the fouth end of this ifland is an ex- cellent harbour fuliable for the conftruiflion of drydocks. Common (ides rife here 25 feet. — /i. MORANT Kcyt, off the iiland of Jamaica, in the Weft-Indies. N. lat. 17 47, W. long. 75 35. — ii. MoRANT Puinl, the moft ealterly promontory of the ifland of Jamaica. On the N. fide of the point is a harbour of the fame name. From Point Morant it is ufual for (hips to take their departure that are bound through the Windward Palfage, or to any part of the W. end of the iiland of 6t Domingo. N. lat. 17 58, W. long. 76 10. — il>. MokANT Hurlour, Port, is about 4 leagues weflward of Point Morant, on the fouth coall of the iflcind of Jamaica. Before the mouth of it is a imall ifland, called Good Iiland, and a tort un each point of the entrance. — ib. Morant River, is 2 leagues weftward of the weft point of Point Morant. The land here forms a bay, with anchorage along the fhorc. — ib. MOREN.\, a cape on the coaft of Chili, S. Ame- rica, is in laf. 23 45 S. and 15 le.igues N. E. of Cape George. The bay between thtfc capes fcems very de- firable to ftrangers to go in ; but in a N. W. wind is very dangerous, becauie the wind blows right on the ihore, and makes a very heavy fea in the road. Here is a very convenient liarbour, but exceedingly narrow, wliere a got d fliip miglit be cartened. — ib. MoRESA MoRRO, on the coaft 01 Chiii, S.America, in lat. 23 S. anJ 20 leagues due S. of the north ponit of the bay of Atacama. — ib. MORE, a townlhip in Northumberland county, Penniv'.v.'.nia. — ib. MORELANiJ, tile name of two townfliips of Penn- fylvania ; the one in Philadelphia county, the other in that of M.^ntgointry. — ib MO K CAN Dijlna, in N. Caioli.na, is bounded W. by the State of TtniielTee, and S. by the State of S. Carolina. It is divided into the counties of Burke, Wilkes, Ruthetlotd, Linctln, and Buncomb ; and coiitains 33,292 inhabitants, including 2,693 llavcs. —lb. MORGANTOWN, a poft-town and the chief town of the ab.>ve diltnct, is fi;ualed in Burke ciunty near C.itabaw river. Here are about 30 honfes, a court- houfe and gaol. It is 45 miles trom Wilkes, 46 from L'ncolntown, 113 from Salem, and 661 from Pniia- delphia. N. lat. 35 47. — ib. ^IoRGANTO•.VN, 3. poft-towij of Virginia, and fhire- town ot Monongalia county, is pleafantiy fnuaeu on ihe eaft fide of Monon^ahela river, about 7 miles S. by \V. of the mouth of Cheat river; and contains a court- hoiife, a ftone gaol, and about 40 houfes. It is 30 miles from Brownfville, 24 from Uniori-Town, in Pennfylvania, 76 from Cumberland ia Maryland, and 329 from Philadelphia ib. 573 ] M O R MORGANS, a fettlement in Kentucky, 3S miles Morgans, E. of Lexington, and 18 N. E. of Boonft)orough. — ;'*. II MORGANZ.A, a town now laying out in Wafti- ,^^i2!;iii^ ington county, Pennfylvania, fituatcd in, and almoft furrounded by the E. and W. branches of Charter's river, including the point of their confluence ; 13 miles S. of Piiilburg, and on the poft-road from thence to Wafliington, l)ie county town, diftant 10 miles. Boats carrying t'rum 2 to 300 barrels of flour, have been built at Moiganza, laden at the mill tail there, and fent down the Chartiers into the Ohio, and fo to New- Orleans. By an aA of the legillature of Pennfylvania, the Chartiers, from the Ohio upwards as far as Mor- ganza, is declared to be a high-way. This town is lurrounded by a rich country, where numbers of grill and faw mills are already built ; and the lands in its environs well adapted to agriculture and grazing ; and is fpoken of as a country that is or will be the richeft in Pennfylvania. Morganza, from its fituation and other natural advantages, mull become the centre of a great m inufiauring country ; efpecially as confidera- ble bodies of iron ore, of a fupcrior quality, have been already diTcovered in the neighbourhood, and have been allayed. The high waving hills in this country are, from the quality of the foil, convertible into the moft luxuria-t grazing lands, and are already much improved in this way. Thefe hills will be peculiarly- adapted to raife live ftock, and more panicp.l^ily the tine long-wooled breed of fhecp ; fuch as thst of the Cotfwold hills in England, whofe fleeces fell for tf. fterling per pound; when others fetch only 12J or iji. Tne whejt cf this country is faid to weigh, o-jnerally, from 62 to 66Ib. and the buftiel of 8 gallons. From hence, confiderable exports are already made to New- Or cans of ilonr, bacon, butter, cheefe, cider, and rye and apple fpirits. The black cattle raifed here are told to the new fcttlers, and to cattle merchants, for the Pliiladjlphia and Baltimore markets; mtny have alio been driven to Niagara and Detroit, where there arc frequent denrands for live ftock, which fuffer much in thofe northern countries, from hard winters, failure in crops, ;ind other caufcs. — .'i. INIORGLIE Fort, or Fortabeza de Margu:, on the fouth Ihore of the entrance of Baldivia Bav, on the coaft cf Chili, on the South Pacific Ocean. The chan- nel has Irom 9 to 6 fathoms. — ib. MORIENNE, a bay on the E. coaft of the iflinJ of Cape Brelo-.), near Miray B.iy fiom which it i.i fe- parated only by C.ipe Brule. It is a tolerably deep bay. — ib. MORINDA, is a plant, of wh.ii;h a very meagre de- fcrlption h.ts been given in the Encyclop.idi.i, though ic is ot much impoi lance in oriental commerce. It is cul- tivated to a i;reit extent in the province of Makva in the Eaft Indies, where it furnidies .1 valuable dye-lluff; and is thus defciibed by William Hunter, Efq ; in the fourlh volume of the Afiatic Refcaiches : " It is a tree of a middiiflg lize ; the root branchy ; thj/runi columnar, ercifl, covered with a fcabrous bark. Br.tnch(s, from th; upper p.art of the trunk, fcattered ; of the ftrudure of the trunk. Leava (feminal) oval, obtufc, entire (m.ilure), oppol'ne, dccuifated, ovate, pointed at bi th ends, fmootli, wi.)) very fhort pciii'les. Stipuirt, lanced, very fmall, w itlicting. Pulunj.s, from the axils of the leaves, folirary, bearing an aggregate ilcwer. M O R [ 574 ] M O S flower. C(il)x, common receptacle roundith, collecling ibc feOile flowers into an irregular head. Perianth, mcll entire, fcarce obfervahle above. Coral, one petal- 1»J Innncl term. Tute, cylindric: Border, five cleft; ihe d'tv'ifnn! lanced. Sliinen : F'tlim nis, five tliread- roim, ariling lioni the tube, and adheiing to ittliiougli two-thirds ui their lengtji, a little lliorter than the tube. .,^>.v/(r/, linear, ercft. PiJIH. Gcrw, beneath, four-cel- led, ccntaiiiing the rudiments oi four feeds. Styir, ihrcad-form longer than the llamen?. 5//jW(7, two ckii, thickilh. Pirictirf, common, irregular, divided en the fuiface into irregular angular fpace; : compofed ot ber- ric?, pyramidal, comprelled on all fides by the adjacent ones, and conciettd wilhtlum ; h ppcd; cntaining to- wards the bafe a flefhy pulp. Seeds, in each berry lour; toward; the point obloiijj, externally convex, internal- ly angular." The fpecies here defcribed is the t.iorinJn arboreii fe- diincu'h fil'itariis ol Linnaus. It grows bell; in a black lich foil, free from flones, in fitu'.itions moderately moill, rot too high, yet fiilhciently elevated to prevent the rain water fiom (lagnating, and where a fiipply of wa- ter can be had tnr tlie dry niinihs. As the ccilnuring matter, for which alone it is valuable, rcfides chiefly in the balk of the root, the fmall twigs, whicii contain little wood, bear a higher price than the larger pieces. The natives employ it in dyeing a pale red, or clay co- lour ; which Mr Hunter fays is more valuable lor its durability than for its beauty. They likewife ufe it in dyeing a datk purple or chocolate colour : but for the procefs, in both cafes, we muft refer to the original me- moir. MORION, in botany, a name given by the ancients to a kind of nightihade. See Solanum, Encycl. Morion, in ancient mineralogy, a name given to one of the femipellucid gems, more commonly called pram- v'ton. It is a ftone appearing externally cf a fine deep black ; but when held up againft a candle, or apainll llie fun-beams, it gives a very beautiful red in different degrees. MORO Ci'[tle is on the point or headland on the E. fide of the channel of the Havannah, in the N. W. part of the ifland cf Cuba, and is the firft of two llrcng callles for the defence cf the channel againfl the approach of an enemy's (hips. It is a kind of tri- angle, fortified with baltions, on which are mounted about 60 pieces of cannon, 24 pounders. Frrm the c.idle there alfo runs a wall or line mounted with 12 Inng brafs cannon, 36 pounders ; called, by way of eminence, " The twelve Apoftles :" and at the point, between the calUe and the fea, there is a tower uhere a man Hands and giTes flgnals of what veilels ap- proach. — Mcrse. MOROKINNEE, or Aloro/innee, in the ifland of ^lowee, one ot the Sandwich Illands, in the N. Pacific Ocean, is in jat. lo 29 N. and long. 126 27 weil. —iL MOROSQUILLO Bay is to the fouihward of Car- thagena, on the coafl of the Spaiiifh Main, and in tlie bight rf the c aft coming out of Darien Guli", on the eaflern (horc. — ib. MOROTOI, or Moroloi, one cf the Sandwich Iflands in the P.iciric Ocean, is about 2| leagues W. N. W. of Mowee Illand, and has feveral bays on its S. and W. fides. Its W. point is in lat. 21 20 N. and long. 157 Mofe. 14 V/. and is computed to contain 36,000 inhabitants. Monis. It is 7 leagues S. E. of Woahoo Iflmd. — ii. MORRIS, a county on the northern line of Ncw- Jerfey, weft of Bergen county. It is about 25 miles long, and 20 broad, is divided into 5 townftiips, and contains about 136, Soy acreiof i.Tiproved, and 30,429 acres of unimproved land. The eaflern part of the county is level, and affords fine meadows, and <;ood land for Indian ci rn. The weftern part is hk re moun- tainous ■•i"'! produces crops of wheat. Here are feven ricli iron mines, and two fprings famous for curing rlK'umatic and chronic difordeis. There are alfo ? furnaces, two flitting and rolling-mills, 35 forges and fire-works, 37 fav,^-nii!ls and 43 grill mills. Tliere are in the county i6,il6 inhabitants, cf whom 636 are Haves. — ii. MORRISSINA, a village in Wefc-Chefter county, Kew-York, contiguous to Hell Gate, in the Sound. In 1790 it contained 133 inhabitants, <f whom 30 were llaves. In 1791, it was annexed to the towntliip of WeilChefter.— /'i^. MORRISTOWN, a pott-town and capital of the above county, is a handfi'me town, and contains a PrtC- byteri.in and Baptift church, a court-houfc, an acad- emy, and about 30 compa>f[ houfes ; 19 miles N. W. of Newark, and about too N. E. of Philadelphia. The head quariers of the American army, during the revo. lution war, was frequently in and about this town. — ilr. MORRISVILLE, a village in Pennfylvania, fitu- ated in Bucks county on the W. bank cf Delaware ri- ver, one mile trom Trenton, 9 from Briftol, and 29 from Philadelphia. A poft-o(Ecc is kept here.: — il/, MORRIS Bay, on the W. coafl cf the ifland of Antigua, in the Weff-Indies. It cannot be recom- mended to fhips to pafs this way, a? there is in one place S. from the Five Iflands only 2 fathoms water. VelTeh drawing more than 9 feet water muft not at- tempt it. — //'. MORROPE, a town on the road between Qnlto and Lima, in S. America. It contains between 70 and 80 houfes, containing about 160 familie?, all In- dians: near it runs the river Po/.uelos, the banks of which are cultivated and adorned with tree?. Morrope is 28 or 30 leagues diftant from Sechura, all that way being a f.indy plain, the track continually fhifting. — ib. MORl'lER's Rods, on the S. coaft rf Newfound- land Illand. N. lat. 47, W. long. 54 55. — ib. rilOPvTO I/!a)id, on the coaft of Peru, fo called by the Spaniards, from its lli iking refemblance to a dead corpfe, extended at full length. It is alio called St Clara. It is about 5 leagues N. N. E. from the river Tunibez ; and is 2 miles in length, and 27 leagues from Guayaquil. — ib. MORTON B,:y, on the 1-J. W. coaft of the ifland of Nevis, in the Weft-Indie.";, is near the Narrows, or channel between that ifl.ind and St Chriftopher's, to the N. W. of which there is from 3 to 8 fathoms, ac- cording to the diftance from ihore. — ib. MORUES B.-iy, on the fouthern fhoreof the river St Lawrence, fouihward ol Gafpee Bay, and weft of Dc- naventura and Mifcan iflands. — ib. MORUGO, a fmall river to the weft and north- weft of the gulf of ElTequibo, on the coaft of Surri- nam, in S. America. — ;/'. MOSE, or Villa del Mofe, a town on the bank of the river Mofes, n Mofs. M O S L 575 1 M O S river Tabafco, in the bottom of Carnpeachy Gulf, to experience to carry rich crops of corn, hay, potatoes, which fmall barges may go up. Great quantities of &c. Of this gentleman's praftice we have the follow, cocoa are Ihipped here for Spain ; which brings a great ing account in a fmall pamphlet publiilicd in Edinburgh, many Hoops and fmall vefTils to tJie ccaft. — jl: 1798, by Fairbairn aiiJ Dickfoii. MOSES J'cifil, a head or cape of land, on the E. « The fiift thing to be done is to mark off, acd cut fide of tlie entrance into Bonavifta Bay, on the E. out, proper main or mader draitis, in order to carry eft coaft of Newfoundland llland. It is to the fjulhward the fupctfluous water, taking care to preferve the great- of the rucks called Sweers, and 5 miles fouth-weR of ell pollible level; which drains are fo ccnftruacd a, to Cape Bcnavida. — il>. MOSHAIRA, or Moshahereh, penfion or allow- ance in Bengal. MOSLEY's, a place on Roanoke river, 9 miles le- divide the field into inclofurts iroin iix to ten Scctcli acres. It the rnofs hangs or declines, the inclofures may be of any dinienfion whatever. The dimer.fions of _ ^ thefo drains when firft made are eight teei wide, by four low Hi Tammany's, and 3 above Eatcn's. The pro- and a half feot deep, declining to two and a halt fett ducc of the upper country is brought to thefe places, at bottom, and cuft at the rare of one (hilling per fall of and fent from thence by waggons to Feterlburg in Vir- eighteen and a half feet, running meafure. The ridges ginia. — Morse. are then to be marked off regularly, Iix or fevcn yards MOSQUITO Country, a diftriift of Mexico, having broad, formed with the ipade in the manner following, the North Sea on the N. and E. Nicaragua on the S. " In the centre of each ridge, a fpace of about 20 and Honduras on the W. The natives are tall, well inches is allowed to remain uutoutlied, on each fide of made, ftrong, and nimble of foot. They are implaca- which a furrow is opened, and turned upon the un- ble enemies to the Spaniards, who inalfacred a vail touched fpace, {<■> as completely to cover it (like what number of their people when they invaded Mexico, and is called the leeiing of a g.uherej riJ^el. Thus bc- wiU join with any European nation againll ilie Spani- gun, the work is continued, by culling waii the fpade, ards. They are very dextrous in linking tilh, turtles in width about 12 inches, and turning it over to .-.p- and mannaties. Many ot the natives fail in ijritilh pearance as if done with a plough, until you come lo velfels to Jamaica. — lb. Mosquito Btiy, or Mujl-ito, is at the S. E. extremi- ty of the i.land oi St Chriltopher's, and on the larboard fide of the channel of the Narrows, f;om the S. \V. go- ing round the point along the ih^ie, uithin the reel to the northward. The coal! is here lined with rocks, and at a fmall dillance is from ^ to 6 fathoms, on the W. N. W. fide of Booby Ifland.— /A. the divifion furiow, which iliould be two feet wide, rut out ;ind thrrwii upon the fides of the ridges. The depth ot the di\illon furrow is to be regulated by cir- cumflances, according as ihe mofs is v.et or dry, but fo as to antwer the purpofe of as it were bleeding the mofs, and tondufting (he water to the main drains. " It may be here obfcrved, that the fuccefs of the aftercrops depends very much upon a proper loimatioii MosQiMTO, or MufqiiilQ Cove, ou the W. fide of the of the ridges. They muft not be madi too hi"!i in tlis ifland if Antigua, andfuuthwatd of Five IllanJs Har- middle, tor there they will be too dry like a peat, up- bour. — ib. ^ on wh.ich the lime cannot act, and near the furrows they MosQ^-'iTO Ifland, one of the fmall Virgin Iflands, will be too wet, which is equally prejudicial ; llicy in the Well Indies, r.ear theN. coatl of Virgin Gorda, fliouid therefore be conurujttd with a gentle declivity on which it is dependent. N. lat. iS 25, W. long. 63 to the furrows, fo as the r.'in which f.lls may rather 15 — ''■'■ . filtrate through the ridge to the furrows than run Mosquito Pcint is the larboard point of tlie chan- ([uickly off the fui face. nel into Port Royal Bay in Jamaica, where the powder " The next operation is to top-drefs the ridtjes with magazine:, are fituated, nnd on which is a b.ittery of bo lime, at the rate of fro.m four to eight chaldcrs per guns, for the dtleucc ol the channel, whicli is here very narrow. Round tlie point to the noith-welleily, is a fpacious bay or baton, into which conies the liver of Spanifh Town. — ;i'. Mosquito Puir.t, at the entrance of the river Efie Five Winchedcr bufhels make a boll, and eight bolls a chalder cf flicll lime, producing fixteen bolls powdered l.nie. The quicker the lime is put on aficr being ll.ickcJ the better. "The proper feafon to prepare the mofs for a fir (I quibo, on the coalt oi Dutch Guiana, S. America; crop is early the preceding fummcr; in that cafe the round which, as foon a^ ihips are within, th;y are di- lime, aided by the heat, the after rains, and the winter reeled to run S. E. and then due S. and come to an an- frofls, makes »;onfider.)ble progtefs in the proccfs of pu- chor before the fii ft village. — /*. trefaaicn, confequcntly forms a ir.oulJ lo receive the MOSS, the name given in Scotland, and we believe feed, alfo in frme pans of En^Lind, to what is more pro. " Though oats have fcmclime? fuccceded as a firft perly called a niC7vy}, a /t«, ot jl bog. On the forma- crop, potatoes hive been found greatly preferable. The tion of thefe niofiVs fome conjciflures have been hazard- incihod oi planting them is fimple, and attended with ed In the Encydipxilia, where the reader will likewife little expence. Tlic mofs, prepaicd by lidges, and find a copious account rf the method wliich has for roa- limed as b;fore dtfcribed, beds for the potatoes .are, in ny years been fuccct'sfuily employed to convert the Moss the fpring, marked off. acrofs the ridge>, five or fit feet OF KiNCARDisK into an arable foil, or rather to remove broad, with in:crmediatc fpaces of about two feet, as the fubllance called w// or peat from the rich foil which turrnws or tnnches. The beds are covered over with is found below it. A method, however, has been in- a thin ftratum of dung, about eighteen fiii-ile licife vented by Mi Juhn Smith of Swindrig-muir, in the carts to an acre, the cuttings of the potatoes are laid fliire of Ayr, for c/;;*/;.'/)' converting the fubllance called or placed upon the beds, alout ten or twelve Inches mofs into a vegetable mould, which has been found by .vander, and the whde covered over with a tliin llra- » turn. Mo.'V. ^^ur5. M O S C 57^ ] MOT turn of mofs from the iiuerniediate trendies, which is fixth years Is, its naturally running into fweet and Mofs, followed by anotiicr covering Irnni the trenches when luxuriant graiFes. The folt meadow grafs, the daify, II, the pot.itoe pUnti make their fiill ap))e,irance ; the co- fome plainiain, but principally the white clover, are the ..^^^^llilL vering in whole four or five inche;. In this ftate they molt prevalent gralfes ; or more probably it may be a- ifm.iin without any hoeing till the crop is taken up. fcribed to thefe crops being ploughed, in place of being dug witli the fpade, as the former years were. Along Willi t!ie fifth or fixtli crop of c.»t.', rye-grafs is fown, which, with the natural grafTes i<i general, produce ait abundant crop cf hay. " It the mofb in ihe original (late has been wet and fpongy, it w;U be found to have fubfided fome feet af- Thc produce on Mr Smith's mofs has never been lefs than from forty to fil'ty bolls of excellent potatoes, cijlit Win^hellc:- bulluU to the boll, and the bulliel a liltl; he.ipfcJ. " When the potatoe crop is removed, the ridges are agiiii formed as before dei(;iib-d, and the divilion lur- * Tliis is a vulgar Scottifh phrafe fur beds of a particular hind ()f po- tatoe. row cleared out. In performing this part of the woik, ttr tlie third or fouitli year's operation has been per- it will naturally occur, that a great pan of the manuied foimed; but care mull always be taken to deepen, fuiface will be buried in hlhiig up tiic trenches between clear our, and keep clear the main drains and the divi- tiic potatoe beds: but that is not tlie cafe ; the woik- fion fuirows, to prevent a fuperabundance of nioifture, man makes two cuts with the fpade, at eiglitecn inches which would ir.fallibly be the cafe were they negledled dillance, upon the fide of the trench ; another, one foot in confecjuence of the fubl'idence of the mofs. Indeed fn :n the edge of it, as deep as the trench ; uliich, in- mofs of all forts will fubfide lefs or more, in propoition Head (f turnii.g over, he prelles a foot forward into the as it has been dry or wet in its original flate ; at the trench, which is continued the length of it ; and when fame time, as flated before, care muft be taken not to he conies to the other fide he does the fame, making hiy it too dry, but to keep in a proper degree of tempe- both meet, and fb proceeds ; fo tliat no pjrt of the ma- rature between thefe two exiiemes." iiured furface ii thrown dov.'n, and the lidge is left in By having recouife to the pamphlet from wliich this thefime form as before the lazy-beds* were m;ide. extrad has been made, the reader may fatisfy himfelf " When tlie potatoe crop is taken otT, and the ridges ot the real advantages of this fpecies of agriculture, formed as before dcfcribed, they lemain in that Hate The author calculates, with much apparent tairnefs, the till fpring, when oats are fown (a wet or dry feafon has expence of improvement, and the value of each crop, from experience been found a matter of indifference), and concludes that no wafle can be improved with equal and harrowed in with a fmall harrow drawn by two advantage as mofs. It mull not, however, be conceal- men. Four men with cafe harrow at leall one acre one eJ> that we have heard praiHical farmers, who feemed rood per day, two and two by turns with the harrow, to be acquainted with the fubjedt, give it as their opi- and the other two in the interim with fp.ides, finooih- nion that this mode of cultivation anfwers only in mofles ing the inequalities, breaking and dividing the mould, ''f no great depth ; though our author alhrms that it and clearing out the divifion furrows ; which lad in all has with great fuccefs been pradlifed by Mr Smith in operations upon mofs are tireutially iieceffary. I'he moffes of the depth of 14 feet. eaily or hot Iced oats are always prefened for feed. MOTION in fluids. When in the publication The late or cold feed runs too much to fliaw, falls of this Supplement we had arrived at tlie title Fluids, down, and becomes fh omy, confequently the grain is vve were Itruck with the importance given, in fome of cf mean quality, and unprodudlive in meal. the journals, to The Expei imcnial Refeurclis of Venturi " The produce of the firfl crop of oats alter potatoes comerning the Principle of the lateral communication of is feldoni lefs than ten bolls per acre, the Linlithgow Motion in Fluids af plied 1$ the Explanation of various boll of fix Wiixhefter bufhels, and confiderably more Hydraulic Phenomena. Of thefe leiearchcs we intend- has been known ; as good grain in qualicy, and meals ed to lay an abridged account before our readers under as well as any in the country. It has been fold when the prelent title ; but having examined the work with growing, what is called upon the foot, including the fome attention, we find in it hardly any thing of confe- firaw, from eight to ten pounds per acre. To prepare quence which the mechanical philof:pher may not learn for a fecond crop of oats, the ridges mull be dug acrofs, from our articles RtsisTAAcE of Fluids and River in and turned over in the manner before defcribed, and the the Enryckp^dia. That our readers, however, may find divifion fuirows cleared out as foon as convenient after fomethiiig under a \itle to which we radily referred the firfl crop is removed. " Such is the elTeft of lime in confolidating mofs, aid- ed by the draining, that often after the fecond, and al- ways after the third year, it can be plouglied by horfes them, we fhall, in the words of Nicholtoti's Journal of Natural Philofophy, &c. inform them what Venturi's work contains. • This author, who is profeffor of experimental philo- within two bouts or lliches of the divifion furrow; and fophy at Modena, has introduced an horizontal current alfo harrowed by horfes, and the crops taken off by of water into a velTel filled with the fame fluid at reft, carts. This flream entering the vefTel with a certain velocity, " Five and often fix confecntive crops of oats are ta- palfes through a poition of the fluid, and is then re- ken, without any other manure than what it received ceived in an inclined channel, the bottom of which gra- the firll year for potatoes, without any apparent figns dually lifes until it pafl'es over the border or rim of the of it being exhaulled. The produce of the firfl two velTel itfelf. The effed is found to be, not only that crops of oats has been mentioned to be ten bolls, and the flream itfelf palfes out of the veff:l tlirough the the third, fourth, fifth, and flxth, produce from fix to channel, but carries along with it the fluid contained ten bolls per acre. The mofs is now turned into a in the veffel ; fo that after a fliort time no more of the feeming rich dark brown mould ; and what renders it fluid remains than was originally below the aperture at lefs produflive of corn crops the fourth, fifth, and which the ftream enters. This fad is adopted as a principle M O T C 577 ] M O T Motion, principle or primitive phenomenon by the author, under ^■^^''"^^ the denomination of ilie lateral communication of mo. tion in fluids, and to this he refers many important hy- draulic facts. He does not undertake to give an ex- planation of this principle, but Ihows that the mutual attraction of the particles of water is far from being a fufficicnt caufe to account for it. The firll phenomenon which the author propofes to e^iplain by this ellablifhed principle, is the emiffionof a fluid through different adjutages applied to the refer- voir which contains it. It is known that the vein of fluid which iffues from an orifice or perforation through a thin plate, becomes contrafled, lo as to exhibit a fcc- tion equal to about 0,6.). of the orifice itfelf, fuppofed to be circular ; and that the place ot the greatell con- traiflion is ufually at the dillance of one fenii-dianieter of the orifice itfelf. If a fmall adjutage be adapted to the orifice, having its internal cavity of the fame conoi- dal form as the fluid itfelf affects in that interval, the expenditure is the fame as by the fimple orifice. But if at the extremity of this adjutage a cylindric tube be affixed, of a greater diameter tlun that of the contract- ed vein, or a divergent conical tube, the expence of fluid increafes, and may exceed the double ot that which palTes through the aperture in the thin plate, though the adjutage poffefs an horizontal or even afcendiug di- rection. By the interpofition of a fmall adjutage, adapted to the form of the contrafled vein, Venturi afcertained, in the firft place, that there is an increale of velocity in the tubes he employed, though the velocity of emillion it- felf be lefs than that rf the Itream which iffues from a hole in a thin plate. He afterwards proves, by the faft, that the interior velocity and expenditure cf fluid, tvhich is increafed through lubes, even in the horizon- tal or afcending direction, is owing to the preffure of the atmofphere. If the fmallell hole be made in the fide of the tube near the place of contradion of the vein, the increafed expenditure does not take place ; and when a vertical tube is inferted in fuch a hole, the lower end of which tube is immerfed in water or mer- cury, it is found that afpiration takes place, and the wa- ter or mercury riles ; and this afpiration in conical tubes is lefs in proportion, as the place of infertion of the upright tube is more remote from the fcdlion where the greateft coniraftion would have taken place. And, lallly, the difference between the expenditure of fluid, through an orifice made in a thin plate, and that which is obferved through an additional tube, does not take place in vacuo. The influence of the weight of the atmofphere on the horizontal or afcending flux being thus ellablifhed, the author confiders it as a fecondary caufe, referable to, and explicable by, his principle of the lateral com- munication of motion in fluid?. In conical divergent tubes, for example, the effeift of this lateral communica- tion is, that the central cylindrical jet, h.iving for its ba- fis thelciftion of the coiitrafled vein, curies with it the lateral fluid which would have remained Itagnaiit in the enlarged pan of the cone. Hence a vacuum tends to be pioduced in this enlarged part which fuirounds the central cylindric dream ; the preffure cf the atmofphere becomes aifiive to fupply the void, and is exerted on the furface oJ the refervoir, fo as to increafe the velocity of the fluid at the interior extremity of the tube. Supi'L. Vol. II. The author proves, that the velocity or total eipen- Xfoiion. diture of fluid through an aperture of given dimcnfioiis '•-^^'"^'^ may be increafed by a proper adjutage in the propor- tion ot 24 to 10: he applies this refuk to the O'nftiuc- tion of the funnels of chimneys. He determines the lofs cf emitted fluid, which may be fuftained by finuo- fity in pipes. He (hews by experiment, that a pipe which is enlarged in any part affords a much lefs quan- tity cf fluid than if it were throughout ot a diameter equal to that of its fmalled fiction. This, as he re- marks, is a circumftance to which fufficient attention has not been paid in the conftruaion of liydraulic ma- chines. It is not enough to avoid elbiTO's and contrac- tions ; fcr it fometimes happens that, by an interme- diate enlargement, the whole of the advantage arifing from other judicious difpofiticns cf the parts of the ma- chine is loft. There are two caufcs of the increafe of expenditure through dcfcending pipes. The firft is owing to the lateral communication of rnoti.n wliich takes place in dcfcending pipes, in the fame manner as in tiiofe whicli puffefs an horizontal fituation; the fecond ariles from the acceleration by gravity which takes place in tht fluid while it falls through the dcfcending tube. This lecond kind of augmentation was known to the ancients^ though they pofl'elfed no good theory nor decifive expe- riments refpecting it. The author endeavours to efta- blilh a theory on the principle of virtual afcenfion com- bined with ilie pieffuie of the atmofphere. His de- dudions are confirmed by experiment, in which he has fucceeded fo far as to feparate the two caufes of aug- mentation, and afljgned to each their refpective degree of influence. Protelibr Venturi then proceeds to different objeifls of enquiry, to which his principle f.-emed applicable. He gives the theory of the %vater blowing machine (fee Watf.s. Bloivhi^ Machine in this SupplJ, and he deter- mines by calculation the quantity of air wf.ich one of thefe machines can afford in a given time. He ob- ferves, that the natural falls of w.iter in the mountains always produce a local wind ; and he even thinks, that the falling ftreams in the internal parts of mountains are in fome inftances the caufe of the winds which ilVue from caves. He proves, by the facts, that it is poflible, in certain inllances, to carry off', without any machinery, the waters from a fpit of ground, though it may be fituated on a lower level than that of the channel which is to receive the water. The whirlpools, or circular eddies of water fo fre- quent in rivers, are, according to the theory of our au- thor, the effect ( f motion communicated from tlie parts of the current which are moil rapid, to thofe lateral parts which are Icaft fo. In the application of this principle, he points out the circumllances adapted to produce fucli eddies at the furlace or at the bottom of rivers. He concludes, that every movement cf this kind deflroys a part of the force of the current, and that in a channel through wliich water conllantly Hows, the height of this fluid will be greater than it would have been if the dinienfions of the channel had been uniformly reduced to tlie mcafure cf its fmalleft fee- tion. There is another kind of whirling motion fomewhat different in its nature from thefe lail. It is produced in the water of a refervoir, when it is fufferej to flow 4 D through Tvl O U C 578 ] M O U Mnulton- Motion, through an horizontal orifice. The auihcr dcJuces the theory of thefe vorti<.es iVom the do^rine of central forces. The form of the hollow funnel, which in this cafe opens through the fluid of the refervoir, is a curve of the 64th fpecie,> of the lines of the third order, enu- merated by Newton. Theory and experiment both unite here in proving, that it is not only f ollible, but that there really exids in nature a voitex, the concavity of which is convex towards the axis, and of which the revelulions of its difTerer.t parts follow the ratio of the i'quare of the dillance fioiti tlic centre. Dduitl Ber- noulli was in the wronj:, in his Hydrodynamics, to re- pioach Newton for having fuppofed a vortex to be moved according to this law. In the lail place, the author confiders ihatlateralcom- munication of motion which takes place in the air as well as in the water. This is the caufe of fuch local and partial winds as fonietimes blow contrary to the di- re(5lion of the general wind. It is by virtue of the lame principle, that the refonant vibration, excited la- terally in the extremity of an organ pipe, is communi- cated to the v.'hole column of air contained in the pii'c itfelf. From the fame principle, the author deduces the aug- mentation of force which found receives in conical di- vergent tubes, compared with thole of a cylindrical form. On this occafion, lie points out the remarkable dillcrences which appear to take place between the re- fonant vibrations of air contained in a tube, and the io- norous pulfations propagated through the open atmof- phere. See Sfcak'wg Tkumprt, Encycl. In an appendix, Venturi relates different experiments which he has made to determine the convergence and velocity of the lluid filaments which prefs forward to if- fue out of a refervoir by an orifice through a thin plate, lie proves, by a very clear experiment, that the con- tiaflion of the vein is made at a greater dillance from the orifice under llrong than under weak prelfures. He explains why, in a right-lined orifice, the fides of the contraifled vein correlpond wiih the angles of the ori- fice and the angles with the (ides. He examines the expenditure through a lube, the extremity ot which is thrud into the refervoir itfelf, according to the method of Borda in the Memoirs of the Acadsmy of Sciences for the year 1766." For a lull account of the author's experimentf, and his deductions from them, wc reler the reader either to the original work, iiilitled, Richcrchis expeitmenialss fur li Pr'mclpc di la CommurkalioK luieiale du Mouvemeni ■dans les FlulJes, nppliquc it i'ExpUcalion de d'ljfcrens Phc- nomenes hydvaul^qua. Par le Citoysn jf. B. Venturi, Projfjj'eur de Phiji.^ut experimtnlale a Modem; Membre de la Socitie Itcilienne, i^c. iyc. A Paris chsz Houil et Ducros, Rue du Bacq, N° 940 — ThcDphUs Bairois, Rue Hau'e-feullk, N" 22. Aim. VI. 1797 — or to the 2d and 3d vol; of the valuable Journal iiom which this abftr^iift is taken. MOTTE IJle, a fmall illand in Lake Chimplain, .-ibout 8 miles in length and 2 in breadth diPtant 2 miles W. of North Hero Illand. It conllitutes a townlhip of its own name in Franklin ccunty, Vermont, and contains 47 inhabitants. — Morse. MOUCHA, La, a bay on the coaft of Chili, on the W. coad of S. America. — .'i. MOULTONBOROUGH, a poft-town in Strafford county, New-Hampdiire, fituated at the N. W. corner of Lake Winnipifeogee, 18 miles E. by N. of Ply- ^ mouth, and 4!^ N. V/. by N. of Portfmouth. This townlliip was incorporated in 1777, and contains 565 inhabitant?. — ib. MOUNT BETHEL, Upper mA Loiver, two town- lliips in Northampton county, PcnniMvania. — ib. MOUNT DESERT, an idand'on the coaft of Hancock county, Dillrift of Maine, about 15 miles long and 12 broad. It is a valuable tiafl of land, in- terfected in the middle by the watcis flowing into the S. fide from the fca. There are two conlider.ible iOands on the fouth-eaft fide of Mount Defevi Ifland, called Cranberry Iflands, which alhll in forming a harbour in the gulf which fets up on the fouth fide of the ifland. In 1790, it contained 744 inhabitants. The nortlierly pait of the ifland w,4s formed into a townlhip called Eden, in 1796. The foutheaftern- mofl part of the ifland lies in about lat. 44 1 2 N. On the main land, oppofite the north part of the ifland, are the towns of Trenton and Sullivan. It is 335 miles northeall of Bofton. — lb. MOUNT HOLLY, a village in Burlington county, Nsvv.Jerfey, fituated on the northern bank of Ancocus Creek, about 7 or 8 miles fouth-eaft of Burliniiton. — ib. MOUNT HOPE Bay, in the northealV part of Narraganfet B.iy. — ib. Mount Hope, a fmall river of Conneelicut, ahead branch of the Shetucket, rifing in Union. — ib. MOUNT JOY, the name of two tovvnlhips in Penn- fylvania, the one in Lancafter the other in York coun- ty. — ib. Mount Joy, a Moravian fettlement in Pennfylva- nia, 16 miles from Litiz. — ib. MOUNT PLEASANT, a townfiiip in WeftChef- ter county, New-Yoik, dtuated on the eafl fide of Hudfon river; bounded foutherly by Greenfljurg, and northerly and eallerly by Philipfourg. It contains 1,924 inhabitants, of whom 275 are qualified eleftors, and 84 flaves. Alfo the name of a townlhip in York county, Pennfylvania. — ih. Mount Pllasant, a village of Maryland, fitua- ted partly in each of the counties of Oueen Ann and Carc'line, about 11 miles eall of the town of Church Hill.— ;■/.. MOUNT TOM, a noted mountain on the weft bank ot Ctiunedicut river, near Noithampton. AU'o the name of a mountain be'.ween Litchfield and Walhing- ton, in Coniietflicut. — ih. MOUNT VERNON, the feat of Gkorge Wash- ington, late Prefident of the United St.ite.s. It is pleafunily lltuaRd on the Virginia b^nk of Patowmac river, in Fairfax county, Virginia, where the river is neatly 2 miles w'ide ; 9 miles below Alexandria; 4 above the beautir'ulfeat of the late Col, Fairfax, called Bellevoir; 127 from Point Look Out, at the mouth of the river, and 280 miles from the fea. The area of the mount is 200 feet above the furface of the river ; and, after furnifliing a lawn of five acres in front, and about the fame in rear of the buildings, falls off rather abruptly on tlr ife two quarters. On the north end ic fubfides gradually into extenfive pjftnre grounds ; while on the fouth it flopes more deeply, in a Ihorc dilunce, and terminates with the coach-honfe, ftables, vineyard, and nurfeiies. On either wing is a thick grove Mount. Moufe. M O U [ s Mount, grove of dilTerent flowering foreft trees. Parallel with J . them, on the land fide, are two fpacious gardens, into , which one is led by two fcrpentine gravel walks, plant- ed witi; u eeping willows and fhady llirubs. The man- Aon houfe itfelf appears venerable and convenient. The fupcrb banquetingroom has been finifhed lince the General returr.ed home from the army. A lofty portico, 96 feet in length, fupported by 8 pillars, has a pleafin^ eScCl when viewed from the water ; the whole aflemblage of the green-houfe, fchool-houfe, oflices, and fervar.ts' halls, when feen from the land fide, bears a refemblance to a rural village ; efpecially as the lands on that fide are laid out fomewhut in the ibrm of En- glifh gardens, in meadows and grafs-grounds, 01 na- rocnted with little copfes, circular clumps, and fin- gle trees. A fmall park on the margin of the river, where the Englifh fallow deer and the American wild deer are feen through the tliicket:;, alternately with the veil'els as they are fiiiling along, add a romantic and pic- turefque appe:;rance to the whole fcenery. On the op- pofite iide of a fmall creek to the northward, an exten- live plain, exhibiting corn-fields and cattle grazing, ai- fords in funimer a luxuriant landfcape ; while the blend- ed verdure of wood-lands and cultivated declivities, on the Maryland fhore, variegates the profpeft in a charm- ing manner. Such are the philofophic Ihades to which the Commander in chief of the American army retired in 1783, at the clofc of a vidlorious war ; which he again left in 1789, to dignify with his unequalled talents, the higheft office in the gift of his fellow-citizens ; and to which he again retreated in 1797 loaded with ho- nours, and the benedicflions of his country, to fpend the remainder of his days as a private citizen, in peace and tranquillity. — ib. Mount Vernon, a plantation in Lincoln county, Diltriift of Maine, in the neighbourhood of Sidney and Winflow. — a. MOUNT WASHINGTON, in the upper part of the illand of New- York. — ii. Mount Washington, one of the higheft peaks of the White Mountains, in New-Hampfhire. — it. Mount Washington, the fouth-wefternmoft town- fliip of Maflachufetts, in Berkfliire county, 150 miles W. by S. of Bollon. It was incorporated in 1779, and contains 67 inhabitants. — ili. MOURZOUK, the capital of Fe/./.an in Africa, is fituated on a fmall river, and fupplied with water fiom a multitude of fprings and wells. Being formerly built of Hone, it Hill retains the appellation of a Chrillian town ; and the medley which it prefents to the eye, of the vaft ruins of ancient buildings, and the humble cot- tages of earth and fand that form the dwelling oi its prcfcnt Arab inhabitants, is fingularly grotefque and llrange. It is furrounded by a high wall, which not only afifords the means of defence, but enables the go- vernment to collet, at its three gates, a tax on all goods (provifions excepted) that are brought tor the lupply of its people. A caravan fets out annually from Melurata to this place ; and hence the Fe/.zaners thcm- felvcs difpalch every year a caravan to Calhna and ano- ther to Bornou. For the latitude of Mour/.ouk, fee Fezzan in this Su/i/>/. Dr Brookes, in his Gazetteer, places it in 15° 5' E. Long. MOUSE Harbour, at the E. fide of the illand of St John's, and at the S. W. angle of the gulf of St Law- 79 ] M O Z rence, is between Eaft Point and Three uver!, and Moufom, goes in wiih a fmall creek that is moderately fpacious II \v\xh\n.— Morse. .^^Zj MOUSOM, a fmall river of York county, D'ftria of Maine, which falh into the ocean between Wells and Arundel. — ib. MOWAZZEF, in Bengal, fixed revenue. MOWEE, one of the Sandwich lllis, ne).t in fi/.e to, and N. \V. of, Owhyhee. A large bay ot a femi- circular form ; oppofite to which are the illinds Tahoo- rowa and Morokinnee. It is about 162 tr.iles in cir- cumference, and is thought to contain nearly 70,000 inhabitants . — IMorse. MOYAMENSING, a townfliip in Philadelphia county, Pennfylvanii. — ib. MOZART, the celebrated Germ.in mufitian, was born at Salzburg in the year 1756. His father was alfo a mufician of fome eminence, but not to be com- pared with the fon ; of whom we have the fullowing ac- count in one of the montlily niifcellanies, taken by Mr Bulliby fiom fome biographical (ketches by two eminent German profelTors. At the age of three years, young Mozart, attending to the lelions which his filler, then feven years old, was receiving at the harplichord, he became captivated wiih harmony ; and when flie had left the inftruinent, he would inrtantly place himfelf at it, find the thirds, found them with the liveliell joy, and employ whole hours at the exercife. His father, urged by fiicli early and ftrik- ing indications of genius, immediately began to teach him fome little airs ; and foon perceived that his pupil improved even beyond the hopes he had fcrmcd of him. Half an hour was generally fufficient for his acquiring a minuet or a little fong, which, when <ince learned, he would of himfelf perlorm with tatte and exprefiion. At the age of fix years he had made fuch a progrefs as to be able to compofc iliort pieces for the harpfi- chord, which his father was obliged to commit to pa- per for him. From that time nothing made any im- preflion upon him but harmony ; and infantine amufe- ments loft all their attra(fHons unlefs mufic had a Ihare in them. He advanced Irom day to day, not by ordi- nary and inl'enfible degrees, but with a rapidity which hourly excited new furprife in his parents — the happy witnelfes of his progrefs. His father returning home one day with a ftranger, found little Mozart with a pen in his hand. " Wliai are you writing," faid he? " A concerto for the harp, fichord," rejilied the child. " Let us fee it (rcjnined the father); it is a marvellous concerto without doubt." He then took the paper, and faw nothing at fir ft but a mafs of notes mingled with blots of ink by the m.il-ad> drefs of the yoimg conip(jfer, who, unfkilled in Uie ma- nagement of the pen, had dipped it too freely in the ink ; and having blotted and fmeared his paper, had en- deavoured to make out his ideas wiili his fingers; but on a cloler examination, his father was loft in wonder ; and his eyes delighted and flowing witli tears, became rivctted to the notes. " See (exclaimed he to the llrangcr) how juft and regular it all is! but it is im- polhble to play it ; it is too dillicult." " It is a con- certo (faid the child), and muft be pradtifcd till one can i)lay it. Hear how this part goes." He then fat down to perform it; but was not able to execute tho palFages with luflicicnt fluency to do jufticc to his own 4 D 2 ideas. M O Z [ 580 ] M O Z Mozart, ideas. Extraordinary as liis manual facility was uni- ^-"''^''"'"-^ vorfally allowed to be for his age, it did not keep pace witli the progrefb of his knowledge and invention. Such an inllance of intclleaual advancement, in a child only fu years of age, is i'o fir out of the cummon road of na- ture, that we can only cuntemplate the faifl with afto- rilhmeut, and acknowledge, that the [ ollible rapidity of niental maturation is not to be calculated. In the year 1762, his father took him and his filler to Munich, where he performed a concerto before the eleftor, which excited the admiration of the whole court ; nor was he lefs applauded at Vienna, where the emperor called him the little forcerer. His father gave him lefTons only on the harpfichord ; but he privately taught himfelf the violin ; and his command of the Inllrument afforded the elder Mozart titf utmoft furpiife, when he one day at a concert took a fecond viulin, and acquitted himfelf with more than pailiible addrefs. T:ue genius fees noobftacles. It will not therefore excite our wonder, if his conftant fuc- cefs in whatever he attempted begot an unbounded con- fidence in his own powers ; he had even the laud.ibU hardihood to undertake to qualify himfelf for the JrJ violin, and did not long remain (Kort of the neceilary proficiency. He had an ear fo correfl, that he felt the mcft mi- nute dlfcordancy ; and fuch a fondnefs for ftudy, that it was frequently neceffary to take him by force from the inllrument. This love of application never dlmi- rifhed. He every day pafled a confiderable time at his harpfichord, and generally praftifed till a late hour at night. Another charaderilllcal trait of real genius ; always full of its objeifl:, and loft as it were In itfclf. In the year 1763 he made, with his father and filter, his firll grand mulical journey. He vifiled Paris ; and was heard by the French court in the chapel-royal at Verfallles, where his talent on the organ w.is admired even more than on the harpfichord. At Paris the mu- fical travellers gave two concerts, which procured them the hlgheft reputation, and the dlllini.'^ion of public portraits. It was here that a fet of fonatas for the harpfichord, feme of his earlieit compofitions, were eng;raved and publiflied. From Palis they went to London, where they alfo r^ave two concerts, confiding of fymphonles compoled by young Mozait, who even at that early age lang al- fo with much exprefiinn, and pracliied publicly witli his filler. Mozart played already at fight, and in a con- cert, at which the king was one of his auditor?, a bafs being placed before him as a grornJ, immediately ap- plied to it a moft beautiful melody. Thofe who are bell acquainted with llie extent of iuch a tall;, will be the moll allonlflied at fuch mature familiarity with the intricacies of the fcience, and fuch prompt and ready invention in fo juvenile a mind. From London, wh;re Mozart alfo publlllied fix fo- natas fur the harpfichord, the mufical family went, to Holland, thence again to France, and in 1766 returned to Salzburg. Theie this extraoidinary youth remained more than a year in perfect tepofe ; devoting the whole of his time to the lludy li compofnion, the principles of which he fcrutlnized with the depth and penetration ef confirmed manhood. Emmanuel Bach, Halfe, and •Handel, were his chief guides and models ; though he t>y no means neglefted the old Italian mailers. In 1768 he again vifited Vienna, where Jofeph II. Mozart, engaged him to fet to mufic a comic opera, entitled, ^•^'^''"^■ La Fin/a Semplice, which obtained the approbation of Halle and Metatafio. At the houfe of the prince of Kaunitz, it often happened that the firft Italian air which came to hand would be given him, that in the prefence of the company he might add to it accompani- ments tor numerous inltrtimcnts ; which he would write in the firft ftyle of excellence, and without the Icaft pre- meditation. This is at once a proof with what acute- nel'i of obfervati in he iiad lillened to the mufic of the bell maftcrs ; how intimate he had already rendered himfelf with the charadlers, capacities, and efieds of the different inftruments ; and what (kill he had acqui- red in that abftrufe art of mixed combination which, while it calculates the conjoint efFeft of founds, as they regard the cftablKhed laws of harmony, accommodates the different parts to the fcales, tones, and powers of the refpeiftive inftruments by which they are to be ex- ecuted. It was at this time alfo that, although but twelve years of age, he compofed the mufic for the con- fecration of the church of orphans, at the performance of which he himfelf prefided. In 1769 Mozart again returned to Salzburg, where he became ma'Urc dc concert. Not having yet feen Ita- ly, in December of the fame year he fet out for tiiat feat of the fine arts. Thofe talents which had al- ready excited the admiration of Germany, France, and England, now awakened in that land ot mufical tafte the moft lively enthufiafm. In 1 77 1 he had no fooner given perfonal proofs of his genius, than la fcrttiura for the following carnival was conferred upon him. He vifited Bologna, then as famous tor harmonic excellence as Naples, where the celebrated theorift Martini was amazed to fee a Ger- man boy work and execute the theme of a fugue which he prefented to him, in the extraordinary ftyle in which Mozart acquitted himlelf. He next went to Florence. Florence even enhanced the eulogiums which Bologna had lavillied upon him. During the holy week he arrived at Rome, and af- fifted at the Miferere in the Sixtine chapel ; which per- formance is juftly confidered as ihe ne plus ultra of vocal nmfic. This ciicumllance claims particular notice, as in- ducing a proof of another (acuity of his mind, only to be equalled by thofe wonderful powers which he had already demonftratcj. He was prohibited from taking a copy of this Mifcrcri, and therefore piqued himfelf on retaining it in !iis memory. Having heard it with attention, he went home, made out a mantifcript from recolleillon, returr.ed the next day to the chapel, heard the piece a fecond time, correcfled the rougli draught, and produced a tranfcrlpt which furprifed all Rome. This Mifficre formed a Jcorer numerous in its parts, and extremely difficult of execution. His mind had embraced and retained the whole ! He foon after received from the Pope the order of the gilt fpur ; and at Bologna was complimented, by an unanimous decllion, with the title of Member and Ma- Jlcr of the Phil-harmonic Academy. As a proof, prO' forma, of his qualifications for this academical honour, a fugue, for four voices, in the church ftyle, was re- quired of him, and he was fhut up alone in his cliamber. He completed it in half an hour, and received his di- ploma. This evinced that he polFelfed an imaginatloa conftauilj; M O Z [ 5«i ] M O Z Mozart. conQantlv at his command, and that his mind was ftor- '"'""■^^^^ ed with all the riches of his beloved fcience. The cjicra which he compofed lor Milan was called MUkridalei. This piece procured him la fcntlura for the gi.md opera of the carniral of 1773, which was his Ltiao Sulla. At length, after a tour of lii'teen months, he returned to Salzburg. In 1 77 1 Mozart vilited Paris; but not relilliing the mufic (>f that c;'pital, he li)on quitted it, and returned to his domcllic coniiorts. In 1781, at '.he requeft of the elt<5tor of Bavaria, he compofed the opera oi Ido- meneo for the carnival of that year. The general merit of this opera is fo great, that it might ferve alone for the balls of a oiftingo.iihed reputati;.n. At his twenty- fifth year he was invited to Vienna, where he continued fpreadiiig, as from a centre, the talie of his cuinpofi- lions through all Germany, and the iuftre of his name over the whi'le nf Europe. Of all the virtuofi of the piano forte who then crowd- ed Vienna, Moz.art was mucli the moft (kilful. His finger was extraordinarily rapid and talkful, and the execution of his left hand exceeded every thing that had before been heard. His touch was replete with deli- cacy and e.\pre!Tion ; and the profound lludy he had be- llowed on his art, gave his performance a llyle the moll brilliant and finilhed. His compofuions had a rapid circulation ; and in every new piece the connoilTeurs were Qruck with the originality of its call, the novelty of the pallages, and the energy of the efteft. Jofeph II. folicitous for the perfccflion of the German opera, engiged Mozart to compofe a piece. He ac- cordingly produced L' enlevement du S-i\ul ; performed for the firll time in 1782. It excited the jealoufy of the Italian company, who therefore ventured to cabal againil it. The emperor, addretTiiig hinilelf to the compofer, faid, " It is too Jine ibr our ears, my dear Mozirt, and moll charmingly ero<w1ed with notes." " Precifely what it out^lit to be," replied the fpirited mulician, who juftly fulpci!ted that tliis remark had been fuggelled to J(^fcph by the en>'ious Italians. *' Though I cannot dcfcribc, as an auricular evidence, (r»ys the failhtul author of the biography), the ap- pljufes and tl;e admiration which this opera produced at Vienna, yet I have witnelFed the enlhufiafm it ex- cited at Pi ague among all the connoilfeurs, as well as among thofe wh -fe ears were lefs cultivated. It was faid, tliat all which had been heard before was not mu- fic : it drew the moll overflowing audiences: every body was amazed at its new traits of harmony, and at paifages fo original, and till then fo unheard from wind inltruments." The cautious reader will perhaps hefitate to admit, in its fullell extent, this account by the author of the biography ; but even after .m allowance for fom; exag- geration, the moll phlegmatic will grant that much mull have been aichieved by this great mailer, to afford a balls for fo glowing a piflure of the merit and fuccefs cl IJ enle-amcnt du Serail. During the compolition of this opeia, he married MadjmoiKlle Weber, a dillin- guilhed viiluofa ; and the piece was fiippofed to owe to this telicitous circumflance much of that endearing charaiSer, that tone of tendernefs, and that expreffion of the foUtr padions, wljich form its principal attrac- tions. " Tli€ Mirriage cf Figaro," which was ia the highefl repute at all the theatres, was in the yejr 17S7 transformed into an Italian opera ; and Mczart, at the inllance of the emperor, fet it to mulic. This piece was highly received everywhere, and kept pnlTcffion of the theatre at Prague during almoft the whcle of the winter in which it firll appeared: numerous extraifls were made from it, and the fongs and dances of Figaro were vociferated in the llreets, the gardens, and the ta- verns. Mozart came that very winter to Prague, and peif)rmed in public on the plana forte. His auditors at all limes liilened to him with admiration ; but when- ever he played extempore, and indulged the fpontaneous ai.d uninterrupted fallies of his fancy, which he fomc- times wculd for more than half an hour, every one was feized with the moll enthufiallic raptures, and acknow- ledged the unrivalled refources of his imagination, A- bout this time the manager of the theatre contrafted with him for the compolition of a new opera, which, when produced, was called // diffAuto Punilo, or Don. Giovanni, His reputation was now fo exalted, that the Bohemians pio,ued themfelves on the circumftance that this opera was compofed for their entertainment. But this fame, this great and univerfal ajipliufe, hail not yet produced to the admired artill any folid advan- tages ; he had obtained no place, no fetthd income; but fubfilled by his operas, and the inftrudlions and oc- calional concerts which he gave. The profits of thefe proved infufficient for the llyle which he was obliged to fupport ; and his finances became much deranged. The critical fituation in which he now found himfelf, made him refolve to quit Vienna, and feek an afyliim in London ; to which metropolis he had often b:en in- vited ; but Jc feph nominating him compofueur de la ckambre, though, with a very inadequate falary, he was induced to accept it ; and Germany had the advantage of ri-tainiiig him. It is 1 imentabie th.u premature genius too rarely en- joys a long career : The acceleration of nature in the meii'.al poivers feems to hurry the progrefs of the ani- mal (Economy, and to anticipate the regular clofe of temporal e.xillence. In the year 1791, Mozart, juft after he had received the appoii^tment of Maitre di chapelle cf the church cf St Petsr, and when he was only thirty-five years of age, paid the lall tribute; and left the world at once to admire t!ie biilliancy, and lament the Ihortnefs of his earthly fcjournnient. Lulefatiga'jk-, even to his death, he produced, duri:i<j the lall few months of his life, his three great malkr pieces l.a Flutt: Enchaiitce, La Clemence de Thus, and a Requiem, his lafl production. La Flutt.- Enckantte was compofed for o.ie of tiie thcaties at Vienna ; and no dr.imatic Olio could ever boall a greater fuccefs. Every air llruck the audience with a new and fweet furprife ; and the tout erfemlle was calculated to afford the deepelt and moll varied inipsclFions. This piece had, in fa(5I, fo great a number of Aicccllive leprefentations, that for a long time it was unnecclfary to confult the cpera- bill ; which only announced a permanent novelty. And the airs feleiftcd from it, and repeated tliroughout the empire, as well in the cottage as in the palace, and which the echoes have refounded in the moll dillanc province;, favoured the idei that Mozart had 3<fluallv the defigij to «achaut all Germany witli his Flusic En- ctaiitee^ Lu 58: M O Z C Mowre. I.a Chmcnci di Titui was requeued by the ftates of ^^■""^^ Bohemi;i for the coroii.ition of Leopold, The compo- ftr began it in his can lage during his route to Prague, and finilhed it in eighteen days. Some circumftances attending ilie compofition of the piece wliich we have already mentioned as the laft cl- fort of his genius, ate too interefling to be omilted. A fliort time before his death, a (Irangcr came to him with the requoft that he would compofc, as fpeedily as pt f- fible. a requiem for a catholic prince, who, perceiving himfeif on the verge of tlie grave, wilhed, by the exe- cution of fuch a piece, to foothe his mind, and familia- rife it to the idea of his approaching dilFolution. Mo- zait undertook the work; and the ilranger depofited with him as a fecurity 400 ducats, though the fum de- manded was only 200. The compofer immediately be- gan the work, and during its progrefs felt his mind un- ufually raifed and agitated. He became at length fo infatuated with his requiem, that he employed not only the day, but fome hours of the night in its compofilion. One day, while he was converfing with Madame Mo- zart on the fubjea, he declared to her that he could not but be perfuaded that it was for himfelf he was writing this piece. His wife, dlftreffed at her inability to dif- fipate fo melancholy an impreffion, prevailed on him to give her ihe /core. He afterwards appearing fomewhat tranquillized, and more niafter of hiinfelf, Ihe returned the /core to him, and he foon relapfed into his former defpondency. On the day of his death he alked for the rtquiam, which was accordingly brought to his bed : " Was I not right (faid he), when I declared that it was for myfelf I was compofing this funeral piece ?" And the tears trickled from his eyes. This produc- tion of a man, imprelftd during its compofition with a piefentiment of his approaching death, is unique in its kind, and contains pallages which have frequently drawn tears from the performers. Only one complaint efcaped him during his malady : " I mud quit life (faid he), precifely at the moment when I could enjoy it, free I'rom care and inquietude ; at the very time when, independent of fordid fpecula- tions, and at libcity to follow my own principles and inclinations, I fliould only have to write from the im- ])ulfes of my own heart: and I am torn from my fa- mily julf when hi a filuation to ferve it." Mozart, at the time of his death, was confiderably involved in debt ; but Vienna and Prague difputed the honour of prnviding for his widow and children. The countenance of this great niafter did not indi- c^Ue any thing uncommon. He was fmall of llature ; and. except his eyes, wliich were full of fire, there was nothing to announce fuperiority of talent. His air, urilefs when he was at the harpfichord, was that of an abfent man. But when he was performing, his whole phyfiognotny became changed: a profound feiioufnefs recalled and fixed his eyes ; and his fentiments were ex- prcfied in every movement of his mufcles. Never has a mufician more fuccefsfully embraced the whole extent of his art, and fhone with greater luftre in all its depart- ments. His great operas, no lefs than his moft fimple (bugs ; his learned fymphonies as well as his airy dances — all carry the llamp of the lichell imagination, the deei>ell fenfibillty, and the pureft taRe. All his wotks develope the originality of his genius; and im- 3 M o z ply a mind great and exalted ; an imagination which Mozart, flrikes out for iifelf a new couife. He therefore me- '^•^~''^*^ rits to be ranked with that fmall number of original geniufes, thofe f>/.',tnr,>/ieiia//>le/:J:da, who form an epoch in their art, by carrying it to petfeelion, or giving it an unknown career. It is in the employment of wind inftruments that Mozart difplays his greateft powers. His melody is always fimple, natural, and full of force ; and exprelfes v.ith precifion the fentiments and individual fituati^ns of hib petfonages. He wiote with extraordinary faci- lity. " La C/er/ii-nce lie Titus," the reader will recolleft, coll him the fludy of but eighteen days; and his re- quiet/1, wliich is equal in length to an opera, was pro- duced in four weeks. It is alio worthy of remark, that the overture to his Don Giovanni was not begun till the night before the piece was to be performed. At midnight, after having devoted the evening to amufe- ment, he locked himfelf up in his fludy, and compofed it in a few hours. His memory was wonderfully reten- tive, as we may judge from his copying by recoUecftion the mi/erere at Rome. But a fafl equally aflonilhing is, that, foon difcovering the eagernefs of people to pro- cure his works, and feaiful that they might be pirated, it was his conlhmt cuflom to tranfcribe from ihe /cores of his fonatas only a part for one hand, and at the pub- lic performance to fupply the other by memory. He very early began to difplay that tiue dignity of an artift which renders him indifferent to the praifes of thofe who are uncjualified to judge. The commenda- tions of the ignorant great he never confidered as fame. His hearers, whether the wealthy or the titled, mull have acquired fome credit for their judgment before he could be ambitious of their applaufe. Indeed he en- tertained fo juil a feofe of fcientific elevation and im- portance, that he would iafift upon refpeft. And the leaf! noife or idle babble, while he was at the inftru- ment, excited a difpleafure v.'hich he was too indignant to conceal. Once, to the honour of his feelings, he fuddenly rofe from his feat, and left his inattentive au- ditory to experience the keen though filent reproach of infulted genius. His mind was by no means unlettered ; nor was it embellifhed with one fcience alone. He was mafter of feveral languages, and had made confiderable progrefs in the mathematics. He was honefl, mild, generous, full of franknefs; and with his friends had an air at once amiable, gay, and free from the leaft tindure of pedantry. Far from viewing with envy the fuccefs of others, a weaknefs too clofely interwoven in the general nature of man, he was always jufl to the talents of his fellow pro- feffors ; and valued and refpefted merit wherever he found it; a clearer proof of which cannot be adduced than the following circumflance : At a concert, where a new piece compofed by the celebrated Jofeph Haydn was performed, a certain mufician, who never difcovered any thing worthy of praife except in his own produc- tions, did not fail to sriticife the mufic ; exclaiming to Mozart, " There now ! there again ! why, that is not what / fhould have done :" " No ; neither fliould I (replied Mozart); but do you know why? Becaufe neither you nor I fliould have been able to conceive it." MUCAROS MUM C 5^3 ] M U R Mucaros, II Mumbo- Jumbo. MUCAROS IJanJ, near the N. coaft of Cuba IdauJ, in ihe W. Indies, which wilh Illind Verde, lies oppofiie !o the Cape Quibannimo. — Morse. MVD /Z/n.V, in Delaware river, is 6 or 7 miles be- low the luy of Pliiladelphia ; vvhtiton is a cilaiiel, and a fort wiilch command-, tiie river. On ?. fand bar, a large pier has been ereded, a^ the founJalion for a battery, to make a crofs tire. — ik MUD LaL', in the State of New-York, i; fmall, and lies between Seneca and Crooked Lakes. It gives rife to a north branch of Tiogi river — ii. MUGERA6 Ijlands, otherwifc called Men-Ealtrs or IVoinen-Ealtrs IJlands, are 10 leagues S. ot Cape Cato- che, on the E. ci aft of the peninfuia of Yucatan. On the fouth of them, towards the land, is good ancho- rage in from 7 to 8 fathoms, and clean ground. — ./'i. MULATRE, Point, in the ifland of Dominica, in the W. Indies. N. lar. 15 16 weft Ions. 61 21. — lb. MULATTO Point, on the well coaft of S. Ame- rica is the S. cape of the port of Ancon, 16 or 18 miles north of Cadavayllo river. — ./'. MULHEGAN Rher, in Vermont, rifes in Lewis, and empties into Connecticut river, at Brunfwick. — \l. MULLICUS ^^.ivfr, in New.Jcrfey, is fmall, ai,d has many mills and iron-woi ks upon it, and empties into Little Egg Harbour Bay, 4 miles eallerly of the town of Leeds. It is navigable 20 miles fcr veflels of 60 tons. — ih. MUMBO-JuMBO, a ftrange bugbear employed by the Pagan Mandingoes (fee Mandjng, 5iippl.) for the purpofe of keeping their women in fnbjeiflion. Poly- gamy being allowed among thele pcojile, every man marries as many wives as he can conveniently maintain; and the confequence is, that family quarrels fiinictimcs rife to fuch a hei;^ht, that the hufband's authority is not fufficient to rtllore peace among the ladies. On thefe occafions, the interpofition ot Mumho-'Jiimlo is called in ; and it is always decifive. This llrange mi- rifter of jullice, who is either the hufband himfelf, or fome perfon inftruiled by him, difguifed in a fort of mafquerade habit, made of the bark of trees, and arm- ed with the rod of public authority, announces his coming by loud and difraal fcreams in the woods near the town. He begins the pantoaiine at the approach of night ; and as foon as it is dark, he enters the town, and proceeds to the Bentang or market-place, at which ;dl the inhabitants immedia'.ely aiicmble. It may ealil) be fuppofed that this exhibition is not much relillied by the women ; for as the perfon in dif- guife i-> entirely unknown to them, e\e!y married fe- male fufpee't^ that the vilit may polfibly be intended for htrfelt ; but they dare not rcliile to appear when they aie fummoned; and the ceremony commences wilh fongs and dances, which continue till midnight, about which time Mnmbo fixes on the offender. This unfortunate viftim being thereupon immediately feized, is ftripped naked, tied 10 a pott, and fevcrely fcourged with ^ium- bo's red, amidll the flionts and derifion of the whole ali'enibly ; and it is remarkable, lh.<t llie rcll of the wo- men are tl'.e loaded in their excl.imations on thisoccafion againll ihtir unhapj^y filler. Daylight put? an end to this indecent and unmanly revel. It is truly altonilhiiig that the women (hould be deluded by fo chimfey an im- pofture, and that the men fhould fo faithfully keep their own fccret. That the women arc deluded fccms Murray. evident ; for Mr Park afTures us, that the Jrefs of Mum- Muncy,. bo isfuffered to hang on a tree at the entrance of each town ; which could hardly be the cafe, if the women were nni perfuaded that it is the drefs of fome fuperna- tural bein^. MUNCY, a creek which empties into the Sufque- hann ih from the N. E. about 23 miles N. of the town of Norlhumberland. — Mors--. MUNSHY, a Perfian iecretary or writer. MUNoIES, DELAWARES, and SAPOONES, three Indian tribes, who inhabit at Diagho, and ether villages up the N. liranch of Sufqueiiannah river. About 20 years ago, ihe two firit could furnilh 150 wan in; s each, ar.d the Sapooncs 30 warriors. — Morsf. MUNSUB, in the language of Bengal, a dignity or command conferred by the emperor. MUNSUBDAR, a dic>nitaiy or commander. MlfRFREESBOROUGK, a poft-town of N. Carolina, and capiial of Gates county. It is fituated on M.hcrrin river, and contains a few houfes, acr.uit- houl'e, <^aol, and tol)acco wareiioufe. It carries on a fniill trade with PZdenton, and the other fea-porc tov/ns. It is 3 miles from Princeton, 12 from V/in- ton, 50 N. by W. of Edentcn, and 422 S. W. of Philadelphia. — Morse. MURGA MORGA R\vtr, on the coaft of Chili ia S. America, is fouihward of the S. point of Q^uintero Bay, and not far from the entrance into Chiii river. It is not navi^'ible, but Is verv good to water in. — ih. MURRAY nViliiam), afterw;>rds Earl of Mans, field and Lord Chiel' Jullice of England, was tile fourth fon of David \'ifc('unt Stormont. He was born on the 2 i day of March i 7C5 at Perth, in the kingdom ot Scotland, of which kingdom his father was a peer. ■ His refidence in Scotland, however, was of (liort dura- tion ; for he was carried up to London at the early age of three years. Hence his total exemption from the peculiarities of the dialeijt of his native country. At the age of fourteen he was admitted as a king's fcholar of Weftniinller fchool ; and during his refidence in that feminary, fays his contemporary Bi(li"p New- ton, he gave early i>roofs of his unccmmon abilities, not fo much in his poetry, as in his other exercifes ; and particularly in his declamations, which were fure tokens and prognortics of that eloquence which grew up to fuch maturity and perfeflion at tlie bar, and in both houfes of parliament. At the election in May 1723, he Itood fir 11 on the lift of thofc gentlem.'n who were fent to Oxford, and was entered of Chrill Church, June the i8th, ii that year. In the yc.ir 1727 he had taken the degree of B. A. and on the death of King George the Firll, was amonsft ihofe of the univerhty v.hocc-ni- poi'ed verfes en that event. In April 1724 he was admitted a (Indent of L'n- coln's Inn, though he llill continued to re'idc much it» til;; univcrliiy ; where, en the 26;hof June 1730, he took the degree of M. A. and foon aftn wards lett Oxford, determined to make the tour of Eur ipe before he Ihonl J devote liimfelf ferioully to bufinels. About tl.ls period he wrote two letters to a young nrblcman on the llndy of ancient and modern h'lbry, vjiich are publ !'-.cd by his biograplier Mr HoUiday, and (licw how amply his own mind was then ftored with general literature. On his return to England he commenced hi- lei^'al (litdies ; but proceeded not ia the way then ufually adopted, M U R [ 584 ] M U R 1V!i:rr;.y. adcptej, of labouring in tlie chambers of a fptcvA ^'^"'''^*~' plcadtr, or copyinp (to ufe the words of Blackllone) th.- trail) of an attorney's office. Being bleiled with the powers of oratciy in their highell perfeaion, and having foon an oppoi lunity of d:rplaying them, he very eaily acquired the notice of the chancellor and the judges, as well as tlic confidence of the inferior prac-_ tifers. How much he was regarded in the houfe of lords, Pope's well-known couplet will piovc : Grac'd as tliou art wIlli all the power of words, bo known, fo honour'd at the houfe of lords. The craces of his elocution, however, produced their iifual efi'ta will) a certain clafs of people, who would not believe ihat fuch blight talents could affociate v/ith ihe more folid atlainmcnts of the law, or tliat a man of i:cnius and vivacity could be a profound lawyer. As Pcpe obferved at that time, The Temple late two brother fergeants faw, Who deem'd each other oracles of law ; Wuh etjual talents thefc congenial fouls, One lull'd the exchequer, and one llunn'd the rolls ; Each had a gravity would make you fpht. And Ihook his head at Murray as a wit. It is remarkable that this ridiculous prejudice ac- companied Lord Mansfield to the end of his judicial life, in fpite of daily proofs exhibited in the court of King's Bench and in the Houfe of Lords, of very pro- found knowledge of the abftrufeft points of jurifpru- dence. Lord Ciiefterfield has given his fandion to this unfounded opinion. In a letter to his fon, dated Feb. 12. 1754, he fays, "The prefent Solicitor General Murray has lefs law than many lawyers, but he has more praflice than any, merely upon account of his elo- quence, of which he has a never-failing flream." In the outfct of Lord Mansfield's life, it will be the lefs furprifing, that a notion Qiould have been entertain- ed of his addiaing himfelf to the purfults of Belles Lettres too much, when the regard (fiewn to him by Mr Pope, who defpotically ruled the regions of liter. ature at that period, is confidered. That great Poet feemed to entertain a particular alFeflion for our young lawyer, and was eager to ihew him marks of his regard. He addreffed to him his imitation of the 6th Epiltle of the Firft Book of Horace ; and even condefcended to become his mafler in the art of elocution. " Mr Mur- ray {fays his biographer) was one day furprifed by a gentleman c f Lincoln's Inn, who could take the liberty of entering his rooms without the ceremonious in'ro- Murray, duiflion of a fervant, in the fingular afl of praflifing ^■^^^^^^^ the graces of a fpeakcr at a glafs, while Pope fat by in the charafler of a friendly preceptor. Mr Murray, on this occalion, paid that poet the handfonie compliment of, Tu ei mihi Aft^cenas (a)." Whatever propenfitics this fpiightly lawyer might have towards polite literature, he did not permit them to divert his attention from his profeflion. He foon dilllnguiftied himfelf in an extraordinary manner, as may be feen by thofe who are converfant with, or chufe to refer to the Bcoks of Reports. In the year 1736, the murder of Captain Porteous by a mob in Edin- burgh, after he had been reprieved, occafioned a cen- fure to fall on that city, and a bill of pains and pe- nalties was brought into Parliament agalnft the Lord Proved and the corporation; which, after various modi- fications, and a firm and unabated oppofition in every ftage of its progrefs, palfed into a law. In both Houfes Mr Murray was employed as an advocate, and fo much to the fatisfaalon of his clients, that afterwards, in Sep- tember 1743, ^^^ ^^'^^ prefenled with the freedom of Edinburgh m a gold box, profcifedly, as it was decla- red, for his figival fervices by his fpeeches to both Houfes of Parliament in the condud of that bufinefs. On the 24th of November 1738, he had married Lady Elizabeth Finch, daughter of the Earl of Winchelfea, and in the month of November 1742, was appointed Solicitor General in the place of Sir John Strange, who refigned (b). He likewlfe was chofen to repre- fent the town of Boroughbridge in Parliament, for which place he was alfo returned in 1747 and 1754. In the month of March 1746-7 he was appointed one of the managers for the impeachment of Lord Lovat by the Houfe of Commons, and it fell to his lot to obferve on the evidence previous to the Lords giving their judgment. This tafli he executed with fo much candour, moderation, and gentleman-like propriety, that Lord Talbot, at the conclufion of his fpeech, paid him the following compliment: "The abilities of the learned manager whojullnowfpoke, neverappearedwith greater fplendour than at this very hour, when his can- dour and humanity has been joined to thofe great abi- lities which have already made him fo confpicuous, that I hope one day to fee him add lulfre to the dignity of the firft civil employment in this nation." Lord Lovat himfelf alfo bore teftimony to the abilities of his adver- fary : " I thought myfelf (fays his lordlhlp) very much loaded by one Murray (c^, who your Lordlhlps know was the blttereft evidence there was agalnll me. I have fince (a) It is thus that eminence Is attained even by genius, and Mr Murray was properly employed ; though wc do not clearly perceive the ufe of the glafs, when his mafler was watching all his geftures. (b) On this occafion a doggrel poem was publilhed by one Morgan, a perfon then at the bar, entitled, " The C luli'dlcade," in which all the principal lawyers were fuppofed to urge their refpedlive claims to the poll. At (he conclufion it is laid. Then Murray, prepar'd with a fine panegyric In praife of himfelf, would have fpoke it like Garrick ; But the Prefident (lopping him faid, " As in truth " Your worth and your praife is in every one's mouth, *' 'Tis needlefs to urge what's notorioufly known, " The office, by merit, is your's all mufl own; " The voice of the public approves of the thing, " Concurring with that of the Court and the King." (c) One of the evidences againft him. M U R [ 585 : M U R Murray, fince fuffered by another Mr Murray, who, I muft fay ^•^^-'"^'^ with pleafure, is an Iionour to his country, and whole eloquence and learning is much beyond vviiat is to be exprell by an ignorant man like me. I heard him with pleafure, though it was againft me. I have the honour to be his relation, thougli perhaps he neither knows it nor values it. I wilh that his being born in the North may not hinder him from the preferment tluit his merit and learning deferve." During the time that Mr Murray continued in office, he I'upported, with great ability, the adminiftration with whici) he was connefled ; and, of courfe, rendered liimfelf obnoxious to thofe who were in oppofition. Nothing, however, could be urged either againll his public conduifl or his private life ; but he was involved in fome trouble by an ill-devifed tale, concur rii.g with the known principles of the family of Stormont, to make him fufpc<5ted of Jacobitifm. Of this affair, a full and particuhir account is given by the late Lord Mel- combe in the following words : »' Mc'lirs Murray, Fawcett, and Stone, were mucli acquainted, if not fchool-fellows, in earlier life. Their fortune led them different ways ; Fawcett's was to be a country lawyer and recorder of Newcaltle. Jiihnfon, now Bilhip of Glouccffer, was one of their alibciates. On the day the King's birth day was kept, they dined at the Dean ot Durham's at Durham ; this Fawcett, Lord Ravenfworth, M.ijor Davifon, and one or two more, who retired after dinner into another room. The converfation turning upon the late Biihop of Glou- cefter's preferments, it was alked who was to have his prebend of Durham i The Dean faid, that the lall news from London was, that Dr Johnfon was to have it : Fawcett faid, he w.is glad that Johnfon got off fo well, for he remembered him a Jacobite feveial years ago, and that he ufed to be with a relation of his who was very difaffefted, one Vermon, a mercer, where the Pre- tender's health was frequently drunk. This palling among a few familiar acquaintance, was thought no more of at the time : it fpread, however, fo much in the North (how I never heard accounted for), and reached town in fuch a manner, that Mr Pelham thought it ne- ceffary to defirc Mr Vane, who was a friend to Faw- cett, and who employed him in his bullnefs, to write to I'awcetr, to know if he had faid this of Johnfon, and if he had, if it was true. " This letter was written on the 9th of January ; it came to Newcaftle the Friday following. Fawcett was much furprifed ; but the poft going out in a few hours after its arrival, he immediately acknowledged the letter by a long, but not very explicit, anfwer. This Friday happened to be the club day of the neigh- bouring gentlemen at Newcaftle. As foon as Lord Ravenfworth, who was a patron and employer of Faw- cstt, came into the town, Fawcett acquainted him with tlie extraordinary letter he had received j he told him that he had already anfwcrcd it ; and being alkcd to fliew tlic copy, faid he kept none ; but delired Lord Ravenfworth to recollect il he held fuch a converliition at the Dcar.ry of Durliam the day appointed for the birth-day. Ravenfworth recolleded nothing at all of it : they went to the club together, and Ravenfworth Went the next morning to fee his mother in the neigh- bourhood, with whom he llaid till Monday ; but this thing of fuch confequencc lying upon his thoughts, he SuppL. Vol. n. returned by Newcaftle. Ke and Fawcett had another Murruy, converfation; and in endeavouring to refrtlheacho'.hei's ^-^"''^-^ memory about this dreadful dtlir:quency of Johnfon, Fawcett faid he could not recollect politively at fuch a dillance of time, wliether Johnfon drank thefe healtliF, or had been prefent at the drinking of them, but that Murray and .Stone had done both feveral time.--. Ra- venfworth was excedively alarmed at this with relation to Stone, on account of his office about the prince ; and thus the affair of Johnfon was quite forgotten, and the epifode became the principal part. There were many more conferences between Ravenfworth and Faw- cett upon this luhjed, in wliicli the l.itter always per- fifted that Stone and Murray v/ere prefent at the drink- ing, and did drink thole healths. It may be obf;rved here, that when h; was examined upon oath, he fwore to the year 1731 or 1732, at lateil. Fawcett comes up as ufual about his law bufiiief;, and is examined by Mellrs Pelharn and Vane, who never had heard of Mur- ray or Stcne being nanned: he Is affced, and anfwers only with relation to Johnfon, rever mentioning either of the otliers; but the love of his country, his kin^, and pofterity, burned fa ftrongly in Ravenfworth's bofom, that he could have no relt till he had difcovereil this enormity. Accordingly, when he came to town, he acquainted the miniitry and almoff all his great friends witli it, and inlifted upon the removal of S:one. The minilfry would have flighted it as it dcferved ; but as he perliffed, and had told fo many of it, they could not help laying it before the king, who, though he himfelf flighted it, was advifed to examine it ; which examination produced this moll injudicious proceedin" in parliament.*" * LorJ Mtl- This is Lord Melcombe's account; and the fame ""'*'■'' •^"- author Informs us, that Mr Murray, when he heard of-^'P" -^' the committee being appointed to examine this idle af- fair, fent a meffage to the king, humbly to acquaint him, that if he fhould be called before fuch a tribunal on fo fcandalousand injurious an account, he would re- fign his office, and would refufe to anfwer. It came, however, before the Houfe of Lords, 22d January 1753, on the motion of the Duke of Bedford. The debate was long and heavy, fays Lord Mel- combe ; the Duke of Bedford's performance moderate enough; he divided the Houfe, but It was not told, for there went below the bar with him the Earl Harcoiirt, Lord TowndienJ, tlie IJIlhop of Worcellei-, and Lord T.ilbotonly. The Biihop of Norwich and Lord Har- court both fpoke, not to much purpofe ; but neither of them in the lead fupported the Duke's quertion. Upon the whole. Lord Melcombe concludes, " It was the worft judged, the worft executed, and the worlt fupported point that I ever faw of fo much expcaa- tlon." The King, his late Mjjefty, viewed it in its true light ; and is reported to have faid, " Wiinlevtr they were when Wellminller boys, they are now my very- good friends." He was likewife, as we have been in- formed by a gentleman connected with the family of Stormont, fo delighted wiih Mr Murr;iy's fpcech in his own vindication, tiiat he delireJ to have a copy of i;, as a model of dignifud and candid elrquence. Faw- cett, the original autlior of the llory, leems indeed tr> have been a very fneaking knave, totally unworthy of credit- Biihop Johnfon, who was overlcok;d in the 4 1'- tuinii'il. M U R C 5B6 ] M U R Murray. turmoil, e.\cited by the fuppofcJ guilt ot Murray and Stone (fee Stone, in this Supj.L), went to F.iwcett's chamber? in the Temple, and del'ircd an interview. Be- ing tc'ld by the fcrvant that his m^acr was not at home, l.c rc!i,;-.vtd his vifit very early next niorning, and de- clared his rtlolution to wait f.U Mr F.uvcctc lliouid rife, the hunJreJs having inadvertently coriclFcd thiu he was llill in bed. Fawcett, upon this, left his thorny pillow witli relnaance ; for fom^jthing '.harper than thorns , fay> Mr HoUiday ) awaited him, which he could not now polTibly avoid. The rcfult of the iiuevview produced e.\prcirions of deep contrition, together with a letter, addrelfed to tl:e Lord Bifliop of Glcuceftcr, xcknowkdgine, in the moll explicit teims, that his L Tdlhip was innocent of the charge which he had been the inllrunient of bringing againft him. On the advaneemei.t of sir Dudley Rider to the chief jufticefliip of the King's Bench in 1754, Mr Murray fucceeded him as attorney general; and on his death, November 1756, again became his fuccelFor as chief jullice, when he was created Baron of Mansfield, in the county ot Nottingham, with remainder to the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten. As foon as Lord Manstield was eftabliOicd in the Kind's Bench., he began to make improvements in the pradlice of that court. On the 12th of November, four days after he had taken his f^at, he made a very neceifary regulation, obferving, " Where we have no doubt, we ought not to put the paitieo to the delay and e.xpence ot a farther argument ; nor leave other per- fons, who may he interelted in the determination ot a point fo general, unneceliaiily under the ai.iieiy cf fuf- pence." The anxiety of fufpence, from this period, was no longer to be complained of in the court of King's Bench. The rcgulaiity, pundtiiality, and difpatch ot the new chief juftice, afforded fuch general fatiitaflion, that thsy, ill jirocefi, of time, d:ew into ihat court moft of the caufes which could be brought there for deter- ininaii' n. Sir James Burrows fays, " I am informed, that at tic liciii.gs for London and Middlefe.x only, there are not fo few as 800 caufes fet down in a year, and all dif- pofed of. And though many of them, efpecially in London, ate of conliderable value, there are not more, upon an avenge, than between 20 and 30 ever heard of hiterwirds in the Ihape of fpecial vtrdidts, fpecial cafes, motions for new trials, or in arrell of judgment. Of a llill I f exceftioi'is there has beea no iidlance (1 do not iiiclude judgments upon criminal profccutions; ihey are neceft'ary confcquencesof the conviilimu). My lepoits give l)Ut a very taint idea ol the eitei;t of the whole bufi- nefs v/hich crimes bvifore the court: I onlyic|-yOit what 1 think may be rf i:fe as a determination or illultration of f'.me matter of lav.-. - I take ro notice of the nume- rous queitions of.fa(5t which are heard upon alhdaviis (the moft tedious and irkfome pare (f the whole bufi- nef, ). I take no notice of a variety of conteilations, which, after having been fully difculfed, are decided 'without d'fFicuky or doubt. I taice no notice of many cafes v.h'.ch turn upon a conftruclion fo peculiar and pirticul.ir, as not to be likely to form a precedent for any o'hercafe. And yet, notwithftanding (his inmien- iity of bufiiiefs, it is notorious, that, in confequjnce of method, and a few rules which have b^en laid down to prevent delay (even where the parties themfelves would Murray, willingly confent to it), nothing now hangs in court. ^>^'~^^^"*" Upon tl'.e lalt day of the very laft term, if we exclude fuch motions of tlie term as by defire of the parlies went over cf courfe as peremptories, there was not a finglc matter of any kind that remained undetermined, except- ing one cafe relating to tfe proprietary Lordlhip ol ■^Ia- ryland, which was protelfedly pollpcncd on account of the prefent fituation of .'America. One might fpeak to the fame elfeil concerning the laft day of any former term for fome ye.srs backward." The fame aulht'ralfo informs iis, that, excepting two cafes, there had not been, fiom the 6ih of November 1756 to llx time of his then piefent publication, 26th May 1776, a final diiTcrence of opinion in tiie court in any cale, cr upon any point whaifoever. " It is re- markable, too (he adds), tliit, excepting ihcfe two cafes, no judgment given during the fame period has been reverfed, either in the exchequer chamber or in parliament : and even ihefe reverlals were wiili great divetfity of opinion among the judges." Of the two cafes here mentioned, one was the famous queftion con- cerning literary property, which the majority of the judges of the court of King's Bench held to be perma- nent; and in fupport of which opinion, fuch arguments were urged by the chief julfice, as have not yet perhaps been completely anfwered. The illluccelsof the war, which had lately been be- gun, occafioned a change in thii adminilfration; and the conflitls of contending parties rendered it impr.iiticable for the crown, at that juncture, to fettle a new minillry. In order, therefore, to give paule to the violence cf both fides. Lord Mansfield was induced to accept the pcft of chancellor of the exchequer on the 9th of April 1757 ; which he held until the 2d of July in the fame year. During this interval, he employed himfelf, with great fuccefi, to bring about a coalition ; which being cfTcift- ed, produced a feries of events, which raifed tlie glory of Great Biitain to the higheil point at which it has ever been fi:en. In the fa.Tie >ear he was offcied, but reiufed, the olnce of Lord High Chancellor ; and in November 175S, he was e!e>5led a governor of the char- ter houfe, in the room cf the Duke of Marlboro»s.'b, then lately deceafed. For feveral years after this period, the tenor of Lord Mansfield's life was marked only with a rnoft fedulous difcharge of the duties of his office. In 1760 Geo. IL died, and the new reign commenced with alterations in the admir'.illration; which gave rife to a virulent ipi- rit rf oppofition, conducted with a degree of violence and afpeniy never known at any former time. As a friend to the then adminilbatior, Lord MaUbfield was marked oat for a more than ordinary fh ire of malicious invedtive. It is in alluiion to this, lliat Warburton, af- ter tracing the rife and progrels of the irreligion and li- centioufhcfs which then prevaded, and obfervin;^ that, amid fuch general corruption, the pure adminilfration of pufdic jultice dill ail'crded a cheerful confolation to thinking men, proceeds thus : " But the evil genius of England would notfuffer us to enjoy it long; tor, as it envious of this laft fupport of government, he hath now inrtigated his blackeft agents to every extent of their malignity ; wlio, after the moff villainous infults on all other orders and ranki in focisty, havs at length pioceedcd to calumniate eveii the M U R [ i«7 ] M U R Murray, tlie king's fuprcme court of jnfticc, under Its ableft and ^'''~^'~'*^ nioft iinblemlflied admlnifttation. Alter this, v/ho will not l^e tempted to defpair of his country, and (ay with the good old man in llie fcene, -" Ipfi fi citpiat faliis " Scrvaic, protfus riofi polcf, banc Famillim (n) ?" A change ofadminillration agAin tool: place in 17G5, which introduced the Marquis of Rockingham and his friends to govern the country ; and the meafures tlien adopted not agreeing with Lord Mansfield's feniiments, he, lor the firll time, became an opponent of govern- ment. On the bill for repealing the llamp a<£t, he fpoke, and divided againft it ; and is fuppofed to have had fome iliare in the compofition of the protefts on that occafion, though he did not fign them. In the Hime year, he is faid to have animadverted, with no fmall de- cree of fevcrity, on the incautious exprelGons of Lord Camden, on the affair of prohibiting the e.fportation of corn, that it was but a 40 davs tyranny at the outfidc (e). In 1767, the DKTenters caufe was determined, in which Lord Mansfield delivered a fpeech, v/hich has Ilnce been printed, and fnews his Lorddiip to have been a Heady friend to religious toleration, as well as to the rights of the eftablillied church. The confcicntious Dif- fenters themfelves lavilhed upon that fpeech the higheft praife; whilft others o( tliem, in the fucceeding year, deluged the public prints with torrents of abufe on the Chief Jullice. In that year was the general ele<5lion. Mr Wilkes returned trom aljroad, became a candidate tor the city of London, and afterwards was chofen re- prefentative for the county of Middlefex. Having been outlawed fome years before, he now applied for a re- verfal of tliat proceeding. On the 8th of June, the confideration of it came before the court of King's Bench; when the judges delivered their opinions very fully, and were unanimous that the outlawry was ille- gal, and muft be reverted. On this occafion Lord Mans- field took the opportunity of entering into u full ftate- mentot the cafe, and ajulHfication <if his own condu.51. The reader will liad tlie cale reported by Sir James Burrow ; from whom we Ihall extract the following, ■which appears to have been the moll important part of his Lordlliip's fpeech : " It is fit to take i'onie notice of the various terrors hung out ; the nurnerons crowds whicli have attended, and now attend, in and about the hall, out of all reach of hearing what palfes in court ; and the tumults which in other places have fhamefully infulted all order and go- vernment. Audacious addrefies in print dilate to us, from thofe they call the people, the judgment to be gi- ven now, and afterwards upon the conviction. Reafuns of policy are urged, fiom danBcr to the kingdom, by commotions and general conlufion. •' Give me leare to take the opportunity of this great and refpeitable audience, to let the whole world know all fuch attempts arc vain. Uulefs we have been able to find nn error which w-jl bear us cut to revtrfe the outlawry, it muft be alhrmed. The conftituticn does rot allow reiifons of Hate to influence our jud.;irent: God forbid it lliouid ! We muft not regard poiui,:^! confe'iuences, how formidable foever they may be ; «e are hound to l„y. Fiat juflifia, ruat Cal'um. The cnn- ftituiion trulls the king with reafons of Hate and prli- cy : He may pardon offences ; it is his to judge wlie- ther the law or the criminal fliould yield. We have no eleiSion. None of us encouraged or approved the com- miffion of either of the crimes of which tlie defender is conviified : none of us had any hand in liis being profc- cuted. As to myfelf, I took no part (in another pi -ce) in the addrcfles for that profecuticn. W^e did net ad- vife or aflift the defender to (ly from juftice ; it was his own afl, and he muft take the confeqiiences. None of us have been confulted, or had any thing to do with the prefent profecution. It is not in our power to ftop it ; it was not in our power to bring it on. We cannot pardon. Wi. ate to fay what we take the law to be. If we do not fpeak our real opinions, we prevaricate with God and our own confciences. " I pafi over many anonymous letters I hive receiv- ed : thofe in print ars public ; and fome of them have been brought judicially before tlie court. Whoever the writers are, they take the wrong way. I will do my duty un iwed. What am I to fear ? That numiax ii- favna from the prefs, which daily coins falfe lads and falfe motives ? The lies of calumny carry no terror t') me. I truft, that my temper of mind, and the colour and coiidud of my life, have given me a fuit of armour againrt thefe arrows. If, during this king's reign, I have ever fupported his government, and afilfled his meafures, I have done it without any other reward than the confcioufnefj of doing what I thought ri-'ht. If I have ever oppofed, I have done it upon the points them- felves, without any collateral viev " lonour the kinc and rel'peift the people. But mai.^ tnings acquired by the favour of either arc, in my account, objefls not worth ambition. I wilh popularity; but it is that po. pularity which follows, not that which is run after. It is that popularity which, fooner or later, never tails to do juftice to tlie purfiiit <^i noble ends by noble means. I will not do that which my conlcicnce tells me !s wrong upon this occafion, to gain the huz/.as of ihoii- fands, or the daily praile of all the papers which come from the prefs. I will not avoid doing what I think is light, though it Ihoulddrawon me the u hole artillery of libels, all tliat falfehood and malice can invent, or the credulity of a deluded populace can fwallow. I can ("ay with a great inagiftrate, upon an occafion, and under circumftances not unlike, • Ego hoc anijKofimpfrJli, ut invhiium virliilt parlam, ^hriam, nun InviJiim putanm.' " The threats go further thjn abufe : Perlbnal vio- lence is denounced. I do not believe it : it is not the genius of the worft men of this country in the wot II of times. But 1 have let my mind at reft. The Lift end that can happen to any man never comes too foon, if 4 1^ 2 he 11 rray. (d) See the dedication of the 5th edition of the Divine Legation of Mofes, whicli defcrves to be read at pre- fent with peculiar attention, as the work of a man of gigantic t.ilcnts, deeply read in law as well as in the.'lojiv. (e) The fpceches in the debate were never printed ; but the fubftance of them all was confolidatcd in a pam- phlet publifhed at the time, iutitled, " A fpeech againil the fufpending and diipenfmg prerogative," 8vo. Since reprinted in Debrctt's Debates, Vol. IV. p. i,V.^' Murray. M U R [ 588 ] M U R lis falls in fupport ot" the law and liberty of his country Lord George Gordon when he prefented the petition Murray. (for liberty is fynonymous to law and government), from the PiotcRant Alfociatinn. On Tiiefday evening ^-^'^''^^-^ Such a (hock, too, miift be productive of public good : the prifon of Newgate had been thrown open, all the It misht awake the better part of the kingdom out of cnmbulUble part reduced to a(hes, and the felons let that lethargy which feems to have benumbed them ; loofe upon the public. It was after this attempt to de- and bring the mad part back to tlieir fenfes, as men (Iroy the means of fecniing the victims of criminal juf- inti'xica'.ed are fometimcs dunned into fobtiety. tice that the rioters aifaulted the refiJence of the chief " Once fir all, let it be underllood, that no endea- magiftratc of the firft criminal court in the kingdom; vonrs of this kind will inllnence any m in who at prefent nor were tluy difperfcd till they had burnt all the fur- fits heie. If they had any elfcfl, it would be contrary niturc, pifluies, books, manufcripts, deeds, and, in to their intent : Leaning againft their imprefllon might Ihort, every thing which fire could confume in his Lord- give a bias the other way. But I hope, and I know, fliip's houle ; fo that nothing remained but the walls, that I h ive f irtitude enough to relill even that weak- which were fcen ne.\t morning almoil red hot from ihe nefs. No libels, no thre.its, nothing that has happen- vinlence of the flames, prcfcnting a melancholy and aw- ed nothing that can happen, will weigh a feather a- ful ruin to the eyes of the pafl'engers. For a fuller ac- gainft allowing the defendant, upon this and every other count of tliofc dreadful riots, lee Britain, n° 644. En- qucdion, not only the whole advantage he is intitled to cyckpxdta. from fubllantial law and jullice, but every benefit from So une.vpei5ted was this daring outrage on order and the moll critical nicety of form, which any other defen- government, that it burfl on Lord Mansfield without der could claim under the like objeflion. The only ef- his being prepared in the flightefl manner to refifl it. fedt I feel is an anxiety to be able to explain the grounds He efcaped with his life only, and retired to a place of up'in which we proceed; fo as to fatisfy all mankind, fafety, where lie remained imtil the 14th of June,- the that a tl.twof fotm given way to in this cafe, could not laft day of term, when he again took his feat in the have been got over in any other." couit of King's Bench. " Tiie reverential filence (fays In J.muary 1770, Lord Mansfield again was offered Mr Douglas) which was obferved wlien his Lordfhip the Great Sc:al, which was given to J.Ir Charles York : refumed liis place on tlie Bench, was exprelTive of ieu- and in Hilary Term 1771, he a third time declined the timents of condolence and refpec^, more affeiffing than fame offer, and the Seal was entrulfed to Lord Baihurif. the moll eloquent addrefs the occafion could have fug- The year 1770 was alio memorable tor various at- gelled, tack; made on his Lordlhip's judicial character, in both " The amount of that part of Lord Mansfield's lofs the Houfes of Lords and Commons. In one of thcfe, v.'hich might jiave been eftimafed, and was capable ot a the propriety of a direftion given to the jury in the cafe compenfalion in money, is known to have been very of the king and Woodfal was called in quellion ; which great. This he had a right to recover againft the hun- occalioned his LordOiip to produce to the Houfe a co- dred. Many others had taken that courfe; but his Lord- py of the unanimous opinion ot the court of King's Ihip thought it more confifient with the dignity of his Bench in that caufe ; which, after being much canvaf- charafler not to refort to the indemnification provided f;;d and oppofed, was fuffered to ftand its ground with- by the legillotiirc. His fentimcnts, on the fubjetS of a out being over-ruled. reparation tiom the ftate, were communicated to the On the ipthof Oflober 1776, his Lordfhip was ad- Board of Works in a letter, dated 18th July 1780, vanced to the dignity of an E.irl of Great Britain, by w'ritten in conlequence of an application which they the title of the E.irl of Mansfield, and to his male ilfue; had made to liim (as one of the principalfuffereri;), pur- and tor want of Inch ilfue, to Louifa Vi!countcib Stor- fuant to direftit ns Ironi the tieafury, founded on a vote raont, and to her heirs male by D-ivid Vifcount Stor- mont her hulband. The fame title, in 1792, was li- mited to Lord Stormont himfelt ; who afterwards fuc- ceeded to it. of the Hcufe of Commons, requelling him to ftate the nature and amount of his lofs. In that letter, after fome introductory expieflions of civility to the furveyor general, to whom it was addvelled, his Lordlhip fays, We come now to a period of his Lordfliip's life, ' Befides what is irreparable, my pecuniary lofs is great, which furnilhes an event difgraceful to the age and I apprehended no danger, and therefore took no precau- country in which the fact was committed. An union tion. But how great foever that lofs may be, I think of tolly, enthtifiafm, and knavery, had excited alarms in it tToes not become me to claim or expeft reparation t!ie minds of fome weak people, that encouragements from the Hate. I have made up my mind to my mis- were given to the favourers and profelfors of the Ro- fortune, as I ought, with this conll.lation, that it came man Cathc^lic faith inconliftcnt with religion and true from tliofe whole objeft manllellly was general confu- policy. The adt of Parliament, which excited the cla- fion and deftruflion at home, in additi'^n to a dangerous niour, had pafied with little oppofition, and had not and complicated war abroad. It I fhould lay before received any extraordinary fupport liom Lord Mans- you any account or computation of the pecuniary da- field. The minds of the public were inflamed by art- mage 1 have fuftained, it might feem a claim orexpec- ful mifreprefeiitations ; the rage of a popular mob was tation ot being indemnified. Therefore you will have foon direifted towards tiie moll eminent pertbns. Ac- no further trouble upon this from, &c. — Matiijicld." cordinply, in the night between Tuelliay the 6th and From this time the luftre of Lord Mansfield conti- Wediii-fJay the 7th of June 1780, his Lordlhip's houfe in nued to Ihine wi'h unclouded brightnefs until the end Bloomfbury Square was attacked by a party of rioters, of his political lite, unlefs his oppofition to the mea- wh ', on the Friday and Tuefday preceding, had, to the Aires of the prefent admin^llration, at the early period amtnint of many thoulitnds, furrounded the avenues of of their appointment, Ihall be thought to detraft, in bulb Houies cf Parliament, undjr pretence of attending fome fraall degree, from his merit. It is certain many of M U R C 5S9 ] M U R Murray, of his admirers faw, with concern, a connexion with the Earl of Mansfield, as the firft magiflrste that ever Co Murray. '^^"''''^^ opponents of government at that juncflure, fcarce com- preeminently graced that important Ration. I'he wif-^^"'''^*" patible with the dignity of the chief juftice of Great doni of his decifions, and imbiaded tenor of his public Britain. At length inlirraiiies pre/Fed upon him, and conduct, will be held in veneration by the fages of the he became unable to attend his duty with the fame law, as long as the fplrit of the conftitution, and jufl puniflii ility and a(liduity with which he had been ac- notions of equity, continue to have exiftence. No man cuftrmed. It has been fuppofed, that he held his of- has ever, in an equal degree, poffefTed that wonderful fice af'er he was dilabled from executing the duties of fagacity in difcovering chicanery and artifice, and fepa- it, from a wilh to lecure the fucceffioii of it to a very rating fallacy from truth, and fophiftry from argument, particular friend. Be this as it may, the chief juilice fo as to hit the exact equity of the cafe. He fullered continued in his office until the mon'.h of June 1788, not jultice to be ftrangled in the nets of form, when he fent in his refignation. " His memory was aftonifliing — he never took notes. From this period tlie bodily powers of his Lordfhip or, if he did, feldom or ever confulted them." His re- continued 10 decline ; liis mental faculties, however, re- ferences to expreflions which fell from him in the courfe mained without decay almofl to the lall. During this of tiie debate, or liis quotations from books, were fo time he was particularly inquilitivc and anxious about faithful, that they might have been faid to have been the proceedings in France, and iclt his fenfibility, in repeated •verbatim. The purpofes to which he employ- common with every good man, wounded by the hor- ed thefe amazing talents were ftill more extraordinary : rible inftance of democratic infatuation in the murder if it was the weak part of his opponent's arguments of the innocent Louis XVI. He lived juft long enough that he referred to, he was fure to expofe its fallacy, to exprefs his fatisfaiflion at the check given to the weaknefs, or abfurdity, in the moft poignant fatire, or French by the Prince of Cobourg in March 1793; on the hf^ld it up in the molt ridiculous point of view. If, on 20th of which month, atter continuing fome days in a the contrary, it were a point on which his adverfaries ftate of infenfibility, he departed this life, at the age laid their chief ftrefs he Hated the words correifily ; of 88 years. collected their obvious meaning, confidered the force of " In his pt litical oratory (fays a writer of the pre- tlie li;veral arguments that had or might liave been rai- fent times), he was not without a lival ; no one had the fed upon them, with a precifion that would induce an honour oi fur pajfing h\m; and let it be remembered, auditor almoll to fuppofe that he had previouflv conli- that his competitor was Pitt. dered the whole, and tiiat his fpecch was the refult of " The rhetorician that addreffcd himfeif to TuUy in much previous I'tudy. tliefe memorable words — Danojlhcttes libi pr^ripuit ne " It may be faid of Mansfield as of Virgil, that if he fr'ivius ejfis Orator, tu illi ne film — anticipated their ap- had any faults, they might be confidered in the fmie plication to Mansfield and Pitt. If the one pollsli'ed manner with thofe of fome eminent fixed liar, which, Demofthenean fire and energy, the other was at Icall a if they exill at all, are above the reach of human obfer- Cicero. Their oratory dilfercd in fpecies, but was equal vation. The luminous xtlier of his life was not obfcu- in merit. There was, at lead, no fuperiority on tlie red by any fhade d.irk enough to be d:nominated a de- fide of Pitt. M-insfield's eloquence was not, indeed, of feft. On account of his dclcent, local prejudices and that daring, bold, declamatory kind, fo irrefiltibly propenlities were imputed to him, and his conduct, on powerful in the monient.iry buftic ol popular a!leml)l:es; that account, examined with a microfcopic eye; but but it was poliefled of ihat pure and Au\c fpirit, and the optic through which it was viewed poflclFed a par- feduflive power of pcrfualion, that delights, inilniifts, ty tinge, equally odious and deceptive, and cventu.iUy triumphs. It has been very beautifully " His political principles were ever confident ; and and juftly compared to a river, that meanders through to preferve confillcncy in fuch ftaticnsand in fuch times verdant meads and flowery gardens, reflecting in its cry- as occupied the life of Mansfield, conditutes an ordeal (lal bofom the varied cbjeifts that adorn its banks, and llrongly impreflive of virtue. It has been faid tliat he refrelhing the country through which it flows. wanted fpirit. Is the uniform oppofition of popular " To illuftrate his oratory by example, would require opinion, and apparently the contempt of it, any proof voluminous tranfcripts from the records of Parliament ; of the aifertion ? His fpeech and conduct in the affair and it is unnecelfary, as we can appeal to living recol- of Wilkes's outlawry, when popular prejudice ran in leifficn. torrents, illudrate each other. He defpifcJ (to borrow " Having added weight and dignity to the offices an cxprefiicn of his own) tliat mufhroom popularity of attorney and folicitor general, liis reputation as a that is raifed without merit, and loll with 'Ut a crime, fpeaker, a lawyer, and a politician, elevated him to He difdained being the llave of' popular impulfe. or to the peerage, and the exalted pod of chief judice of acknowledge the Ihouts of a mob lor the trumpet of Ungland. He afcended t) the dignities of flate by ra- fame " pid tliidcs: they were not bedoued by the caprice of He had a mind too great to be afliimed of revering party favour or affcflion. They were (a^ was faid of the ordinances of religion; and as, after tlie moft im- Pliny) liberal difpenlations of power upon an obje(5l partial inquiry, he was a riim believer c f the truth and that knew how to add new luftre to that po\ser, by importance of Chridianity, lie iVequentcd the churcii the r.itional exertKm of his own. regularly, and received th;holy liicrarnenton tliehigner " Here we c-an fpeak of this great man within our felfiv.ils. Mr H 'lliday his publilhed a I'ermon, which own recoiled ion ; and however pirty prejudices may he fiys was dilated by Lord Mansfield to his friend adopt their diiferent favourites, and eadi contend in de- blfhop Jihnfon, and preached by that prelate before toe tradllng from ihe merit of the other, it is, we believe, Hcul'e of Lords. It is a very f'crious and appropriate geusrally unjcrdood, that precedence is allowed the difcourfc; but judging uponiuiermdevidence, we Ihould naz. M U S [ J9<^ ] M U S MiifiMini. •Mufilc, not li.ivc fiipporcd it ihc corrpofiticn of ihe eloquent and argiimcnuitive chicljuUice of England. HisLord- (liip's will, which was written with hii own hand, upon Utile mere llutn h.«lf a flieet of paper, begins with the Jollowiiig elegant and pioos paragraph, with which we Ihall conclude this fketch of his chara(5ler : '< When it IhiU pleafe Almighty God to call me to that (late, to which, of all I now enjoy I can carry on- ly the fatijfailion of my own confcience, and a lull re- liance upon his mercy through Jefus Chrill, I delire that my body may be interred as privately as may be ; and out of refpcvl for the place of my early education, 1 niould Willi it to be in Wcftminiler Abbey." It was interred in Weftminfter Abbey, in the fame vault with the Counlefs (who had died April lo. 17S4), between the late Eul of Chatham and Lord Robert Manners. MUSCLE Bimi, at the entrance into Trinity Bay or harbour, in the direiflion of S. W. on the E. coaft of Newfoundland Ifland. — Morse. Muscle Bay, in the Straits of Magellan, in S. America, is half way between Elizabeth's Bay, and York Road ; in which there is good anchorage with a wellerly wind. — li. Mt'SCLE Bay, or Mejfdlones, on the coaft of Chili or Peru, in S. America, 5 leagues S. by W. of Atacama. —ib. Muscle Shoals, in Tenneflee river, about 250 miles from its mouth, extend about 20 miles, and derive their name irom the nutr.ber of lliell-f.lh found there. At this place the river Ipreads to the breadth of 3 miles, and forms a number of iflands ; and the palfage is difficult, except when there is a fwell in the river. From this place up to the Whirl, or Suck, where the river breaks through the Great Ridge, or Cumberland Mountain, is 250 miles, the navigation all the way ex- celknt. — tb. MUSCONECUNK, a fmall river of New-Jerfey, vhich empties into the Delaware 6 miles below Eallon. —ib. MUSEUM, in the language of the prefent day, is a budding in which are depofited fpeciniens of every objeifl that is in any degree cuiious, whether fuch ob- jects be natural or artilicial. What the word jiivfeum exprelled originally, has been told under that title in the Encyclopedia. A complete mufeum contains colleflions of prefer- red bealls, birds, filhes, reptiles, &c. ; models of ma- chines; raremanufcripts; and indeed fpecimens of every thing necelfary to illullrate pliyfical fcience, to im- prove art, to aid the antiquarian in his refearches, and to exhibit the manners and cuftoms of men in diftant ages and nations. As natural olijeifls ot uncommon lize or beauty, and other rare produiSions, were, in the Ctrl eft periods, conkcraled to the gods, the temples were, of courfe, the rirft repofitories of fuch cclleiftions, or, in other words, the firlt MuJ'emns. This, we think, •/nw/iiitnj, has been completely proved by Proteifor Beckmann.* Tol.il. "When Manno (fays he) returned Irom his diftant r- 4-i- voyages, he biought with him to Carthage two fkins ot the hairy women whom he found on the Gorgades illands, and depofited them as a memorial in the temple of Juno, where they continued till the dellruflion of MMfinni. the city. Tlie iiorns of a Scythian animal, in which ^-^'""''^ tire Stygian water that deftroyed every other vellcl could be contained, were fcnt by Alexander as a curio- fity to lire temple of Dclplii, where they were fnfpend- ed, with an infcription, which has been preferved by iElian. The monllrous horns of the wild bulls v/hich had occafioned fo much devaluation in Macedonij, were, by order ot King Piiillp, hung up in tlie temple ot Her- cules. The unr.aturally formed llioulder bones of Pelops were depofited in the temple of Elis. The horns of the fo called Indian ants were (hewn in the temple of Her- cules at Erythire ; and the crocodile found in attempt- ing to difcover the fources of the Nile was preferved in the temple of His at Cxfarea. A large piece of the root of the cinnamon tree was kept in a golden veffel in one of the temples at Rome, where it was examined by Pliny. The fkin of that monller which the Roman army in Africa attacked and deftroyed, and which pro- bably was a crocodile, an animal common in that coun- try, but never feen by the Romans before the Punic war, was, by Regulus, fent to Rome, and hung up in one of the temples, where it remained till the time of the Numantine war (a). In the temple of Juno, in the illand of Melita, there were a pair of elephants teeth of extraordinary fize, which were carried away by Mafi- nilla's admiral, and tranfmitted to that prince, who, though he fet a high value upon tliem, fent them again back, becaufe he heard tliey had been taken from a tem- ple. The head of a bafiliic was exhibited in one ot the temples of Diana; and the bones of that fea monfter, probably a whale, to which Andromeda was expoled, were preferved at Joppa, and afterwards brought to Rome. In the time of Paufanias, the head of the cele- brated Calydonlan boar was (hewn in one of the temples of Greece ; but it was then deftitute of briftles, and had fuifered confiderably by the hand of time. The mon- ftrous tufks of this animal were brought to Rome, after the defeat of Anthony, by the Emperor Auguftns, who caufed them to be fufpended in the temple ot Bac- chus. ApoUonius tells us, that he faw in India fome of thofe nuts which in Greece were preferved in the temples as curiofities." Tliough thefe curiofities were preferved in the temples for purpofes very diiTerent from thofe for which our coUeftions are made, there can be no doubt but that they contributed to promote the knowledge of natural hiftory. If it he true, as Pliny and Strabo inform us, that Hippocrates availed himlelfofthe accounts which were hung up in the temple of JEl'culapius of different diieafes, and of the medicines and mode of treatment by which they were cured ; it will eafily be believed, that the natural hiftorians availed themfelves, in a fimllar manner, of the various rare objeifts which were prefer- ved in the temples of the other gods. This, w-e fee, Pliny a^ually did. Suetoniua informs us, that Auguftns had, in his pa- lace, a colleiflion of natural cuiiotities; and it is well known that Alexander gave orders to all huntfmen, bird-catchers, hlhermen, and others, to fend to Ariiloile whatever rare animals they could procure. M. Beck- mann (a) We think, with the tranflator of Beckraann's Hiftory, that this animal was not the crocodile, but the Boa cinjlriclor. See Boa and Serpent, EncycL M U S C 591 ] M U S Mufcum. mann fcems to be of opinion, that the firft private miife- ^'^~''''**^ um was ibrmed by Apuleius, who, next to Ariliotkand his fcholar Theophradus, certainly examined natural objiiffs with the greattll ardour and judgment ; who caufL'd animals ot every kind, and particularly fi(h, to be brought to him either dead or alive, in order to de- I'cribe their external and internal parts, their number and I'.tuation, and to deterniine their charj.dlerifing mari<5, and tftabiilh their real names ; who undertook diilaul journeys to become acquainted with the fccrets oF nature; a: d who, on the Getulian mountains, col- lefled petrct'aiftions, which he confidered as the elteifts cl' Deucalion's flood. The principal cauls why colleilions of natural curio- fiiies were iVaice in aiicient times, mult have been the ignorance of natiiralras in regard to the proper means of preferving lucli bodies as foon fpoil or corrupt. Some nietiiods were indeed known and pracftifed, but tliey were all d^fetSive and inferior to that by Ipirit of wine, which prevcius putrefadion, and which, by its perfeft tranl'parency, permits the objcils which are covered by it to t.e at all time; viewed and examined. Thel'e me- thods were the i'^Lrna as thofe employed to preferve pro- vifions, or the bodies of preat men dcceafed. They were put into I'alt brine or honey, or were covered over witli wax. Tlius the hippopotamus, defcribed by Co- lumna, was fc.it to him from Egypt preferved in filt. The body of Agefipolis King of Sparta, who 6\:d in Macedonia, was fent home in honey; the celebrated purple dye of ihs ancients was preferved frelli for many years by the f.inii means; and at ihis day, when the Orientals are defirous of tranfpoiting filh to any dif- tance, they cover ihcm over with wax. In liiofv" centuries which are ufuaily called tlie middle ages, the Prole'.ior finds no traces ofwh.it can be called a mufeum, except in the treafuries cf emperor?, kings, and princes, wlieie, ber;des auiclcs o{ great value, cu- riodiies of art, antiquities, and relics, one fometimes lound f:arce and fingular foreign animals, which were dried and preferved. Such objedts were lo be feen in the old treafury at Vienna ; and in that of St Denis was exhibircd the claw c;f a grifEn, fent by a king of Per- li.\ to Charlcni igne ; the teeth of the liippopotamus, and other thing;, of the like kind. In thefe coilei^lions, the number of the raritits always increafed in propor- tion as a tafte for natural hiftory became more preva- lent, and as the extenlion of commerce afforded better opportunities for procuiing the produiflions of remote countries. Menageries were elfablilhed to add to the riiagnilicence of courts, and the Ihiffid iT^ins of rare ani- mals were hung upas rnemoria!si-f their having cxiifed. Public libraries alio were made receptacles for fuch na- tural curiofities aswcie tiom time to time prefenied to them ; and as in univerlitics the faculty if medicine had a hall appropriated lor tl.e dilfeclion of human bodies, cnriofiiics fn.m the animal kingdom were ccHe^led there alio by degrees ; and it is probable that the pro- filfcrs of anatomy lirll made attempts toprcfirve d f- ferent parts of animalsinfpiritof wine,as they were obli- ged to keep them by them for the ufe of their fchclars ; and becaufe in old times dead bodies were not given up to them as at prcfent, and were more dillicult to be obt.iined. Private colleftions appear for tl'.e Hill time in the l6tii century; and there is no doubt (fays our autlior) that they wcrs foniied by every Icarnsd nun vviio at that period applied to the Rudy of natural hiftory. MUSHROOM, a fungus, of which fome of the principal fpecies have been difcribed in the Emyc/y- paJia under the generic name Agaricus. Theie is, however, one fpecies not mentioned there — the Bohtus hirfutus ot BuUiard, which is certainly worthy of no- tice, fince one of the Fruicb chemills has lately ex- traded from it a briglit, (hiuing, and vei y durable yellow dye. Tiiis pretty large mulhtoom grows commonly on walnut and apple-trees. Its colouring-matter is contained in abundance, not or.ly in th.e tubular part, but alfo in the pareuiihyma tf the body of the mufli- room. In order to extract it, the mulhroom is pound- ed in a mortar, and the liquor thence obtained is boil- ed for a quarter of an hour in water. An ounce of liquor is fufficient to communicate colouring-matter to llx pounds of water. When the liquor has been Itrain- ed, the llufT to be dyed is put into ir, and boiled for n quarter of an hour. All kinds of ftufl" receive this co- lour and retain it ; but on linen and cotton it is lefs bright. Tliis colour may be modified, in a very agree- able manner, by tlie efl'eif of mordants. The procefs fucceeded bell on lilk. When this fub- flance, after being dyed, is madetopafs througli a bath of foft (oap, it acquires a Ihiuing golden yellow colour, which has a perfecft rcf'emblance to the yellow of that filk employed to imitate embroidery in gold, and which has hitheito been brouglit from China and fold at a dstr rate, as the method of dyeing it is unknown in Europe. The yellow coK.ur extrafted from this rhufii- room may be emjjloycd alii) with advantage for paint- ing in water-colours as well as in oil. MUSKINGUM, that is, Elk's Ey.-, a navigable river of the N. W. Territory. It is 250 yards wide at its confluence with the Oliio, 172 mdes belov.' Pittf- burg, including the windings of the Ohio, though in a dirttt line it is but 90 mile.'. At its mouth Ifancs Fort Haim.ir and Marietta. lis banks are fo high as to prevent iti oversowing, and it is navigable by large batteau?c and bargts to the Thiee Legs, 1 io miles from its m'Uith, and by fmall coats to the lake at its head, 45 miles faither. Fiom tlience, by a portage of .:bouc one mile, a communication is opened to Lake Erie, through Cayahoga, a ilream of great utility, naviga- ble the whole length, without any obrtru.fiion from falls. From Lake I'Lrie, the avenue is well known to Hudfon's river in the State of New-Yoik. The land on this river and its branclies is of a fuperior quality, and the country abounds in fprings and conveniences fitted to fcttlements remote from lea navigation, viz. falt-fpiings, coal, frce-llone, and clay. A valuabl; faltfpiing has been very lately difcovered, 8 miles from this river, and 50 from Marietta, called the Bi<' S/>iing. Such a quantity of water flows, as to keep 1000 gallons conrtanlly boiling. Ten gallons of this water will, as experiment has proved, afford a quart cf fait of fuperior quality to any made on the fea-coall. — Mom. MUS()ITAKIES Inilians inhabit the fourhern wa- ters ot Lake Michigan, having 200 warriors. — ili. MUSCULATIONS, an Iiidiau tribe inhabiting near Lake Michigan. — .i. MUSKITTO Cuvc, in N. America, lies in hit. 6.|t ^S 13, and in long. 53 3 45 W'.—IL Mufquito, II Myerf- town. NAN [59 MUSQITITO River and Bay lis at a fmall diflance north of Cape Canaverel, on thecoaft of E. Florida. The banks of Mufquito river towards the continent abound in trees and plants common to Florida, with pleafant orange groves ; whilll the narrow ftripes of land towards the fea, are molUy fand-hills. — ii. MUSQUITONS, an Indian nation in the neigh- bourhood of the Piankeftiaws and Outtagomies. — ii. MUTSUDDIES, in Bengal, writers, accountants, officers of government. MUZCOORET, allowances to zemindars in land or money. See Zemindar, Suppl. MYERSTOWN, a village of Dauphin county, 2 3 NAN Pennfylvania, fituated on the N. fide of Tulpehockon creek, a few miles below the canal. It contains about 25 lioufes, and is 32 miles eaft by north of Harrifburg, and 77 from Philadelphia. — Morse. MYNOMANIES, or Minomanies, an Indian tribe, who with the tribes of the Chipewas and Saukeys, live near Cay Puan, and could together furnifli, about 20 years ago, 550 warriors. The Minomanies have about 300 fighting men. — ib. MYRTLE IJlanJ, one of the Chandeleurs or Myrtle iflands, in NalTau Bay, on the coaft of Florida, on the weft fide of the peninfula. — ib. Mynoma- nies, y Myrtle. N. Naaman's, "VTAAMAN's Creek, a fmall ftream which runs S. p _[^ eafterly into Delaware liver, at Marcus Hook. Nancowry. — Morse. "-"^^''^'-^ NABOB, or Nowab, a title of courtefy given in India to Mahomcdans high in ftation, particularly provincial governors. NAB's Bay, near the weftern limit of Hudfon's Bay, known by the name of the Welcome Sea. Cape Eiti- maux is its fouthern point or entrance. — Morse. NACO, a town of New-Spain, in the province of Hondura?, 50 miles north-well of Valadolid — ib. The Sun's NADIR, is the axis of the cone pro- jefted by the iliadow of the earth : fo called, becaufe that axis being prolonged, gives a point in the ecliptic diametrically ojpofite to the fun. N AH ANT Poini forms the N. E. point of Bofton harbour, in Mallachufetts ; 9 miles E. N. E. of Bofton. N. lat. 42 27, W. long. 70 ^t.— Morse. NAHUNKEAG, afniall ifland in Kennebeck river, 38 miles from the fea, fignifies, in the Indian language, the land where eels are taken. — ib. NAIB, a deputy. NAIN, a Moravian fettlement, which was eftablifh- ed in 1763, on Lehigh river, in Pennfylvania. — Morse. Nain, a fettlement of the Moravians on the coaft of Labrador, near the entrance of Davis's Straits, being S. S. W. of Cape Farewell. It was begun under the protection of the EritiOi government, but is now de- ferted. — ib. NAKED, in architeflure, as the naked of a wall, &c. is the furface, or plane, from whence the projec- tures arife ; or which fcrves as a ground to the projec- tures. NAMASKET, a fmall river which empties into Narraganfet Bay — Morse. NANCOWRY, or Soury, as it is fometimes called, is one of the Nicobar ifles, and fituated nearly in the centre of the clufter (See Nicobar, Encycl.). Its length may be about eight miles, and its breadth nearly Nancowry. equal. The ifland of Comerty, wliich is near it, is v.^"^''^**-' more extenfive, but does not perhaps contain more folid land, being excavated by a very large bay from the fea. The fpace between thefe two iOands forms a capacious and excellent harbour, the eaftern enirance of which is fheltered by another ifland, called Trikut, lying at the diftance of about a league. The inlet from the weft is narrow, but fufficiently deep to admit the largeft Ihips when the wind is fair. The Danes have long maintained a fmall fettlement at this place, which ftands on the northern-moft point of Nancowry, within the harbour. A ferjeant and three or four foldiers, a few black flaves, and two rufty old pieces of ordnance, compofe the whole of their efta- blifliment. They have here two houfes ; one of which, built entirely of wood, is their habitation ; the other, formerly inhabited by their miflicnaries, ferves now for a ftorehoufe. Thefe iflands are in general woody, but contain like- wife fome portions of clear land. From the fummits of their hills the profpeifls are often beautiful and ro- mantic. The foil is rich, and probably capable of pro- ducing all the various fruits and vegetables common to hot climates. The natural produdions of this kind, which moftly abound, are cocoa nuts, papias, plantains, limes, tamarinds, beetle nuts, and the melori, a fpecies of breadfruit ; yams, and other roots are cultivated and thrive ; but rice is here unknown. The matigojlain tree, whofe fruit is io juftly extolled, grows wild ; and pine- apples of a delicious flavour are found in the woods. Of all the Nicobar ifles Nancowry and Comerty are faid to be the beft peopled ; the population of both be- ing fuppofed to amount to eight hundred. The natives of Nancowry and of the Nicobar idands in general, live in villages on the fea-fhore, and never ereft their habi- tations Inland (a). Their houfes are of a circular form, and are covered with elliptical domes, thatched with grals (a) The great Nicobar ifland is perhaps an exception, where, it is faid, a race of men exifts, who are totally different in their colour and manners. They are confidered as the Aborigines of the country. They live in the interior parts among the mountains, and commit frequent depredations on the peaceable inhabitants of the coafts. NAN L 595 1 N A N Nar.cowry. grafs and the leaves of cocoa nut. They are raifed kind of pafte made of llie mc/o/-/, ferves them for breaJ ; Xunjcmjr, ^^'~''''^"*^ upon piles to the height of fix or eight feet above the and they firiilh ihcir repall witJi copious potations of ground ; the floor and lides are laid wilii planks, and taury, an inebriatirig liquor." the afeent is by a l.idder. In thnfe bays fr inlets The Nicobareans are hofpitable ar.d honcfl, and are vhich are (heltered from the furf, they ereA thtin remarkable for a ftricf oblervance of truth, and for fometimes fo near the margin of the water as to admit punfluality in adhering to their engagements. Such the tide to flow under, and walh away the ordure crimes as theft, robbery, and murder, arc unknown in from below. tlufi iflands ; but th:y do net want fpiiit to revenge In front of their villages, and a little advanced in the their injuries, and will figlit refnlutely, and flay thcT water, they plant beacons of a great height, which they enemies, if attacked or unjullly dealt with. Their only adorn v.ith tnits made of grafs, or the burk of fome tree, vice, if this failing can be fo railed, is inebriation ; but Thefe objtfls are diiccrnible at a great dirtance, and are in their cups ihey are generally jovial and good-hu- intended probably for landmarks j their houfes, which moured. It fometimes, however, hapjiens at their are cvcrfhadowed by thick groves of cocoa nut trees, feafts, that the men of different villages fall out ; and feldom being vifible from afar. the quarrel immediately becomes general. In thefe The Nicobareans, though indolent, are in general cafes they terminate thtir differences in a pit. hed battle ; robud and well-limbed. Their features are fomewhat where the only weapons ufed are long (licks, of a hard like tlie Malays, and their col )Ur is nearly finiilar. The and knotty wood. Wich thefe they drub one annther women are much inferior in ftature to the men, but moll heartily, till, no longer able to endure the coiiflicf, more aiflive in all domeftic affairs. Contrary to the lliey mutually put a ftop to the combat, and all get cuftom of other nations, the women (have the hair of drunk again. their heads, or keep it dofe cropt, which gives them an NANJEMY River, a fnort creek which empties in- uncouth appearance, in the eyes of (Irangcrs at lead. to the Patowmac in Charles county, Maryland, fouth- The inhabitants of Nancowry perform, every year, weflward of Port I'obacco river. — Morsa. a very extraordinary ceremony in honour of the dead. NANKAR, ancient allowance to zemindars in land It is thus delcribed by Lieutenant Colebrooke : or money. " On the anniverf-iry of this feftival, if it can be fo NANKEEN, or Nan-king, is a well-known cottorx called, their houfes are decorated with garlands of fluff, which derives its name from the ancient capital cf flowers, fruits, and branches of trees. The people of China (See Nan-king, Encvtl.). It is, however, ac- each village affemble, drelt in tlieir bed attire, at the cording to Van Braam, manuf.idtnred at a great dlftance principal houfe in the place, where they fpend the day from that city, in the dillrift L-i Foiig iiargfou, fituated in a convivial manner ; the men, fitting apart from the in the fouth-eaft of the piovince of Kiongnam upon women, fmokc tobacco, and intoxicate themfelves ; the fea-fhore. Tlie colour {'f nankeen is natural, the while the latter are nurfing their children, and employ- down of which it is made being d' the fame yellow ed in preparations for tlie mournful bufinefs of the tirige with the cloth. The colour, as well as fupeiior night. At a certain hour of the afiernoon, announced quality of this cotton, feems to be derived from the foil ; by llriking the Cuung, the women let up the moil dif- for it is faid that the feeds of the nankeen cotton dege- mal howls and lamentations, which they continue with- nerate in both particulars when tranfplanted to another out intermilllon till aljout fun-fet; when the whole party get up, and walk in proceQlon to tlie burying- ground. Arrived at the place, they form a circle aroui:d one of the graves, when a flake, planted exadlly province, however little different in its climate. The common opinion, that the colour of the lluff is given by a dye, occafioned an order from Europe, Ibme years ago, to dye the pieces of nankeen ct a deeper over the head of the corpfe, is pulled up. The woman colour tl)an they had at that period ; and the reafon of who is neareft of kin to the deceafed, Heps oat from their being then paler than formerly is as follows: the crowd, digs up the fkuU, and draws it up with her Shortly after the Americans began to trade with hands. At fight of the bones, her ftrcngth feems to China, the demand increafed to nearly double to quaii- fail her; (he (hrieks, Ihe fobs; and tears of angui(h tity it was p( ffiblc to fiirnifh. To lupply this deficiency, abundantly fall on the mouldering objei.^ of her pious the manufadurers mixed common while cotton with tiie care. She clears it from the earth, fcrapes off the brown ; this gave it a pale cail, which was immediately feilering fle(h, and laves it plentifully widi the mill; of remarked ; and lor this lighter kind no purchafer could freCh cocoa-nuts, fup|)lied by the by (landers ; after be lound, till t!ie other was exhaufted. As the con- which (he rubs it over with an infufion of faffron, and fumption is grown lefs during the lad three yeais, the wraps it carefully in a piece of new cloth. It is then mixture of cotton is no longer necelfary, and nankeen depofited again in the earth, and covered up ; the ftake is become what it was before. By keeping them two is replanted, and hung with the various trappings and or three years, it even appears that they have the pro- implements belonging to the deceafed. They proceed perty of growing darker. This kind ot (lufi miift be then to the other graves ; and the whole night is fpent acknowledged to be the ftrongelt yet known. Many in repetitions of thefe dilmal and ditgudful rites. perfons have found that clothes made of it will la(t three " On the morning following, the ceremony is con- or four years, although (or ever in the wafh. This it is eluded by an offering of many fat fwine ; when the fa- that makes them the favourite wear for breeches and crificc made to the dead alTords an ample fead to the waidcoats both in Europe and Amciica. The white living : they befmear thcmfelves with the blood of the nankeen is of the lame quality, and is made of white flauLjhtt red hog?, and fome, more voracious than others, cotton as good as the brown, and wliich alfo grows in eat the flefli raw. They have various ways, however, of Kiang-nam. drcdlng their meat, but always eat it without fait. A NANSEMOND, a county of Virginia, on the S. Sur'pL. Vol. 11. 4 F fide NAN c 594 ;i NAP iiiund. II Ka'itucket, fide of James's river, and W. of Norfolk county, on the N. Carolina line. Ii is about 44 miles in leiigtli, and 24 in breadth, and contains ijoio inhabitants, in- cluding 3,81 7 Ibves. — Morje. Nansemond, a fhort river of Virginia, wl.icli rifes in Great Difmal Su-anip, and purfuin^j a N. then a N. r.. dire^lion, empties into James's river, a few miles W. of Elizabeth river. It is navigable to Sleepy Hole, for velfcls of 250 tons ; to Suffolk, for thofe of 100 tons ; and to Milner'«, for thole of 25 tons. — ili. NAN rASKET RoaJ, may be confidered as the en- trance into the channels of Bollcn harbour; lies S. uf the li^ht-houfc, near Raiasf rd or Hofpital Illand. A vell'el may anchor here in from 7 to 5 fathoms in f.ifety. Two huts vire eredcd here with accommoda- tions for flilpwiecked leameii. — ib. NANTIKOKE, a mvig.ible river of the eaQern ftore of Maryland, empties into the Chelapeak Uay. Nantikokes, an Indim nation who formerly lived in Maryland, upon ihe above river. They iiill retired to the Sufq'iehaiinah, and then lanher north. They •were (killed in the art of poifoning ; by which Ihocking art nearly their whole tribe was extirpated, as well as fome of their neighbours. Thefc, with the Mohickons and Conoys-, 20 years ago inhabited Uilanango, Chag- netand Owegy, on the E. branch of the Sufqueiiannah. The two firll could at that period fuinilTi 100 warri- ors each ; and the Conoys 30 warriors. — io. NANTMILL, E'iji and //<//, two townlliips in Qiefter county, Pennlylvania. — ii. NANTUCKET IjLinJ, belonging to the State of Malfachufetts, is fituated between lat. 41 13 and 41 22 30 N. and between 6g 56 and 70 13 30 well long, and is about 8 leagues foutliward ot Cape Cod, and lies eaftward of the ifland ol Martha's Vineyard. It is 15 miles in length, and 11 in breadth, including Sandy Point; but its general breadth is 3r miles. This is thought to be the ifland called Nauticon by ancient voyagers. There is but one bay of any note, and that is formed by a long fandy point, extending from the E. end of the ifland to the N. and \V. (on which Hands a light-houfe, whicli was ereifted by the State in 1784) and on the nortli fide of the ifland as far as Eel Point. This makes a fine road for Ihips, except with the wind at N. W. when there is a heavy Iwell. The liarbour has a bar of fand, on which are only 7-' feet of water at ebb tide, but within it has 12 and 14 feet. The ifland conftituies a county of its own name, and contains 4,620 inhabitants, and fends one rcprefenta- live to the general court. There is a duck manu- factory here, and lo fpermaceti works. The inha- bitants are, for die molt part, a robull and enterprif- ing fet of people, moltly feamen and mechanics. The feamen are the moll expert whale-men in the world. The whale fiflrery originated among the white inhabi- tants in the year 1690, in boats from the Ihore. In 1715, they had 6 floops, 38 tons burden, and the fiflie- ry produced iicol. fterling. From 1772, to 1775, the filhcry employed 1501'ail from 90 to 180 tons, up- on the coal! of Guinea, Brazil, and the Weft- Indies ; the produce ot which amounted to 167,0001. llerl. The late war almoft ruined this bufinefs. They have fince, however, revived it again, and purfue the whales even into the great Pacific Ocean. There is not here a fingle tree of natural growth ; they have a place called The Woods, but it has been dertitute of trees for thefe Nantucttt, 60 years pafl. The ifland had formerly phnty of I wood. The people, efpecially the females, are fondly >^J2K^!^ attached to the itland, and few wifli to migrate to a more dtlirable I'ltuation. The people are moflly Ftiet:ds, or Quakers. There is one fociety ot Congregational- ills. Some part of the E. end of the ifland, known by the name of Squam, and fome few cither places, are held as piivate farm;. At prefent, there are near 300 proprietors of the ifland. The proportional number of cattle, fheep, &c. put out to pafture, and the quan- tity of ground to raifc crops, are minutely regulated ; and proper officers are appointed, who, in their books debit and credit the proprietors accordingly. In the month of June, each proprietor gives in to the clerks the number of his (lieep, cattle, and horfes, that he may be charged with them in the books ; and if the num- ber be more than he is entitled to by his rights, he hires ground of his neighbours who have lefs. But, if the proprietors all together have mote than their number, the overfilus are either killed or iranfported from the ifland. In the year 1659, when Thomas Macy removed with his faniily from Saliibury in Edex county, to the W. end of the ifland, with leveral other families, there were nearly 3,000 Indians on the ifland, who were kind to llrangers, and benevolent to each other, and hved happily until cnitaniinated by the bad example of the whites, who introduced rum ; and their number foon began to decreafe. The whites had no material quar- rel or difficulty with them. The natives fold their land?, and the whites went on purchafing till, in line, they have obtained the whole, except fome fmall rights, which are flill retained by the native-;. A mortal flck- nefs carried off 222 of them in 1764; and they ara now reduced to 4 male-, and 16 females. — lb. Nantucket, (formerly SLrburne) a port-town, capital and port of entry in the above ifland. The ex- ports in tlie year ending Sept. 30, 1794, amounted to 20,517 dollars. It is 60 miles S. E. of New-Bedford, 123 S. W. of Bollon, and 3S2 E. N. E. of Philadel- phia. — ib. Nantucket Shoal, a bank which llretcbes out above 15 leagues in length, and 6 in breadth, to the S. E. from tlie ifland of its name. — ib. NANTUXET Bay, New-Jerfey, is on the eafterii fide of Delaware Bay, oppofite B"mbay Hook. — ib. NAPLES-Yellow, called alio Neapolitan earth, in Italian Gialtoimn; and in French jfaune de Naples, is a beautiful pigment, concerning which we have much in- formation from the indefatigable Beckmann. " It has (fays he) the appearance ot an earth, is of a pale orange- yellow colour, ponderous, granulated, exceedingly fri- able, does not cfHorefce, nor become moill when expof- ed to the nir, but when applied to the tongue feems to adhere to it. When reduced to a fine powder, it re- mains for fome time fufpended in water, but loon de- polits itlelf at the bottom in the form of a flime. When boiled wiih water, the water, at leall fometimes, is ob- ferved to have a fomewliac faline tafle. It dees not ef- fervel'ce with acids, but is in p.irt diffolved by aqua regia (nitio-mnriatic acid). In the fire it emits no fulphure- ous vapour, is difficult to be fufed, and by that opera- lion undergoes no ma'erial change, only that its colour becomes fomewhat redder. When fufed with colour- fure proof that lefs glafs, it gives it a milk-white colour, NAP C 595 ] N A R Naples. • IMhogc- MnoJiCy V. 11. p. ij. ^ Mem. tf the Acad, of Sciencet, 1766. I In Nuova raccottii d^optjfculi Jeientijicif t. iv. that it contains no iron ; and, wiih Infl imm.;ible fub- ftances, there is obtained from It a regulus whicli has tlie appearance of a mixture oi lead and antimony. " Thi, article is brought from Naples for the moll part in the form of an earthy crult about three or four lines in thicknefs, and it fometimes retains the form of tlie vellel in which it has hardened. It can be procured alfo as a fine powder, as the colourmen keep it fometimes ready pounded for ufe." About the nature of the fubdance called Naples yel- low there has been much diverfity of opinion. Moll cf thofe who have written about it, confider it as origi- nating from file, and as a volcanic production ol Mount Vefuvius or Mount jEtna j others have pronounced it to be a natural ochre. Guettard thought it rather a kind of bole ; but Pott approached nearcft the truth, by afferting it to be an artificial preparation*. Fou- geroux is entitled to the merit of having proved this, and of having iliewn the polFibility of preparing it. Ac- cording to his experiments, Naples yellow will be ob- tained, if you boil for foven or ei^ht hours, firft over a flow and then over a llrong fire, a niixture finely pul- verifed cf twelve parts ot pure white lead, one pai t of alum, one part of fal anunoniac, and three jiarts of diaphoretic anlimonyf (white oxyd of antimony by nitre). But before Fougeioux, who may have obtain- ed an account of the procefs duii.ig his travels thiough Italy, a more certain procels was publilhed in the year 1758, by Gianibattilla Palferi, in liis interefting work on the piinting of earthen- warej. The articles to be employed, according to this author, are, " one pound of antirnony, a pound and a hall of lead, one ounce of alumc di Jlccla, and the fame quantity of common fait." I am inclined (f-iys M. Beckmann) to think that this receipt was not unknown to Fougeroux, and that he confidered a'ume d't feccia to be alum. Pro- feflor Leonhaidi, a man of very found learning, has tranfiated this expieifion by the word alum. I will, however, freely confifs, that I confider atume di feccia not to mean alum, but fait of tartar, or potalh. Paf- fcti fays, that the proportions may be varied difterent ways ; and he gives fix other receipts, in which he does not mention alume di feaij, but only feccia ; and this word certainly means lueinhrfen or winellone (tartar). ProfelFor Leonhardi himfelf fcems to confirm this opi- nion, by laying, that Vairo, profeflor of chcmillry at Naples, has trar.flated " the alhes of wine lees" {cirurct infeilorii) by the words autne di feccia. After Fougeroux's paper was primed, De la Lande publilhed a icceipt which he had received irom the well-known prince San Sc-vero, and in which lead and antimjiiy only ate employed ; but no mention is made either of alum, tartar, or any other fait. This receipt is as follows : Take lead well calcined and fifted, witii a third part of its weight of antimony pounded and fitted alfo. Mix thefe fubllances well together, and fitt them again through a piece of filk. Then take large flat earthen diflies, not varnilKcd, cover them with white paper, and fjircad out the powder upon them to the depth oi about two inches. Place thefe dilhes in a i)Oticr's fur- nace, but only at the top, that they may not be expof- ed to too viclent a heat. The reverberation of the Htme will be fuificient. The dilhes may be taken out at the fame tiilie as the earthen-ware, and the fubilance will then be found hard, and of a yellow colour. It is then pounded on a piece of marble with water, and af- terwards dried for ufe. The enamel-paintei s in Germany prepares ytlhuv glazing, not very dilferent from the real Naples yellow, by a prefcription, according to which, «' one pound of antimony, fix oimces of red lead, and two ounces of white fand, are to be fufcd together. The produce, which appears quite black, is to be poonded, and then fufed again ; and this prccefs is to be repeated ti.l the whole mafs becomes thoroughly yellow. Hilf a pound ot this mafs is to be mixed with two ounces oi red lead, and afterwards fufed ; and by this tedious prcctfs an orange-yellow pigment will be obtained." All artills who fpeak of the ufe of Naples yellow, give cautions againll applying iron to it, as the colour by thefe means becomes greenilh, or at leaft dirty. For this reafon, it niull be pounded on a (lone, and fcraped together with an ivory fpatula. It is em])l'iyed ciiiefly in oil painting, becaufe the colour is fcftsr, brighter, and richer than that ot ociire, yellow lead, or orpiment, and becaufe it far exceeds thefe pigments in durability. It is employed in particular when the yellow ought to have tlie appearance of gold, and in this refpeft it may be prepared with gum water, and ufed as a water co- lour. A Hill greater advantage of it is, that it is pro- per for enamel painting, and on that account may be employed on porcelain or earthen ware (a). ProfelFor Beckmann, however, recommends to arlifts to ex•^mine whether the oxyd prep ired Inm wolirara, by boiling in the muriatic acid, which has a beautiful yellow colour, might not be ufed in the fame manner as Njples yellow. 2\ARDUS. Under this generic term we have, in tiie Encyclopedia, given, from the Philofophical Trjnf- aSioris, a defcription of the plant or grafs which Dr Blane confiders as the fpikenard of the ancients. It is our duty, in this place, to inform our readers, that Sir William Jones, in the 2d and 41I1 volumes of the ylfutic Refiarches, feem; to have completely proved that the fpikenard of Diofc( rides and Galen, or Nardus InJic>it was a very dllFercnt plant from the Andrcpogon of Dr Blane, and that it grows in a country far dilUnt from Mackran- The proofs brought by the illullrious prclident of the Afiaiic Society, in fupport of his own opinion, are too numerous and circumltantial to be introduced into fuch a work as this. Wc Ihall therefore only give one of them ; which though, when fcparated from the rcll, it lofes much of its force, muit be allowed, even fingly, to have great weight. The true Indian fpikenard is confclfcdly called bjr the Arabs Sumlulul Hind; for fo they tranllate the name oi it in Diofcorides. N^w (fays Sir William) I put a fair and plain quellinn feverally to three or (our MulFulman phyficians: " What is the Indian n^me of the plant ivhich the Arabs call Sun.bulu'l Hind?" They all aniwered, but r<ime with more readmcfs than othcr^, Jdlamartii. Alter a pretty long inltrval, I 4 1" 2 llieweJ (a) In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1767, Fougeroux has proved that the giallolino prepar- ed by him produced on porcelain a much more beautiful colour than the Naples yellow fold in tlie Ihops. N A R [ 596 ] N A R fhewed them the fpikes (as they are called) of >'/<}- friends. Among the foremoft of thefe was Dr Fon- mam'i and alked, what was the Arabic name of chat tayne, the refpeaable and venerable dean of York ; ' Indian drue' They all ani\vered readily, Sumbulu'l who, when Dr Green died, towards the latter end of liiid The fame evidence may be obtained in this 1755, exerted his interell fo fuccefstuUy, that he ob- c'untry by any other European who feeks it ; and if tained for him the united places of organill and com- mons twelve native phyficians, verfed in Arabian and pofer to his m,ijefty. He removed therefore to London ndian philology, a fingle man Ihouid, alter due confi- in the beginning of 1756 ; and, about the fame time, leration eive different anfwers, I will cheerfully fub- was created doitor in luufic at Cambridge. • Pbte XXX. Hind The fame evidence may be obtained in this 1755, exerted his interell fo fuccefstuUy, that he ob- ccuntry by any other European who feeks it ; and if tained for him the united places of organill and com- among Indian deration, give ,, , ^ , r • 1 »« ,^ • t> tt mit to the Roman judgment ot mn liquet. But the On the tefignation ot Mr Gates, m 1757, Dr Nares fd'amanii* evidently belongs to the natural order obtained alfo the place of mailer of the chcrillers ; which Linnaeus calls aggregate; with the following cha- which having been, for a long time, without increafe, „ . "^^ notwithftandmg the increafe of cxpences attending it, '^'' Cahx fcarce any ; margin, hardly difcernible. Co- was, by royal favour, augmented about 1775, tiril with rcUa otic petal; tube f mcwhat gibbous; border five the falary of the violiR; and, on the revival of that place cleft' Statmna, three ylnthen. P'ljlula, Germ beneath; for Mr Crofdill, in 1777, with that of lutanill, which one Siyle eied. S^ed, folitary, crowned with a pap- pus. Root, fibrnui. Lcav:s, hearted, fourfold ; rmh- calU-^vei peticled. , , \ It appears therefore (continues the learned author) to be the Protean plant Valerian, a lifter of the Moun- tain and Celtic Naid, and of a fpecies which I Ihould was annexed to it for ever. It was in this lituatiorx that Dr Nares fuperintended the education of many pupils, who have lince become famous ; particularly Dr Arnold, who, though with him only for a fliorl lime, was highly diftinguilhed by him for talents and appli- cation. The anthems and fer vices which Dr Nates ucw c<iit. Nares. delcribe in the Linnean ftyle, Falriana JutJmansi produced, as compofer to the royal chapel, were very floribus triand/h, jViii cordalis qtiatirms, radicuHlus pe- numerous; many of them have fince been printed, and tiolatis. The radical leaves, riling fr.m the ground, many which e.xift only in manufcnpt Hill continue to and enfolding the young Ifcm, are plucked up with a be performed in the choirs with much effea. Having part of the loot, and being dried in the fun or by an been originally a mulician rather by accident than artificial heat, are fold as a drug, which, from its ap- choice, with very (Ircng talents and propcniities alfo pearance, has been called fpikenavd. The Jataman=i for liteiature, Dr Naves was particularly attentive to is a native of the moll remote and h Uy parts of India, exprcfs the fenfe of the wcrda he undent ok to fet ; and fuch as Ne'pa'l, Marang Butan, near which Ptolemy was the firll who attempted to compofe the Te Deum fixes the native foil of the Nardus Ind'-.ca. It grows for the ciioirfervice, in fuch a manner as to fet off the ereft above the furface of the ground, relembling an ear fcntiments it contains to advantage. Before his time, of green wheat ; and when recent, it has a faint odour, ii had been fet rather to a regular llrain of chaunt than which is greatly increafed by the limple procefs of dry- to any exprelhve melodies. The merits of Dr Nares ijjs, jt_ were not overlooked by his royal patrons, whom ire had NARES (James), doflor of mufic, an eminent occfionally the honour to attend in private, though compofer and teacher in that fcience, und^r whom foine not a pait of his regular duty. To nvanileii his itfpeft of the firll muficians of the prefent day received the and gratitude for iheni, he compoled his dramatic ode, whole or part of their educ.ition, was the fon of Mr entitled The Royal Palloral, the words of which were Nares, who was, for many years, Iteward to Montague written by Mr Bellamy, author of a book, entitled and Willoughby, earls of Abingdon. He was born, as Ethic Amuftments. well as his brother, the late Mr Jultice Nires, at St.in- In July 1780, Dr Nares was obliged, by declining well in Middlefex ; the former in 1715, the latter in health, to rclign the care of the chorifiers, in which 1716. His mulical education he commenced under place he was lucceei'ed by Dr Ayrton, his pupil and Mr Gates, then mailer of the royal chi»iillers; and valued fi lend. In his lixfy eighth year, a conftitution, completed it under the celebrated Dr Pepufch. Thus never robull, gave way, and he died on February 10. j)repared, he olhciated, for fome time, as deputy to Mr 1 783. Tellimony has be;n borne to the merits of Dr Pi"0tt, organill of Wuidfor ; but on the rellgnation cf Nares by feveral writers, but more particularly by Mr Mr Salilbury, organill of York, in 1734, was ch>lcu Mafon, in his preface 10 a book rf anthem., printed for to fucceed him, being then only nineteen. It is related, the ufe of Yoik Cathedral ; and in his laie Elfays on on undoubted authc/nly, that, when the old niufician Church Mufic, pige 138. The late Lord Momington, lirft law his intended liicceli'or, l;e faid, rather angrily, fo well known for mulical talents, fiequcutly confulted " Wliat ! is that child to fucceed me f" which being him; and Sir Ji'hn Hawkins derived advdui.ige from mentioned to the organilleledl, he took an eaily oj). his acquaintance, in the progrefs of his Hiltory of Mu- portunity, on a difficult fervice being appointed, to pl.iy lie. Througliout life, he was net Itfs reipedled as a man it throughout half a note below the pitch, which than admired -s a niufician ; he had a vivacity that ren- brought it into a key with leven lliarps ; and v.ent dered his fociety always pleafing ; and a generous con- through it without the flightell ernr. Being afked tempt for every thing bafe, that manilelled itfelf on all why he did fo I he faid, that " he only willied to Ihew proper occafions, and very juUly commanded elleem. Mr Saiifbnry what a child could do." His knowledge in His piinted works are thefe: i. Eight Sfts of Lef- ;ill branches of his profellicn was equal to his pra<jical fons (or the Harpfichord ; dedicated to the Right Hon. Ikill in this inftance ; and, during his relidence at York, Willoughby Earl of Abingdon. Printed in 174S; re- where he was abundantly employed as a teacher, and printed in 1757. i- Five LelFons f( i the Harpficliord, vhere he married, Mr Nares, by his good condufl, as with a Sonata m fcore for the Harpfichord or Organ; well as profcllional merit, obtained many poweiful dedicated to the Right Honouiable the Countefs of CarliGe; N A R C S91 ] N A S Nares, Carlide j publlfhed in 1758 or 1759. 3- A. Set of Eafy Lcirons for the Harpfichord, three in number ; with a dedication to the public, figned J. N. 4. A Treatifc on ringing, fmall lize. 5. II Piincipio; or A reguhir Iniroduiftion to phiyinu; on ihe Harpfichord or Organ. This was the lirft fet ot progreilive klfons puMifhed on a regular plan. 6. The Royal Paltoral, a Diamatic OJe ;' dedicated to his Royal HIghiiers the Prince of Wales ; printed in fc< re, w itli an overture and chiTufes. 7. Citches, Canons, and Glees; dedicated to the late Lord Morningtou. 8. Six Fuguei, with Introduflory Vi lun'arics for the Organ or Harpfi- chord. 9. A Concifc and Eaiy Treatiie on Singing, with a Set of Englilh Duets for Beginners. A differ- ent work from the former fmall treatife. 10. Twer.ty Anthems, in fcore, for one, two, three, f ur, and five Voices. Compofed for the Ufe of his MnjeRy's Cha- pels Royal, 1778. 1 1. Six Eafy Anthems, with a fa- vourite Morning and Evening Seivice, left for publica- tion at hi^ death, and publiflKd in 1788, with a portrait and a concife account of the author. Of thefe connpo- fitions the following Ihort chara<5l;r is given by an emi- nent mufician, to whom they arc all well known : " The lelfons are compofed in a mafteily and plealing ftyle ; free from thofe tricks and unmeaning fucceffions of femitones, to which a good ear and found judgment never can be reconciled. The treatifes on finging contain duets compofed for the ufe of the children of the royal chapels, fuperior to any thing yet publilh- ed ; and fuch as every teacher ought to perufe. His catches, canons, and glees, are natural and pleafing ; efpecially the glee to all Lovers of Harmony, whicli gained the prize medal at the catch-club in 1 770. The Royal Palloral is compofed throughout in a very mallerly manner ; particularly the chorufes, with which each part concludes. This ode, containing 108 pages, was written, and all the vocal and inflrumental parts tranfcribed for performing, within twelve days. The fix fugues, with introduftory voluntaries for the organ, contain the ftrongeft proofs of ingenuity and judg- ment ; few, if any, have ever been written that can be preferred to them. In both fets of the anthems, the fame charafteriftics appear ; and the fervice of the lat- ter very juflly acquired the ix^Az oi favourite ; nor can there be any doubt that the works of this author will be admired as long as a talle for mullc fhall fublill." NARRAG.vNSET i^^jy, Rhode-Illand, makes up from fouth to ntrth, between the main land on the ealt and weft. It embofoms many fruitful and beautiful iflands the principal ot which are Rhode- Ifland, Ca- nonicut. Prudence, Patience, Hope, Dyer^, and Hog in.mds. The chief harbours are Newport, Wickford, Warren, Brillol, and Greenwich, befides Providence and Patuxet ; the latter is near the mouth of Patuxet river, which falls into Providence river. T.iunton river and many imallcr lli earns fall into this capacious bay. It afFiirds fine filli, oyllers and lobfters in great plenty. — Morse. NARRAGUAGUS Bay. A part of the bay be- tween Goldfboiougli and Michias, in Walhington county, Diftriifl of Miiinc, goes by this name. From thence for the fpace of 60 or 70 mile?, the navigator finds, within a great number ol' fine ifiands, a fecure andpleafant (hip-way. Many of thefe iflands are in- A river of the N-rra- 1 Naffau. habited and make a fine appearance, fame name falls into the bay. — ii. Narriguagus, apod-town, fituated on the above bay, 16 miles northeaft of Goldfborough, 63 eaft of v Penobfcot, 9 fiom Pleafant river, and 673 from Phila- delphia. — it. NARROWS, The. The narrow pafTage from Tea, betvreen Long and Sraten Idands into the bay v.-hich fpreads before New- York city, formed by tile jiinclion of Hudfon and Eaft rivers, is thus called. This ftrait is 9 mdes fouth of the city of New- York. — ii. Narrows, Tie, a ftrait, about 3 miles broad, be- tween the illands of Nevis and St Chriftopher's Iflands, in the Weft-Indies. — ik NASH, a county of Halifax diftria, containing 7>393 inhabitants, of whom 2,009 ^re flaves. There is a large and valuable body of iron-ore in this county ; but only one bloomery has yet been ereded — ii. Nash Court-Houfe, in N. Carolina, where a poft- office is kept, 28 miles from Tarborough, and as far from Lewifbutg. — ib. I4ASHAUN, or NtfU'J}?a'wn, one of the Elizabeth Ifles, the property of the H in. James Bowdoin, Efq. of Bofton, fituated at the mouth of Buzzard's Bay, and 3 miles from the extremity of the peninfula of Barnftable county. Confiderable numbers of (heep and cattle are fupported upon this ifland ; and it has be- come famous for its excellent wool and cheefe. Here Capt. Bartholomew Gofnold landed in 1602, and look up his abode for fome time. — ib. NASHUA River, is a confiderable ftream in Wor- cefter county, Maifachufetts, and has rich intervale lands on its banks. It enters Merrimack river at Dun- ftable. Its courfe is north-north-eaft. — ib. NASHVILLE, the chief town c^f Mero Diftria in the State of Tennellee, is plcafmtly fitu.ited in David- fon county, on the fouth bank of Cumberland river, where it is 2CO yards broad. It was named after Brig. Gen. Francis Nafli, who fell on the 4th of Oct. 1777, in the battle of Germantown. It is regularly laid out, and contains 75 lioufes, a court-houfe, an academy, and a chuich for Prefbyterians, and one for Mcthodifts. It is the feat of the courts held femiannually for the diftrifl ofMero, and of the courts of pleas and quarter fcffions for Davidfon county. It is 185 miles weft of Knoxville, 66 from Big Salt Lick garrilbn, 190 S. by W. of Lexington in Kentucky, 635 W. by S. t^i Rich- mond in Virginia, and 1015 W. S. W. of Philadel- phia. N. lat. 36, W. long. 87 S ib. NASKEAG Point, in Lincoln county, Diftri(.1 of Maine, is the eaftern point of Penobfcot Bay. — ii. NASSAU Biiy, or Spirilo Santo, is a large bay on the coaft of Weft-Florida, about 70 miles from north to fouth. It has 4 iflands on a line for 50 miles from S. W. to N. E. with openings between ihcm a mile or two wide. The moft northerly is called Myrtle Illand, between which, and the continent, is the entrance of the bay. The bay is 15 miles broad from Myrtle Ifland to a row of iflands running parallel with the main land, and another bay between them ftretching 50 or 60 miles to the fouth, as far as one of the fmall- er mouths of the Mifliffippi. — ib. NASSAU Bay, an extenfive bay of the ocean, on the S. coaft of Terra del Fuego ifland, at the S. extre- mity NAT C 598 ] N A U mlty of S. America. It is to the E. of F.ilfc Cape H<rn, uhi:l. forms tlie weftern limit of the bay ; C.ipe Horn bcinR the S point of the foucliernmdll of tlie Hermits IllanJs, a groupe of illands which lie off the coaft oppofite to this Uaj. This bay is laiga and open, well IhcltcreJ from the tempells of the ocean. It is capable of holding a fleet of lliips, and though there are fmall iflands near its entrance, all the dangers are vifible, and fliips may fail freely between them, or on each fiJe of ihcm. — ii. Nassau Cj/ic; on the coaft of Surrinam, or N. E. coall oi S. America, is to the N. N. W. of Eircqiiibo gulf, and tlie E. point of the entrance into the river Pumaron. It is in about lat. 7. 40 N. and long. 59 30 \Y.—ik Nassai; Cape, on the N. (hore of Terra Firma, S. America. — ib. Nassau, a fmall town in Dauphin county, Pennfyl- vania. It contains a German church, and about 35 lioufes. It is alfo called Kempjlown. — ib. Nassau JJlmJ, at the mouth of Byram river, in Long-Illand Sound. — ib. Nassau Road, on the coaft of Weft-FloriJa, lies W. of Mobile Bay, 5 leagues to the northward of Ship Iflaud, and witlun the noitli end of the Chandeleuis or Myrtle Illands. It is one of the beft roads for large velfels on the whcile coall of Florida. It affords good llielter from winds that blow on Ihore, has no bar, and is eafy of accefs. VelFels, however, mud not go with- in j; of a mile of the inlide cf the illand, it being Ihoal near that diftance from the (hore. Veifels may go round the north end of it from the fea in 54 and 6 fathoms, at 4 a "i"''^ from the fliore, and afterwards muft keep in 4I and 5 fathoms till the north point bears N. N. E. about 2 miles, where they can anchor in 4 fathoms good holding ground, fliekered from aflerly and foutherly winds : tliis is neceifary for all ertels frequenting the coaft cf Florida, as eafterly winds are very frequent- There is frefh water to be get any where on the Cliaudeleurs by digging ; and there is a kind of well at the north end, near an old hut. There i^ no wood to be iound here but drift wood, of which ii:ere is great plenty along (hore. Naffau Road was fiift dilcoveied by Dr Daniel Cox, of New-Jerfey, who named it fo in honour of the reigniug prince, William III. He alio gave the name of Myrtle Idands to thofe afterwards call Chandeleurs, by the French, from the candles made of the Myrtle wax, with which thefe iflands abound. — ib. Nassau River, on the coaft of Eaft-Florida, has a bar generally about 8 fee: water, but is fubjeft to (hift- ing. The tides are about 7 feet at low fpring tides. An E. S E. moon makes high water here, as alfo in moll places along the coaft. — ib. Nassau, the chief town of Providence Ifland, one of the Bahamas, and the feat of government. N. lat. 25 3. It is the only port of entry e.\cept at Turk's Illand ib. NATA, a town and bay in the province of Terra Firma, S. Ameiica. Tlie bay ol Nata lies on the S. toaft of the lllhmus of Darien, and on the North Pa- cific Ocean, From hence and the adjacent parts, pro- vifi MIS are fent for the fupply of the inhabitants of Pa- nama, v\hich city is 67 miles N. E. of Nata. The l)ay is fpacioiis and deep, but is not ufed by fliips, but Natapoiut, in cafes of neceflity, as they are liable to be embayed by the windb th.it blow frequently at E. upon the Ihore. The bay extends to the illand Iguenas. N. lat. 8 12, \V. long. 81 12.— ib. NATA POINT, or Chama, ox Ckaumu Cape, is at the W. point of the gulf of Panama, from whence the coaft trends W. to Haguera Point 7 leagues. All fhlps bound to the N. W. and to Acapuko make this point. It is alfo called the S. point of the bay, which lies within on the W. fide of this great Gulf of Panama. ~ib. NATACHQUOIN River, a large river of the coaft of Labrador, in N. America, to the weftward of Naf- quirou river, under Mount Joli, where it forms a fouth- erly cape in lat. 50 25 N. and long. 60 45 W. The little N.itachquoin is to the W. S. W. of this. — ib. NATAL, a cape and town, on the S. (hore of the Rii) Grande, on the N. E. coaft of Brazil in S. Ame- rica, is to the S. VV. of the 4 fquare Ihoal, at the TOi utli of the entrance of that river, which contains tome dangerous rocks. On this point is the Callle of the Three Kings, or Fortaleza des Tres M.rgos. The town of Nat il is 3 leagues from the caftle, before which is good anchorage for Ihips, in from 4 to 5 fathoms, and well fecured from winds. — ib. NATCHEZ, a powerful nation of Indians who for- merly inhabited the country on the E. fide of the Mlf- fillippi. Fort Rofalie is fituatcd in the country which they poiTeffed, in lat. 31 40. Nothing now remains of this nation but the name, by which the country con- tinues to be called. The Creeks or Mufcogulges rofe upon the ruins of this nation. The French completed their deftruiflion in 1730. Tlie Natchez or Sun Set In- dians, are a part of the Creek confederacy which they joined after they left Louifiana. — ib. NATCHITOCHES. A trad of country in Loui- fiana, on the river Rouge, or Red river, bears this name. The French had a very confiderable poft on this river called Natchitoches. It was a frontier on the Spanilh fettlements, being 20 miles from the fort of Adayes, and 70 leagues from the confluence of the Rouge with the MiffitCppi. — ib. NATICK, an ancient townlhip in Middlefex coun- ty, Malfachufetts, fituated upon Charles river, 18 miles S. W. of Bofton, and 10 N. W. of Dedham. Its name in the Indian language fignifies " The place of hills." The famous Mr Eliot formed a religious fociety here ; and in 1670, there were 50 Indian com- municants. At his motion, the General Court grant- ed the land in this town, containing about 6000 acres, to the Indians. Very few of their defceiidants, how- ever, now remain. It was incorporated into an En- glilh diftiiifl in 1761, and into a townlhip in 1781 ; and now contains 615 inhabitants — ib. NATEENA'F, an Indian village on Nootka Sound, on the N. W. coaft of N. America. It has a remark, able cat.irafl, or water-fall, a few miles to the north- ward of it. N. lat. 48 40, W. long, from Greenwich 124 6. — ib. NAUDOWESIES, an Indian nation inhabiting lands between Lakes Michigan and Superior. War- riors, 500. — ib. NAUGATUCK River, a nonh-eaftern branch of Houfatonic N A V [ 599 ] N A V Navi;;i- Houfatonic river in Connetflicut. A great number of tors. mills and iron-wor!<s are upon chis ftream and its '■^^ branches. — ib, NAVIGATORS islanjjs, an archipeligo in the South Sea, difcoveied by boug.iinville, who gave to ihem that name, becaule the natives do not pafs between the different vili.iges, which aie all built in creeks and bays, but in their canoes. ■ he Nivigators Iflands are ten in number; namely, Opoim, Leone, Fanfoue, Ma- OUANA, Oyolava, Calinujj'e, Pola, Shika, OJfamo, and Ouera, We have already given an account of the fcil and produ<Siions at Maouana ; and as the o'her iilinJs of this duller a^e equally lertile, we need not go over the fame ground again. It m ly be pioper, however, to obferve, that in fome ot them the lugar-cane was found growing fpontaneoufly, though its juice contained lefs of the faccharine ful)llance than the fugar cane of the Weft Indies, which our voyagers attributed to its grow- ing in a richer foil and in the lliade. According to Peroufe, the Navigators Iflands are fituated about the 14th degree of fouth latitude, and between the 171II and 175th degrees of longitude well troni Paris. In Oyolava the fmc ke was Iccn hovering over a village as over a large European town ; and the number ot ca- noes which from that illand furrounded the friga^tes was imraenfe. Thefe are very licklifli velfeh, and would be abfolutely ufelefs to any body but fuch excellent fwim- niers as the iflanders, who are no more furprifed or un- eafy at their overletting than we are at the fall of a hat. Taking up the canoe on their Ihoulders, they empty it of water, and then get in again, with the cer- tainty of having the fame operation to peiform a fecond time in half an hour. Sometimes they join two canoes together by means of a crofs piece of wood, in which they make a ftep to receive ihe mall ; and in thii way they are lefs liable to be overfet, fometimes performing a long voyage without any iuch accident. It is need- lefsto add, that thefe canoLS are very fmall, generally containing only five or fix perfons, though fome tew of them may contain as many as fourteen. Tiie natives of the Navigators Illands are tall and well made. Their ufual height is live feet nine, ten, and eleven inches ; but tlieir Uature is lefs aftonifliing than the coloflal proportions of the different parts of their bodies. " Our curiolity (fays Peroufe), which often led us to meafure them, g.ive them an upportu- rity of making frequent comparifons of their bodily ftrength with ours. Thefe comparifons were not to our advantaije ; and we perhaps owe our misfortunes (fee Maouana in this Suppl.) to the idea of individual fuperiority refuliing Irom repeated trials. Tlieir coun- tenances often appeared to exprefs a fentiment of dif- dain, which I hoped to deftioy, by ordering our arms to be ufed in their prefence : but my end could only have been gained by ditedling them againll human vic- tims ; for otherwife they took the noife for fpoit, and the trial for a divcrfion. " Among thefe Indians a very fmall number is be- low the height indicated above. I have, however, mea- fured feveral who were only five feet lour inches, but thefe are the dwarfs of the country ; and although their flature reftmbles ours, their ftrong ar.d nervous arms, their broad thefts, and their legs and thighs, are of a very different proportion. " The men have the body painted or tatowed, fo Navigi- that any one would fuppofe them clad, although they ""■<. go almoft naked. They have only a girdle of f^a- weeds encircling their It ins, which comes down to their knees, and gives them the appearance of the river gods of fabulous liittory, whom it is cullomary to depicl with ruihes roimd their waill. Their liair is very long. They often twift it rtjund their heads, and thus add to their na'ive ferocity of countenance, which always espreifes either furprile or anger. The leall difpute between them is followed by bl nvs of fticks, club', or paddles ; and often, without doubt, cofts the combatar.ts their lives. They are ainioft all covered wlih fears, which can only be the confequence of their individual quar- rels. The ftature of the women is proportioned to that of the men. They are tall, flender, and not with- out grace ; but they lofe, while yet in their prime, thofe elegant forms, of which nature has not broken the mould among this barbarous race, but of which Ihe ap- pears to leave them in poflellion only for a momcnf, and with reluftance. Among a great number cf w.)men that I had an opportunity of feeing, 1 only obferved three really pretty. The grofs eff'rontery of the refl, the indecency of their motions, and the dif^ufting of- fers which ihey made ot their tavuurs, rendered them fit mothers and wives for the ferocious beings that fur- rounded us." Our author gives the following inltance of indecent manners, which is, perhaps, with, ut a pa- rallel. The young and prettieft females foon attradled tlie attention of feveral Frenchmen, who in fpite of the Commodore's prohibition, endeavoured to torm a con- nexion with them, and were fuccefsful. The looks of the Europeans expredlng defires which were foon di- vined, fome old women undertook the negociation. The altar was prepared in the handfomeft hut in the village, all the blinds were let down, and the inquifitive were excluded. The vicftim was then laid in the arms of an old man, who exhorted her, during the ceremony, to moderate the exprelTion of her pain ; while the matrons fang and howled : the ceremony being peiformed in their prefence, and under the aufpices of the old man, who ferved at once as prieft and altar. All the wo- men and children in the village were round the houfe, gently lifting up the blinds, and feeking to enjoy the fight through the fmalleft crevices in the mats. What- ever former navigators may have faid, Peroufe was con- vinced that, in the Navigators Illands at leall, the young girls, before they aie married, are miftrelles of their perfons, and that they are not diflionoured by their complaifance. It is even more than probable, that in marrying they are called to no account con- cerning their pall conduifl ; but he had no doubt that they are obliged to be more refervcd when provided with a hufb.ind. Thefe people cultivate certain arts with fuccefs. Un- der the article Maouana mention has been made of the elegant form which they give to their huts. It is not with fuch folly as is commonly fuppofed that they dil- dain our inftrimients of iron ; for they finilh their work very neatly with tools made of a very fine and conipaiJl fpecles of bafaltes in the torm of an adze. For a lew clafs beads they fold to Peroufe large three-legged dilhes of a llngle piece of wood, and fo well polilhed that they fccmeJ to have been laid over with a ccat of the N A V [ 600 ] N A V K:.v;g-- tlis finefl varnifh. It would take an European work- '"'■''■ man ieveral days to produce one of tlitfe diihw^, which, ■'''~^^*^ for want of proper inilruments, muft coft an Indian fe- veral months labour. They fet, however, fcarcely any value upon then), becaufe they fet little upon the time they employ. The fruit trees and nutriticus roots that prow fpontaneoufly around them, ini'ure to them their fubfiltence, as well as that of their hog;, dogF, and fowls ; and if they fomctimcs (loop to wi rk, it is to procure enjoyments rather agreeable than nfeail. They manufaclure very fine mats, and lome paper lIufTs. Our author remarked two or three of them, whom he took for chiefs, with a piece cf cloth tied round their waill like a petticoat, inllead of a girdle of weeds. It is conipofed of real thread, prepared no doubt from feme filamentous plant like the nettle or flax ; and is riianufaflured without a fliuttle, the threads being ab- folutely laid over one another like thofe of their mats. This cloth, which has .ill the fupplenefs and folidity of ours, is very fit for the fails of their canoes ; and ap- peared far fuperior to the paper QufFof the Society and Friendly Ill.inds, which they manufaclure alfo. Their canoes are well conllruiffed, and furnilli a good proof of the fliill with which they work in wood. For a few glifs beads they gave to ihe Frenchmen, among other things, a wooden veliel filled with cocoa nut oil, exdifl- ly of the ihape cf our earthen pots, and fuch as no Eu- ropean would urdertaketo fafhion by any other means than a turning lathe. Their ropes are round, and twill- ed like watch chains of ribbon : their mats are very fine ; hut their RufFs are inferior to thofe of the Eafiier and Sandwich Ifland';. Peroufe derives the natives of thofe iflands, whofe colour, he fays, nearly refembles that of the Algerines and other nations on the coaft of Barbary, fioni the Malays ; and as we do not vouch for the truth ot his theory, though we admit it to be ingenious, we lliall give the reafoning by which he fupports it in his own words. «' We did not at firft difcover (fays he) any identity between their language and that ol the natives of the Society and Friendly Iflands, of which we had vocabu- laries ; but a more mature examination convinced us, that they fjieak a dialed of tiie fame language. A fafl which tends to prove it, and which confirms the opinion of the Englifh concerning the origin of ihefe people, is, that a young domellic, a native of the pro- vince of Tagayan in the north of Manilla, underftood and explained to us the greater part of their words. It is well known that the Tagayan, the Talgal, and the generality of languages fpoken in the Philippines, are derived from the Malay: a language more diffufed than were thofe of the Greeks and Romans, and common to the numerous tribes that inhabit the iflands of the great Pacific Ocean. It appears to me evident, that a^l thefc different nations are the progeny of Malay colonies, which, in fome age extremely remote, conquered the * iflands they inhabit. I fhculd not even wonder, if the Chinefe and Egyptians, whofe antiquity is fo much vaunted, were mere moderns in comparifon of the Ma- lays. But however this may be, I am fatisfied that the aborigines of the Philippine Iflands, Formofa, New Guinea, New Britain, the New Htbrides, the Friendly Iflands, &c. in the fouthern hemilphere, and thofe of the Marianna and Sandwich iflands in the northern, were that race of woolly headed men flill found in the interior of the iflands of I^uconia and Formofi. They were not to be iubjugated in New Guinea, New Bri- tain, and the New Hebrides ; but being overcome in the more eaflern iflands, which were too fmall to afford them a retreat in the centre, they mixed with the con- quering nation. Thence has refulted a race of very- black men, whofe colour is Hill feveral fhades deeper than that of certain families of the country, probably becaufe the latter have made it a point of honour to keep their blood unmixed. I was llruck with thefe two very di.^inft races in the Iflands of Navigators, and cannot attribute to tliem any other origin. " The defcendants of the Malays have acquired in thefe iflands a degree of vigour and fl:rength, a lofty (laturc, and a Herculean form, which they do not in- herit from their forefathers, but which they owe, with- out doubt to an abundance of food, to a mild climate, and to the influence of different phyfical caufes which have been conftantly ading duiing a long feries of ge- nerations. The arts which they perhaps brought with them may have been loft for want of materials and in- tlruments to pracflife them ; but the identity of lan- guage, like Ariadne's clue, enables the obferver to fol- low all the windings of this new labyrinth. The feu- dal government is alfo preferred here: that government which little tyrants may regret; which was the difgrace of Europe for feveral centuries ; and of which the Go- thic remains are flill to be found in our laws, and are the medals that attefl our ancient barbarifm : that go- vernment, which is the moll proper to keep up a fero- city ot manners, becaufe the Imalleft difputes occafion wars of village againil village, and becaufe wars of this nature are conduced without magnanimity, and with- out courage. Surprifes and treachery are employed by turns ; and in thefe unfortunate countries, inllead of ge- nerous warriors, nothing is to be found but bife affaf^ fins (a). The Malays are ftill the moll perfidious na- tion of Afia : and their children have not degenerated, becaufe the fame caufes have led to and produced the fame efFefts. It may be obJ£(5led, perhaps, that it mult have been very difficult for the Malays to make their way from well to eafl, to arrive at thefe different iflands ; Naviga- tors. (a) This was written under the old government of France by a man who, like other declaimers in the caufe of liberty, forgot the excellencies, and infifted only on the defefts of the feudal inltitutions. Had Peroufe, how- ever, returned to Europe, and witnefTed the philoJoj>hic government of his country, he would havj perceived, that liberty and equaiily, and the rights of man, are as well calculated to generate bale afTafrms, as the Gothic remains of that government by which he fuppofed Europe to have been fo long difgraced. He might even have lived to regret, that his lot was not call among the bold and ferocious inhabitants of Maouana ; for the treachery and cruelty oi thefe people bears no proportion, even in his affedling narrative, to the fyllematic cruelty of thofe who decreed, that the end fanftifies the means, and that nothing, however atrocious in the eftimation of antiquated moralifts, is to be omitted, which contributes to elevate the mean above the noble. N A Z [ ^01 ] NEC iflinJs; but the ueilerly winds blow as frequently as the c:ifterly in the vicinity of the equator, alor.g a zore of feven or eight ciegrees from north to fouth, where the wind is fo vaiiable, that it is hardly more difhcult to navigate eall than weft. Belldes, thtfe different con- quells may not have been eiFeifted at the fame lime : the people in queftion may, on the contrary, hive fpread themfelves by little and little, and gradually hive introduced that form of goTernmcnt which ftiU exils in the peninfula of Malacca, at Java, ■Sumatra, and at Borneo, as well as in all the other countiies fubjeifl to that barbarous nation." NA.VARRK, a province of New-Mexico, on the N. E. fide of the Gulf of California, which feparates it from the peninfula of California, on the S. W. — Mors::. NAVASIA, a fmall ifland in the Windward Paf- fage, or (Irait between Cuba and Hifpaniola in the AVeft-Indies. Thither the inhabitants of Jamaica come in boats to l<ill guaras, an amphibious creature that breeds plentifully at the roots of old trees. They are in the (hape of a lizard, with fcales, and fome are 3 feet in length. Their tlelh is firm and white, and faiJ by feamen tn make good broth. — ib. NAVAZ A, a fmall barren ifland in the Weft-Indies, not very high, is deep all round, and lies in lat. 18 20 N. It is 2 I leagues W. S. W. \ W. of the E. end of Jamaica, and 11 leagues from Tiburon, in the ifland of St Domingo. — ib. NAVESINK Harbour, on the fea-coaft of Mon- mouth county, New-Jerfey, lies in lat. 40 24 N. hav- ing Jumping Point on the north, and is 2\ miles S. of the N. end of Sandy Hook ifland ; and its mouth is 5 miles from the town of Shrewfbury. The fmall river of its name falls into it from the W. and riles in the fame county. Navefink Hills extend N. W. from the harbour on the Atlantic Ocean, to Rariton Bay ; and are the fii 11 land difcovered by mariners when they ar- rive on the coaft. They are 600 feet above the level of the fea, and may be ieen 20 leagues off. — ib. NAVIDAD, a town of Mechoacan a province of Mexico, with a harbour on the N. P.acific Ocean, is 156 miles W. of Mexico city. N. lat. i8 51, W. long. Ill 1 o. — ib. N A VI RES, or Cas de Navira Bay, in the ifland of Martinico, in the Weft-Indies. — ib. NAVY, a townlhip in Orleans county, in Vermont. —ib. N.-\VY Hall, in Lower Canada, ftands on the fouth fide of Lake Ontario, at the head and weft fide of Ni- agara river, which laft feparates it from Fort Niagara, on the E. fide, in the State of New- York. It is 20 miles N. by W. of Fort Erie, and 23 S. E. by S. of York.— lA. NAVY IJlartd lies in the middle of Niagara river, whofe waters feparate it from Fort Sluflier, on the call bank of the river, and the fame waters divide it from Grand Ifland, on the S. and S. E. It is about one mile long, and one broad, and is about 13 miles N. by E. of Navy Hall.— ;A. NAZARETH, a beautiful town in Northampton county, Pcnnfylvania, inhabited by Moravians, or United Brethren. It is fituated 10 miles north of Bethlehem, and 63 N. by W. of Philadelphia. It is a traft of good land, containing about 5,000 acrer, pur- chafed by the Rev. G. VVhittislJ, in 1740, and fold 2 Sup PL. \'oL. II. years sfter to the brethren. They w.re liowever ob- liged to leave this place the fame year, where ii fccm; they had inado fome fettlements before. Biiliop Nitch- man arrived fmni Europe this year (1740) with a com- pany of brethren and fifters, ^nd purchafed and fettled upon tfe fpot v/hich is now called Bethlehem The town of Nazareth Rands aliout the centre of the mi- nor, on a fmall creek which lofos itfelf in the earth about a mile and a half E. of ilie town. It was regulaily laid out in 1772, and confills of 2 principal ftrestl which crofs each other at right angle;, and form a fquare in the middle, of 340 by 2Co feet. The larg- eft building is a ft>ine h?.ufe, ereited in 1755, named Nazareih Hall, 98 i'eet by 46 in length, and 54 in height. The lower floor is formed into a fpacious hall f)r pulilic wnrfliip, the upper pait of the houfe is fitted up tor a boarding fchcol, where youih, fioni dilFeren: parts, are under the infpevTtion of the mir.ifter of the place and feveral tutors, and are inflruaed in the En- glitli, German, French and Latin languages ; in hifto- ry, geography, book-keeping, mathematics, mufic, drawing, and other fciences. The fiont of tiie lioufe taces a large fquare open to the fouth, adjoining a fine piece oi meadow ground, and commands a muft de- lighttul pnifpea. Anotlier elegant building on the E. of Nazareth Hall is inh-.ibited by the fingle'fifters, who have the fame regulations and way of living as thofe at Bethlehem. Befides their principal manufaiflory for fpinning and twifting cotton, they have lately be- gun to draw wax tapers. At the fouth-weft corner of the aforefiid fquare, in the middle of the town, is the Angle brethren's houfe, and on the E. S. E. corner a ftore. On the fouthernmoft end of the ftreet is a good tavern. The dwelling-houfes are, a few excepted, built- of llme-ftone, one or two ftories high, inhabited by tradefmen and mechanics, moftly of German ex- traiflion. The inhabitants are fupplied with water con- veyed to them by pipes from a fine fpiing near the town. The fituation of the town, and the falubrious air of the adjacent country, render this a very agreea- ble place. The number of inhabitants in the town and the farms belonging to it, (Shoeneck included) con- ftituting one congregation, and meeting for divine fer- vice on Lord's days and holidays, at Nazareth Hall, was in the year 1788, about 450. — ib. NAZER, N.1ZR, Nezer, Nuzzer, Nuzzerana; a prefent from an inferior ; fees of office. NEBULOUS, or Cloudy, a term applied to cer- tain fixed liars which fliew a dim hazy light ; being lefs than thofe of the fixtli magnitude, and therefore fcarce- ly vifiblc to the naked eye, to which at beft they only appear like little dulky fpecks or clouds. Through a moderate telefcope, thcfe nebulous ftars plainly appear to be congeries or clultcrs of feveral li'.tle liars. NECESSITY, Fort, in Virginia, is fituated in the Great Meadow, within 4 miles of the W. bounds of Maryland, and on the north fide of the head waterof Red Stone Creek, wJiich empties from the E. into the Monon- gahela, in N. lat. 39 43, about 26 miles from the fpot where this fort rvas ere^ed. It is 23S miles E. by N. of Alexandria, and 258 north-weft of Frederick ft>urgh. This fpot will be fotevcr famous in the Liftory of A- mtrica, as one of the firft Iccnes of Gen. Washing- ton's abilities as a commander. In 1753, '' "'>'' f"ly a fmall ULfioilhed intrcnchment, when Mr Walhingtoi , * G then N E G [ 602 ] N E P then ;i colon:!, in the 2id yc.ir oi" his age, was feiit with Negro PoiiU, on tlie E. coalT; cf Brazil, is 3 leagues ^co nven towarJs the Ohio. An eng.igenicnt vviili the at S. S. E. from the Rio Grands, and 14 from Cape enemy cnfiied, and the French were defeated. M. da St Rocque. — -L Villier tlic French commander, Cent down 900 men Negro River h the weftern boundary cf Guidn.i ia hefidcs Indians, to alt.ick the Virginians. Their brave S. America.— /'ii. leader, hov/cver, made fiich an able defence with his Negro Fort, in Am;izonia, ft^nds on the nrrth fid-; 'I'ndful of men, in this iinfinilhed fort, as to conllrain of Amazon liver in S. America, jnii below the juniftion the Frencli '.fficer to grant him honourable teims of t.f its great branches the Piinis .<ntl Ne:jro, ir. the 4th capitulation.— yl'/oz-A'. degree of north latitude, and abtut ihe 601I1 of W. NrXKAR Islf, a fmall birrcn illand, or rather lon:;iiude. — //■. rrck, difc^vered by P.roufe in the Pacitic Ocean. NELSON, a county of Kentucky, Chief towr, Thou-^h its (lerility renders it cf no importance in it- Cairdftown. — ii. felf, its c>;act filuation mud be iiucrefting to navigatois, Nelson's Fort, a fettlemert on the W. Ihore of Hud- who r.re therefore obliged to the Trtnch Conimodore fon's Bay, fiiuated at the m( utli of a river of the fame for having afcertained its l.ititnde to be 23'' 34' north, name, 250 miles footh-eaft of Churchill Fort, and 600 and itslrngitude tohe 166'' 52' wellfrom Parii. From nonh-weft of Rupert's Fi rt, in the poiFeffii-n of the the foundings the Nickar f^emcd to be only the top or Hudfon's Bay Company. It is in lat. 57 12 north, nucleus of a much more corifiderable illand, wliich, pro- and long. 92 42 weft. The Ihoals fo called are faid to bably tr;ira being compofed of a foft and difloluble fub- be in lat. 57 35 north, and long. 92 12 weft, and to Ibince, the fea had gradually walhed away. In pro portion as the frip;ales left the iliore, the depih, which at the diltance of a mile was very little, gradually in- creafed, till, at the dillar.ce of about ten miles, no bet- have high water at full and change days at 20 minutes pall 8 o'ckck. — ib. Nelson's Rrver is the N. W. branch of Hayes river, on the W. finre of Hudfon's Rry, wlirh is feparated tom was found with a lin- cf 150 fathoms; and over into tu-o channels by Hayes ISand, at the mouth of vjhich Nelfon's Fort is fitUJted. — ;/'. NENAWEWHCK Iiulians inhabit near Stvern ri- ver, fcuth of Severn lake. — ib. NEOMINAS River, on the coaft of Peru, is 12 or 14 leaeues to the N. V/. ot Bonaventura river. It is a iartrc river, and empties into the ocean by 2 moutlis. the whole of that llicre the bottom confilted of coral and Vrok?n (helh. NEDDICK, Coj-e, or Nedaocl, lies between York river and Well's B^y on the ccall cf York county, Di- ftrid of Mkine. — Morse. Nedoick RiiK-r, Cape, ia the above county, is navi- gable about a mile from the fea, a.nd at full tide only The Ihore is low, but there i^ no landing upon it, as it tor veliUs of any confiderable burden, it having a bar is inhabited only by favages whom it would not be very of {and at its mouth, and at an hour before and after fafe to truft, as their peaceable or hollile difpnfition to- Inw water, tills rivulet is generally fo Ihallow, as to be wards Europeans cannot be eafdy known. The coaft, fordable within a lew rods of the fea. — ih. tljough in the vicinity of the moft flouiilhing Spanifh NEEDHAM's Pi.ini, on the S. W. angle of the colonies, remains urfrcquented and wild. P.dmas Illand of Barbadoes in the Well-Indies, is to the S. eal1;rly from Bridgetown, having a fort upon it called Charles Fort. — ib. Neidham, atownlhip in Norfolk county, Malfichu- fetts-, 1 I miles from Bollon. It is about 9 miles in Illand is oppolite to this river, being low land, anel hivirg feveral Ihoals about it ; and from hence to Cape Coritntes is 20 leagues to the N. W. The river and illand are in ktt. about 4 30 N. — ib. NEPAL, a kingdom of India, fituated to the length and 5 in breadtli, and is alrnoll enionipalfed by north-eaft of the city cf Patna, at the dillance of ten Chailes river. The lower fall of the river, at the bridge or twelve days journey. Within the diftance of four between Newton and Needham is about 20 teet in i'.s days journey from Nepal the road is good in the plains dlrefl defcent. Here the river divides Middlefex fiom of Hindoftan, but in the mountains it is bad, narrow, Norfolk county. It was incorporated in i 7 1 1, and con- and dangerous. At the foot cf the hills the country is tiins 1 130 inhabitants. A flitting and rolling ndll has called Teriani ; and there the air Is very unwholeforne latelv been erected here. — ib. from the middle ot March to the middle of November ; NEEHEEHEOU, one of the Sandwich ifiands, and people in their palTage catch a dlfnrder called in about 5 leagues to the weftward of Atooi, and has about the language of that country mil; which is a putrid lOjOCO inhabitants. Its pljce of anchorage is in lat. fever, and of vdiich the generality of people, who are 2 1 50 N. and long. 160 15 W. Sometimes it is call- attacked with it, die in a few days ; but on the plains ed AW'ffoiy, or Oncehcoiu. — ib. there is no apprehenfion of it. Although the ro.id be NEC ADA, or ylnei^i'iln, one of the Caiibbee ifiands very narrow and inconvenient for three c^r four days at in 'he Vv'ell-Indies. It is low and defart, encompalfed ihe palfes of the hills, where it is necelfary to crofs and with llioah and fandbanks. It is called Negada, from recrofs the river more than fifty times, yet, on reaching its being mollly overflown by high tides. It is 50 miles the interior mountain before you defcend, you have an north-'Acll of Anguilla, and abounds with crabs. N. agreeable profpeft of the e.^ttnfive plain of Nepal, re- lit. 18 6. W. long. 63 5. — ib. fembling an amphitheatre covered with populous towns NEGPJ''. Harbour, Nnrth, at the W. end of the and villages: the circumference of the plain is about illan I of Jamaica, his North Negril Pi'int on the north, zoo miles, a little irregular, and furrounded by hills on which is the moll wellerly point of the illand of Jamai- all fides, fo that no perfnr can enter or come out of it ca. N. lat. 18 45, W. l"ng. 78. — ib. without palling the mountains. NEGRO Cape and Haibwr, at the fouth-well ex. There are three principal cities in the plain, each of treii.ity of Nova-Scotia — ib^ which was the caf ital of an independent kingdom ; the principal N E ? [ 603 ] N E r Nffal. principal clly of the three is fituatcd to llie norlliward '^'^~**^ of the pUin, and is called Cat'hiv.amlu : it contains about 18, coo houfes ; and this kingdom, from fouih to north, extends to the diftance of twelve or iliirteen days journey as far as the borders of Tibet, and is altnoll as ejtenfive from eaft to weft. The king of Cat'iimandu has always about 50,000 foldiers in iiis fcivice. The fccond city to the louth-vvcll of Cat'hmandu is called Lelit Pallati ; it contains near 24000 houfes. The third principal city to the eail of Lelit Pattan is called B'hat^'i'i: it contains about 12,000 iamilies; and is the metropolis of a diftriCl which extends towards ihe eall to the dillancc ol five or fix days jour- ney; and borders upon another nation, alfo indepen- dent, called Cirntas, who profefs no religion. Belides thefe three principal cities, there are many other large and lefs conliderable towns or fortrelles ; one of which is Timi, and another CipJi, each of which contains about 8000 houfes, and is very populous. All thofe towns, both great and I'mall, are well built ; the houfes are conftrutfled vi brick, and are three or four llories high ; their apartments aie not lofty ; they have doors and windows of wood well worked and arranged with great regularity. The llreets of all their towns are pa- ved with brick or ftone, with a regular declivity to car- ry oiT the water. In almoft every Ibeet of the capital towns there are alfo good wells made of ftone, from ■which the water pafi'es through fevcral ftone canals for the ptiblic benefit. In every town there are large fquare varandas well built, for the accommodation of travellers and the public: thefe varandas are called PalJ ; and there are alfo many of them, as well as wells, in diffe- rent parts of the country for public ufe. There are alfo, on the outfide of the great towns, (mall fquare re- fcrvoirs of water, faced with brick, with a gooji road to \v.ilk upon, and a large flight of fteps for the conveni- ence of thofe who choofe to bathe. The religion of Nepal is of two kinds : the more ancient is profefTed by many people who call themfclves Baryefu ; they pluck out all the hair from their heads ; their drefs is of coarfe red woollen cloth, and they wear a cap of the fame : they are confidered as people of the religious order, and their religion prohibits them from marrying, as it is with the Lamas of Tibet, from which rountiy their religion was originally brought; but in Nepal they do not obferve this rule, except at their difcretion. They have large monafteries, in which eve- ry one has a feparate apartment or place of abode. They obferve alfo particular leftivals, the principal of which is called Yatra in their language, and continues a month or longer according to the pleafure of the king. The ceremony confifts in drawing an idol, which at Lelit Pattan is called Baghcro, in a large and richly orna- mented car, covered with gilt copper : round about the idol ftand the king and the principal Baryefus ; jnd in this manner the vehicle is almoft every day drawn thro' fome one of the ftreets of the city by the inhabitants, who run about beating and playing upon every kind of inilrument their country affords, wliich make an incon- ceivable noife. The other religion, the more common of the two, is that of the Brahmens, and is the fame as is followed in Hindoftan, with the diiTerence that, in the latter coun- try the Hindus being mixed with the M ihomnicdans, liieir religion alfo abounds wiili many prejudices, and is not ftridily obfcrvcd ; whereas in Nepal, where there a:e Ntji!- no Muflelmai-.s (except one Calhmirian merchant), the ^-^~''"*« Hmdu religion is prafliftd in its greateft purity : eve- ry day of the month they clafs under its proper name, when certain facrilices are to be performed and Certala prayers offered up in their temples : the places of wor- (hip are more in r.uinber in their tcr.-ns than ara to be found in the moft populous and moft flourifhing cities ut Chriftendom ; m.'.iiy of them are magnificent accord- ing to their ideas of architeaure, and conftrufted a: a very confiderabie expence ; feme of them have four or five fquare cupolas, and in fome of the temples two (»r three ot the extreme cupalas, as well as the doors and windows of tJi.'ru, aie decorated with gilt copper. In the city of Ldit Paltan the temple cf Bdg,hero is more valuable, on account of the gold, filver, and jeweh it contains, than even the houfe of the king. Eefides the large temples, there are alfo many fmall ones, whicii have ftaii^s, by which a fingle pcifun may afcend, on the outfide all around them ; and fome of thofe in\A\ temples have four fides, others fix, with fmall Hone ( r marble pillars poliflied very fmooth, with tv>-o or three pyramidal ftories, and all their ornaments well gilt, and neatly worked according to their ideas of talte. On the outfide of fome of their temples there are great: fquare pillars cf fingle ftones frt m twenty to thirty feet high, upon which they place their idols fuperbly gilt. The greateft number of their temples have a good ftone ftaircafe in the middle rf the four fquares, and at the end of each flight of flairs there are lines cut out of Hone on both fides: around about their temples there are alfo bells, which tlie people ring on particular occa- fions ; and when they are at prayers, many cupolas are alfo quite filled with little bells hanging by cords in the infide about the diftance of a foot from each other, which make a great noiie on that quarter where the wind conveys the found. There are not only fiiperb temples in their great cities, but alfo within their caftles. To the eaftward of Cat'hmandu, at the diftance of about two or three miles, there is a place called Tolu, by which there flows a fmall river, the water cf which is efteemed holy, according to their fuperftitions idear, and thither tliey carry people of high rank, wl;en ihcy are thought to be at the point of death : at this place there is a temple, which is not inferior to the heft and richeft in any of the capital cities. They alfo have it on tradition, that at tv.o or tiiree places in Nepal va- luable treafures are concealed under ground : one of thoie places they believe is Tolu ; but no one is permit- ted to make ufe of them except the king, and that only in cafes of neceftlty. Thofo treafures, tliey fay, have been accumul.ited in this manner : When any teni- pie had become very rich from the offerings of the peo- pie, it was deftroyed, and deep vaults dug under ground one above another, in which the gold, filver, gilt cop- per, jewels, and every thing of v. due, were dcpofited. This was found to be aflually the cafe when the mif- fionary, from whofe memoir this account of Nepal is taken, was at Cat'hmandu. One of the kings, or pre- tenders to the crown, who were then at war with each other, being in the lunioft diftrcfs for want of money to pay his troops, ordered tlie vauhs at Tolu to be open- cd ; and found in the firft vault more money, belidos filver and gold idol-, than he had immediate occafion for. 4 G 2 To N E P [ 604 ] N E U Neus. N<Ta!. To ilie wcRwarJ alfo of ilic great city of Lelit Pat- by one of the armies, who, in digging their ditches Nepcan, ^^"^ tji,^ at tlie Jiitance of only three miles, is a callle cal- among the tombs, found confiderable pieces of gold, " led Bnrra, in which there is 3, magnificent temple. No wilh a quantity of which metal the corpfes of the gran- , one of die million.iries ever entered into this caftle ; be- dees of Tibet are always interred. caufe the people who have ths care of it, have fuch a The kingdom of Nepal our author believes to be ve- fcrupnlous veneration for the temple, that no perfon is ry ancient, becaufe it has always prcferved its peculiar permitted to enter it with his (hoes on ; and the niilho- language and independence. It was completely ruined, jiaries, unv.illing 'o Ihew fuch refpeft to their falle dei- however, about thirty or forty years ago by the diffen- tics, never entered it. The author of this memoir, how- lions oi its nobles, who, on the death "t their fovereign, <ver, wiio A&cd as phyfician to the commandant, was and, as it would feeni, the extinflion of the royal of courle admitted wi-hin the caftle, and got a fight of line, cnuld n it agree in their choice of a proper fuccef- the celebr.itcd temple, which he declares, that for mag- for. The confequence was, t'.iat different fovereigns liilicence he belicvei ftiperior to every thing in Europe. were fet up by the nobles of different dillricls ; and Befit'.es the magniticcuc: of the temples, which their thefe waged war with each other, with a degree of cities and towns coniaiii, there aie many other larities. treachery and favage atrocity that hu hardly a parallel At Cat'hmandu, on one fide of the royal garden, there in the annals of the world. Even the Brahmens, whom is a larj'C fountain, in which is one of their idols called v/e are accullomed to confider as a mild and innocent Narayan. 'I'his idol is of blue (lone, crowned and people, were, in the civil wars of Nepal, guilty of the fleeoing on a mattrafs alfo of the fame kind of llone, meaneil and bafeft villanies; they brought about Irca- :ind the idol and the mattrafs appear as floating upon ties between the rival fovereigns, and then encouraged the water. This (lone machine is very lart^c, being him whom they favoured, to maifacrs the adherents of about 18 or 20 feet long, and broad in proportion, but the other in cold blood. well worked, and in go'od repair. NEPEAN IJland, a fmall ifland of the South Pacific In a wall of the royal palace of Cat'hmandu, which is Ocean, oppofite to Poit Hunter on the foulh coad of built upon the court before the palace, there is a great Norfolk Klrnd — Morse. llone of a (Ingle piece, which is about fifteen feet long, NEPEAN Sound, an extenfive water on the north- and four or five feet thick; on the top of this great wed coafl of N. America, having a number of illands (lone there arc four fqu.ire holes at equal diftances from in it, in fome charts called Princefs Royal lilands. It each other; in the inlide of the wail they pour water opens eallward from Cape St James, the fouthernmoit into the holes ; and in the court fide, each hole having point of Walliington's or Queen Ciiarlotte's lilands. a clofed canal, every perfon may draw water to drink. Eitzhugh's Sound lies between it and Queen Charlotte's At the font of the (lone is a large ladder, by which Sound to the fouthvvard. — ib. people afcend to drink; but the curiofity of the llone NEPONSET, a river of Maffachufetts, originates confills in its being quite covered with charaflers of dif- chiefly from Muddy and Punkapog Ponds, in Stough- ferent languages cut upon it. Some lines contain the ton, and Mafnapog Pond in Sharon, and after palfing chaiaders of the language of the country, others the over (alls fuflicient to cairy mills, unites with other charaders of Tibet, others Pcrfian, others Greek, be- fmall dreams, and forms a very conftant fupply of wa- fides federal others of different nations ; and in the mid- ter, for the many mills fituated on the river below, un- dlc there is a line of Roman charaflers, which appears til it meets the tide in Milton, from whence it is navi- in this form, AVTOMNEVV INTER LHIVERT ; gable for veifels of 150 tons burden to Bodon Bay, dii'- but none of the inhabitants have any knowledge how tant about 4 iriiles. There are 6 paper-mills, befides they came there, nor do they know whether or not any many others of different kinds, on this fmall river. — ib. Europeau had ever been in Nepal before the miffiona- NERUKA, a port in the iiland of Cape Breton, " ' ' ' ' '" ' ' ' where the French had a fectlement. — lb. NESBIT's Harbour, on the coad of New-Britain, in N. America, where the Moravians formed a fettle- ment in 1752 ; of the firll party ii>me were killed, and lies, who arrived there only the beginning of the eigh- teenth century. They are manifeilly two Trench names of feafons, with an Englifli word between them. There is alfo to the northward of the city of Cat'h- mandu a hill called Simbi, upon which are fome tombs others were driven away. In 1764, they made another of the Lamas of Tiljet, and other people of high rank aitempt under the protertion of the Britdli government, of the fame nation. The monuments are condruifled and were well received by the Efquimaux, and by the after various forms : two or thiee of them are pyrami- lad account the mlQion fucceeded. — ib. dal, very hiwh, and well ornamented ; fo that they have NESCOPECK River falls into the N. E. branch of a very good appear^mce, and may be (ecu at a confider- Sufquehannah river, near the mouth of the creek of able dillance. Round thefe monuments are remarkable that name, in Northumberland county, Pennfylvania, Hones covered with charaifters, which probably are the and oppofite to the town of Berwick, 160 miles N. W. infcriptions of fi-iiie of the inhabitants of Tibet whofe of Philadelphia, and in lat. 41 3. An Indian town, bones were interred there. The natives of Nepal not called Nefcopeck, formerly ftood near the fcite of Ber- only look upon the hill as facred, but imagine it is wick. — ib. proteflcd by their idols ; and from this erroneous fup- NETHERLANDS, New, is the traifl now included pofiiion never think of llationing troops there for tlie in the States of New York, New-Jerfey, and part of defence of it, although it be a pod of great importance, Delaware and Pennfylvania, and was thus named by and only at a ihort mile's didance from the city. Du- the Dutch. It palled fird by conqued and afterwards ring the hodililies, however, which prevailed when our by treaty into the hands of the Englilh — ib. auibcr was in the country, this facred hill was fortified NEUS, a river of N. Caroliuj, which empties into Pamlico NEW [6 Ncuftn, Pamlico Sound below the town of N^wbern. It is na- il vigable for fea vefTels 13 miles above Mewbern ; for fcows 50 miles, and for fmall boats 200 miles. — ib. NEUSTRA Sermora, Baia de, or Our Lady's Bay, on the coaft of Chili, on the S. Pacific Ocean, in S. America, is 30 leagues from Copiapa, and 20 S. S. W. of Cape Georsje. It is indifferent riding in ihis bay, as the N. W. winds blow right in, and the gulls from ihe mountains are very dangerous. — ih. NEVERSINK Cre.4, a llreamin the Hirdenbergh Patent, in Ulller county, New- York. On an ifland in this creek Mr Baker having cut down a hollow beech tree, in March, 1790, found near two barrels lull of chimney f^allows in tiie cavity of the tree. They were in a torpid (late, but fome of them being placed near a fire, were prefently reanimated by the warmth, and took wing with their ufual agility. — ib. NEVIL Biiy, on the welt lliore of Hudfon's bay, is nearly due welt a litlle northerly from Cape Digges and Manlel illand at the entrance into the bay. North lat. 62 30, well long. 95. — -^b. NEVIS, an illand h-fs than a league fouth-eafterly of the peninfula of St Chrillopher's, one of the Carib- bees. This beautiful little fpot is nc thing more than .1 fingle mountain rifing like a cone in an ea<y afcent from the fea ; the circumference of its bafe not exceeding 8 Btitilh leagues. This ifland was doubrlefs produced by fome volcanic eruption, fcr there is a hollow crater near the fummit flill vifible ; which contains a hot fpring, flrongly impregnated wiih fulphur, and fulpbur is frequently found in fubllance, in the neighbouring gullies and cavities of the earth. The illand is well watered, and the land in general fertile. Four thou- fand acres of canes are annually cut, which produce an equal number of h-aglheads of lugar. The illand, fmall as it is, is divided into 5 paiillies. It has one town, CharhJlorvK, which is a port cf entry, and the feat of government ; where is alio a fort called Charles Fort. There are two other fhipping places, viz. Indian Caftle and New-Cafile. Nevis contains 600 whites and 10,000 blacks. It was 6rll fettled by the Englilh in 1628, un- der the protection of Sir Thomas Warner. It ii fiid, that, about tlx; year 1640 the illand contained 4.0CO ■whites, and fome writers fay that before tlie year 1688 it had 30,000 inhabitants. The invafion of the French about that time, and fome epidemic dif )rders llrangely diminiihed the number. Charlelfown, the capital, lies in lat. 17 15 N. and long. 62 i<^ W. There are fede- ral rocks and fhosls on the coall, particularly on the fouth-wetl fide, but Ihips ride between them in tolerable fafety, the hurricane feafons excepted, when tliey are obliged to put off to fea, and lun into Antigua, if poQl- ble lb. NEW-ALIilON, a name given to a country of in- definite limits, on the wellerncoafl of N. America, ly- ing north of Califorma. — ib. NEW, a river of N. Carolina, wliich empties, after n fhort courfe, into the ocean, through New River In- let. Its mouth is wide and ihoal. It abounds with mullet during the winter feafon. — ib. NEW-ANDALUSIA, a province of Terra Firma, S. America, Iving on the coail of the North Sea, op- pofite to the Eeeward Ulands ; bounded by tlie river Qroonoko on the weft. This country is called Paria 35 ] NEW by fome writers. Its chief town is St Thomas. Some gold mines were difcovered here in 1785. — ib. NEW-ANDOVER, a fcttleraent in York county, Diftrifl of Miine, which contain', including K:r;'in and Potterfield, 214 inhabitants. — ;/'. NEW.ANTICARIA, a town of New-Spain, 34 leagues northward of Acapulco. — ib. NEW-ANTIGUERA, an epifcopal city of New- Spain, in the province of Guaxica, erefted into a bi- fnoprick by Paul III. 1547. It has a noble cathedral, fupported by marble pillars. — ib. NEWARK, a townlliip in EITex county, in Ver- mont. — ib. Newark Bay, in New-Jerfey, is formed by the con- fluence of Palfaick and Hackenfack riv^ers from the north, and is feparated from that part of North river oppofiie to New- York city, by Bergen Neck on the E, which neck, alio, with Staten Iflai.d on the S. of it, form a narrov/ channel from the bay to North river eall- ward. Newark Bay alfo ccmmunicates with Rariton Bay, at the month of Raritrn river, by a channel in a S. by W. direftion along the wcftern fide of Staten Ifland. The water palfage from New- York to Eliza- beth-Town Point, 15 miles, is through this bay. — ib. Newark, a poft-town of New-Jerley and capital of EfTex county, is pleafantly frtuated at a fmall diftance weft of Palfaick river, near its mouth in Newark Bay, and nine miles weft of New- York city. It is a hand- fome and flourifb'ng town, celebrated for the excellence of its cyder, and is the feat of the largeft fhoe manu- facture in the State : the average number made daily throughout the year, is eftimated at about 200 pairs. The town is of much the fame lize as Elizabeth-Town, and is 6 miles N. of it. There is a Prefbyterian churcli of ftone, the largeft and moft elegant building of the kind in the State. Beftdes thefe is an Epifcopal church, a ccurt-houfe and gaol. The academy, which was eftablifhed here in June, 1792, promifes to be a ufeful inftitution. In Newark and in Orange which joins it on the N. W. there are 9 tanneries, and valuable quar- ries of ftone for building. The quarries in Nev.Mrk, would rent, it is faid, for ^1000 a year, and the num- ber of workmen limited. This town was originally fet- tled by emigrants from Brandford, Conceclicut, as long ago as 1662. — ib. Newark, a village in Newcaftle corrnty, Delaware, fituated between Chriftiana and White Clay Creeks, 9 miles weft of New-Cuftle, and 10 fouth-wefterly of Wilmington. — ib. Newark, a town lately laid out by the Britifh in Up~ per Canada, on the river which conne<fls Likes Erie and Ontario, directly oppofite Niagara town and fort. — ib. NEW-ATHENS, or Ti^gi Point, ftands on the poft-road from Cooper ftoivn to Williamlbargh, in Lu- zerne county, Pennfylvania, on the point of land firm- ed by the confluence of Tioga river with the E. branch of Sufquehannah river, in lai. 41 54 and long. 76 32 W. and about 3 miles S. of the New-Ycrk line ; 20 miles S. E. by E. of Newtown In New- York, 14 S. W. of Owego, .ind 116 S. W. cf Cioperftown. — ib. NLW-BARB.^DOES, a townfh^p in Bergen coun- ty, New-Jerfey. — ib. NEW-BEDFORD, a poftiown and port of entry ioi N.w-An- dovcr, II fr.rd. NEW [ 606 ] NEW Newhfni. in Bnftcl county, Madachufetts, fituatedon a fmall bay ''^^'^'^ which fets up norlli from Uuzzard's Bay, 58 miles S. of liofton. The tnwndii;) was incorpnrated in 1787, and is 13 miles in lenpih and 4 in breadth ; bounded 1'-. by Roclitfter, W. by Daitmouih, of which it was origi- nally a P'f". "till S. I)y Buzzard's B.iy. jicchufnuit was the Indian name of New-Bedford; and the fmall li- ver ol that n:)nie, clifcnvered by Gofnold in j6o2, runs from niirih to fuiith tluouyh the townlhip, and divides the villages of Oxfcrd and Fairhaven from Bedttird viUa"e. A company was incorporated in 1796, tor building a bridge acrofs this river. From the head to the mouth of the river is 7 or 8 miles. Fairhaven and Bedford villaj^es are a mile apart, and a ferry cond^'nt- ly attended is eilablifhed between them. Tlie harbour is very fafe, in fome places 1 7 or 18 feet of water ; and velfjls of 3 or 4C0 tons lie at the wharves. Its mouth is formed by Clark's Neck on the W. fide, and Sconti- cutt Point on the other. An ifland between thefe points renders the entrance narrow; in 5 fathoms water. High water at full and change of the moon 37 mi- nutes after 7 o'clock. Dartmouth is the fafeft place to lie at wiih an eallerly wind ; but at New-Bedford you will lie fafe at t!ie wjiarves. The river has plenty of imall fifh, and a lliort way fiom its mouth they catch cod, bafs bljck fi/li, Iheeps head, S:c. The damage done by the Britilh to this town in 1778 amounted to the value of ;^97,ooo. It is now in a flourifhlng ftate. In the townlhip are a poll-office, a printing-office, 3 meetings for Fiisnds, and 3 for Congregali.malifts, and 3313 inhabitants. The experts to the different States and to the Weft-Indies for one year, ending September 2,0, 1794. amounted to 82,085 dollars. It is 357 miles N. E. by E. of Philadelphia lb. NEWBERN, one of the ealtern maritime diftrlfts of N. Carolina, bounded E. and S. E. by the Atlantic, S. W. by Wilmington, W. by Fayette, N. W. by HiV.ltorough, N. by Halifax, and N. E. by Edenton dlftriifl. It comprehends the counties of Carteret, Jones, Craven, Beaufort, Hyde, Pitt, Wayne, Glaf- gow, Lenoir, and Johndon ; and contains 55,540 in- habitants, including 15,900 llaves. — ib. Newbern, the capital of the above diftrifl. Is a poft- tovvn and port of entry, (ituated in Craven county, on a flat, fandy point of land, formed by the confluence of the rivers Neus on the N. and Trent on the fouth . Op- pofite to the town, the Neus is about a mile and a half", and the Trent three-quarters of a mile wide. Newbeni is the largelf town in the State, contains about 400 houfcs, all built of vi-ood except the palace, the church, the gaol, and two dwelllng-houfes, which are of brick. The pjlace was ereifled by the province before the re- volution, and was formerly the refidence of the gover- nors. It is large and elegant, two (lories high, with two wings for office":, a I'ttle advanced in front towards the town ; thefe wings are conneiSed with the principal building by a circular arcade. It is much out of re- pair ; and the only ufe to which this once handfome and well furnilhed building is now applied, is for fchools. One of the halls is ufed for a Ichool, and an- other for ^ dancing-room. The aims of the klnsj of Giea'Br tain llill appear in a pediment in front of the buililing. Tiie Ep fcopallan church is a fmall brick baiidin^f, with a btll. It is the only houfe for public wor- ship intheplace. I'he court-houle isralfed on brick arch- es, fo as to render the lower part a convenient market Ncvp-Blf- place ; but the principal marketing is done with the pco- ">'• pie in their canoes and boats at the river fide. In Sep- ^\ tember, 1791, near one-third of this town was confum- Brunfwick. ed by fire. It carries on a confiderable trade to the s^^^^~>^ Wcli-Indics and llie difi'erent States in tar, pitch, tur- pentine, lumber, corn, &c. The exports in 1794 amounted to 69,615 dollars. It is 149 miles from Ra- leigh, 99 S. W. of Edenton, 103 N. E. by N. of Wil- mington, 2%^ S. of Peterfburgh in Virginia, and 501 S. W. of Philadelphia. N. l.tt. 35 20, W. long. 77 25. —ib. NEW-BISCAY, a province in the audience of Ga- licia, in Old-Mexico or New-Spain. It is laid to be 100 leagues from E. to W. and 120 from north 10 fouth. It is a well watered and fertile country. Ma- ny of the Inhabitants are rich, not only in corn, cattle, &c. but alfo in filver mines, and fome of lead. — lb. NEW-BOSTON, a townfhip in Hilllborough coun- ty, New-Hampfhlre, about 70 miles weflerly of Portf- mouth. It was incorporated in 1763, and contains 1202 inhabitants. — lb. NEW-BRAINTREE, a townniip in Worcefter county, Maflachufetts, conliillng of about 13,000 acres of land, taken from Braintree, Brookficld, and Hard- wick, and was incorporated in 175 1. It contains 940 inhabitants, moRly farmers, and lies 19 miles north-wed of Worcefler, and 66 north-weft of Bofton. —lb. NEW-BRITAIN, a townfhip in Buck's county, Pennfylvania. — ib. NEW-BRUNSWICK, in the State of New-York is fituated on P.altz Kill, about 8 miles S. W. of New- Paltz, and 69 nortli-weflerly of New-York city. — ib. New-Brunswick, a Brilifli province in N. America, thi north- weft; part of Nova-Scotia; bounded weft by the DKtriifl of Maine, from which it is feparated by the river St Croix, and a line drawn due north from its fource to the Canada line ; north by the fouthern boun- dary of the province of Lower Canada, until it touches the fea-fhore at the weftern extremity of Chaleur Bay ; then following the various windings of the fea-fhore to the Bay of Verte, in the ftraits of Northumberland ; on the S. E. it is divided from Nova Scotia by the fever;il windings of the Miffiquafh river, from its confluence with Beau Bafon (at the head of Chcgneflo channel) to its main fource ; and from thence by a due eafi line to the Bay of Verte. The northern fliores of the Bay of Fundy conftitute the remainder of the fouthern boun- dary. All iflands included in the above limits belong to this province. According to Arrowfmlth's map, i: extends from lat. 45 7 to 47 15 N. and from long. 64 to 69 50 W. It is about 260 miles long and 170 broad. The chief towns are St John's, at the mouth of the ri- ver of the fame name; St Annep, the prelent feat of government, 80 miles up the river ; and Frederickf- town, a fewmiles above St Annes. Thechlef rivers are St John's, Merrimichi, Petltcodiac, Memramcook, Ri- ftigouche, and Nipifigult. The coaft of this province is indented with numerous bays and commodious har- bours ; the chief are Chaleur, Merrimichi, Verte, which laft is feparated from the Bay of Fundy by a narrow irthmus of about 18 miles wide ; Bay of Fundy, which extendi 50 leagues into t!ie country ; Chegnecto Bay, at the head of the Bay cf Fundy ; Paffamaquoddy Bay, bordering NEW [ 60 Ncwbergh, bordering upon the DilUid of Mains. At i!ie entrance II of this bay is an iflanJ granted tofeveral gentlemen in ^^^^!^^!i;;y^ Liverpool, in Lancalbire, who named it Campo Billo. At a very confiderable e.\p:nfe tkey attempted to form a feltlement here, but failed. On leveral other iflands in this bay there are fettlements niado by people from MaHaclu'.l'etis. Here are numerous lakes, as yet with- out narr-es. Grand Lake, near Sr John's river, is 30 miles long and 8 or ic broad; and in fum; places 40 fathoms deep. — il: NEWBEKGH, a townfhlp in Ulller county, New- York, bcundtd eallerly by Hudfon's river, and foutbei- ly by New-\V,ndfor, and contains 2365 inhabitants ; of whom 373 are elecljrs, and 57 flaves. The com- pa<S part cf the town is neatly built, and pleafantly lituated on the weft bank of the Hudfon, 66 miles noilh cf New. York, oppofite Filh-Kill Landing, 7 miles from Filb Kill, 13 from Golhen, and 14 fouth from Poughkeepfie. It confills of between 50 and 60 houfes and a Prelbyterian church, fituated on a gentle afcent from the liver. The country northward is well cultivated, and affords a rich piofpecft. Vellels ol con- fidcrable burden may load and unlrad at the whaives, and a number of veliels are built annually at this bufy anil thriving place. — ii. NEWBURY, a county of Ninety-Six diftrifl, S. Ca- rolina, which contaiiis 9,343 inhabitants, of whom 1,144 are Haves. Newimry conrt-hcufe is 45 miles from Columbia, and 32 from Liuren, court-houfe. —it. Newbury, a townlliip in York countv, Pennfylvania. —ib. Newbury, the capital of Orange county, Vermont, pleafantly fitoated on the weft lide of Connedicut river, oppofite to ILiverliill, in Gralton county, New-Hamp- (hire, and from which it is 5 milts dillant. It criitains about 50 houfe«, a gaol, a ccurt-hcufe, and a hand- fome church for Cvingregaiionalills with a (Ueple, whicii was the tirll ereifted in Vermont. The court-houfe {lands on an eminence, and commands a plcafmg pro- fpeii of what is c.illed the Great O.ibow t.f Connedi- cut river, where are the rich intervale lands cwlled the I.,ittle Coos. Here a remarkable fpring was difcovercd, about 20 years fince, which dries up once in two or three years. It has a tlrong fmell of fulphur, and throws up continually a peculiar kind of wl-.ite fand ; and a thick yellow fcum riles upon the water when fet- tled. This is the more noticeable as the water cf the ponds and livers in Veimont arc remarkably clear and tranfparent. It is 130 mil:s nrrlhcall of Bennington, and 417 N. E. by 5l. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 44 j. Number cf inliabitants 875. — .'/'. Nkwblrv, a townlliip in Elfex county, Maffachu- fetts, incorporated in 1635 '> Situated on the fouthern bank of Merrimack river, and contains 3,972 inhabi- tants. It formerly included Newbury-Port, and with Merrimack livcr tncirclcs it. It is divided into fivepa- lillies, befidcs a fociety of Friend;, or Qu ikers. Dum- mer academy, in tlii» townlliip, is in a liourilliing ftate; it was founded by Lieut. Gcv. Dummcr in 1756, open- ed in 1763, and incoii-oratcd in 1782. The inhabi- tants aie principally employed in hufjandry. The land, particularly in that part of the town whicli lies on Merrimack river, and is here called Nciiiury-Ntw- td'-xB, is of a fuperior quality, under the bell culti- 7 ] NEW vation, and is fiid by travellers to be little infetior t" NrwVjry- the mod improved parts rf Groat-Britain. Seme c f '"!ilj the high lands afford a very extenfive and variegated view of the furrounding country, the rivers, the bay, anii the fea-coall from Cape Ann to York, in the Di- ftrie'l of Msir.e. Srme few ved'els are here owned and employed in the filhery, part of whicli are fitted out from Parker river. It rifes in Rowley, and after a courfe of a few miles, paffes into the found which fe- parates Plumb-Iilaiid from the main land. It is navi- gable about two miles from its mouth. A woollen rHa- niifadlory h^s been eft.iblillieJ on an extensive fcale in Byelield parilh, and promifes to fucceed. This town- Ihip is ccnnefted with Salifbnry by Eilex Merrimack (■lidge, about 2 miles above Newbury I'lUt, built in 1792. .\t the place where the brid>:e is erecfted, an idand divides the river into two branches: an arch of 160 feet diameter, 40 feet above the level (f high wa- ter, connects this ifland with the main en the oppcfue fide. The whole length of the bridge is ic3ofeet; its breadih 34 ; its contents upwards cf 60CO tons of tim- ber. The two large arches weie executed from a mo- del inverted by Mr Timothy Palmer, an ingenirm houfewright in Newbury- Port. Tlie v/hcile is executed in a ftyle far exceeding any thing of the kind hitherto edayed in this country, and appears to unite elegance, ftrengih and lirmnefs. The day before the bridge was opened fir the in^pc>51i^n of tlie public, a fliip of 350 tons paiTed under the great arch. There is a ccmnio- modious houfe of entertainment at the bridge, which is the refort of parties of plcafiire, both in funimer and winter. — ///. NEWBURY-PORT, a port of entry, and poft-town in Elfex county, M-ifiachuletts ; pleafantly fituated on the S. fide cf Merrimack river, about 3 miles from the fea. In a commerciil view it is next in rank to Salem. It contains 4837 inhabitants, although it is, perhaps, the fioallell townlliip in the State, its contents not ex- ceeding 640 acres. It was taken from Nev%bury, and incorporated in 1764. The churches, 6 in number, sre ornamented with fleeples j the other public buld- ings are the court-houfe, gaol, a bank, and 4 public fchool-houfes. To the honour of this town, there are in it 10 public fchcols, and 3 printing-tjffices. Many of the dwe'iling-houfes are elegant. Before the war there were many Uiips built here ; but fome years after the revolution, the bufmel's was on t!ie decline : it now begins to revive. The Bofton and Hancock continent- al frigates, were built here, and many privateers, du- ring the war. The haibonr is fafe and capacious, but difficult to enter. The Marine Society cf this town, and other gentlemen in it, have humanely ere^^ed fe- vcr.nl fmall hcufcs, tn the fiiore cf Plumb-Illand, fiir- niihed with fuel ami othir conveniences, for the relief of liiipwrccked mariners. Large quantities of rum are difiilled in Newbury- Pott, there is alio a brewery ; r.nd a confiderable trade is carried on with the Weft-Indies and liie fouthern States. Some veliels are employed in the freighting bufinef-, and a few in the tiflitry. In Nov. 1790, there were owned in this port, 6 foips, 45 briganiines, 39 fchooners, and 2S floops ; making in all, 1 1,870 tons. The exports for a year, ending Sept. 30, 1794, amounted to 363.380 dollars. A machine fcr culling nails, has been latch invented by Mr Ja- cob P.;rkius of this town, a jjentleman of great me- cbaiiical K E W [ 6 Ntw-Ciilc- cluiiical II whicli will turn rut, if necelfary, a day. Newbury-Port is 40 miles Nfw- (.'.flic. geniu5, 2co,oco nails in nonli-north-eall of IJoilon, 22 fnuth-by-wcll of Porif nioutli, 12 N. of Ipfwich, and 3S9 north-eafl of Phila- dclpliia. I'lie liirbour lias 10 t.ilhoms water: high vater at full and change 15 minutes after 11 o'clock, 'i'lie light hiiufe on Plumb-Ifiand lies in 42 47 north lalimdc, snd in 7047 welt longitude. — ib. NEW-CALEDONIA, the name given by the Scotch to the illfateJ fettlement v.hich that nation formed on the Ifthmus of Darien, and on the Ibuth- vcll fide cf'tlie gnlf of tliat name. It is fituated eall- ward of the nanowefl part of the illhmus, which is between Panama and Porto Bello, and lies fouth eaft of the latter city. The fettlement was formed in 1698. —ib. NEW-CANTON, .a fniall town lately eftablifhed in Buckingham county, Virginia, on the fouth iide of James's river, 70 miles above Richmond. It contains a few houfes, and a ware-houfe for infpefting tobacco. —ib. NEW CASTLE, the moft northern county of De- 1 iware State. It is about 40 miles in length and 20 in breath, and contains 19,686 inhabitants, including 2,562 flaves. Here are two fnuff-mills, a flittlng-mill, 4 paper-mills, 60 for grinding different kinds of grain, and ftvcral fulling-mills. The chief towns ot this county are Wilmington and New-Caftle. The land in it is more broken than any other part of the State. The heights of Chriftiana are lolty and commanding. —rb. New Castle, a poft-town, and the feat of jaftice of the above county. It is fituated on the wcfl fide of Delaware river, 5 miles fouth of Wilmington and 33 S. W. of Philadelphia. It contains about 70 houfes, a court houfe and gaol ; a church for Epifcopalians and another for Prefbyterians. This is the oldeft town on Delaware river, having been fettled by the Swedes, a- bout the year 1627, who called it Slockholm, after the metropolis of Sweden. When it fell into the hands of the Dutch, it received the name of Ncw-Anf.erdam ; and the Englilh, when they took poifeflion of the coun- try, gave it the name of Keiv-Cnfilt. It was lately on the decline; but now begins to flourifh. Piers are to he built, which will afford a fafe retreat to veffels, du- ring the winter feaicn. Thefe,-when completed, will add confideiably to i:s advantages. It was incorpora- ted in 1672, by the governor of New- York, and was for many years under the management of a bailiff and fix alfillants. N. lat. 39 38. — ib, Nkw-Castle, a tounlliip in Weft-Chefter county. New- York, taken from North-CalUe in 1791, and in- cf.rporated. In 1796, there were 151 of the inhabit- ants quail tied electors. — ib. New-Castle, a finall town in the county of Rock- ingliani, NewHamplhire, was incorporated in 1693, and contains 534 inhabitants. — ib. New-Castle, a fmall pofl-town in Lincoln county, Diftrift of Maine, fitu.iled between Damafcotte and Skungut livers. It is 10 miles E. by N. of Wifcaffet, 66 M. E. of Portland, and 192 N. by E. of Bolfon. The t'lwnfhip contains S96 inhabitants. — ib. Nt w-Castlh, a poft-town of Hanover county, Vir- pinii, fituated at the mcuth of Affequin creek, on the i>. W. fide of Pamun!;y river, and contains about 36 Situation and Ex- tent. 08 ] NEW houfes. It is 54 miles N. W. of Williamfburgh, 24 N. Ncw- E. of Richmond, and 297 from Pliiladelphia. — ib. Chcftcr, NEW-CHESTER, a townfliip in Grafton county, New-Hamplliire, fituated on the W. fide of Pemige- wafiet river. It was incorporated in 1778, and contains 312 inhabitants. It is about 13 miles below the town of Plymouth. — ih. NEW-CONCORD, formerly called Gunih-waiU; a townlliip in Gralton county, New-Hamp(hire, on A- monoofuck river, and was incorporated in 1768, and contains 147 inhabitants. — ib. NEW-CORNWALL, a townfliip in Orange coun- ty. New- Yolk ; bounded northerly by Ulller county, and cafletly by Hudfon's river and Haverftraw. It contains 4,225 inhabitants, inclufivc of 167 flaves. — ib. NEW-DUBLIN, a townlhip in Lunenburg county, Nova-Scotia ; fituated on Mahone Bay ; firft fettled by Irifh, and afterwards by Germans. — ib. NEW-DURHAM, in Strafford county, New- Hampfliire, lies on the eaft coalt of Winnepiffeoga Lake, weft of Merry Meeting Bay, nearly 40 miles north- weft of Portfmouth. Incorporated in 1762, having 554 inhabitants. — ib. NEW ENGLAND, the north-eaftern grand divi- fion of the United States of jiVmcrica, lies in the form of a quarter of a circle around the great bay, or part of the Atlantic Ocean, which fets up to the north-weft between Cape Cod and Cape Sable. It contains the dates of Vermont, New-Hampfhire, Maine, (belong- ing to Maffachufetis) Maffachufetts Proper, Rhode- Ifland and Providence Plantations, and Conneflicut ; and is fituated between 41° and 48° north latitude and I" 30' and 10° 15' eaft longitude from Philadelphia. Its extreme length from the north-eaft corner of Maine, to the fouth-weff corner of Conne(flicut, is about 626 miles : its breadth is very unequal, from fifty to two hundred miles. It contains about 72,000 fquare miles. New England is bounded north, by Lower Canada; Eoundat- eaft, by the Britifh province of New Brunfwick and ries. the Atlantic Ocean ; fouth, by the fame Ocean and Long-Ifland found ; and weft, by the ftate of New- York. Its weft line begins at the mouth of Byram river, which empties into Long-Ifland found, at the fouth-weft corner of Connefticut, N. lat. 41°, runs a little to the eaft of north till it ftrikes the 45th degree of latitude, and then curves to the north-ealt along the highlands, till it reaches about the 48th degree of north latitude. In April 1614, Capt. John Smith with two fliips, Dj-fcoYgry. commenced a voyage of difcovery to the northern coafts of America : he firft made the Ifland of Mona- higan, then computed to be in latitude 43° 30', where he built feven boats, in one of whidi, with 8 men, he ranged the coaft from Penobfcot to Cape Cod, entered and furveyed what is now called Maffachufetts Bay, and made his obfervations on other parts of the coaft. After his return to England, he wrought thefe furveys and obfervations into a map, which he prefented to Charles Prince of Wales, (afterwards King Charles I.) with a requeft that he woidd give a name to this newly explored country. Accordingly he gave his own name to I!he river which divides Bofton from Charleftown, and to the whole country that of New England. At this period New England was thickly inhabited by NEW [ 609 ] NEW New-Eng- land. by various tribes of Indians, Two years after (1616) a mod diftreOlng mortal ficknefs, by fome fuppofed to have been the fmall pox ; by others the yellow fever ; fpread through the country, and fwept off a large por- tion of its inhabitants. From an account given to the firft fettlers at Plymouth, on their arrival, by an intel- ligent Indian, it appears, that " by this pedilence and a ferocious war, the number of Indians had been fo diminilhed, that not more than one in twenty remained; and that on the fpot firft occupied by the fathers of New England, now the town of Plymouth, though before very populous, every human being died of the pedilence." This account was eafily credited from the extent of the uncultivated fields, and the number of graves and human bones which appeared. An extraordinary occurrence relative to this pedi- lence has been mentioned by the hillorian above named as follows. — " A French fliip had been wreclced on Cape Cod ; the men were faved with their provifions and goods. The natives Icept their eyes on them till they found an opportunity to kill all but 3 or 4, and divide their goods. The captives were fent from one tribe to another as flaves. One of them learned fo much of their language as to tell them that " God was angry with them for their cruelty, and would de- flroy them and give their country to another people." They anfwered that " they were too many for God to kill." He replied that " if they were ever fo numer- ous, God had many ways to kill them of which they were then ignorant." Afterwards when this new and extraordinary pedilence came among them, they re- membered the man's words, and when the Plymouth fettlers arrived at Cape Cod, the few furvivors ima- gined that the other part of his predidion would foon be accomplifhed." From the year 1614 till 1620, an advantageous trade was cariied on with the natives along the coaft, but no fettlements were made in any part of New Eng- land. The fird fettlement of New England by a civilized and chridian people was the effeiSl of religious perfecu- tion. Soon alter the commencement of the reforma- tion in England, in the year 1534, the Protedants were divided into two parties ; one the followers of Luther, and the other of Calvin. The former had chofen gradually, and almod imperceptibly, to recede from the church of Rome ; while the latter, more zeal- ous, and convinced of the importance of a thorough reformation, and at the fame time puirellmg much firm- nefs, and high notions of religious liberty, were for ef- fcding a thorough cliange at once. Their confequent endeavours to expunge from the church all the inven- tions which had been brought into it fince the days of the Apodles, and to introduce the " Scripture purity" acquired for them the name of Puritans. From tlitfe the inhabitants of New England defcended. The rea- fons adigncd for leaving tiicir own country, and fet- tling a wildernefs were " that the ancient f.iith, and true wordiip, might be found infep;irable companions in their pradlicc ; and that their pollerity might be un- defiled in religion." Letter of the minifters of N. E. to Mr J. Duey, in Mather's Apology, A pp. The fird company that came to New England plant- ed themfelves at Plymouth. They were a part of the Rev. Mr Robinfon's congregation, which, for 12 years SuppL. Vol. II. before, had lived In Holland for the fake of enjoying liberty of confcience. They came over to America in the year 1620. It was their intention to have fettled at the mouth of Hudfon's liver; but the Dutch, intending to plant a colony there of their own, privately hired the mafter of the diip to contrive delays in England, and then to condufl them to thefe northern coads, and there, un- der the pretence of fhoals and winter, to difcourage them from venturing to the place of dedination. This is confidently aflerted by the hidorians of that time. Although Cape Cod harbour, in which they fird an- chored, was good, the country around was fandy and barren. Thefe were difcouraging circumdances ; but the feafon being far advanced, they prudently deter- mined to make the bed of their prefeiit fituation. As they were not within the limits of the patent and cc<n- fequently not under the jurifdiftion of the Virginia company, and having fome faftious perfons among them in the capacity of fervants, who polfeired a por- tion of the modern fpirit o{ liberty and equality, and who had intimated that when on Ihore they (hould be under no government, and that one man would then be as good as another, the more judicious thought it necef- fary to eftablldi a feparate government for themfelves. Accordingly, before they landed, having on their knees devoutly given thanks to God for their fafe arrival, they formed tliemfelves into a body-politic, under the following covenant or contraCi, which they all fubfcrib- ed, and made the bafis of their government. " In the name of God, amen. We whofe names are under- written, the loyal fubjeifls of our Dread Sovereign Lord, King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland, king, defender of the faith, &c. — Having undertaken for the glory of God and the advancement of the chridian faith, and ho- nour of our king and country, a voyage, to plant the fird colony in the northern parts of Virginia ; Do by thefe prefents folemnly, and mutually, in the prefence of God, and of one another, covenant and combine ourfelves together into a civil body-politic, for our bet- ter ordering and prefervation and furtherance of the ends aforefaid ; and by virtue hereof to enad, condi- tute, and frame fuch jud and equ.il laws, ordinances, 3(515, conftitutions, and offices, from time to time, as fliall be thought mod meet and convenient for the ge- neral good of the colony ; unto which we promife all due fubmilHon and obedience: In witncfs whereof", we have hereunder fubfcribed our names at Cape Cod, tlie iith of November; in the year of the reign of our Sovereign Lord King James, of England, France and Ireland, the eiphteentli, and of Scotland the fifty, fourth: Anno Domini, 1620." This indrument was figned by 24 heads of families, with the number in their refpci5live families annexed, and 17 fingle men, making in tlie whole loi fouls. Afterwards by an unanimous vote, they chofe John Carver their governor for one year. Having thus edabliflied and organized their govern- ment, in its form truly republican, their next objeft was to fix on a convenient place for fettlement. In doing this, they were obliged to encounter numerous difficulties, and to fiifler incredible hardlhips. Many of them were fick in conlequence o{ the fatigue of a long voyage. Their provifions were bad ; tlie feafon 4 H uncommonly New-Eng- laad- Diflngenu- ous con- dud of tlie Dutch. Form of civil con- tra ift. John Car- ver firft Governor. DilGcultici encounter- ed by the culuniilt. NEW C 6io ] NEW Fortunate difcovery of feed corn. New-Kng- uncommonl7 cold, the Indians, thougli afterwards land. friendly, were now hdllile ; and they were unacquaint- ^''^^"^^'^ g(j vvitii the conft. Tliefe difficulties they furmounted, and on the 22d of December, (Gregorian ftyle) they were all fifely landed at a place which, in grateful com- Settlcd at memor.ttion of Plymouth in England, the town which riymouth. jj^ey \.j^i\ i^f^ j,, ,heir native land, they called Ply- mouth. The rod on which they firll fteppcd alhore is c.illed the f'jre/al/jfr's rod. A part of it has been drawn up to be preferved in the centre of the town; the remainder is buried in a v.-harf. The day of their landing is now annually kept as a feftiv.il in Plymouth and Bofton. Plymouth is the oldeft Englifh town in New Eng- land. In fome of the exctirfions of the immigrants in fearch of a fuitable place lo fettle, they found buiied feveral bafkets of Indian corn, to the amount of lo bulliels, which fortunately ferved them for planting the next fpring. They made diligent enquiry for the owners, whom they found, and afterwards paid them the full value of tlie corn. The acquifition of tills corn was always regarded as a particular favour of divine Pio- vldence, without which, the colony could not have fub lilted. Before the end of November, Sufanna, the wife of Firft child WilU.ini Wliite, was delivered of a fon, whom they boru. called Peregrine. He is fuppofed to have been the firll child, of European extraft, born in New England. He died at Marflifield July 1704, in the 84th year of his age. The whole company that landed confided of but toi fouls ; their fituation was diftreffing, and their profpecls truly difmal and difcouraging. Their nearell neigh- bours, except the natives, were the Dutch fettlers at Situation Albany and Bergen, a French feltlement at Port Ro- and prof, y^i^ g^d one of the Englifh at Virginia : the neareft of rcflsof the ti,efe ^^as 200 miles from them, and utterly incapable 01 aiiordmg them any relief in a time or famine or dan- ger. Wherever they turned their eyes dillrefs was be- fore them. Perfecuted for their religion in their native land ; grieved for the profanation of the holy fabbalh, and other licentioui'aefs in Holland ; fatigued by their long and boifterous voyage ; difappointed, through the treacliery of their commander, of their expcfled coun- try ; forced on a dangerous and inhofpitable fiiore in the advance of a cold winter ; furrounded with hoflile barbarians, without any hope of human luccour in cafe of an attack ; denied the aid or favour of the court of Engl.md ; without a patent ; without a public promife of a peaceable enjoyment of their religious liberties — worn out with toil and fuiferirgs, without convenient fhelter from the rigour of the weather : — Such was the fitnation and fuch the prnfpecfls of thefe pious, folitary, chiiftians. And to add to their diftrelfes, a general and very mortal ficknefs prevailed among them which fwept off forty-fix of their number, before the opening of the next fpring. To fupport them under thefe trials, tliey had need of all the aids and comforts which chrif- tianity affords, and thefe were fufUcient. The free and unmolefted enjoyment of their religion reconciled them to their humble and lonely fituation. They bore their hardlhips with unexampled patience, and perfevered in their pilgrimage of almoft unparalleled trials, with fuch refignation and calmnefs, as gave proof of great piety, and unconquerable virtue. Immediately after landing, they began to lay out the town into llreets, and lots, and to ereifl buildings, for their accommoda- tion. They firll erefled a ftore houfe with a thatched roof, in which they depofited, under a guard, their whole rtock of ammunition and provifions. On the 14th of Jan. the thatciied roof of the ftore houfe acci- dentally caught fire and was confumed j but by the timely exertions of the people, the lower part of the building with its contents, which were indifpenfible to the fupport of the infant colony, was preferved. On the 3d of November 1620, King James, being informed that an extenlive country in America had lately been depopulated by a mortal licknel's, and that no part of it was then inhabited by the fubjeils of any chriftian prince, and being delirous to advance the chri- llian religion, and extend the boundaries of his own dominions, figned a patent, incorporating the duke of Lenox, the marquelTes of Buckingham and Hamilton, the earls of Arundel and Warwick, Sir Francis Gor- ges, with thirty-four others and their fuccelfors, (filing them, " The council eftabli(hed at Plymouth, in the county of Devon, for the planting, ruling, ordering, and governing, of New England in America. " To tliis council he granted all that part oi' America which lies between the 40th and 48th degrees of north latitude. They were inverted with powers of jiiiifdic- tion over the country, and authorized to exclude all others from trading within their boundaries, and from fifhing in the neighbouring feas. This charter was the great ci^>il bafis of all the fubfequent giants and patents, to the fettlers of New England. " This charter, (fays the correfl hlftorian of Ma/Fa- chufetts) from the omillions of feveral powers necefTary to the future fituation of the colony, Ihows how inade- quate the ideas of the parties were to the important confequences which were about to follow from fuch an aft. The governor, with the afTiftants and freemen of the company, it is true, were empowered to make all laws not repugnant to thofe of England ; but the power of impofing fines, imprifonment or other lawful corredlion, is exprefsly given in the manner of other corporations of the realm ; and the general circum- ftances of the fcttlement, and the pradice of the times, can leave us no doubt that this body-politic was view- ed rather as a trading company, reiiding within the kingdom, than what it very foon became, a foreign government exercifing all the elfentiah of foveretgnty over its fubjefts." As early as March 1621, MafafToit, one of the mofl powerful lagamores of the neighbouring Indians, with fixty attendants, made a vifit to the Plymouth fettlers ; and entered into a formal and very friendly treaty with them, wherein they agreed to avoid injuries on both fides, to punidi offenders — to rellore (tolen goods — to afCft each other in all juftifiable wars — to promote peace among their neighbours, cScc. Mafaflbit and his fuccelfors for fifty yeais inviolably obferved this treaty. The Englifh are much indebted to this chief for his friendfliip, and his memory will ever be refpefted in New England. The Narraganfets, difliking the condiiifl of MafafToit, declared war againft him, which occafloned much con- fufion and fighting among the Indians. The Plymouth colony interpofed in favour of MafafToit, their good ally, New-Eng- land. The coun- cil of Ply- mouth efta- blilhed and New-Eng- hnj granted them. Miiiot's Hift. MafT, Treaty with Maf- afToit. War with the Narra- ganfet In- dians. Kcw-Eng' land. Death of Gov. Car- Cliarai5ter. Belknap. ■William Bradford chofen Gi vernor. EmbafTy to Mafaflbit. Friendly difpoCtion of the Indi' InAnimeut of their iubmiiliun. Belknap. NEW [6 ally, and terminated tlie difpute to the terror of their enemies. Even Canonicus himfelf, the terrific fachera of the Narraganfets, fued for peace. In April of this year George Carver, while engaged in labour, wilh the reft of the fettlers, was feized with a pain in his head, which fliortly after deprived him of his fenfes, and, in a few days, of his life, to the great grief of thefe afflicfled people. He was buried with all the honours in their power to beftow. Of this gentleman the following charafter is given iiy his biographer. " He v;as a man of great pru- dence, integrity, and firninefs of mind. He had a good eflate in England which lie left in the emigration to Holland and America. He was one cf the fore- iiioft in aflion, and bore a large fhaie cf fuiferings in the fervice of the colony, who confided in him as their friend and father. Piety, humility, and benevolence, were eminent traits in his charac'ler ; and it is particu- larly remarked that in the time of general licknefs, which befel the colony, and with v.hich he was afie(fl- ed, alter he had himfelf recovered, he was affiduous in attending the lick, and performing the molt humi- liating fervices for them, without any dillindlion ot perlbns or charaflers." He was fucceeded by William Bradford, then in the thirty-third year of his age, a man of " wildom, piety, fortitude, and goodnefs of heart," and on thefe ac- counts much refpefted and beloved by the people. Ifaac Allerton was chofen his afliftant in the admini- ftration of government. One ci the firll official ads of Gov. Bradford was to fend an embalfy to Ma- falfoit. His objeds were to explore the country, to carry prefents, and confirm the league witli that chief; to furvey his lituation and llrength, to eftablifh a friend- ly intercourfe, and to procure feed corn for the next feafon. Edward Winfiowand Stephen Hopkins, with Squan- to for dieir guide, compofed this emba/Ty. This fa- chem lived about 40 miles fouthward of Plymouth. As they palTed ihrougii the country, they obferved the marks of the ravages which tlie pellilence had made a few years before. They were received wiih IriendDiip, and acccmplilhed the bufinels cf their milTion to ihe fatisfaflion of the governor. The prudent and upright conduifl of the Plymouth colony towards the Indians, fecured their friendlhip and alliance. Through the influence of Mafallbit, nine of the petty fachems in his neiglibourhood, who were jea- lous of the new colonifts, and difpofed to give them trouble, came to Plymouth, and voluntarily lubfcribed the following inftrument of fubmilFion 10 the king of England, viz. " Sept. 13th A. D. 1621. Know all men by thefe prefentf, tliat we whole names are under- written, do acknowledge ourfelves to be the loyal ful)- jefls of King James, king of Great Britain, France and Ireland, defender of the faith, &c. In witnefs where- of, and as a teltinionial ot the lame, we have fubfcrib- ed our names or marks as followeth : Ohquamehud, Nnttawahunt, Quadequina, Cawnacome, Caunbatanr, Huttamoiden, Obbatinua, Chickatabak, Apannow." Hobbamack, another of thefe fubordinatc diiel's, came and took up his rclidence at Plymouth, where he con- tinued as a faithful guide and interpreter as long as he Uved. The Indians of the iHand of Capawock, which II ] NEW had now obtained the name of Martha's or Martin's Kcw-Erg- Vineyard, alfofentraelfengers of peace." Thefe tranf- '^"t^- aflions are lb many proofs of the peaceful and benevo- ^■^^'^**^ lent difpofition of the Plymouth fettlers. In September ( i C2 1 ) governor Bradford fent ten Maffachu- men, with Squanto, in a Ihallop to explore the bay, fett» Bay now called Mafiachufelts ; they found that the iflands explored, in this bay had been cleared cf wood, that they had been planted, but were now almoft without inhabi- tants. In November, a fiiip with thirty-five paflengeis ar- ^^ a,„f. rived from England. Unfortunately for the liltli co- fion to the lony, the (liip was lliort of provifions, and the colonilb, colony. out of their fcanty pittance, were obliged to vifiual her home. In confcquence, before the next fpring, they were reduced to great ftraits, and obliged lor fome time to fubfill on filli and fpring water. To heighten their dillrefles the Narraganfet chief, Canonicu:-, threat- ened the peace of the colony by a melTage fent in " ihs emblematical llyle of the ancient Scythians, viz. a bun- E^jj^nj die of arrows bound with the fkin of a ferpent.'' The ^ ^^" governor returned the Ikin filled with powder, and ball, which had the defired effed. Afraid of its contents, the chief returned it unopened and remained quiet. About this time a part of the colony of Virgiria was furprifed, and malfacred by tl-e Indians. From this circumllance, and the hoftile difpofition of the Narra- ganfets, the colonills, feeble as they were from famine, found it expedient to fortify their town ; accordingly they furrounded it with a ftockade and four flankarts, divided their company into four fquadrons and alter- nately kept guaril day and night. Their guns were mounted on a kind of citadel ereded on the top cf the town hill, with a flat roof; the lower ftory of which ferved them for a place of worfiiip. Tlie pradice of dueliin^, which has never prevailed pirft duel in New England, was introduced by two fervants, who in New- quarrelled, and fought with /word and dagger. Both England, were wounded, neither of them mortally. For this difgraceful condud, they were formally tried before the whole company, and fentenced to have " their heads and ieet tied together, and fo to remain twenty-four hours, without meat or drink." In confequcnce of their penitence, a part of their puniflrment was remit- ted. The fummer of 1622 being dry, and the harvcft fcanty, the coli.nills were obliged to feek a fupply from the Indians. Governor Bradford, with the friendly and faithful Squanto for his guide and interpreter, made an excurfion for this purp-fe ; during which, Squmto fell fick and died. On his death bed he re- d ,v , quelled the governor to pray for liim, that he might Squanto. " go to the Englifliman's God in heaven." This In- dian deftrves to have his name recorded with honour, in the hillory of New England : he was one of the twenty Indians wlio were per.^idioufly taken by Capt. Thomas Hunt, in 1614, and carried to Malaga, and fold as (laves for life. Thence he efc.iped to London, and alterwards returned to his native country, with the Plymouth colony. Forgetting the perfidy of thofe, w)i.>, by artifice, m idc him a prifoncr, and a flavc, he became a hearty friend of the Englilli, and fo conti- nueii till his death, rendering them in various ways, mod cllenii.il fcruces. Governor Bradford was treated with great refpeft 4 H 2 bjr N E W C 612 ] NEW New-Eng- Und. Belknap. Winflow and Ham- den vifit Maf^ffoit who is Cck He difco- by the feveral tribes which he vifited, and the trade was conduced on both fide?, with confidence and juf- tice. He purchafed in the whole, 28 hhds. of corn, for wliich he paid in goods received from England. The right to the lands, fettled by the Englifh colo- nills, was early purchafed fiom or given by, the Indian proprietors. How great a part of New England was thub fairly obtained liom the Indians, cannot be afcer- l.iin;d. There is evidence to believe, however, that a large proportion of the foil was purchafed, at what was then confidered an equitable price. In the fpriug of 1623, Mafaffoit fell fick, and feat intelligence of it to the governor, who immediately fent Mr Wlnllow, and Mr John H.imJen, (the f.inie man who afterwards dillinguilhed liimfelf, by his oppo- fition to the arbiuary, and unjuft demands of Cliarles I.) to pay him a vilit. They carried with them pre- fents, and fome cordials for his relief. Their vifit and prcfents were very confolatory to the venerable chief, and were the means of his recovery. In return for their kindnefs, he informed them of a vers a con- dangerous confpiracy among the neighbouring Indians, fpiracy ol ^j^^ objecl of which was, the total extirpation of the "■ " '^ *' Englilh. By means of this timely difcovery, and the Belknap, confequent fpirited exertions, of the governor, whofe wife plans were executed by the brave Capt. Standidi, the colony was once more faved from deftruiflion. The " contrad," entered into by the colonifts at Cape Cod, on their arrival, was intended only as a temporary fubftitute for legal authority from their fo- vereign. Accordingly as foon as they were informed of the eftablilhment of the " council at Plymouth, for planting New England," before mentioned, they ap- JohnPcirce plied for, and obtained a patent. It was taken out, obtains a \^ [),£ name of John Pierce, in truft for the colony, patent for „ -^j^g^ jjg fg^^, that they were well feated, and that lifts from tli*''6 was a profpedl of fuccefs to their undertaking, he ihe Coun- went, without their knowledge, but in their name, and cil of Ply- folicited the council for another patent of greater ex- mouth, tent; intending to keep it to himfelf, and allow them no more than he pleafed, holding them as his tenants, to fue and be fued at his courts. In purfuance of this defign, having obtained a patent, he bought a fhip, which he named the Paragon ; loaded her with goods, took on beard upwards of fixty paffengers, and failed from London, for the colony of New Plymouth. In the Downs he was overtaken by a tempeft, which fo damaged the Ihip that he was obliged to put her into dock ; where Ihe lay feveral weeks, and her repairs coft him one hundred pounds. In December 1622, he fail- ed a fecond time, having on board one hundred and nine perfons ; but a feries of tempelluous weather, which continued fourteen days, difabled his fhip, and forced him back to Portfmouth. Thefe repeated dif- appointments proved fo difcouraging to him, that he was ealily prevailed upon by the company of adven- turers to affign his patent to them, for five hundred Belknap's pounds. The pilfengers came over in other fhips." Biog. Tol. In tlie year 1624, the charter of the Plymouth Coun- ii. p. »34. His difm- genuous conduit, and fubfc- qucnt mis- fortunes. oil was attacked by the Britifli Parliament, and fome New-Eng- vigorous refolutions were palFed in the Houfe of Com- ^^^jSl. mons, which fo far deprived the Council of their re- charter at- fources, that, it feems, they no longer thought it prac- tacked, ticable to fettle a plantation, though it appointed a go- vernor general for New England. In confequence the patentees prudently concluded to divide the country among theinfelves. Accordingly, in the prefence of p^tj^fj^ King James, they drew lots for the fhares that each divide the one was to polfefs, as his exclufive property ; the royal country confirmation was to be obtained to each particular por- """"'?. tion. This was not however immediaely given, and "" ^ ^^'• they continued a few years longer to adt as a b.)dy-po- litic, and to make grants of different portions of the country to various focieties. In M.irch 1624, Mr Window, who had been previ- Neat cattle oufly fent to England for the purpofe, arrived with a f'rl 'ni- fupply of clothing, and brought with him a bull and PJ"'"^'' >"t° three heifers, which were the firll neat cattle imported j^^^ "^" into New England. None of the domeRic animals were found in America, by the firfl European fettlers. At the clofe of this year, the Plymouth colony con- Situation of filled of 180 perfons only, who lived in 32 dwelling '^"^ "^"^""y* houfes. Their flock confifted of the cattle brought over by Mr Winilow, a few goats and a plenty of fwine and poultry. Their town half a mile in compafs, was impaled. On a high mount in the town, they had erefled a fort of wood, lime, and Hone, and a hand- fome watch tower. The year following, (March 1625) that truly ven- DestK of erable and good man, the Rev. Mr Robinfon, whofe ^^''- ^^• memory is precious in New England, died at Leyden, K.ol""»o"- in the 50th year of his age, greatly lamented, both in Holland and by that part of his congregation who had fettled at Plymouth. In a few years after, part of his people who had remained with him in Holland, re- moved, and joined their brethren at Plymouth. In 1629, when the plantation confided of about 300 fouls, a patent of larger extent than the one which Pierce had obtained and relinquidied, was folicited by Ifaac Allerton, and taken out in the name of " Wil- liam Bradford, his heirs, affociates, and afTigns."* * Hazard's This patent confirmed their title, (as far as the crown "'"v^°'- of England could confirm it) to a tradl of land, ^^g.'' ''' bounded on the eaft and fouth, by the Atlantic ocean, MrBrad- and by lines drawn weft from the rivulet of Conohaf- fordfurren- fet, and north from the river of Narraganfec, which '^"'^^ '•>'' lines meet in a point, comprehending all the country r"*^'" '° called Pokanokit. To this tracfl they luppofed tliey had ^0,,,^ ^^ a prior title from tlie depopulation of a great part of it their rc- by a peftilencc, from the gift of Mafaif jit, his volun- queft, in tary fubjeftion to the crown of England, and his hav- 1640. ing proteflion of them. In a declaration publilhed by Extent of them in 1636, they alferted their •' lawful right in re- ''"^ P^'^"'*' fpeft of vacancy, donation, and purchafe of the na- Title. tives,"-|- which, together with their patent from the t Hazard i. crown through the council of New England, formed '*°^' " the warrantable ground, and foundation of their go- vernment, of making laws, and difpoCng of lands."(A) In (a) In 1639, after the termination of the Piqued war, Mafaffoit, who had then changed his name to Woo- famequen, brought his fon Mooanam to Plymouth, and defired that the league v.hich he had formerly made, might be renewed, and made inviolable. The fachem and his fon voluntarily proraifed, " for themfelves and their fucceflbrs, that they would not needlefsly, nor unjuftly raife any quarrels, or do any wrong to other NEW [ 613 ] NEW New-Eng- land. f Brad ford's Letters Hift. Col. Tiii. p. 29, 36, 60. Difference between the trading company in England and the planter;. Belknap's Biog. vol. ii. 235, &c. Pcrfecucion of the Pu- ritans. Syftcms of fports ella- Wiflied. In die fair-.e patent was granted, a large tract border- ing (.n the river Kcnnebeck, where they had carried on a tralTic with the natives i'or furs, as they did alfo at Conneaicut river, which was not equally beneficial be- caiife they had the Dutch tor rivals.* The iur trade was found to be much more advantageous than the filhery. Sometimso they e.vchanged corn of their own growth for furs ; but European coarfe cloths, hard ware, and ornaments, were good articles of trade, when tliey could command them. The company in England, with which they were connefled, did not fupply them in plenty. Lofics were fudained by f;a ; the returns were not adequate to their expe^ations ; they became difcouraged ; threw many reflections (>n the pl^.nters, and tinally retufed them any farther fupplies ;f but (till demanded the debt due from them, and would not permit them to connect themfelves in trade with any other perfons. The planters com- plained to the council of New England, but obtained no redrefs. After the expiration of the feven years, (1628) for which the contrad was made, eight of the principal perfons in the colony, with four ot their triends in London, became bound tor the balance ; and trom that time took the whole trade into their own hands. Thefe were obliged to take up money at an exorbitant intereft, and to go deeply into trade at Kennebeck, Penobfcot, and Conneflicut ; by which means, and their own great induftry and economy, they were en- abled to difcharge the debt, and pay for the tranfpor. tation of thirty-tive families ol their friends from Ley- den, who arrived in 1629." The perfecution of the Puritans in England, under Archbilhop Laud, now raged with unrelenting feverity, and while it caufed the deliruction of thoulaiids in Eng- land, proved to be a principle ot life and vigour to the infant colonies in New England. Among other expe- dients for vexing the Puritans (who were now compof- ed both of the diilentcrs from the eftablillied church, and the oppofers of defpotic monarchy;) " a lyllem rf fports and recreations on the Lord's day which had been originated in the laft reign, was revived and ella- blithed by the king. This nieafure was diredtly calcu- lated both to obviate the objeiftions of the Roman Ca- tholics to the fiippreffion of feafts and revels, and to wound the feelings of the Puritans, and embarrafs their clergy ; as tliey were remarkable for a llriifl attention to the fourth coram.indment, flill fo decently obferved by their defcendants. The magiftrates had found thefe fports which confifted of dancing, leaping, vaulting, and various other games, to be introduilory of profa- nation, and attempted to fupprefs them ; but fo great was the zeal of the court to root out Puritanifm, wliich, from the ftriflobfervation it enjoined of the Lord's day, they conceived, tended to diminilh the fcaft days of the church ; that the reprefentations of the magiftrates were overruled, and the order eftablilhing the book of i'ports was direded to be fead in every parilh. This was a net to entangle the clergy, and many loft their livings, for conl'cientioutly refufing to read the order. In (hort, it became evident, in the itar-chamber language of the Earl of Dorlet, that to be guilty of drunkennefs, un- cleannefs, or any lefs fault, might be pardonable ; but that the fin of Puritanifm and non-conformity was with- out ibrgivenefs." Such being the fituation of affairs in England, feve- ral men of eminence, who were the friends and protec- tors of the Puritans, entertained a delign of fettling in New England, if they fhould fail in the meafiires they were purfuing for the eftablifhment of the liberty, and the retormation of the religion of their own country.. They folicited and obtained grants in New England and were at great pains in fettling them. Among thefe patentees, were the Lords Brook, Say, and Seal, the Pelham's, the Hampden's, and the Pym's ; names which afterwards appeared with great eclat. Sir Mathew Boynton, Sir Wdliam Conllable, Sir Arthur Haflerig, and Oliver Cromwell, were aflually on the point of embarking for New England ; when Archbi- lhop Laud unwilling that fo many objefls of his hatred Ihould be removed out of the reach of his power, ap- plied for, and obtained, an order from the court to put a Hop to tliefe tranfportations. " Reftriflions were laid upon their efcape, and whilft fome had fled to foreign countries, others were not lb fortunate as to obtain this dreadful privilege, but were detained as hoftages for the good conduci of their brethren abroad." How. ever, he was not able to prevail fo far as to hinder New England from receiving vail additions, as well of the clergy, who were lilenced and deprived of their living for non-contormity, as of the laity, who adhered to their opinions. As in all countries where perfecution rages, fo here, the wifeft, moft wholelbme, and molt ufeful members of the community, were compelled to leave their country. " Multitudes, (faid Dr Owen, fpeaking of thele times) of pious and peaceable Pro- teftants, were driven by the feverities of their perfecu- tors to leave their native country, and feek a refuge for their lives and liberties, with freedom for the worfhip of God, in a wildernefs in the ends of the earth." — . By fuch people New England was firll fettled. A body of men more remarkable for their piety, and mo- rality, and more relpedtable for theii- wifdom, never perhaps commenced the fettlement of any other coun- try. As early as 1626, a few people from Plymouth, condui.'led by Mr Roger Conant, commenced a fettle- ment on Naumkeag river. Difcouraged by the diffi- culties they had to encounter, they had determined to quit America and return to England ; but, encourag- ed by the Rev. Mr White, of Dorchefter in England, who, with other influential characters that were dellr- ous of providing an afylum in America, for the per» fecuted non-conformifls, alfured them, if they would r«main, that they (hould receive a patent, fupplies, and friends. New-Eng- land. Mmot's continuati- on of Hift. of MaiTi. p. 13- O. Crom- well and others con- template a removal to New-Eng- land. Prevent-d by Apb. Laud. Minot. Charafler of the firft fettlers of New En- gland. Maffachn- fctts fet- tled. natives to provoke them to war againfl; the colony, and that they would not give, fell or convey any of their lands, territories, or polfeflions whatever, to any perfon or perfons whomfoever, without the privity or ccnfent of tlie government of Plymouth, other than to fuch as the faid government (hould fend or appoint. The whole court did then ratify and confirm the aforefaid league, and pr^'mifc, to the faid Woofamequen, his fon and fucccflcrs, that they would defend them againll all fuch as fhould unjuflly rife up againft them, to wrong cr opprefs them." — Morton's Memorial p. ijo. NEW C ^H ] NEW Purcliafed of the I'ly moutii council- March 4, i6j8.1 Ckartcr obtained. Its con- tent*. Kcw-Eng- friends, rellnqulfhed their defign, and concluded to wait land. the event. Accordingly, on the 19th of March 1627, '""'^'^""^ Sir Henry RofwtU, and levsral other gentlemen, in the vicinity of Dorcheller, purchMed of the council of Plymouth, all that part of Nevt' England, included within a line drawn from the Atlantic ocean, 3 miles foutli of Charles river, and 3 miles ndrtli of the Mer- rimac to the South fe:i. But as the council gave them no powers of government, they afterwards obtained a charter of incorporation, from Charles I. conftituting them a body-politic, by the name of the " Governor and Company of Maifachufetts Bay in New England," with powers as extenfive as any other corporation in England. The charter recited the grant oi American territory to the council of Plymouth in 1620. It re- granted M.ifUchufetts Bay to Henry Rofwell and ntheri. The whole executive power of the corpora- tion was veiled in a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen alFiftants ; and until the annual eleilion of the company could commence, the governor, deputy go- vernor, and eighteen aOiftants were fpecitied. The governor, and feven, or more affiftants, were author- il'ed to meet in monthly courts, for difpatchitig fuch bufinefs as concerned tlie company or fettlement. But the legiflative powers of the corporation, were veiled in a more popular alfembly, compofed of the governor, deputy governor, the affiftants, and freemen of the company. This alfembly to be convened on the laft Wcdnefday of e.ich of the four annual terms, by the title of " the General Court," was empowered to enadt laws and ordinances for the good of the body-politic, and the government of the plantation, and its inhabi- tants ; provided they ihould not be repugnant to the laws and (latutes of England. This alfembly was em- powered to eleifl their governor, deputy governor, and other neceffary officers, and to conler the freedom of the company. Tlie company was allowed to tranfport perfons, merchandize, weapons. Sec. to New England, exempt Irom duty for the term of feven years ; and emi- grants were entitled to all the privileges of Englifhmen. H.Adams s gj,£.)^ are the general outlines of the charter. Under Hift. N. jj^jj cj^gftgr Mathew Cradock was elefled the firft go- Cradock vernor, and J nomas Goit, deputy governor; Capt. appointed John Endicott, who, the year before (1627) had gone Oovernor. over with one hundred perfons to Salem to prepare the way for the fettlement of a permanent colony, was ap- pointed, by the Plymouth company, governor for the plantation. In May 1628, about two hundred perfons, with the Rev. Melfrs Skelton, Higginfon, and Bright, embark- ed for New England, and arrived at Naumkeag, now Salem, on the 29th of June. The whole colony under governor Endicott, now confided of about 300 fouls j 100 of whom, the fame year removed to Charleftown. Meffrs Skelton and Higginfon remained at Salem, where they formed, and were ordained over, the firft church in that town ; Mr Bright removed with the migrants to Charleftown. Tiie fituation of the perfecuted puritans in England became more and more intolerable, and interefted num- bers of refpeaable, and wealthy people, in their behalf, and converted them to their principles. Several more of conl'equence in the nation, had formed a refolution to emigrate to Maifachufetts, provided they (hould be permitted to carry the charter with them. They were Hutchin- fon. Pirft church formed in b;ilcm. aware of the inconvenience of being governed, in a New Eng- new and diftant country, different in moll refpeifls from . _'^' - England, by men, over whom they had no controul. They infilled therefore that the ch.iiter llinuld be tranf- mitted with them, and that the corporate powers which it conferred fliould in future be executed in New Eng- land. I'hongh the legality of the propofed meafure was qucftioned, yet the importance of engaging men of wealth and influence in the enterprize, induced Gov. Cradock, who entered fully into their views, to call a charter to general court Aug. 29th 1629, to whom he fubmitted be transfcr- the queftion ; whereupon it was unanimoully refolded rcdtoMaf- " that the patent (hall be tr insferred, and the govern- f^i^hufetts. ment of the corporatii'n removed from London to Chalmers, Maifachufetts Bay." The members of the corpora- p- iji- tion who remained in England, were, by agreement, to retain a fliare in the trading ftock, and the profits of it, for feven years ; but it does not appear that any dividend was ever made, or that any trade was carried on for the company. On the 2oih of Oflober 1629, the company proceed- ed to a new choice, of officers to confift of fuch per- fons as had determined to go over with the charter. John Winthrop was elefled governor, John Humphry , j^^^ win- deputy governor. Sir Richard S^dtonltall and feven- throp go- teen other affiftants. The deputy governor and feveral veinor. of the affiftants, never came to America. Their pla- ces were fupported by a new choice. Thomas Dudley was chofen deputy governor in place of Mr Hum- phreys. In the fpringof 1630, thefe officers, with about 1500 Fifteen emigrants, embarked at various ports in England, in hundred eleven velfels fitted at the expence of more than ^'21,000 colomfts fterling, having their charter on board, and after a te- f?^ " °l dious voyage, they arrived at Salem in June, and at j^j, Charleftown the beginning of July. In confequence, the 8th day of this month, was celebrated in all the plantations in New England as a day of public thankf- glving to God, " for all his goodnefs, and wonderful Prince's works to them." Chronolo- But there were feveral clrcumftances which operated ^' "' as drawbacks, upon the joys of this occafion. An ex- tenfive and formidable confplracy of the Indians, as far , ,. XT ,- r L r r ■ ■ 1 -I- Indian con- as Narraganlet, tor the purpole of extirpating the En- (piracy, glidi colonifts, had been, but a few months before, dif- covered to the inhabitants of Charleftown, by John Sa- gamore, in feafon, however, to prevent its horrid exe- cution. The alarm and terror which this event had occafioned, had hardly fubfided. — Of three hundred perfons who were previoufly at Salera and Charleftown, eighty had died the preceding winter. There was not corn enough to fupply their neceffitles for a fortnight; scarcity, and their other provilions, in confequence of their long voyage, were reduced to icanty pittance. They were obliged to let their fervants (who had coft them from fifteen to twenty pounds each), go free, and provide for themfelves. Under all thefe difadvantages they had a few months to prepare fhelter and food for along and cold winter. To increafe their calamities, amor- -MortMtr tal licknefs foon commenced its ravages among them, aniong the and before December, two hundred of their number coloiiifti- had died. Among thefe was Lady Arabella, who " came from a paradife of 'plenty and pleafure in the family of a noble Earl, into a wildernefs of wants," Mr Johnfon, her hufband, highly efteemed for his pi- ety NEW Ncw-Eof- ety and wifdom," and one of the afliflants, and Mr •jlJJ^l;^^ Roffirer another of the affillants. — To confole them un- der their fevere dirtreffes, Mr Wilfon preaclied to them on the fubjeft of Jacob's behaviour, who was not dif- heartiined by the death of his nearett friends on the way, when God called him to remove. This worthy mini- Her was liberal, aimed to an extreme, in adminillering to the relief of the necelUlous, he was indeed at all times a father to tlie p'lor ; and even the wretched Indians often tailed of his bounty. Part cf the Difcouraged by fuch calamities, and gloomy pro- tolonifts fpeds, about an hundred p;rfons who had lately arri- return. ved, of " weaker minds," and not of the belf charaders, returned to England in the veffels which brought them over. The return of thefe wai. confidered as no lofs to the plantation. This new accellion to the Malfachu- fetts colony coUefled, fome from tlie wefl of England, but chiefly from the vicinity of London, were of all trades and occupations, neceflary for planting a new country. As there were not buildings fiifficient to ac- commodate fuch a number of people, the artificers among them erecfted tents, and temporary booths for their accommodaticn. As the great objeA of thefe chriftian pilgrims, in leaving their native country, and fettling this wilJer- nefs, was to "enjoy the ordinance? of the gofpcl and worlhip the L'lrd Jefus Chrift according to his own inftitutions," Gov. Winthrop, Lieut. Gov. Dudley, Mr Johnfon, and the Rev. Mr Wilfon, on the 30th of July, 1630, entered into a formal and foL-mn covenant with each other, and thus laid the foundation of the church in Charleftown and Bofton. On the 27th of Augull following, Mr Wilfon was ordained pallor of the church at Charleftown. This was the lirft ordina- tion that took place in Maflachufetts. On the 23d of Augull 1630, the firft court of allifl- cf affiftanta ants was held at Charleftown on board the Arabella, Charlcf- confifting of Gov. Winthrop, depuly Gov. Dudley, town. 3"J Sir Richard Saltonllall, Meifrs Ludlow, Rofliter, Newell, T. Sh;\rp, Pynchon, and Bradftreet, aflillants. This court v/.is farmed for the determination of great affairs, civil and criminal Juftices of the Peace, invert- ed with the fame authority as like magiftrates in Eng- land, and other olRcers, were appointed for the pre- fervation of tranquillity. The firll queltion that came before them was, "h^w the minifter? Ihould be main- tained?" On the propof.il of Melfrs Wilfon and Phillips, the court ordered that houfes Ihould be built for them at the public charge, and the governor, and Sir Rich- ard Saltonftall, were appointed to carry the order into effeifl. It was at the fame time ordered that Mr Phil- lips's falary (hould be £^0, a year, and Mr Wilfori's /"20, " till his wife fiiould come over." Thomas Mor- ton, of Mount Wollafton, who had ftolen a boat from the Indians, was ordered to be brought before them for trial, without delay. — Carpenters, joiners, bricklayers, fawycr5, and thatchers, were ordered to take no more than two fliillings a day, under penalty of ten (hillings, ibid. 146, to giver or taker," and Mr Bradftreet was chofen Se- 347- Second court. Morton tried and Firft Chrif- tians ga- thered in Charlef- town and Bofton. Prince** C'hron. p. 343- ibid. p. 347- Firft court cref-ary. On the 7th of September, a fecond court was held at Charleftown, before which Morton was tried, con- demned, and fentenced to be fet in xhebilbozus, and af- terwards to be fent prifoner to England by the fliip fcntcnccd. called the Gif:, now returning thither; that all his goods [ 615 ] NEW (hall be feized to defray the charges of his tranfporta- New-Enj. tion, payment of his debts, and to give fatisfaftion to '^"*i- the Indians for a canoe he had unjuftly taken from ^-'~^^"~' them ; and that his houfe be burnt down to the c^round, in fight of the Indians for their fatibfafti^n, for die ma- ny wrongs he had done them." All perfms were for- bidden to plant within the limits of their patent, with- out leave from the court; thofe perfons who had fet down at Agawara were ordered to remove ; Trimoun- Prince, p. tain they named Bojloti, Mattapan Durchejicr, and the *4^- town on Charles River Watertoivn. Before the following winter. Sir Richard S iltonftHll, Water- with Mr Phillips and others removed, and formed a town, Eof- plantation at IValerioiun ; the greater part of the '°"' ^""^ church in Cliarleilown, with Mr Wilfon, removed and ^^^V (ettled in Bofton. Another company, with Mr Pyn- ' chon at their head, fettled at Roxbury. On the 6th of December the governor and afllftants met, and agreed to fortify the Bofton Neck ; but the delign was relinquiftied (hortly after, and inllead of a fortification in this place, they concluded to build, the next fpring, a fortified town, on the fpot, near where Plan of a Harvard Univerfuy has fince been eftablilhed, then fu^'t-ificd called Newtown. In the fpring following, the go ■ "'''^'"' vernor accordingly began to erea a houfe; and ihe de- f'J™"'.^"* puty governor finilhed his, and removed his family. cd.'°^"' '" But the neighbouring Indians manifefting a friendly difpofition, the apprehenlions of danger le/fened, and the plan of a fortified town was relinquilhed. The go- vernor fettled at Bofton, and the deputy governor re- ^"='^'"-, moved to Roxbury. ^ \% As the winter approached, provifions became ex- tremely fcarce ; the people were compelled to fubfift on clams, mufchs, groundnuts, and acorns, and even thefe were procured with great difficulty, while the fnow covered the ground. Thefe trials difcouraged Alarming many ; and when it was announced tliat " the governor Scarcity, had the laft batch of bread in the oven," they almofl defpaired of receiving feafonable relief. Tliey were moreover full of fears, left a (hip which had been dif- patched to Ireland for provifions, had either been caft away, or taken by pirates. But God, in his good pro- vidence, fent them timely relief. In their trouble, they had appointed a day to feek the Lord by faftin" and prayer. Before the day came, the (Lip, with pro- . vifions, competent to their neceflltier, arrived, and they bj['', m'"s changed the day of fafting into a day of thankfgiving. no'tcs. After a winter oi great fufferings the court convened in the fpring 1631, and ordained,"" " that the governor and afllftants lliall, in future, be ciiofen by the freemen "^^"^ alone ; that none lliould be admitted to the freedom of ^q"" ^°^^' the company but fuch as were chol'en members, wh<i had certificates from their minifters that they were of orthodox principles ; and that none but freemen fhould vote at eledlions, or aft as magiftrates or jurymen." This extraordinary law continued in force, till the writ oi quo tvarranto, in 1684, annihilated the government Chalmeri, which enaded it. p. ijj. The diftredes endured the preceding feafon induced p j r thecolonifts to pay great attention to the raifing of pro- f^a, of'tht vifions for their future fupport. To encourage a fpirit fcarcity. fo laudable and necefiary, the court enabled " That In. dian corn (hould be deemed a legal tender in difcharge of debts." A great part of the cattle which had been imported from England had died ; and a milch-cow was New- Eng- land. Union bc- twfcn the colonies of AlaiTachu- felts and I'lymouth. Complaint againi^ the colonifls. Chalmers. New em- barkations for New- England, and the order of the king thereupon, Hutchin- fon. NEW [ 6i was now valued at twenty-live to thiity pounds fter- ling. Two colonies, one at Plymouth, the other at Mafla- chufetts, were now planted in New-England. Both were critically lituated in refpefl to their neighbours. The Plymouth fettlers had erefled a trading houlc at Penobi'cot abont the year 1627; of this the French from Arcadia had taken pofTellion. This gave rife to complaints on both fides of incroachments on their re- fpeiftive rights, which led on finally to war between the parent countries. Tlie MalFachufetts colony was threatened by the fur- rounding Indians. In thefe circumftances prudence dii.1ated that union (hould be eflablilhed between the two infant colonies. To bring about a me;ifure fo ne- celfary to their fafety, the Governor, with the Rev. Mr Wilfon and otliers proceeded to Plymouth, 40 miles through the wildernefs on foot. They were kindly and refpeijtfully received by governor Bradford, and the principal gentlemen at Plymouth ; and the refultof this cmbaliy was a lading friend(hip between the colonies. The colonills, in their zeal to preferve the unity and purity of the faith, had expelled from among them fome, vvhofe princip'es and condufl they difapproved. Thefe perfons complained to the king of the wrongs they had futfered. Their complaint was referred to the privy council for colonies, Jan. 1632 ; but moll of the charges being denied, and " to avoid difcouragement to the adventurers, and in hopes that the colony which then had a promifing appearance would prove benefi- cial to the kingdom," the complaint was difniiffed. The fpirit of perfecution lliU raged in England. Many of the perfecuted, lefs enterprifing than their brethren who had already migrated to America, had been waiting with folicitude to Know their fituation and profpeifls. Satisfied on thefe points from the accounts they had received, great numbers embarked this year (1633) for New England. So numerous, and of fuch charaifter were thefe emigrants, that the king in council thought fit to ilfne the following order, Feb. 21. 1633. " W^hereas tlie board is given to underltand of the frequent tranfportation of great numbers of his majef- ty's fubjeds out of this kingdom to the plantation of New- England, among whom divers perfons known to be ill affefled, difcontented, not only with civil but eccleliaflical government here, are obferved to refort thither, whereby fuch confufion and diftra(5tion is al- ready grown there, efpecially in point of religion, as befiJes the ruin of the faid plantation, cannot but high- ly tend both to the fcandal of church and (late here : And whereas it was informed in particular, that there are at the prefent, divers (hips in the river of Thames, ready to fet fail thither, freighted with palTengers and provifions: It is thought fit, and ordered that (lay fhould be forthwith made of the faid (hips until further order from the board. And the feveral mafters and freighters of the fame (liould attend the board, on Wednefday next in the afternoon, with a lift of the palfen^ers, and provifions in each iliip. And that Mr Cradock a chief adventurer in that plantation, now prefent before the board, (hould be required to caufe the letters patent for the faid plantation to be brought to this b lard." This order, however, in confequence of an able vin- dication of the conduit of the governor, and colonifts 6 ] NEW of New-England by fucli of the company as were pre- New-Eng- fent, did not put a (lop to emigrations. Infomeofthe '^"''• fummer months of this year there arrived 1 2 or 14 (hips filled with palfengers. Among the diftinguilhed cha- racters who came over about this time were Mr Haynes, Sir Henry Vane, and the Rev. MelTrs Cotton, Hooker and Stone. — The firft was afterwards many years go- vernor of Connefticut. Tiie fecond was the next year elefted governor of Malfachufetts. The three laft named were among the mod eminent divines of that day, and their migration to New-England, drew after them multitudes oi tlie perfecuted puritans. Mr Cotton is faid to have been more ufeful and influential in fettling the civil as well as eccleliaftical polity of New-England than any other perfon. Until this period the legidative powers had been ex- Reprefen- erciled by the governor, deputy governor, and adift- "tivc go- ants, and the whole body o( freemen in perfon, though vcrnment the latter had been permitted to have but little (hare in ^'^i''^'''^'=<'' t 11111. ^ *^^d the the government ; but the co(ony had now become fo riehts of numerous that it was inconvenient and indeed imprac- the people licable to legiflate in one aifembly ; nor was it fafe, aflcrted. furrounded as they were with holtile Indians, for the freemen to leave their lamilies tor fo long a time un- protefled: NeceQity there(ore obliged tliem to eftablilli a reprcfitilati-oe form of government , which they did by general confent, though no exprefs provifion was made for it in the charter. Accordingly the freemen eleifled twenty-four deputies, who appeared in general court, May, 1634, as their reprefentatives. Their fiiftbufi- nefs was to a(rert the rights of the people by pafling the following refolutions ; viz. " That none but the gene- ral court had power to make and edablifh laws, or to eleifl and appoint officers as governor, deputy governor, affiftants, treafurer, fecretary, captains, lieutenants, enfigns, or any of like moment, or to remove fuch upon mifdemeanor, or to fet out the duties or powers of thefe officers. — That none but the general court hath power to raife monies, and taxes, and to difpole of lands, viz. to give and confirm proprieties.'' After theferefolutions, they proceeded to the eleiflion of magiftrates. Then they further determined, " That there fhall be four general courts held yearly, to be fummoned by the governor for the time being, and not to be diflolved, but by confent of the major part of the court. That it (hall be lawful for the freemen of each plantation to choofe two or three, before every general court, to con- fer of, and prepare, fuch bufinefs as by them fhall be thought fit to conlider of at the next court ; and that fuch perfons as fhall be hereafter fo deputed by the free- men of the feveral plantations, to deal in their behalf in the affairs of the commonwealth, fhall have the full power and voices of all tiie faid freemen, derived to them for the making and eftablilhing of laws, granting of lands, &c. and to deal in all other affairs of the commonwealth, wlierein the freemen have to do, the matter of eleffion of magiftrates and other ofllcers only excepted, wherein every freeman is to give his own voice." — And to fhow their refentment, they impofed a fine upon the court of affiftants for going contrary to an order of the general court. " The legiflative body Hutchin- thus organized, continued without alteration, (except fon. that the number of general courts annually was reduc- ed, in 1644, from four to two,) till the lofs of the charter in 1 684. This is fuppofed to have been the fecond houfe NEW C 617 ] NEW New-Eng- houfe of reprefcntatives th.it ever aflemWed In Ame- hnJ. rica. A houfe of burgeiles met for the firll time in ^^^^"^"^ Virginin, May 1620, touneen years before. Code of Having thus crtablilheJ their firmof government, the lawiciiatft. enaaion o( a coJe of laws was the next bulinefs in e<l- courfe. The leading ch.ira(51ers among the colonilh, were of opinion that ihe fubje>5ts of any prince or Ihite haJ a natural right to emigrate to any ether (late or country, when deprived of liberty ot confcience, and that up m fuch a reniov.il their allegiance ceafed. They confidered their fubjediun to the ciown ol England as voluntary, and founded on mutual compad, and this compaft was their charter. They maintained their right to make their own laws, and to eleift their own mjglftrates, but acknowledged that their laws mull not be repugnant to thofe of England; and that by their compaft they had no right to be fubjeift to, noT feek protedion from, any foreign piince. With thefe fenti- ments, and without any partiality lor the laws of their mother country, under which they had luffered fo ma- ny hardlhips, it is not furprifing that they did not adopt the laws of England as the foundation of their code. The peculiarity of their fituation, indeed, rendered ne- celFary cnrrel'p.uiding laws and regulations. And as their leading objeift in migrating to this country, was to enjoy liberty of confcience, and to fupport and tranfmit pure to their ptfterity, the religion of the Bible; and finding in this book the leading principles ot good go- vernment, and a fyllein of laws tor the general regu- lation of human condufl, they adopted it as their " prin- cipal code of law, and declared, as an article in their bill of rights, that no man iliould fuffer but by an ei- prefs law, fufficienily publilhed, yet in cafe of a defeifl of law in any particular inllance, ty the 'word of God." " It is obvious to all in the prefent age, that the pe- culiarities of the Jewilh nation mull render their jurif- prudence inapplicable, in a variety of inltances, to a people fo differently circumftanced ; and the rights of individuals could gain nothing by negledmg the expe- rience of mankind, in former judicial pioceedings, where they were in any degree fimilar to cafes which might arife. The code of laws became marked with many additional capital crimes, unknown as fuch to thofe of England ; and fmaller offences were multi- plied wiih rigorous exaflnefs. As this feverity had for its objeifl, an exemplary purity of morals and religion, which flioulj extend to every perfon in fociety, it of courfe reached the more private anions of its members, ;\nd included all the relationlhips fublklirg between them. " Their capital offences were idolatry, witchcraft, 1)1 afphemy, murder, belliality, fodomy, adultery, man- dealing, hearing falfc witntfs, confpiracy and rebel- lion, curfing, or fmiling a parent, unlefs when ne- t;leifled in education, or pr(iVokcd by extreme and cruel correiflion, rebelli< us and ftubborn condui5l in a fon dif- obcying the voice and challifemcnt of his parent?, and living in nutoriuus crimes, rape, and aifbn ; other of- fences were .tlfo made capi'al upim a feconJ or third conviflion, and liie degree of the i ffeuce was in fome inftances increafed by .the circumilance cf its being committed on the Sabbath. " In the inferior clalFcs of crimes were many pecu- liar to the fituation of the colony, efpccially wi:h re- gard 10 Aimptuary legula'.ionj, and the enfcrcing of Suf PL. Vol. II. indultry. In thcfe there are ftrong protfs cf tfie difpo- Nc-w-Fng- fition which prevailed, of iliewing refpecl to particular '•^'''' defcriptions of famiHe^ by diftinctions in their favour. Their punillimenis bore a refemhl*nce to the general rigour of tl eir penal code, and were fi metimes, even in capital cai'es left to the dilcreiiin of their judges. There is a law on ih:: fuljedof torture, which is a ftain raiher up< n thevi lume in wliich it is recorded, th inupon the prav^ice of the country; to the honour of which it may be faid, that iheufe of this ftatutehas been fo little con- templated, that it became wholly obfolete. This law prohibits torture generally, but excepts any cafe in vhich the criminal is firft fully convifled, by clear and fufficier^t evidence ; after which, if it be apparent from the nature of ihe cafe, that there be confederates with him, he may be tortured, yet not with fuch tortures ai are l)arbar( us and inhuman. The very terms of this flatute feem to difarm it of the power cf irjuring, and would render it, if it were in force, a lefs dreadful en- gine of inhumanity than the pe'we fortt el dure of the Englifh law. The rigour of jullice extended itfelf aj well to the proteftion cf the rights of property, as to the moral habits if the people; and a remarkable in- (lance of this is Ihown in the power given to creditors, over the perfons of their debtors. The law admitted ot a freeman's being fold for fervice to dikharge his debts, the ugh it would not allow of the facrifice of his time, by his being kept in prifon unlefs fome eftate was concealed. " The governor and affiftants were the firfl judicial court; to this, iiferior jurifdidions were added; and upon the houfe of reprefcntatives coming into eiWlence, the judicial authority was (liared by them, as in the words of their law, the fecond branch of the civil power ot this commonwealth. The lubordinate jurif- diiftions, were the individual magirtrates, the commi.'"- fioners of towns and the county courts. Thefe feem in fome fcnfe to have a<5ted a? the deputies of the general court, fince, in difficult points, they were allowed to Hate the cafe without the names of the parties, to that court, and receive its declaration of the law. " The perpetual controverfy incident to dividing power among fcveral order?, d^fproportionate in t!ieir numbers, took place between the aflillanis and repre- fcntatives. Whether they flinuld vote in feparaie bo- dies or colleftively, became a ferious difpute. As by a defefl in the conllitution they held both legiflatlve and judicial authority ; it was at lall conipromiled, tiiat in making the laws, the two houfes (hould vole feparately, with a negative upon each other ; but in trying canles, in cafe they fhould differ in this mode, they (hould pro- ceed to determine tl e quellicnby voting together. "As in their govemniert, hereditary claims were re- jcifled, their poblx officers being all periodically chofen from tl)e body ot llie freemen, and wihout rcg^ird tu dirtinift order^, fo in the def'cent and dtftribution of real or perfonal tflates of inteil ites, the excliifive clam cf any one heir was not admitted, but tqujl divifion was made among all, relerving only to the elded fon a driibls portion. This, cfpecially in cafe ol a numen us family, which is not an uncommon inllance in a you-.g couiitry, tfretffually picvcnted the undue accumuIaMoa ot pro- perly. Tiiefc two regnl.iti.ins may be fiid to l)e the great pillars on wliich i-.p'iblicaii liberty in Malfachu- fcits is fupporied. T.jere wa; an incll^m-.iblj aJvaitage I gained NEW C 6i8 ] NEW NcwF.ng- gained to the caufe of freedom by a law in 1641, which land. declares the lands of the inhabitants free from all fines ^■^'^'"^^ jj„j licences upon alienation, herints, wardlliips, and the whole train of teudalcxaflions, which have fo grievoufl)' opprtllcJ mankind in other parts of the world. They tendered hofpitallty and fuccoiir to all ciiriilian ftrangers flying from the tyianny of their perfecutors, or from famine, wars, or the like conipiilfory caufe, and intitied them to the fame law and jullicc as was adminiftered among themfelves. But while they have thus fcrupuloufly regulated the morals of the inhabitants within the colony, and offered ita> an afylum to the opprelfed among mankind, they rieglciSed not to prevent the contagion of dillimilar ha- bits, an J heretical principles fi om without. A law was msde in the year 1637, ihat none Ihould be received to inhabit wiililn the jurifdnition, but fuch as fhould be al- lowed by ('on)eof the magillrates; and it was fully un- derftood, that dilfering from the religious tenets gene- rally received in tlie ountry, was as great a difqnalifi- caiion, as any political opinions whatever. In a defence of this order, it is advanced, that the apollolic rule of reje'iing fuch as brought not the true doiftrine with them, wai as applicable to the commonwealth as the church, and that even the prophane were hfs to be dreaded than the able advocates of erroneous opinions." The fiill fetileis of New England were certainly a remarkable people ; of a charafler peculiarly adapted to thofe imf ortant dcfigns in providence which they were to fulfil. They wcie dtllined to plant and fubdue a «i'.dernef?, filled with favage and feiocious enemies ; to lay the fotindation of a great empire : and this too un- der the jealcus and unpropitious eye of their parent country. Accordingly they were enterprifing, brave, patient of labour and fiitlerings, and polklFed a firmncfs of fpirit, and a zeal fir rcligiun bordering on enthufiafm. They had alfo among them their full proportion ol the learned and bell informed men of that age. A body ot men more remaikable tor their piety, more exemplary in thtir mcrals, mote refpeftabh for their wifdom, never bef'ue, nor fince, ccmnienced the feltlernent of any cour:try. Vv'hat have been confidered as blemiflies in thtir ch-racterfe^medneceffary in their fituat'on. " Lefs rigour would have difqualified them for difcharging the heavy duties which they had to perform, and perhaps more liberality would have introduced fe(ftaries which would have weakened the commnnity by divifions, and proHigates who would h.ive C( rrupted it by their vices." Oneof thefirll llatermen in America>* hasthuscharafter- Adam^.l.t- j,-gj (],g f.ithers f f New England. " Reliizious, to fome of the U. degree of enthufiafm, it may be admitted tliey were, but this can be no peculiar derogaiirn from their cha- rai^er, becaufe it was at that time alnioll the univerfal chaiafler, not only of England, but of Chtiftendom : had this however been oiheiwi.e, their enthufi :fm, con- fideiing the principles on which it was founded, and the ends to which it was directed, far from being a reproach, was greatly t'> their honour. Fur I believe it wilt be found uuiverfally true, that nn great enterpnze fur the honour, or h.ippinefs of mankind, was ever atchi ved, without a huge mixture of that noble intiimity. What- ever imperfci-'iini-.s may be jultly afcribed to them, v.hich lioivevcr are a^ tew as ,^ny mortals have difcovered, their judgment in forming their policy was fouiided on wife and btnevoleni piiiicipks; it was founded un revelation Minor's continua- tion p. 24 &c. Charaflcr of the f^rlt fcttlers of New-Eng- land. Minor. John States. and reafon too ; it was confident with the bed, greateft, New-Snj;- and wifeft, legifiaitors of antiquity." v-^1^^w In the years 1621 and 1622, captain John Mafon,and New- Sir Ferdinando G irges, obtamed grants of thePlymouth HamplWrt Council, (of which they were the mod active members) »»J Mam' of all the country between Naumkeag, (now Salem; l^e'"^"' and Sagadahock river ; and back to the Lakes of Ca- nada. The trail between Naumkeag and Merrimack, which was granted to Mafon, he called Mariana. The reft, granted jointly to both they named Laconia. The next year (1623), they planted a colony, and efiablilhed a tilhery on Pifcataqiia river. About the fame time a variety of other little fettlements were formed, on the coall between the Merrimack and Saga- dahock rivers. But none of them flourifhed, being " rather temporary eftablilhments for traffick than feed plots of future plantations." So ilow was the progrefs of the fettlements in this part of New England, that filteen years after their commencement, (in July 1638,) when JotTelyn failed along this coaft, he law, he oblerves, " no other than a mere wildernefs, here and there by the fea fide, fcattered plantations with a few houfes." In 1629 the foutheaftern part of the prel'ent (late of New Hamijftiire was purchaled of the Indians, and a deed obtained of them by John Wheelwright and others from Madachufetts. Thefame year captain Mafon pro- cured a new patent from the council of Plymouth, for a dill larger traifl, including this Indian purchale. This tratS was nownamed New Hampshire. For feveral years after this, the adventurers paid very little attention to agriculture. They imported their bread corn from England and Virginia. Their views were chiefly turned to the difcovery of thelakes, and of mines, to the cultivation of grapes, to the peltry trade, and the filheries. The peltry trade was of fome value,, and the filheries fupported the inhabitants, but neither lakes nnr mines were found, and the vines which they planted perilhed. Difcouraged by ill fuccefs, the adven- turers in England Icld their ihares to Malbn and Gorges, who, in conleqnence, became the lole proprietors. Ttiey in 1634. renewed their exertions to increafe the colony, and appointed Francis Williams, a wife and popular man, its G svemor. An attempt was made by Mafon and Gorges about this time, to divide New England into twelve Lordlhips, under the diredi'n of a genera! governor. Thisfcheme was countenanced at Court, but was never adopted, and produced no material injury to the rights ot the fettlers. The religious views and fentiments of Mafon and Gorge?, did not accord witli tholi; of the planters of Madachufetts; — the objefl of the latter was to eftablifti a thrillian community, for the prefervatlon and fpread cf pure leliglon, and liberty of confcience; while that of the former was to plant colonies, which fhould yield them wealth and power. The enterprize cf M.ifon and Gorges was, huwever, at this period, exemplary and ufeful, as it fervcd to excite a fpirit ot emulation in other adventurers, and thelrmemory deferves refpeift. Captain Malon died in the w-lnter of 1635-6. Governor Winthrop in his Journal makes the toll owing remark on his death, evincive of the temper of thofe limes. " He was the chief mover in all attempts agalnft us, (the Malfachufetts co- lony) and was to have lent the general governor ; and for this end was providing Ihips. But the Lord, /;? n:f;i;y, took him away, and all the bufinefs fell on lleep." NEW [ 6 fttw-r.ng' In April 1639, Gorges obtained from Charles I. a '"'£• ccntirmatlon ot' hii patent, and " his limits were now extended to one hundred miies from the rivers fomh- Weft ward into the deil'rt." This trafl was called Maine. By this patent Gorges was inverted with all the royal riglits of a Count palatinate — with greater powers than had ever been granted by a fovereign to a fuhjcifl. Encouraged by thcfe attentions, and invefted with authority, the following year he eftablifhed civil government within the province, appointed Joffelyn and others his counlellors, and tranlmitied to them (March 1640) ordinances to regulate them in the ad- minillratlon of juilice. But he pollelfed not the talents requifite to the government of a colony ; the Conllitu- tion he had formed for Maine, was merely executive, without any leglflative powers, nor did it provide any afTembly in which the people might be reprefcnted. Eticouragement was n"t given to emigrants to pur- chafe and cultivate his lands. Agriculture was negleifl- ed. Lands were granted, not as freeholds, but by leafes, fubjeifl to quit-rents, and no provifion was made for the regular fupport of the clergy. With fuch a government and fuch regulations, it could not be ex- pe>.1ed that the colony would dourilh ; on the contrary " the province languifhed for years in hopelefs imbeci- lity ; and its languors ceafed, and a principle of life was inlufed, only when he ceafed to be its proprietary and lawgiver." The town of York, however, was incorporated by him, with city privileges, in 1641, though this circumft.ince feems to have added neither to its wealth nor importance. Eitter fet- Religious diffcntions were excited about this time in tied. M.iifachufetts by the introduiflion of Antinomian prin- ciples. At the bead of thofe who embraced ihefe fen- timents was the Rev. John Wheelwright, brother of the famous Ann Hutchinfon, who, finding oppofition too powerful, quitted Maifachufetts, and with a num- ber of his followers, planted tlie town of Exeter. Sen- fible of the necelfrty of government and laws, of which they were dollituie, thirty-five perfons, in Oiftober 1639, " combined themfelves in the name of Cirrift, to ereft fuch a government as fliould be agreeable to the will of God." They confidered themfelves as fubjefls of England, acknowledged the laws of the realm, and promifed obedience to fuch laws as fhould be made by thcT own reprefentatives, and chofe a Mr Underbill for their governor. Their fuuaiion, however, was neither happy nor profperous. Not long after a fmall, but more refpeflable number of perfons from England, fettled at Dover, and in Ocllobcr 1640, thefc people, and thofe wlio had plant- ed themlelves at Portfmouth under Williams, formed themfelves, each, into a body politic, after the exam- ple of iheir nciglibours at Poitfmouth. Four dillin(S governments, (including one at Kittery on the north fide of the river) were now torraed on the feveral branches of the Pifcataqua. Thefe combina- tions being only voluntary agreements, liable to be broken or fubiiividcd on the firll popular difcontent, there ciinld be no f.tfcty in the continuance of them. The diftiai-^ions iu England, at this time, had cut off all h'^pe ' f the royal attention, and the people ot the fcvijril fettlcmcnts were too much divided in their opitiions to f rni any jjencr.il plan of government, which could alTuid a profpc«.l of peimanent utility. 19 ] NEW The more conftderate perfons amon^ them, therefore, New-Enj- thought it belt to treat with Maifachufetts, about tak- '"'•'^• ing them under their proteflion. That government was ^""^ glad of an opportunity, to realize the conftruflion which ihey liad put upon the cLufe, of their charter, wherein tlieir northern limits are defined : for a line drawn from call to weft at the diftarce of " three miles to the north- ward ol Merrimack river, and of any and every part thereof," will take in the whole Province of New- Hamplhire, and the greater part of the Province of Maine, fo that both Mafcn's and Gorges' patents mull have been vacated. They had already intimated their intention to run this eall and weft line, and prefuming on the juftice of their claim, they readily entered into a negociation with tlie principal fettlers of Pifcataqua refpeding their incorporation with them. The affair was more than a year in agitation, and was at length concluded by an inftrument fubfcribed in the prefence of the general court, by George Wyllys, Robert ^ Saltonftall, \Villiam Whiting, Edward Hcliock, and Thomas Makepeace, in behalf of themfelves and the other, partners of the two patents ; by which inftru- ment they reiigned the jurifdicflion of the whole to Maf- fichufetts, on condition that the inhabitants fhould en- joy the f.ime liberties with their own people, and have a court of juftice ereded among them. The property of the wiiole patent of Ponfmouth, and of one lliird part of that of Dover, and of all the improved lands therein, was referved to the lords and gentlemen pro- Bclknip, prietors, and to their heirs forever. Thus New-Hampfliire ceafed to be a feparate prov- ince. Each of the alfociations before mentioned dif- folved their relpeiilive compadls, which had been pro. duiflive of much contention and anarchy, and peace- ably fubmitted to Malfnchufetts. In the year 1631, Wahquimacut, a fachem of one Settlement of the tribes upon the Connedicut river, vilr.ed the "f Coimec- governors ot MalEichufctts and Plymouth, and earneft- "'"'' ly befought them to make a fettlement upon that tiver. Wahquimacut was induced to make this requeil from a h('pe that the Englilh might pruteift him and his na- tion againll the Pequods, who, from their number, and po.ver, threatened to extermirrate the river tribes To perfuade the Enjlilh to comply wirh his requeft, he reptelented to them the fertility of the country, and its advantages tor trade, and prcmifed to give them eighty beaver fkins, and an annual fupply of corn. Mr Win- tlirop, the governor of Milficliuleits, was not inclined to accept the offer. — t\Ir Winll iw, the governor of Plymouth, thought it worthy of confideration, and, that he might judge of the truth of the fachem's repre- fcntations, vifited the river in the latter part of this year. In 1632, a more particular examination of the liver and adjoining territories was made by the people of New Plymouth, with a defign 10 fixorpon a proper fitc for a trading hiu'e. Havii'g found rfliiivble fnuation, tliey endeavoured to engage governor Winrhiop and his councrl to unite with tliem in this new feitlenunt; but n It having fucceeded in tliis attempt, th.ey lef >lved by tiieniklves to un.l.r'akc it. Accordingly in Oi5lo- ber 1633, William Holmes of Plymouth, with a fmall company ot men, failed up the Conuedicut ; and not- wi.rllanding the thrc.its of the Pcqnods, and of the Dutch, who hud lately built a Imall fort at Hartford, 4 I 3 eroded NEW C 62 ^'ew-rn^- ereflfd a trading lioiifc a fliort diftance below the irouth lr,n.i (,(■ the I'tile river in Windfor. 'J'his was the firft houfe *'"^'"^''^"*^ that vras ere(;leJ in Conncilicut. The EnglKh, thus el\ab!iiii-d, treated the Indians with jiiRica and kind- ncfi ; and the Indians in return teltitied to lliem, in every pofiib'.e manner, afTeftian and good will. The fierce and ligh fpitited Pcquods were the only people who rctufed ihib inierchani^e of g..od offices, and who thus caily manif;fled a deep animofity towards the ILnglilh. In 1634, the inhaliltants i-f Dorchefter, Watertown, and Newtown, applied to the general court ol" Maflachuietts for permillion to remove to Conncfli- cut. After waim and long debates, this permiflion was refufed. Nevcrthelefs the body of the people of Dorchefter, and of the towns of Newtown, Cambridge and Watertown, concluded to remove. Hid. Col. In the fummer of 1635, they performed the danger- for 1798, ous and laborious jouniev acrofs the wildernefs to Con- W '67. nedlicut river. At the time of their removal, the Dutch had extended their claim, to the river, and made a fet- lUmcnt a few miles below Windfor. The fortitude of thofe pious adventurers was truly wonderful. Ab lUt one hundred men, women, and children, took their departure from the three towns beforementioned, to travel through an unexplored wildernefi. They were fourteen days performing the tedious journey. The wildernefs, through which they palfed, for the firft time refounded, with the praifcs of God. They prayed, and fang pfalms and hymns as they marched al ing ; the Indians following and looking on them in filent admiration. They arrived at this river, the obje<?l of their ardent expedlation, near the mouth of Scantic river in Eall Windfir. The Dorchefter people, with Mr Wareham for their minlfter, began the fettlement of Windfor on the weft fide of the river ; they fuffered great hardlhips the firft winter, and their cattle perifhed for want of food ; fir to carry much provifion or furniture through a pathlefs wildernefs was impraflicable. Tfieir priuci- p il provifions and houfehold furniture had been put on board feveral fmall velfels, which, by reafon of delays, and the tempeftuoufnefs of the feafon, were either caft away, or did not ariive. Several velfels were wreck-ed on the Ihore of New-England, by the violence of the ftorms. Every refource appeared to fail, and the peo- ple were under the dreadful apprehcnfions, of penlliing by famine. They fuppoited themfelves in this diftref- T rumbuU'i '"'"g period with that heroic firmnefs and magnanimity. Hid. Com. for which the firft feitlers of New-England had been fo eminently diftinguifhed. The Indians on, and near, the river were numerous. Three Sachemdoms were in the vicinity. The feat of one was near the mouth of Podiinck river, lying in the fouthweft corner of Etft Windfor. A fecond at Mid- dletown, twenty miles below ; and the third at Farm- ington, about twelve miles weft of Windfor. Some of the firft fctt'ers of Windfor were gendemen of opulence and education, as were alfo thofe of Hart- ford and Weatliersfie d, which fettlements were begun ^ at the fnme time. The right of fettling here tliey piinha'ed of the old Plymouth company in England, and they pa'd the Indians for the foil. They had fent f.)me men the year preceding their removal, to make the puich.ife of the natives, whom they looked upon at the CBly rightful proprieiors. (For the remainder of o 1 NEW the hiftory of Conneflicut, fee article Connecticut, New-Eng- Vol. I. of this Work.) vJ^iJlis.., Motives of the fame kind with thofe which are well Sittlimcnt known to have occafioned the fettlement of moft of the of Rliodc- otlier Uni'ed States, give biith to the fettlement of lfl»'i'l- KhodelOand. The emigrants iiom England, who came to Maffjchu'etts, though they did not perfeflly agree in religious feniiments, had been tolerably united by their common zeal againft the ceremonies of the Church of England. But as foon as they were remov- ed from ecclefiaftical courts, and pofleffed a charter allowing liberty of confcienee, they fell into difputes and contentions among themfelves ; and, notwiihftand- ing all their fufferings and complaints in England, ex- cited by the principle of uniformity, (fuch is human nature) the majority here were as fond of this principle as thofe from whofe p^rfecution they had fled. The true grounds of religious liberty were not em- b'aced at this time, nor unJerftood by any feft. While all difclaimed perfecution for tlie fake of confcience, a regard for the public peace, and the prefervation of the Cfiurch of Chrifl from infeflion, together with the ob- flinacy of the heretics, was urged in juftification of that, which, ftrippedof allits difguifes, the light of nature, and the laws of Chrift, in the moft folemn manner condemn. Mr Roger Williams, a Puritan minifter, came over to New-England in 1631, and fettled at Salem, affift- ant to the Rev. Mr Skelion. His fettlement was op- pofed by the magiftrates becaufe he refufed to join with the church, at Bofton, unlefs they would make a pub- lic declaration, of their repentance for maintaining communion with the church of England, while in their native country. In confequence Mr Williams removed to Plymouth where he remained affiftant to Mr Smith, three years ; when he difagreed with fome influential charadfers in that town, and by invitation returned to Salem and fuccceded Mr Skelton who had lately de- ceafed. His fettlement was flill oppofed by the magi- ftrates, who charged him with maintaining, " That it is not lawful for a godly man to have co.mmunion in fimily prayer, or in an oath, with fuch as they judge unregenerate;" therefore he refufed the oath of fidelity, and taught others to follow his example ; " that it is not lawful for an unregenerate man to pray ; that the magiftrate has nothing to do in matters of the firft table ; that there fhiuld be a general and unlimited to- leration of all religions ; that to puniih a man for fol- lowing the diiflates of his confcience was perfecution ; that the patent which was granted by king Charles was invalid, and an inilrument of injuftice which they ought> to renounce, being injurious to the nations, the king of England having no power to difpofe of their lands to his own fubjefls." On account of thefe fentiments, Mifs A- and fir refufing t(j join with the Maffachufetts churches, dams' Hid.. he was at length baniftied the colony, as a difturber of ^'-'^"^■"S" the peace of the church and commonwealth. He lelt his houfe, wife and children at Salem in the dead of winter, and fought a relidence within the limits of Maffachufetts. — Fortunately for Mr Wdliams, he had cultivated an acquaintance with the Indians, and learned their hnguage, and before he left the colony, he had priva:ely treated with Canonicus and Ofama- quin, two Narraginfet fachems, f jr a traft of land within their territories, provided he fliould be under tlie neceffity of fettling among ihem. Thefe circum- ftancesj NEW [ 621 J NEW New-En»- ftance?, together with the advice or governor Wintlirop land. induced him, with four of his friends, after his banKh- ^■^"^^^^^ mcnt, to direa his courfe towards Nanaganfett Bjy. He «ith his companions ellabhihed then)felves ririt at Secunk, or Seckhunck, new Rrlioboth. But that place being within the bounds <■( J'iymouth colony, gover- nor Winflow, in a friendly manntr, advifed them to remove to the oiher lide of the river, where the lands were not covered by any p .lent. Accordingly in 1636, they croiTed Seekhonk nver, and landed among the Indians, by whom they were hofpitably received, and thus hiid the found mon of a town w.ich, «' from a fenfe of God's merciful providence to him in his dif- trefs," Mr Williams called Providence. Here the little coljny were foon after j ined by a number of others, and though they were fecured againlt the In- dians by the teir r of the Englilb, yet, h;r a confider- able time, they luffeied much from fatigue and want ; but they enjoyed liberty of conlcience, and the cunfo- lation of having " provided a refuge ior perfons perfe- cuted for confcience fake." Unhappy religious dilFentious dill prevailed in Maf- fachufetts ; and from a miftaken zeal tor ihe purity of the faith, governor Wiiithiop ftrove to exterminate the opinions which he difapproved. For this purpofe, on the 30th of Au^ull 1636, a fynod was convened at Newtown (now Cambridge) to whom eighty erroneous opinions were preiented ; ihefe were debated and con- demned. At a court holden at the fame place, the following Oilober, a lew ot the leading characters who had embraced thefe errors weie banilned, and feveral others were cenfured for feditious conduct. Thefe tranfadlions threw the Malfachufetts colony into a fer- ment. The fubfequent eledion of civil ofiicers was carried by a party fpirit excited by religious contro- verly. Thole who were baniflied by the court, joined by a number of their friends, lett the colony, and went in qucft of a new place for fettlement. They firft pro- ceeded to Providence, where they were kindly received by Mr Williams, and with whom they remained for Khode- fome time. In March 1638, two Sachems, by virtue Ifland pur- of their authority, and in conlidcration of fifty fathoms chafed and ^f white beads, fold to Mr Coddington (one of the planted. ^^g reljieiflable of thefe exiles) and his alTociates, the great ifland of Aquidneck, and the other ifles in Nar- raganfet b.<y, except two which had been previtufly fold. The liatives foon after agreed upon recc ving ten coats and twenty hoes, to remove before the next winter. The largell ifland was foon af,er called Rhode- Ifland. Having thus acquired a title and poiiellion on conliderations which gave f.itisf.i(5tion to the original owners, they here cftabliflied ihemfelves ; and copying tlic condutft of their neij;hbours, th<.y formed a fimi- lar all'iciation for the piirpi fes ot civil government. Though the numbeis allbciated were few, yet the foil being fruitful, and the climate agreeable, many perfons foon retorted where they liurd pr'tedinn, and the ifland, in a few years, became f > populuis as to fend out cclonifts to the adjacent Ihores. — The little colony elcifled Mr Coddingtun their judge and chief n.agirtrate. This gentleman came to Anieiica in i<>30, and fettled at Bollon as a merchant. Aftei his rem val to Rhode- Ifland, he enibr.TCcd the Icn.imci-.ts of 'he Friends, and became the lather of that denomination of Chrif- tians in that colony. Their Yearly-mceii ig was held in his houfe till his death in 16S8. Mr John Clarke New-En;- wis another principal chirafter among the exiles; for '""'^• the fake of enjoying liberty of c-infcience, he vilun- tarily abandoned the colony of MatFachufetts and fet- tled in Rhode-Ifland, where, in 1644, he founded a Baptill Church. 'I'he firll fettlement OT Rhodelfland was made at the north end, and called P.irtfmouth. In 1639, ano- ther fettlement was begun at the fouth-weft par: of the illand on a fine harbour, wh ch they called Newport. From the convenience of this harbour, the fertil t) a-^d pleafantnels of the ifland, and the wealth of the firft fettlers, this place had a rapid growth, and in a few years became the capital of the colony. Tiie govern- ment whch they ellrblilhed was of the dem critic kind. The chief magillrate and lour aihit ints were invelied with part ot the executive powers ; the re- m linder with the legiflative authority was exercifcd bj the body of the people in town meetings. The colonics at Providuice and Rhode-Iflatsd at dif- ferent periods received lirpe acceffions Itom the deno- minations of B/iptilts and Friends who were perfecuted in other colonies. What ditlinguidies thefe colonies from all others is, that they were fettled on a " plan of entire religious liberty ; men ot every denomination Delkaip. being equally protefled and countenanced, and enjoy, ing the honours and offices of government." The inefficacy of a voluntary government and the want of a patent to legalize their proceedings, wa; foon experienced by the cclonifts at Providence and Rhode- lfland. Accordingly, in the year 1643, '^^^y ^°^-^ ^'^ Roger Williams to England, as their agent, to procure for tliem a charter from the Crown. On his arrival at London, he found that King Charles I. had been driven from his capital ; he of courfe applied 10 thofe who had alTumed the power. Sir Henry Vane, his former alTociate and friend in America, received him kindly, and aided his views. In March 1644, through the Earl of Warwick;, then governor and adm ral of all the plan'ations he obtained from Parliament, " a free and abfclute charter of civil incorporation of Pro- vidence plantations in Narraganfet bay," inverting the inhabitants with the requifitc authority to govern them- felve-:, but according to the laws of En;.;land. Mr Williams was well received by fome of the lead- ing members of Parliament, and wl)en he was about to embark for America they gave him a letter of re- commendation to the governor and aflillants of Malfa- chufetts, in which they reprefented the merits of Mr Willi inis, and advifed to the performance of all friend- ly offices towards him. This letter had the eflfeft to ameliorate the differences which had fubfilfed between Mr Williams and the MalTachufctts colony ; and there was afterwards a profefliun of chrillian love and mutual correipondence between them. Yet, while Williams retained what were deemed dangerous priiiciplc:, the governor and aflillants of Malfachufetts thought it in- expedient to grant him liberty of ingrefs and cgrefs, left the people Ihould be drawn away with his errone- ous opinions. When in 1643, the dangers and neceffities of the Rhode- New-England colonies induced them to think of form- IflanJ rcfu- ing a confederacy for their mutual fupport and defence, ''■''' =^'"'f- Providence and Rhode-lfland plantAlions were defirous ,h"co"onial cf uniting ia the plan } but Moirachufctts, difliking confcdcra- lllCir cy of 1643- NEW C 622 ] NEW Und. Ilie Narra- ganfct In- dians fnr- Tcndcrthtir countiy to the king of £aji Und. Charles II. proclaimed, ;tnd a pa- tent obtain- ed. Its con- tend. their religious fcntiments, oppofed their motion, and relu'.cd them a feat in the convention for forming the cipfederacy. Thus forf.iken of their neii;hbours, tliey i'ound it nccelTary to devife other means of fafely. They accordingly ciiltiv;.ted the fnendlhip of the neiqhbourinK Sachem?, with afliduity and fuccefs, and in a Ihorl time acquired fuch an influence with them as 10 procure from the Narr.iganfett chiefs, in 1644, a f irmal furrendcr of their coun'ry to King Charles I. in ri^htof his crown, in confidcration ot his prctedion of them againft their enemies. This territoiy was af- terwards called t/jtr King's Pro-jhict. The people of thele plantations, thus empowered to manage their own alT.nrs, in the tiue fpirit of demo- cracy, convened an alfcmbly in May 1647, compofcd of liie body of freemen, in the feveral plmtations. Sever.il falutary regulations were adopted. The execu- tive power, by this alfcmbly, was verted in a preliJent. This form of gnveinment, fo agreeable to their incli- nations and views, they did not long enjoy in tranquil- lity. It was lufpended in Oftober, 1652, by an order of the council of dale for the C-immonweahh. The Parliament wiflied to acquire a participation, at le^ft, in the adminiftration of aifairs, by eltablilhing here thofe plans of reformation which they attempted in Maflachufetts, and which they aftually efFefted in Vir- ginia and Maryland. But Providence and Rhode- Illand, deriving the fame advantages from the diftrac- tions which fion after enfued in England, that the colonies have always taken of the diforders of the fove- reign ftate, refumed its form of government : And this it continued to enjoy without farther interruption, till the Relloration. That event gave great fatisfaflion to thefe planta- tions. They immediately proclaimed Charles II. and not long after fent Mr Clarke, as their agent, to the court of that monarch, to folicit for a patent, which W.1S deemed in N.-w-England fo elfential to real jurif- diiftion: and in Sept. 1662, he obtained the obje(5l of his wifhes. Yet, owing to the oppolition of Connec- ticut, the prefent ch irter was not finally pafied till July 1663. The immigrations, before mentioned, from Maf- fachufetts, and the fubfequent fettlements at Providence and Rhode-Illand, were recapitulated ; " which being convenient for commerce," fays the patent, " may much advance the trade of this realm, and greatly en- large the territories ihereol':" and being willing to en- courage the undertaking of his fubjeffs, and to fecure to them the fiee enjoyment ff their civil and religious rights, which belonged to them as Englilhmen, he con- ferred on them ample liberty in religion, and fpecial privileges with regard to jurifdi<5lion. The patentees, and fuch as fhould be admitted free of the f 'ciety, were incorporated by the name of " The governor and com- pany of the Englifh colony of Rhode-Ifland and Pro- vidence." The fupreme, or legiflative power, was inveded in an aiftmbly ; the conftituent members were to conliil of the governor, the aliilfants and fuch of the freemen as (hoold be chr:fcn by the towns ; but the governor or deputy governor, and fix affiftants were to be always prefent. Thus conflituted, the aifembly was empowered to make ordinances, ard forms of go- vernment and magirtr;<cy, for the rule of the hinds and inhabitants ; fo that they thould not be repugnant, but agreeable to the laws ot England, coufiderin^ the na- ture of the place and people; to ere(5l fuch courts ofNewr-Eng- julfice for determining all aft- withm the colony, as ^^^^^L, they Ihould think fit ; to regulate the manner of elec- tions to places ot triilt, and of Ireemen to the alfembly; to impole lawful puuiihments, pecuniary and corporal, according to the courfe ol other corporations within the realm ; and to pardon fuch criminals, as they fhould think fit. That the inhabitants might be religioufly and civilly governed, a govern'>r, deputy governor and ten airnt.tnts were appointed for the management of their alf.iirs ; and they were authorifed to execute the ordinances before mentioned, which every one was commanded to obey. The governor and company were enabled to tranfport fuch merchandize and per- fons, as were not prihibited by any Itatute of the king- dom ; and " paying fuch cuftoms as are, and ought to be paid for the fame :" They were empowered to ex- ercife martial law, and upon jult caufes, to invade and deflroy the native Indians and other enemies. There was granted to the governor and company, and their fucccliors, " that part of the dominions of the Crown, in New-England, containing the iflands in Narraganfet bay, and the countries and parts adjacent : To be holden of the minor of Eaft Greenwich, in common foccage.'' The inhabitants of thofe territories and their children, were declared fully intitled to the fame immunities, as if they had refided or had been bora within the realm ; and to guard againft the experienced oppieffions of Maffachufetts, they were enabled to pais and rei'afs through any other Englilh colonies, and to traffic with them. But with this provifo, that nothing fhould hinder any fubjefts whatfoever from filhing on Chilmerii the c lafls of New-England. Such was the fubltance of the charter of Rhode- Idand, and luch were the privileges conferred by it. The government of this Province was adminidered to the fatisfaiilion of Charles II. during the remainder of his reign. By the charter of this province " None were at any time thereafter to be molefted, for any dif- ference in matters of religion," yet the firft alfembly that convened under this charter, in March 1663, among a variety of other ordinances and laws, enadfed one declarative of the privileges of his majefty's fub- jefts; in which they fay, " that all men of competent eftates and of civil converfation, Roman Catholics ow/j' Roman Ca- exce^tid, Ihall be admitted freemen, or may choofe, or tholics bar- be chofen, coh-inial othcers." By this aft, perfecution "'j^'' ^'^°™.. of the Roman Catholics immediately commenced, by ' J ^VT^', depriving them of the rights of citizens, in violation ni^,,. of their charter privileges. This is a remarkable fa<ft in the hiflory of a people who have been lingular for their attachment to, and zealous in defending, the doc- trine of univerfal freedom of opinion in matters of re- ligion. Upon the accefTion of James II. to the throne, the colonifts rf Rhode-Ifland and Providence immediately tranfmitted to him an addrefs, in which they acknow- leJged their lubjeflion to liim, pledged themfelves to obey his authority, and alked in return for the protec- tion of their chartered privileges. — This addrefs did not, however, avail to proteift them againll the effefls of the plans of reform In New-England, relolved on by the Britilh court. Articles of «' iiigh mifdcmennor were exhibited to the Lords of the C mmittce of Fo- reign PLtntations, againft the governor and company of NEW [ 623 ] NEW jr«w-l!iiff- of t!ie colony of Rhode-IflanJ and Providence,'' in friends cffcienee, this inftitution foon lofe into rerpedia- ^h^^i, wliich, among other things, tliey are charged with neg- bil'ty and has fmce bpen the ibuice of incalculable bc- Articlesof le<^'irig to keep an authentic record of their laws; with nefic to New England. charj,'e ex- refuling to permit the irihabitants to have copies of them, In 1640,111 Ci)nfi.quencc of a change of affairs in the hibitcd with razing or cancelling their laws as tliey plcafe, mother country, enngiation to New England ceafcd. againit the ^^ithout confent of the alllmbly, and with adminiliering It was eftimated at the time, that abtut 4000 families, fndcnmpu- '^^ government, and jiiUice, without taking the legal conQfting (fa 1,000 f uls, had arrived in 298 (hips, and ny, amla o^ths. I'hefe charges were referred to the attorney ge- fettled in this nt.w world, tince this period there can v.r'.tofy;<. neral, July 16.S5, with orders immediately to illuc a be no dnnbt, many more pcrf.m-. have migrated /rom, tuitrrti„i0 writ <d yuo wa''rt;;/« againit their patent. The gover- than /o New England. I'he expence of the removal ol iffutd. nor and company were (crved \^hh a. regular notice of thefe 4000 families was eUima.ed at 192,000/. llerling, the procefs, which had been ilfued agauitt them, and which, including what they paid to the courcil of Ply- they were pntiip>n their defence; they declined Handing mouth, and afterwaids to the fachems of the couctry, a fuit with their king. In iiill airenibly, they paii'cd an was a dear purchafe of their lands. e.£t formally funendering to his majelly their charter, Expofed to foreign and domeltic enemies, four of the with all the poweis it con'.ained. This afl, it is faid. New England colonies, -uiz. Mairachiifetts, Plymouth, •' was afterwards made way with, agreeably to a com- Connecticut, and New-Haven, confederated fur mutual ekalmcrs. men praiJtice." I'he governor and company afterwards defence. Rhode-Illand, as wo have before noticed, was affembled, and on fcrious confiderations of the luit in- denied the privilege of joinin" this confederacy. The ar- ftituted againll them, agreed upon an addrefs to his ma- tides of union were agreed on and raiitied, May lotb, jefty, in which they pray that their charter piivikges, 1 643, and were in fubdance as follows : civil and religious, might be continued ; that " all things " The united colonies of New England, viz. MalFa- wherein they have been weak and (hort, through igno- chufetts, Plymouth, Conneflicut and New Haven, enter ranee, may be remitted and pardoned." They conclude by " prollrating their ali at fiis majelly's feet, with en- tire reflulion to ferve him with faithful hearts." Such fervile language was impn per for fieemen to ufe, or for the confent of the whole ; and no other colony'to be r the ruler of a free people to receive. It failed of its in- ceived into the confederacy without the like confent. tended effedt. No fooner was the addrefs received than The charge of all wars, offenfive and defenfive, to be the committee of the colonies, with the approbation of borne in proportion to the male inhabitants between 16 Cliarter the king, ordered, that Sir Edward Audio-, the gover- and 60 years of age in each colony, furrcndcr- nor of Malfachufetts, fliould demand the furrendcr of Upon notice from three magillrates, of any colony, their charter, and govern them in the manner the other of an invafion, the rel^ Ihall immediately fend aid ; Maf- colonies of New England were governed. At the fachufetts 100, and each of tlie other, 45 men; and if u fame time they were alTured of his majelfy's protedinn, gteater number be neceflary, the conmiillioners to meet and of his determination to exercil'e no other auih"iity and determine upon it. over tlieni than what was common to the other planta- Two commillioners from each government, being tions. ^accordingly, in December 1686, Andros for- church members, to meet annually the fii ft Monday ia mally ditfolved the government of Khodc-Illand, broke September ; the tiril meeting to be held at Bofton, then their feal, affuined the reins of government, and feleflcd at Hai tford. New Haven, and Plymouth, and To yearly five of the citizens and formed them into a legiOative in that order, faying, that two meetings fuccelTively bs council. This ftate of things continued fcarcely two held at Bolton. years, when the revolution of 1688, put an end to the All matters wherein fix fhall agree, to be binding tyrannic authority of Andros, in this, and the other co- upon the whole ; and if there be a majority^, but under lonies. Their charter was lefumed, and has ever fmce fix, the matter in queftion to be referred to the general continued to be the balis, of the civil adminiftration of court of each colony, and not to be obligatory uiilefs the whole agree to it. A prelldcnt, for preferving order, to be chofen by the Nrw-Eng- lanU. Amount oi crigir.al fiocli wlicncc Ncv.'-Er.j^- Idcd wa» peopled. Conferfcra- tion cf ths coionies. into a firm and perpetual league offenfive and deienfive. Each colony to retain a diltinifl and feparate jurifdic- tion, no two colonies to join in one jurildiiflion, without ed to Sir Edward Andres. their government. Earth- The year 1 638 was remarkable for « great earthquake throughout New Englind. This eaithquake, as did commlflioners each year out of their number, that alfo of 1627, which was equally violent anil exten- The commifiioners fhall have power to ellablifli laws,, five, conllitu'.ed a remarkable era, which wis long re- or rules, of a civil nature, and of general concern for the membcred and referred to by the pious inhabitants of condutS of the inhabitants, t;^. ^el.itive to their behavi- thefe infant colonie.-. our towards the Indians, to fugitives from one colony Gre it praife is due to the fathers of New England for to anoii.er, and the like, their early attention to the education of children and No colony to engage in war, except upon a fudden. youth. In 1636, the general court granted 400/. to- exigency, and in that cafe to be avoided as much as pof- wards the cftablilhment of a public grammar fchool at liblc, without confent of the whole. Newtown, (fince called Cambridge.) Two years after. If a meeting be fummoned upon any cxtraordinaiy the Rev. John Harvard, a worthy minifler otCharlef- occafion, and the whole number of commillioners do unvn, died and bequeathed one half of his ellate, not afiemble, any four who fhall meet may determine amounting to a little upwards of i8co dollars to this up. in a war when the cale will not admit of delay, and infant feniinary ; in confeqnence of wliicli, the general fend for the agreed proportion of men out of each juril- court gave it the name of Harvard Collegk. Under dii.'tion; but not lei's than fix (hall determine the juftice the patronage of the legiflatiire, and by Irequciit and of the war, or have power to fettle bills of charges, or. liberal bencfa<5lioiisitom the pious wealthy and gcnerou-s make levies for the Un\e. NEW C 624 ] NEW Nuw-Eng- hnd. Hutcliin- fon. Indians chridian- Ucd. Quaker pcrfecu- tion. If any colony break any article of the agreennenr, or in any wife injure anoilier colony, the matter (hall be conlidered and determined by the commillioners of the other c»lonies." In 1650 a fociety in England, inftituted for propagat- in.; the gofpe', began a coirefpondence with the com- milli'iners of the united colonies, wlio were employed as agents for the ibciety. In confequence, exertiims were made to chriliianize the Indians. The Rev. Mr Eliot, miniller of Roxbiiry, dilHnguilhed himfelt in this pious work. He tranll.ited the bible into the Indian language, ellab'ilhed a town in which he coUefted a num- ber of Indian families; taught tliem hufbandiy, the me- chanic arts, and a prudent management ot their afFiirs, and inlfrucfled them with unwearied attention in the prin- ciples of tlie chriliian religion. His zeal and fuccefe have jullly obtained for him the title of the ^Ipojlle of Niiu Englaml. The perfecution of the Q_nakers commenced in 1656, and continued till September 1661, when an order was leceived from the king, requiring that neither capital nor corporeal punilhment Ihould be inflidled on the Quakers, but that olFenders Ihould be fent to England. During this perfecution feveral were executed. On the fubjeifl of the New England perfecutions, the author of the European fettlements in North America, judicioully remarks; " Such is tlie manner of proceeding of religi- ous parties towards each other, and in this refpedt the people of New England were not worfe than the reft of mankind; nor was their feverity any juft matter of re- fledlion upon that mode of religion which they profefs. No religion, however true or talfe, can excufe its own members, or accufe thofe of any other, on the fcore of perfecution." Religious intolerance is now very gene- rally reprobated, and it is hoped the time has already arrived, when no people can be found who think, '♦ that by killing men for their religion, they do God good fsr- vice." .Synod held By order of the general court a fynod of the New- iuBofton. England churches convened at Bofton, September 1662. The pe pie were at this time much divided in opinion on the two following queftions, which were fubmitted to the fynod for their decifion, viz. \Jl " Who are the fubjeifls of baptifm ?" 2d " Whether, according to the word of God, there ought to be a confociaticn of churche?, and what Ihould be the manner of it ?" The general court ordered the refult of this fynod, which was not unanimous, to be printed, and it may be feen at large in Dr Mather's Magnalia, or in Neal's hiftory of the Puritans. The peo[)le of New England were furprifed by the appearance if a Comet, from the 17th nf November, 1664, till the 4th of February following. They deemed it ominous, (as they afterwards did the Auroi^i Borea- lis,) of fome calamity which was fhortly to befal them. Trdianwar. In the year 1675, a war with the Indians, by the name of Phillip's lujr, broke out, and endangered the exilUnce of the colony. Some doubted whether the In- dians would not fucceed in the totil extirpation of the Englifli. Thi» diftreffliig war lafted m ire than a year, and wa^ finally terminated by the death of Phdlip, at whofe iuQig.ition it was commenced. f'uffericgs About this time the colonills were afHided with va- nf thecolo- rious and great calamities. While they were contend- rnQs. i„g In a bloody war with the natives, for theit lives and Comet. their property, complaints were making In England, New-Snf- which (buck at the powers of government. An inquiry i^nd- now commenced which ill'iied in the lofs of the charter. At the f.ime time Great Britain and Ireland were fuf- fering under a piince, hollile to civil and religious li- berty ; and conneifted as New England was with the mother country, Ihe could not but (h ire, in a greater or lefs degree, in ihe evlk of fuch a government. Add to thefe, the fniall pox fpread through the country, and uncommon lolfes had been fullained by fe<i, during the wars which wei e about this time carrying on againft the French and Dutch. In this (late of things, a Synod was convened by or- Another der of the general court, in May 1679, •'"'' ^^" quef- Synod coa« lions referred to their confideration. i/l, " What are the ^^n*"*- reafons that have provoked the Lord to bring his judg- ments on New England ? 2d, What is to be done, that thofe evils may be removed ?" The folicitude manilefted on this occafion, and the meafures adopted by the fa- thers of New England, evinced their piety and wiidom. In June 1 683, articles of high mifdemeanor were ex- lj,Cj ^f ^j^, hibited by Edward Randolph, the public accufer of charter, thofe days, againft the Governor and Company of Maf- fachufetts. In confequence a writ of quo luarranto was ordered, and Randolph was appointed to carry it to New England; and to give importance to the meflen- ger, and to his melfage, both of which were extremely obnoxious to the people of Mafl'achufetts, a frigate was ordered to convey him to Bofton, To prevent too great an alarm in the colony, a declaration accompanied the quo ifarra/i/o, that it rtiould afteift no private rights. When thefe arrived, the general court deliberated on the cri- tical ftate of their affairs. The governor, and a majo- rity of the aftiftants refolved to fubmit to the royal plea- fure, and tranfmitted an addrefs to tliat effedl. But the reprefentatives, fupported by the decifive influence of the clergy, retufed their allent. All was ineffcftual to preferve the charter. In Trinity term 1684, judgment was given for the king, by the high court of Chancery, againft the Governor and Company of MafTachufetts, •' that their letters, patents, and the enrollment thereof be cancelled." Thus ended the ancient government of MafTachufetts by legal procefs. The validity of ihcfe proceedings was afterwards queftioned by high authority. The houfe of commons at a fubfequent period refolved, " that thofe quo 'warranto'' s againft the charter of New England, were illegal and void." Amidft all her difputes with the mother country, state of New England greatly flouriflied. Agricultural purfuits New-Eng- were lucctfstul, manufaflures and commerce were ex- land at tliis tended, and population and wealth were increafed, be- P^"°"' caufe "the rough hind of opprellion had not touched the labours of the inhabitants, or interrupted the free- dom of their purfuits." If for a fhort ti.mc the fplen- dour of New England independence was obfcured by the clouds of royal authority, it foon blazed forth ne- ver to be extinguilhed. Ten months palfed after the diflolution of the char- ter, when it was thought necelfary to eftablilh a tempo, rary government fur tlie prefervation of order. During this period, James II. afcended the throne of England, and was proclaimed in Bofton, Apiil 1685, with " for- rowfiil and affcifled pomp." In September following, a commiillon was illued, appointing a piefident and council, >fjw-Eng- land. Dudley ap- pointed prcfident. Ilutchin- fon. SirEdmond Andros ar- rives in Bulton, at Capt. CJc- fiLTal of Ncw-Eiig- luiid. The tenor of hisadnit- Biftralion. TurnbuU. 1688. 1689. NEW [62 council, compofeJ of the moll loyal of the inhabitants of the government of MalTachufetts, New Hamplhire, Maine, and Narraganlet, till the chief governor Ihculd arrive. Col. Dudley, a native of Maflachufetts, was appointed prefident. The people rcluaantly fubmitted to a power which they could not oppol'e ; declaring, that " though tliey could not give their aflent to it, ihey fhould demean themfelves as loyal fubjeiSs, and humbly make their addrelfes to God, and in due time to their gracious fovereign, for relief." Counfellors were nominated by ihe king ; no houfe of reprefentatives was mentioned in the co.iimiffion ; ftill, to recrncile the minds of the people to the intended introduftion of a governor ge- neral, the courts of juHice were allowed to remain on their original plan ; juries were continued, former laws and culloms were cblerved. Before a year of Dudley's adminiftration had ex- pired, (Dec. 1686) Sir Edmond Andros arrived in Bnfton from New-York, where he had been governor, being now appointed Capt. General, and \'\ce Admiral of MalFachufctts, New Hamplhire, Maine, Plymouth, Rhode Ifland and ConneiSicnt, during pleafure. In 1683, New. York and New-Jerfey were added to his jurifdiftion. He with four of his council was empow- ered to grant lands with fuch quit-rents as the king fhould appoint. Like all tyrants, from Nero to the demagogues of the prefent day. Sir Edmond began his adminiftration with proleflions of high regard for the public welfaie. In the fall of 1689, he went to Hartford where the affembly were fitting, and demanded the charter, de- claring their government dilfolved. Remonilrances were made, and the bufinefs delayed till evening ; then, tradition fays, the charter was brought into the affem- bly, and laid on the table ; candles wero extinguifhed, but lighted again. The charter could not be found. All was quiet and peaceable. The charter had been taken by Capt. Wadfworth and concealed in a hollow tree. Still Sir Edmond feized the reins of government ; turned out the old, and appointed new officers, civil and military. Numerous were the oppreffions of this tyrant. The prefs was reftrained, liberty of confcience infringed, and exorbitant taxes levied. The charter being vacated, it was pretended all titles to land were dellroyed ; farmers therefore, who had cultivated -their foil for half a century, were o )liged to take new patents, giv- ing large tees, cr writs ot intrulion were brought, and their lands fold to others. To prevent petitions or confultations, town meetings were prohibited, except- ing one in a year for the choice of town officers. Left the cries of opprcllion Ihould reach the throne, he for- bid any perfon to leave the country without permifll -n from the government. But the relolute Dr Increafe M.ither, efcaped the watchful governor, and his guards and emiliaries ; crolied the Atlantic, and fpread before the king the complrtiius of NeA-Eogl.ind. But relief came not till the revolution. When the report readied Bofton, that the Prince of Orange had 1 indcd in Engl did, j y beamed in every eye. Thoujjli the governor impr fciied the man who brought the Piince'' d.-clarati-Mi; tli'nigh by a procla- mation, lie coinniandrd all ptrf ns to prepare for an inVc-tfion iioni Hnh^nd; though niagillrates, and the SvppL. Vol. II. 5 ] NEW more confiderate men were determined quietly to wait New-Eng- the ilfue; yet the indignant fpirit of the people could ^'^^ not be reftrained. On 'he morning of April 18th, the i^ r,{. public fury burft forth like a volcano. Tlie inh.;bitanis gr:icurul of Bofton were in arms j tlie country flicking 'to their termina« alTillance. Andros and his aifociates fled to a fort ; *''"'• refift mce was vain, he was made a prifoner, and con- duced to England. The charges exhibited againft him not being figned by the colonial agents, he was difmif- fed, and this tyrant, thus indignantly fpurned from New England, was appointed governor of Virginia. Mr Bradllrcet, the late governor, with thole who had been magillratcs under the charter, affumed tlie government, taking the name of a "Council of Safety," till new orders fliould arrive from England. Thefe were Ihortly after received from King William, who, with his Queen Mary, were proclaimed in Bofton May '\Villiat>i 29th i68y, wiih more ceremony than had ever been ^"'' '^"T known in that colony on tiie like rccaiion. The revo- P"'"^'^''"" \ ■ ■ -o It 1-M TT n ■ ■ '" Bolton, lution m Bolton was popular in New Hampflure, but they found themielves in a very unfettled ftate. After waiting in vain for orders from England, tliey chofe deputies to agree on foms mode of frovernment, and finally determined to return to th:ir ancient union with MalHichufetts. In 1692, Samuel Allen obtained a commilTion for the government of New Hampfhire. Having purchaf- ed ot M.ifon's heirs the lands of the colony, they were embroiled with new controverfies for feveral years. Previous to this, in 1688, an Indian war broke out Indian w»r. in New England ; various were the provocations plead by the natives in their jnllification. They charged the Englifh with flopping the filh in Saco river; with not paying the tribute of corn ftipulated in a former trea- ty ; with turning cattle upon their corn; with granting away their lands, and cheating them in trade. The firft blood was Ihed at North Yarmouth, in September. In the fpring the Penicook Indians joining thofe of Saco, they made a dreadful flaughter at Cocheco. Mefandouit being hofpitably lodged at Maj )r Wal- dron's, in the night opened the gate, and a hundred, fome fay five hundred, Indians rullied into the garri- fon, murdered the Major, and 220 hers, took 29 prifoners, burned 4 or 5 houfes, and fled loaded with plunder. The captives were fold to the French in Canada. In Auguft they took the fort at Pcmaquid ; and fo frequent were their affault-, and fo great the public alarm, that the country round retired to Fal- mouth for fafety. The fame month M.ijor Swayn, wiili feven or eight companies from Malfaciiufe;ts, relieved the garrifon at Blue Point, which was befct with Indi- ans. Miijor Church, with another party of Englilli, and chiiltian Indians, from Plymouth colony, marched to the eaftward. Swayn making his head quarters at Berwick, fcnt Capt. Wifwel, and Lieut. Flag, on a fcnut. Near Winnipilioke pond. Flag left a number of his friendly Indi.ins, who continued theie a number of days. It was afterwards difcovered that they had an interview with the hoftile natives, and g ive them all the information in their power. So flrung is the attachment that binds us to our native country, that often the bonds of gratitude, oaths and ri:li:;ion, like Sainpf n's cords, burft aiihnder, when they interfere wl;h this pallion. Feeble then is that government which depends on foreigners for defence or connfel. 4 K Gariifous NEW [ 626 ] NEW Ncw-Eng- Und. Expedition againft Cj- ludu. A new charter »b twicd. Tr Stiles' Gatrlfons were left in Wells, York, Berwick and Coclieco. Oi5tober Jjd, 1691, Mr Coodridge and his wile were murdered in Rowley, Byfield Parilh, and the family carried into captivity. The good man was (hot !!'. hi' hoiifc. as he ftood praying with his family. As the French were the malignant iiiftigators oi the Indians in their bloody alFaults, it was thought elTential to the peace of New England, that thefe enemies fhould be attacked in their own dominions. Hence vigorous exertions were made for an expedition againft Canada. The command was given to Sir William Pliips, who failed from Hull Augnll iQtIi, 1690, with a fleet of 32 fail, and arrived before Quebec Oflober 5ih ; but the feafon being far fpent ; the army from Connedicut and New York which was to have entered the prov- ince, having returned after vifiting the lake; and the- troops with Sir William being fickly and difcourag- cd, the expedition failed, and in November the troops arrived at Bollon. This expedition involved the go- vernment in a iieavy debt ; a thoufand men perllhed, and a general gloom fpread through the country. In this htuation, a flag of truce from the favages, defiling a fulpenfion of hollilities, was doubly welcome. A conference was held at Sagadahoc ; they rellored ten captives, and agreed on a truce till the firfl of May 1 69 1. The next January the favages deftroyed York; killed 50 perfons, and carried 100 into captivity. In 1693, a peace was concluded at Pamaquid. In 1 69 1 the general court employed two of their - members, with Sir Henry Alhhurft and the Rev. Dr Mither, to folicit the reftoration of their charter. In this they were difappointed ; but a new charter was given, including the colony of Plymouth, Province of Maine and Nova Scoti.i, with all the country between Nova Scotia and Maine 10 the River St Lawrence; alio Elizabeth Illands, Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, in the government of Malfachufetts. But the people were greatly difippointed in their new charter. Many of tiieir invaluable privileges weie taken from them. They no longer chofe their governors, fecretary, or oflicers of admiralty. The militia was under the con- troul of the governor. A houfe of reprefentatives was .not mentioned. To levy taxes, grant adminiiliatioBS, prove wills, and try capital olFenders, was the ofUce of the governor and council. But in the true fpirit of their native independence, the firll a>5l of the legifla- ture in MaiTachufetts, after receiving the charter, con- tained the following daufs : " No aid, tax, tollage, alfelfment, culloni, loan, benevolence, or impolition whatfoever (hall be laid, afll-ifed, impofed, or levied on his majefly's fubjeifts, or their ellates, on any pre- tence whatever ; but by the aft and confent «f the governor, council and reprefentatives of the people, aifembled in general court." It was nowfeventy-two years fince the firft fettlement of Plymouth. During this period, making their own laws and choofing their own rulers. New England had eftablilhed regulations for promoting learning and re- ligion, not equilled perhaps in any nation. In i643> there were 36 churches in New England; in 1650, there were 40, which contained 7750 communicanis ; and th'iugh the philofophill points the finger of derifion at the pious founders of thefe republics, the hillory of man does not prefent any people adopting wifer mea- fures, or producing more perraaneiii bkllings. No where is knowledge more generally diffufed, no where New-Eng- are morals more corredl, leligion more pure, or the ^^"ll. inhabitants more independent and happy. But the fairell day has its cloud. Sir William Phlps 1692. the fi:ft governor under the new charter, found the Sir William province in a deplorable htuation. An Indian war was Phips go- wading the frontiers. An agitation, a terror of the ^"■°°r* public mind in the greater part of Elfex county, like a tornado, was diiving the people to the mod defperate conduift. In the tempell of paffion, a government of laws, trial by jury ; all tJie guards againft oppreflion, were Ci^O feeble to protedl the perfon, or property, of the moll loyal fubjcft.- The pillars of civil govern- ment were Ihaken to their foundaliori, by the amazing power of fuppofed lu'itchcraft. In the beginning ofThe witch- 1692, the Rev. Samuel Paris of Salem village, now craft infa- Danvers, had a daughter aged 9, and a niece aged t"^"on- II, " who were dillrelfed with lingular diftempers." The means ufed by the phyfician being ineffeiflual, he gave it as his opinion, that " they -were under an evil Calcf. hand." The neighbours immediately believed that they were bewitched. An Indian fervant and his wife, pri- vately made fonie experiments " to find out the witch." The children being informed of tliis, immediately com- plained of Tituba, the Indian woman, that (he pinch- ed, pricked, and tormented them. They laid (he was vilible to them, here and there, where others could not fee her. Sometimes they would be dumb, and choaked, and have pins thruft into their fleln. Mr Paris, being deeply affe(fted with the diftrefs of his family, invited a number of his brethren in the mini- dry to vifit him, and give their advice. They advifed him " to wait on the providence of God, and to be much in prayer." Accordingly two or three private falls were kept at his houle, at one of which feveral minillers came and joined with him. After this, there was a public (all in the village, and aftei wards in fe- veral congregations in the neighbourhood ; and finally, the general court appointed a lad through the colony, " to feek the Lord, that he would rebuke Satan." Still the didrelTss increafjd, mere perfons complained of their fuft'crings, and more were accufed. At the fight of thefe the fufferers would fwoon and fall into fits ; at the touch of the fame perfons, they would re- vive. The public mind was (hocked and alarmed ; the mod decifive proceedings lollowed. For a time, all, or mod of the people were of one mind. March 2d, there was a public e.vaminatioa at the village, and feve- ral were committed to prifon. There was another ex- amination at Salem, April 22d, and a number more imprifoned. June 2d, an old woman was tiied and condemned at Salem, and executed on the loth, mak- ing no confelFion. Five more were tried June 30th, and executed July I9lh; fix more were tried Aug. 6th, and all executed the 19th, except one woman who pleaded pregnancy. One of tliele was Mr George Burroughs, fometlme miniller at Wells; he had alfo preached at the vdlage, bu"^^ met with great oppofition. A great number of witnelfes appeared at his trial ; a fpecimen of their teftimonies may be feen by the fol- lowing depofition. " Elizur Keyftr, aged about for- ty-five years faith, that on Thurfday laft pad, being the 5th of thi3 inftaut, month of May, I was at the honfe of Thomas Beadle in Salem, and Capt. Daniel King being ihstc alio ac the fame time; aad in the ianie NEW C ^^7 ] NEW Ncw-Kng- fame room, faid Capt. Daniel King afiicd me whether land. I would not go up and fte Mr Burrouglis, and dilcourfe with him, he beinj; then in one of the chambers of f.iid bnufe. I told him it did not belong to me, and 1 was unwilling to make or meddle with it ; then faid King faid, are you not a chriftian? If you are a chrillian, go and fee liim, and difcourfe with liim. But I told him I did believe it did not belong to fiich as I was to dif- couife him, he being a learned mnn. The faid King faid, I believe he is a child of God, a choice cliild of God, and that God would clear up his innocency. So I told him my opinion or fear wa*., that he was the chief of all the perfons accufed for witchcraft, or the ring- leader of them all; and told him alfo, that I believed if lie was fuch a one, his mallar (meaning the devil) had told him before now, what 1 faid of him. And faid King f;cmlng to me to be in a paflion, 1 did after- wards forbear. The fame afternoon, I having occalion to be at faid Beadle's houfe, in the chamber where Mr George Burroughs kept, I obferved that the faid Burroughs did Iteadfalily fix his eyes upon me. The fame evening, being in my own houfe, in a room with- out any light, 1 did fee very flrange things appear in the chimney, I fuppofe a dozen of tliem, which feemed to me to be fomelhing like jelly that ufed to be in the water, and quivered with a flrange motion, and then quickly difappeared. Soon after which I did fee a light up in the chimney, about the bignefs of my hand, fomething above the bar, which quivered and ihaked, and feemed to have a motion upward ; upon which I called the maid, and ihe looking up the chimney, faw the fame ; and my wife looking up, could not fee any thing. So I did, and do conclude it was fome diaboli- cal operation"! ! ! Onglnal On the margin of this depofition is written, Mr Eli- dipoDtions. zur Keyfar declared to the jury of inquefl, that the evidence in the paper is the truth upon oath, Augufl 31, 1692. Nine perfons received fentence of death, September lyih, eight of whom were executed September 22d, one woman being reprieved, pleading pregnancy. — Giles Cory had been preffed to death, September 16th, bec.iufe he would not (feeing all were conviifled) put himfelf on trial by the jury. Previous to this, numbers had confefled themfelves guilty of witchcraft, it being the only way of faviiig their lives, none who confelfed being executed. But the fuppoled fufferers becoming more dariiig, accufed fome of the beft people in the country. Sufpicion roufed from its lethargy ; cim- demn.uion ceafed ; the accuf'ers were filent ; thofe under fentence were reprieved, and afterwards pardoned. If we can be convinced by the the unitorm protefla- tions of thofe e.\ecuted, or the confefhons of numbers who had been accufers, or the deliberate recantations of others who hid conteffed themfelves witches, or the univcrfal conviction oi error in the minds of tliofe who had been leading ac'.ors in thefe awful fcenes, or the entire ch.mge of public ojiinion, we fh^U be t'atisfied th.it tlie whole oiiginated m lolly and delulion. All thefe are faiHs. All thofe executed, the Hrfl excepted, prote(\i:d their innocence with their dying breath, when a conlelllon would have faved their lives. Several years after, perfons who had been acculers, when ad- mitted to the chuich confeffed their delufiin in fuch cojiuufl, and aikcd " pardon for having brought the gmlt of innocent blood on the land." The following IS an extras from the confedion of fix perfons belonging to Andover, who had owned themfelves witchef;— "We were all feized as prifoners ; knowing ourfclves altogether innncetit, we were all exceedingly allonilned, and amazed, and affrighted out of our reaf m ; and our dcarefl relations feeing us in this dreadful condi- tion, and knovymg our gieat danger, apprehending there was no otlier way to fave our lives, perfuaded i.t to cotifels : we faid any thing and every thing which they dehred. ' ° On the diy of a public faft, in the fouth meeling- hou e of Bolton, one of the judges, who was concerned in the condemnation of thefe unhappy viaims at Salem, dehvered in a paper, and while it was readin- flood up : It was to dejirc prayers, ace. « being apprelienf.vc he might have fallen into fome errors at Salem " The following is from the declaration of twelve men, who had been jurymen at fome of thefe trials-—" We do therefore fignify our deep fenfe of, and forrow for, our errors in afling on fuch evidence_we pray that we may be conlidered candidly and aright, by the living fufferers. as being then under the power of a li.ong and general delufion." Mr Paris, who was aftive in the profecution, and evidently a ferious and contc.entious man, in his public confeffion. November 26th, 1 69+, fays, " 1 do acknowledge, upon after con- fideration, that were the fame troubles again to happen, which the Lord of hi. mercy forever prevent, I fhould not agree with my former apprehenfions in all points ; as for inftance. Sec. Martha Cory, a member of the church in Salem vil- lage, admitted April 27th, 1690, was after examina- tion upon fufpicion of witchcraft, March 21, 1692 committed to piifon, and condemned to the gallows' yeflerday. This day in public, by general content, flic was voted to be excommunicated out of ,l,e church. 1 he following will fhow. in a moft atfeaing manner, the light in which the church viewed this vote, ten years after. "In December, 1702, the paflor fpoke to the church on the Sabbath as followeth.— Brethren, I find in your church book a record of Mar- tha Cory's being excommunicated for witchcraft- and the generality of the land being fenfible of the errors that prevailed in that d.iy, fome of her friends have moved me feveral times to prop ,fe to this church, whether it be not our duty to recal that fentence, that fo it may not Hand againft her to all generations. And I mylelt being a fbanger to her. and being ignorant of what was alleged againft her, I fluiU now only leave it to your confidetation, and fhajl determine the matter by a vote, the next convenient oppcrtunitv -_ February 14th, The paftor moved the chureji to revoke Martha Cory's exc mmunicatinn: a m«JAri,y voted for revoking it." So deep was the people's fenfe of the errors of thofe tranaction?, that a gre.n part of Mr Pans's congrcgat on could not perfuade themfelves to lit under his minii.ry. .-^ccordin'-lv, after great d-PR- culty, after a reipec'table council had labnutfd in vain for tlieir rfcrncihation. a.;er ;,n a-'ultra;ioii refpefline the bufinets, Mr Paris wi difmillVd July 24, 1697 a1 the aj.,gMevcd flato to the aibitraiors, " for bein>.'an inlfrumeut to their miferics." If any rcaocr p<.int the finger of fcorn at th? people of Lilex, or the judicary of MalFachufeu., for th.ir 4 K 2 credulity Nev.-.Erj- lar.d. v.,^- ' Chorcli re- cord* rtf Danvfu. Mr Paris' public con J (ctTion Il>!4. NEW [ 628 ] NEW "Walker's Ocog. Mugnalia, The Bee. War kind- Jed by the ficuch. Complaints againft Ciovcrnor Phips. His death. Mather. Indian ra- »agcs. ■* ProjeAed French in- valion fails, and ifTucs in peace with the Indians. CTcJulity and errors, he is informed they afted in con- form! y to the public opinion of the world at that time; tluu they were guided in their judicial proceedings by tlie writings of Kceble on the common law, Sir Matthew H-tle, Glanvil, Bernard, Baxter, &c. He is informed that while the people of this once devoted neighbour- hood foon faw and retraced their errors, and would now be the laft people to fall into fuch a delufion, other pirts of tlie world have been more flowly convinced. At Tring, in Hertfordlhire, 20 miles from London, in 1751, two aged perfons were drowned, fuppofed to be guilty of witchcraft. At Huntingdon, the anniver- lary of tlie execution of a family for witchcraft is cele- brated to this day. A preacher from Cimbridge delivers a difcourfe againll witchcraft. At Embo, in Scotland, a petfn was executed for witchcraft in 1727. At Rome, the Rev. Father Altizza was lately feized for the crime of forcery. In 1 694, the fword was drawn again, after being fheathed about a year. The Sieur Villion, commander of the French at Penobfcot, with 250 Indians from the tribes of St John, Penoblcot, and N irridgwag, allault- ed the people on Oyllerriver, in New-Hampfhire ; killed and captured about too perfons, and burned 20 houfes, 5 of wliich were garrifons. During thefe diftreffes, the people became uneafy, afcribing their fufferings to the government, and a numbtr made complaint to the king againll governor Phips. He and his accufcrs were fummoned to White- hall. In November he embarked for England. A majority of the general court being in his favour, he carried a recommendation from the legilltture, that they might not be deprived of fo excellent a governor. But before his trial, he was feized with a malignant fever, of which he died, in the 54th year of his age. Sir William Phips was born of poor parents, on the bank of the Kenneber. He was firft a Ihepherd, then a fliip carpenter, then a feaman. By difcovering a Spanilli wr-ck, near Port De La Plata, he became rich, and WAS br'ught into notice. He was a man of en- terprize, diligence, and perfcverance, religious himlelf, and dll'pofed to promote piety in others. The Indians continuing to ravage the frontiers, in Oiflober, 1695, a party penetrated to Newbury, and made captives of John Brown and his family, except- ing one girl who el'caped, and ran 5 miles to the water fide, near Nev/buryport, and alarmed the people. — Capt. Greenleaf init.uidy purfued, and, before it was light the next day, overtook and refcued the captives, nine in number. The Indians, wiien they found it impolfible to carry them off, had determined and at- tempted to kill them ; but fuch was their hurry, the wounds they gave them were not moital : all recovered. The French and Indians in 1696, took and demo- lilhed the fort at Pemaquid. In 1697, the French pioje<5led an invafion of the country. A fleet arrived at Newfiundland, expedling an army from Canada, to alTault Bolton, and ravage the coad to Pifcataqua ; but the feafon was advanced, provifii>ns failed, and the defign was relinquifhed. After the peace of Ryfwick, 1698, the French could no longer affill the favages; they therefore buried the hatchet, reftored their captives, latified their former en- gagemeots, and, ia 1699, fubraitted to the Biitifli crown. At the clofe of the war in Europe, the king ap- pointed the earl of Bellami.nt governor of New- York, Maflachufetts, and New-Hamplhire. He refided at New- York ; Mr Stoughton condufted the affairs of New-England. In May, 1 ird Bellamont viftted Bof- ton. He was a nobleman of polite, conciliating man- ners, and profelfed great efteem for the congregational minilters, and with the general court, as was cuftomary at that time, attended the dated Thurfday le<51ures at Bollon. In his time, the pirates, who had been con- nived at for ^o or 40 years, were arrefted and punifh- ed. Numbers were executed at Bofton ; Bradilh, Kidd, and others were carried to England, tried and executed. Soon after the feffion of the general court, in May, I 700, lord Bellamont returned to New- York, where he died, the 5th of March following. Queen Ann appointed Jofepli Dudley, Efq. to fuc- ceed him as governor of Mallachufetts and New-Hamp- fhire, in 1702. According to his inftru<51ions, he re- quired a permanent falary, and maintained a long and obllinate llruggle with the general court of Malfa- chufetts, but was finally obliged to relinquilh the ob- jeft. In 1703, the Indians, aided as ufual by the French, attacked all the fettlements from Canfo to Wells; killed and took about 130 people, and burned many houfes. Women and children fled to garrifons ; the men car- ried their arms into the field of labour, and polled cen- tinels round them ; fmall parties of the enemy were frequently making affaults ; and the whole country, irom Deerfield to Canfo, forfome time was in conftant alarm. Towards the clofe of the year, 300 French and Indians fell upon Deerfield, murdered 40 of the inhabitants, took too captives, and left the village in flames. To repel fuch bloody foes, the famous Col.. Church, fo dillinguifhed in the wars of Philip, in 1704, was ordered to the eaflward. At Pifcataqua, he was joined by major Hilton ; they deftroyed Minas and Chigneflo, and did fome damage to the French at Penobfcot and Paffamaquoddy. The following year, a number of captives taken at Deeifield Were redeemed. In April, 1706, the Indians killed 8 people at Oyfter-river. The garrifon was near, but not a man in it. The women put on hats, lowfened their hair, and fired fo biilkly, that the enemy fled, without burning or plundering tlie houl'e they had alfaulted. The year following, the Indians came to Reading, v^ithin 10 miles of Bolton, killed a woman and three children, and carried off 5 captives. Perlc.ns were alfo killed and prifoners taken this ye^r at Cheimslord, Sudbury, Groton, and Exeter. On the 27th November, 1707, died J(hn Winthrop, Efq. governor of Conneilicut, and was buried in Bof- ton. The bones ol John Winthrop, the firft governor of Mafficluifetts, his fon and grandfon, governors of Conncflicut, reft in the fame tomb, in the oldeil bury, ing ground in Bofton. There was this year an unfuc- celsful expedition againft Port Royni, On the 29th of Auguft, 1708, Haverhill was affaulr- ed by the Indians ; 30 or 40 perfons were killed, among whom was their minifler, Mr Rolfe ; 20 or 30 houfes were burned, and the reft plundered Such had been the lofs of men in Maflachulf.tts, by their dreatiful wars with the French and Indians; that, in New-Eng- land. Earl Bella- n\ont go« Pirates «•■ tcuted. Dudley go-^ vernor. War with' the Frenchi and Indians. il Belknap. Death of governor Winthrop. Hutchia- fon. Kew-Hng- land. Acadia taken, and annexed to New-Eng- Und. Unfucccir- ful expedi- tion againft Canada. Trumbull. State of New-Eng- land cljurchcs. Shutc go- vernor ; His contro- vcrfy with the legifla- curc NEW [6 1713, the province had not doubled in half a century. The lame obfervuions m,\y be made refpeding the period from 1722 to 1762. Had the French in C.niada been fubdued a hunJred years fooner, it is fuppofed there would have been more than three hun- dred thoufaud fouls in New-England, more than there now is. In 1710, the territory of Acadia was fubdued, by the furrender of Port Rnyal. The name of the place was chanji;ed to Annapolis, in honrnr of the queen. Samuel Vetch, a colonel in the vi(florious army, was appointed governor. This fuccels encouraged New-England to attempt, (he next year, the conqueft of Cannda. General Nichollbn was fuccefsful in foliciting aid from the Brililh court. The combined ai my of Old and New- England troops, being 6,500 men, with a fleet ot 5 fhips of war, engaged in the enterprize ; but in the way, eight tranfports were wrecked on Egg-Illand, and a thoul'and people perillied, among whom there was but one man from New-England. The expedition was relinquilhed : the confequcnce was new alfauhs from ihe favages. But news of the peace of Utrecht arriv- ing, a fufpenfion of arms was procl.iimed at Portf- mouih, Oili'ber 29, 1712. The Indians came in, and agreed upon articles of peace. Never wis an event more welcome to tie provinces. They had been bleeding for almoft 40 yeirs ; five or fix thouland men had fallen in battle, or by diieafe, in the army. ilM- fachufetts and New-Hiniplhire were the principal fuf- ferers. The inhabitants of CLnnecHciit had increaled to about feventeen thouland. The people were reli- gious ; their righteoufnefs exalted their charafter. In 1696, there were one hundred and thirty churches in thel'e colonies, thirty-five uf which were in Conneifticut. At tills period, C'Tineilicut had forty-five v wns. The number of ordained niiuillers was forty-three. There was an ordained niiniller to every four hundred perfons, or to every eighty fimllies. There was not one vacant church in the colony. There was alio a number of candidates preaching in the new towns, where no churclies were formed. Al>out this time Bofton was laid in afhes by an accidental fire, but was loon rebuilt in a more elegant ftyle. The death of qu;en Ann, and the accefTion of George I. was announced in New-Englind, September 15, 1714. Col. Shuie being appointed governor of Malfachufett and New-Hamp(hire, Mr Dudley retired to a private Ifatton. He wa-; a man of ambition, pof- fctl'i ig too high ideas of royal authority, to accord with the republican feelings of the people ot New. England. Their controvelies with him, and with other governors, proved, that they could never be enllaved, till their charader was totally changed. Col. Shutc arrived in liolloa, OiHober 5th, 1 7 1 6, and was received witii great parade. Tlie fummer following, he, witii a number of the council from both provinces, met the Indians at Arr cofic IllanH, to confirm their ttiendll.ip, to per- fiiade them to relinquiili p'ipery, and embrace the prc- tedant religion. He off^reil iJiem an Indian bible, ai.d a proteftiiit milnonary ; ihey rejtiStd botii. Some time tlapfed before llie opp^frion ufually dif- playcd ag.iinll royal governors Ih .wed itfelf; but, in 1;^, the ilorm rofe higher than it ha i for a numb.T ©f years. The governor negaiiysd the iijcaker, cbofcu '-9 ] NEW ."imall poi firjl inocu- lation in ."Vmerici. by the houfe ; they refufed to choofe another ; he dif- r^cw-Enp- folved them. The flame of popular refentment blazed ^i^J!^!, through the province. He revived the old controverfy of a fixed falary, and met with the fate of his prede- ceflors. But the people of New-Hampfhlre were fatif- fied with governor Siiute's adminiftration, and contri- buted more than their proportion towards his fupport. So Itrong was the tide of oppofition at Boflon, that the governor, in 1720, returned to England, and prefented a variety of complaints againft thehoufe of reprefenta- tives. Among other things, he complained, that they had ufurped his right of appointing days of falling and thankfgiving. Th: Britilh minillry juilified the governor, and the province was obliged to accept an explanatory charter, dated Auguft lath, 1724. This confirmed the right of the governor to negative th-: fpeaker, and forbid the lioufe to adjourn tor more than two days, without his conlent. In 1 72 I the fmall pox was very mortal in Bcfton, and feveral adjacent towns. In Bollon 5889 caught it, and 844 died. The Rev. Dr Cotton Mather had read of inoculation among the Turks. He recommended it to the phyficians. Dr BoyllU n alone complied. He was firft fucrelstul in his own family, and alterwards gave it to many others in the fame way ; but the bufi- nefs wa>;, in general, very unpopular, and finally forbid- den by the general court. In the winter an unfuccef>ful attempt was made to indianwar. feize Ralle, the French milfionary at Norridgwag. This provoked the Indians to vengeance, and alter various hollilities, they deltroyed Brunfwick. By thefe things the government was induced in 1722, to make another attempt upon Norridgwag. Captains Moulton and Harman of York, furprifed the village, killed the Jefuit and about 80 Indians; refcued three prifoners, burned the wigwams, and chapel ; and brought away the plate and furniture. The military fpiiit was roufed, govern- ment offered £ too for every fcalp; captain Lovewell of Dunftable became a daring adventurer. At one time he brought in ten fcalps; but foon after fell in battle with more than a fourth part of his companions, near Winipifiokeepond. After governor Shute's departure, lieutenant gover- nor Dummer managed the affairs of MalFachufetts, and Mr Wentworih thof'e of New Hampfhire. In 1 724 fort Dummer was built in Hinfdalo and the firft lettlement made in Vermont. (Sie Vermont.^ At his dcceafe, go- vernor Dummer bequeathed a valuable eltate in Byficl J to that parifh, towards I'uppnrting a grammar fchool. This is now Dummer Academy. Upon the accefli m of George H. in 1727, Mr Wil- liam Burnet, fin to the gnod bilhop of Sirume, was ap- pointed governor of MalFachulttts and New H.-.mp- thire. Hi had been popular as a governor of New York and New Jerfey, and was received in B >(lon with great pomp, being met there by the lieutenant gover- nor of New Hampfhire, and a c mmittee of the coun- cil and ail"embly. The government of Niw Hampliiire ^avc him a fixed lalarv on certain conditions, but in Ma'iichufistts theie was foon a warm altercationbetween hint anu the geneial court on this l\ibj>(ff. His nerves Ihi'uld have been " made of (lerntr Ihifl"," to contend Hiidesti. with Malfachufe'ts. He was difapt'ointed; he was de- P'ti!'-d; he died ni a ("ew montl>s. When the r>;ws c f ihis redchc J EnsjlauJ, the rcfeutmtut ihcic was fo greai-, \haM. Hutchiilw foa. Bvirnet go- vernor. NEW C 63 Uad. Bclclier go- vijrnor. Belknap. Shirley go- vernor. Capture of Louif- bourg. that a prnpof.d was made of reducing the colony to al)- foUite dependence on the crown; but milder meafurcs prevailed, and Mr Jonathan Belcher, a native of the province, an only fon of a wealthy farmer, then a mer- cliant in London, was appointed governor ot Maffk- chufctts and New Hampfhire. While thefe provinces were in a condant ferment by their contentions with their governors, Conneilicut and Rhode Itland, under their ancient charter, enjoyed tranquillity, cliofe their own rulers, and enafled their own laws. The altercations of MalTachufetls fanned the coals of independence, and finally produced the explofion which has forever feparated the two coun- tries. In Augufl 1750, Mr Belcher was received with great joy; like his prejeccff irs he propofed a fixed falary, like them he faw his propofal repelled w ith violence. He law the caufe was defperate, and obtained leave from the Britifh court, to receive fuch fums as (hould be granted him. So terminated the long, the tedious coiueft re- fpeifting the governor's falary. The divifional line in 1 740, was finally determined by the lords of the council, between New Hamplhire and MalTachufetts. New HampQiire obtained 14 miles in breadth, and about 50 in length, more than they had claimed. A party the following year oppofed Mr Bel- cher, and by their incelfant applications to the miniftry, by falfehood and forgery, they finally prevailed. He was fucceeded in New Hamplhire, by Benning Went- worth; in Maflachufetts by William Shirley. Mr Bel- cher repaired to court; demonftraied his own integrity and the bafenefs of his enemies, was appointed gover- nor of New Jerfey, palfed a quiet life, and his memory has been treated with merited refped. In 1744, news of war with France and Spain being received, forces were raifed to attack Nova Scotia. Go- vernor Shirley projecfted an invafion of Louifbourg, the Dunkirk of America. Its fortifications had employed French troops twenty- five years, and cod 30,000,000 livres. A majority of one, in the general court voted for the expedition. The land forces were commanded by colonel William Pepperell of Kittery; the Englilh fquadron by commodore Warren. The laft of April, the following year, the troops, 3800 in number, landed at Chapeaurogue Bay. The tranfports had been dif- covered early in the morning (rom the town, which was the firft notice they had of the defign. In the night of May 2, 400 men burned the ware-houfes containing the naval (lores. The French were alarmed, fpiked their guns, flung their powder into a well, and abandoning the fort, fled to the city. The New England troops cheerfully fubmitted to extreme hardfhips ; for 14 rights fuccefiively, they were yoked together like oxen, dragging cannon and mortars, through a morals of two miles. The commanding artillery of the enemy for- bade this toil in the day. No people on earth perhaps, are more capable of fuch laborious and daring exploits, than the independent farmers of New England. On the 17th of June, the ganifon capitulated, but tlie flag of France was kept flying, which decoyed into the har- bour, fliips of the enemy, to the value oi £600,000 fter- ling. The weather, during the fiege, wa. fine, but the day following rains began, which Ciniinued 10 days, and mud have proved fatal to the provincial troops, had not the capitulation prevented. The good people Bdknap, o ] NEW of New England were deeply affeded by this evident New-En^; interpofition of divine providence. vJ^^Ili.^ The next year, 1746, a French fleet failed to pour Threaten- deflrudion on New England. Twenty men of war, an ed invafion hundred tranfports, eight thoufand veteran troops, made of New- the country tremble. In their condernation they were '^/'^'''"'^ ''^ difappointed of a fquadron of defence, from the mother country, God interpofed. A mortal ficknofs fpread through the fleet; a tempell fcattered them; the com- mander, difappointed and mortified, poifoned hinifelf, his fuccelfor fell on his fword. Never was the hand of divine providence more vifible ; never was a difappoint- ment more fevere to the enemy; never a deliverance more comple'e without human aid, than this in favour of New England. As the diftreffes of war ceafed, the people were alarmed in 1749, wiih the report of an American epif- copacy; but the defign was not executed. This year, Benning Wentworth made a grant of Bennington. In 1 754 a congrefs met in Albany, confiding of de- ^ conn^t legates from New Hampfhire, Maifachufetts, Rhode convene at Ifland, Conneflicut, New York, Pennfylvania, and Albany. Maryland; but the plan of government they propnfed was reje(5led, both in England and America. Had this inltrument been accepted the mind is lod in con- jefturing what might have been the confequences. Per- haps the revolution of 1776, had been podponed along period ; perhaps the millions and millions of the human rac^' lately dedroyed in Europe, and Afia, by the de- mon of revolutionary madnefs, might have long fur- vived, to fwell the tide of human felicity. Preparations were made, in 1755, to diflodge the jjova ffeo* French from Nova Scotia. Colonel Winflow raifed two tia taken thoufand men, but the command of the expedition was from the given to colonel Monkton. The French were fubdued. French. The inhabitants had taken the oath of allegiance to the Britilh crown, but were accufed of furnilhing fupport and intelligence to Indians and French in annoying the colcnies, fome of them were in arms. It was de- termined to remove them; about two thoufand fouls were accordingly tranfported to New England. The cloud of their forrows was never difpelled ; in a land of drangers they pined away and died. They were re- mnrkat)le for the fimplicity of their manners, the ardor of their piety, and the purity ot their morals. General Braddock, with 2200 regular and provincial Braddock'ft troops, marched this year for fort duQuefne, but fell into defeat. an ambufcade, and was fatally wounded, panic feized his regular trciops, but colonel Walhington, his aid-de- camp, with his militia, covered their retreat, and faved th» Ihattered army. In i758,Louift)Durgh,Frontenac,andFortduQuefne, Succefs of fubmitted to the Enjjlilh, a fmall coropenfation for the Englilh more than 2000 men killed and wounded in the rafli arms. and unfuccefbful attack upon Ticonderoga. Splendid were the viiftories of the year 1759. Niagar.i, Ticon- deroga. Crown Point, and Quebec, fubmitted to the Enghlh. At the takinr; of (^ebec, Wolfe, the Bri- jjum- tilli commander, after being wounded in the wrid, re- p^^-eyj. ceived a fatal ball in his bread. Leaning on the (houl. der of a lieutenant ; finking in the agonies of death, he hejrd a cry " they run." Fir a moment reviving, he alked who ran. It was anfweied "the French." Heiepli- ed " I tliank God I die happy," and expired. Montcalm, the French commander, alfo the fecond in command, was NEW [ 631 ] NEW Kew-Eng- was killed. Quebec furrenjered, and the whole province land. \^^5 foon annexed to the Britilh empire. ^^^^^"^ In 1762, Maiiinico, Grenada, St Vincents, and Ha- vanna fubmiucd: Eu^lilh valour was triumphant in every quarter of the globe; peace lollowed. Com- It was now thouglil a proper time to tax America, jnencement The ftanip a^l which palfed in 1765, roufed New Eng- ofthe land. Every mean was uled to inform the mind, and American ^j^^jj^ ^Y^^ palTions. Mairachuletts made the propolal, tion° "' '"^"^ ^ congrels alFembled. In Connefticut the people „ met ; the ftamp malter rcfigned. The firft of Novem- '' " ber, when the llamp acl was to operate in Bollon, the bells tolled, (hops were fliut, effigies of the royalilts ■were carried about in derifion, and torn to pieces. There was no violence to any per Ion, no diforder. At Portf- mouth the bells tolled ; a colHn was prepared ; on the lid was infcribed, " Liberty, aged 145 ;" a procedlon moved with unbraced dtums; minute guns were fired; an oration was delivered at the grave. At the clofe, the coffin was taken up, figns ot lile appeared in the corpfe ; " Liberty revived," was fubllituced; the bells Itruck a cheerful key; joy Ipaikled in every countenance. All was decency and order. At Rhod^ Illind the day palf- ed in a fimilar manner. In March 1 766, the obnoxious act was repealed; Ihips in the Tijames difplayed their colours ; houfes ware illuminated through the city of London; the colonies rejoiced ui their deliverance. The limits of this article, prevent a detail ot the va- rious events, wiii^h produced the revolutionary war, and the independence ot the United States. We only obfsrve that new duties on various articles, the fending of troops to Boftv n ; the firing ot the guard, after they had been highly provoked, which was called a malfacre ; the (hutting up of the port ot Bollon, &c. again tired llie indignation of the country. Votes of legillatures, committees of correfpondcuce, liberty poles in towns and villages, difplayed tlie lefolute zeal of the people to de- fend their rights. In thenlght of April iSth, 1775, Gen. Gage fent 800 troops to dellroy the llw-es at Concord. At eleven o'clock they embarked at Bollon common, and landed at Phip's farm with all polfible llillncfs. But fo watch- ful were the people ; fo alive to every motion of the Bri- tilh troops, that nothing could be obtained by ftratagem. News was inllantly carried to Concord, and the coun- Battle at try was alarmed. By two in the morning, 130 of the tciington. Lexington militia had alfemblcd to oppole them. Be- tween 4 and 5 o'clock, the enemy appeared. Major Pitcaitn, rjde up, ordered the militia to difperfe, fired his piftol and ordered hi-, men to fire. Some were kill- ed, feveral returned the tiie; but the BiitilU proceeded to Concord, and executed their cominillioii. There they fired upon major Butterick; he returned the fire, and the Britilh loon began their retreat to Boflon. The Americans clofely followed, firing trorn fences and walls. At Lexington, Lord Petcy met tlicm with 900 men. Thefe having two pieces ot cannon, kept their purfuers a gi cater dillance. Before dark they reached Bunker-Hill, having travelled that day between 30 and 40 miles. The next day they re.urncd to Bollon. Sixty-rive of th^-ir niiinbci had been killed, 180 wound- ed, zS taken prifoners. 'i'lie Amerxans had 50 killed, 38 wriunded, and miiTing. The provincial congrcfa then lilting, voted an anny ot 30,000 men; 13,600 to be from their owa £);oviate. They IJait to tht oiher Ne.w ^ar com- BicBced. An army WiTcd. England colonies, an army of 20,000 men inftantly in- New-Eny- vcded Bollon, under the command of general Ward. '""''• Soon were thefejoined by a large body from Connefli- cut, under Gcneial Putnam, wh'jfe name was then a holl. The continental congrel's refolved then to organ- ize an army, and recommend a general Lid. The clergy, in their fermons and prayers confecrated the caule, and kept alive the ardour of the people. Colonel Arnold lent from Conneiflicut, being joined by colonel Allen, May 10th, took Ticonderoga, and Crown Point, with all their military (lores. On the i.ight of June 16, 17-5, general Putnam vrith Bunker hill a thoufatid men, took polfellion of Breed's Hill (erro- battle, neoufly called Bunker's.) They laboured with fuch di- ligence and ardour, that by the dawn of light, they had thrown up a redoubt, of 8 rodi fquare. As foon as the Bririlh (hips difcovered them in the morning they began a heavy fire, which was fupported by a fort on Cop's hill in Bollon. An incelfant llorra of balls and bombs, was poured on this handful of farmers, the greater part of whom had probably never heard the roar of ar- tillery before. Dil'gently they continued their work, and had almoll completed a breallwork to the water ealf kvard; when the firing became intolerable. They had been laborious through the night ; they had not been relieved, nor fupplied with refrelhment. In this exhauded fituation, they were deftined to meet the fury of Britilh valor. A little after noon boats and barges filled with 3,000 veterans, the flower of the royal army, landed in Charlelfown. Generals Howe, and Pigot, commanded. Bourgoyne and Clinton flood watchful on Cop's hill. Britilh troops and citizens of Boflon, crowded their roofs and lleeples to witnefs the dubious conflicl. The American army and the country people, thronged the furrounding hills. The fleet, as well as the camps gazed at the opening fccne. The king's troops deliberately advanced, that their artillery might dcmolilh the new railed works. Charlellown was now fet on fire, by order of the Britilh commander, and im- mediately 400 houfes were in a blaze. The lofty (leeple of the meeting houfe, formed a pyramid of flame, mag- nificent and awful, in view of many thoufand anxiou.i fpeiflators. The tlow approach of the enemy, gave time to alTume greater prelence of mind. In this crifis Put- nam made an harangue. He reminded them " that they were all markfnien; and could bring a fquirrel from the highell tree." He charged tliem " to be cool and referve their fire till the enemy were near; till they could fee the white of their eyes." lliey obeyed. At the dillance of ten rods, they began a furious difchargc of fraall arms. The Britilh, whole ranks were thinned, retre.ited with precipitation. A:;ain Putnam addrclFcd his men. He told them " they had done well, and .S;r note ia would do much better, and direifled them to aim at the ^'•"'- ^'r oflicers." The Britilh returned. The ri:e was terrible. P"'"' '=•'""■- „.. • a- 1 ■ J «i • • J • 1 . 1 . 1 • "lo" on the Ineir officers exclaimed, ♦' it is downright butchery to j^.^^,, ^j lead the men ag.iinll the lines." In tilling the llory, .rentral " My God," laid PiUi.am, " I never law fuch carnage W.:lhing- of the human race." At the next .ilfault, the enemy re- ton. ceiving new llrength by the atrivsl of general ClinUn; the cannonade from the Ihips, the batteries of B (hin, and the field artillery iiicrcafng its liiry, ;Kjd the pow- der of the Americans failii.g, a retreat was ordered. Fifteen hundred Americans wore engaged ; lcver,t>-ft- v:a were killed, araor^jj whum was the brave general VVatien* NEW [ 632 ] NEW FMmouth burnt- Bo ft on cva- cuutcd. New-Eng- Warren, a volunteer in the aiftion ; 278 were wounded ftruflion he burned part of Greens Farms, and tlie plea- Ncw-Eng- '^0(1. and milling. The Britilli loll one thoufand and fifty- fant town i f Norw;dk. '""J^,^ '"-^^"'^^^ Cp„r killed; of whom 19 were commillioned oflicers. — On the 4th of May i 780, the American Academy of American A greater number than they loft at the battle of Quebec, Arts and Sciences, now one of the mod refpeaable li- Academy which gave them the province of Canada; a pi oof that terary focieties in America, was incorporated by the ge- iucorpo- Putiiam's orders were not difregarded. neral court of Maliachufetts. rated. The people of Frtlmoulh, now Portland, violently Early in tlie morning of September 6ih, 1781, gene- NewLon- oppofing the loading of a maft Ihip, captain Mowat re- ral Arnold landed a detachment of troops on Groton don burnt. ccived orders to burn the town. Piivateers at this time Point, and proceeded up to New London with hib fleet. were fuccefsful. Capiain M.uiley brought in a vedel He fet tire to the town, and immediately 60 houfes and loaded with military llores, valued at ;^50,coo. This 84 (lores were deftruyed, without oppofuion. But the fummer a detachment was fent from Cambridge to party at Groton found more bloody work. The men Expedition Q,j£j,gc^ under the command of -colonel Arnold ; ihey in Fort Grifwold, who had haftened there in the morn- to Canada. y,j.gj,jgj (jj^ j.^jpnebec, and had a difmal march thence ing, fiomthe neighbourhood, defended thenifelves to into Canada. Many of the men became fickly ; one the laft extremity. The Britilh finally er.tered the fort, third were difcouraged and returned; ihofe who bravely fword in hand, and killed every man they found. Col. perfevercd were compelled to eat their dogs, their LeJyard religning his fword, the officer plunged it in- Ihoes, and even their cartouch boxes. In thirty one days to his heart. One man cfcaped by concealing hlmfelf tliey anain found inhabitants. They joined general in the magazine, another by climbing up a chimney in Montgomery, and with him fcaled the walls of C^iebec. the barrack ; one or two, who fell wounded among the Ameiican valor was unfuccefsful. The brave Mont- fiain ; recovered. Awful was this day to Groton. gomcry fell ; Arnold was wounded ; one hundred men The compad part of the town was in alhes ; feventy of were killed or wounded, three hundred taken prifoners. her valuable citizens, who in the morning ruflied to Tliefe general Carlton treated with the moft delicate arms, lay dead in the fort ; they were conveyed to iheir humanity, as he always did liis prifoners. families for interment. Peace between the belligerent On tlie night of March 4th, 1776, works were raifed powers, put an end to thefe bloody fcenes in 1783. on tlie hills of Doichefter, twelve hundred men were In 1784, New Hampdiire eflablilhed a conflitution of employed, and two hundred teams. So prodigious were civil government, as Malfachufetts had done in 1780. tlieir labours that in the morning, the whole feemed to Conneflicut, and Rhode Ifland, continued their ancient the Britilh " like enchantment and invifible agency." conftitutions, and experienced no fenfible change by the General Howe was feized with confternation. In vail revolution, confufion and hurry Bofton was evacuated. Owing to their embarrafTed circumftances, from the Infurrcc- In 1777, aftonilhment and terror fpread through decay of trade, the lofs of public credit, the weight of 'ion i" New England by the flight of St Clair from Ticonde- public and private debts, in the fall of 1786, the three MafTachu* roga. The rear of his army was attacked at Rubber- eaftern counties of Maflachufeits obftrufted the judicial ton, a few miles from Lake George. The brave col. courts ; but were foon brought to fubmiffion, and are Francis of Beverly fell, with a number of his men. now very generally among the zealous friends of good General St Clair was at Callktun within hearing of the government. mufquetry, but though his clhcers entreated with tears. The next year the federal conftitution was formed. Federal that they might return to fuccour their brethren, he and afterwards adopted by all the dates of New Eng- conilitu- foibade them. General Stark turned the alarming tide land ; who with the other parts of the union, have li- t«on> of affairs by his gallant aflion at Bennington. He rout- berally fhared the bleffings of that event, in the revival ed colonel Baum, and killed or wounded a great part of commerce, and public credit, the increafe of wealth, of his detachment. This kindled new courage through the promotion of the liberal arts, and all that exalts or the Eaftern States. It was the firft Hep to the capture adorns civil fociety; long may tliefe enterprifing States of Bourgoyne, which procured us fuccour in Europe, remain folid pillars in the federal edifice ; and long and infured the independence of the country. This maintain the pure morals, the ferious religion and wife year Vermont declared itfelt a fovereign ftate. inflitutions of their pious forefathers. Five hundred Britilh and Heffian troops burned the New-England is a country which prefents to the tra- unfucccf?- meeting houfe in Warren (Rhodelfland,) the church veller all the varieties of furf^ce which can be found, ful exi'cdl- jn Brillol, and a number of houfes in each town in 177S. There is a plain of great extent in the foutheallern part J;"" ^S^'"" Newport was foon threatened by land and fea. General of Malfachufetts. Extenfive plains are alfo fpread in'j' Sullivan palTed to the ifland with ten thoufand tioops through a confiderable part of the couniies of York and in high fpirlts, and nothing forbid the conquell of the Cumberland, and along the Merrimack through the Britilh, who took polffllon of this ifland in 1776, but a interior of New Hainplhire. Many others not incon- failure of aid from the French fleet. This brought on fiderable exift in other places. Vallies of every frze, them many execrations in New England. General Pi- from the great Conne<5licut valley to the little ba- got, the Britilh commander, had fo placed himfelf, that fon, conftitute of courfe nr> inconlrderable part of a a fleet was necelTary to attack them with hope of fuc- country which is fo generally undulating, and whofe cefs. After an a<5iion, fupported with fpirit, Sullivan hills are a proverbial defcription of its furface. Con- left the illand wiih the lols of 2 or 300 men. neflicut valley extends from Saybrr>ok to the Canada Tryon's In the fummer of 1779, governor Tryon landed at line, and is not far from three hundred miles in length, expedition New-Haven and plundered the town, proceeding by Its breadth variei^ from half a mile to twenty miles, water burned Fairfield ; continuing the work of de- and is charmingly diverfified by the intrufion of nume- rous of affairs in the north. Sullivan': into Con- Dciticut. NEW C 633 ] NEW New-Eiig- rous fpurs from the two great ranges of mountains ■j^i^ which form its eaftern and weftern boundaries. The mountains in New-England are either long ran- ges or feparate eminences. The wefternmoft range be- gins in the county of Fairfield, and, paffing through the counties of Litchfield and Berklhire, may be faid to unite with the Green Mountains at Williamftown, in the nonhweft corner cf Maffdchufetts ; being there fe- parated only by the narrow valley of Hoofac river. The highell p.irt of this range is Toghkonnuck moun- tain in Egrcmont, the fouihwertern corner of the fame ftate. Over this mountain, which is probably elevated more than 3000 feet above the ocean, runs the boun- dary between Malfachufettf, Connefllcut, and New York. This range, hitherto known by no appropriate name, may with propriety be called Toghkonnucl Range. The fecond range is that ot the Grcfn JlTouniiiins. The eaftern front of tliis range begins at New Haven, in a noble bliiif called Weft Rock, and extends thence, to the Canadi line ; (loping however with a very gra- dual declenfion, in the northern parts of Vermont ; and in Canada becoming merely a colleiflion of fmall hills. The two highell fummiis of this range are the Camel's Rump, {{o called from its flrong relemblance to the back of that animal) and the mountain of Manf- field, both in Vermont, in the county of Chittenden : Thefe are very lofty, feveral ihoufand feet above the ocean. The third range begins alfo at New Haven in another very delrghtful eminence, called the Eall- Rock ; and, palTnig through the counties of Nevi* Haven, Hartford, and Hampdiire, extends into Canada, through the whole length of the If ite of New H.tmp- Ihire. The Blue Hills in Southington, M aint Tom, Mount Holyoke, in the vicinity of Northampton and Hadley, and Mount Toby, in Sunderland, are the prin- cipal fummits of this range foutli of New Hamplhire. This range although lefs lofty than the higheft parts of the two former, is yet more precipitous and romantic than either. It crolTes C^uneifticut river jull below Northampton and Hadley in Malfachufetts. No mnun- tains in New England prefent, from their fummits, fo delightful views as are furnillied by various eminences of this rani^e. This may be advantageoully termed Tif ran^e of Mount Tom, which is the piincipal emi- nence. The fouth or eaftern range !s lefs diftinftly marked ; it begins at Lyme, in Connefl'cut, and forms the eaft- ern boundary of the C nneiflicut valley, until it unites With the l.irt mentioned range in the c(>unty of Hamp- lhire. It has no very remarkable eminences. or fingle m .untains, the higlieft, in Miirichnfftts, is Saddle mountain, in the towns of Adams and VVil- liamftown, fo called from its ftriking refcmblance to that piece of furniture. This mountain is computed to be little lef'> than 4000 feet above the furf ice of the ocean. Its f'Uthern point is the highcft land in M ili'a- chufctts. VVatchufett is a lofty hill in Princctun, in the county of Worcefter. Afcliutney is a noble fingle hill in Windi'or, in the ftate of Vermont. M'uradnock is a very 1' fy c> nical monn'a n in Jalfrey, New Hamplhire. The White Mountains in New H irnpftiire are a round clump with nunierous lummits, of which Mount IVaJh ington, is lar tiic higheft ; being probably between ten and eleven thotifind feet above the fiirface of the ocean ; and much the higheft laiid in the United States. StjppL. Vol. II. Nothing can be more majeftic than the appearance of N this mountain ; it is covered a great part of the year, with (how, and in this fta'e is feen ninety miles at fea, in fair weather, and one hundred and fixty from its bale. The mountains called M jofehillock, or Moolhee- lock and Olllj^ce, are iKort ranges in New Hampftiire, of very conliderable height, and very refpectable ap- pearance ; as are thofe calleil PonJicherry, (vulgarly Cherry) a lofty range of the White Mountains, on the northweft ; thnngh thefe laft may be confidered as a continuation of the range of Mount Tom. New England abounds in catarafts and cafcadcs, alternately of great beauty and grandeur •, of the firll of thefe, the Conneclicut, Houfatonlc, or Hooeftonnuc, Onion, Saco, Kennebec, and Penobfcot furnifh a great number, as do alio feveral fmaller rivers. The cafcades of the White Mountains are perhaps unrivalled in their romantic beauty. Pieclpices of great wlldnefs and grandeur, are pre. fented by very many of thefe mountains. The fouth. wellern fiJe of the fummit of Mount Wafliington, par- ticularly, which is a perpendicular defcent of vaft ex- tent, and is ("uperlatively majeftic and awful. Of fofter or more elegant fcenery, tew countries furnilh ia many or fo exquilite varieties as New England. The fine in- tervals which border its numerous dreams, particularly the noble ones on the Conneflicut, are among the mofl (inifhed beauties of the landfcape. To complete the pidture, the native and univerfal verdure which clothes the lean and dry, as well as the rich and molft part, gives an unrivalled cheerlulnefs to the whole country. New England has a very healthful climate, as is evinced by the longevity of the inhabitants. It is efti- mated that about one in feven of th»inhabltants live to the age of 70 years ; and about one in thirteen or four- teen to 80 years and upwards. North-weft, weft, and fouth-weft winds are the mofl prevalent. Eaft and northeaft winds, which are une- Inftic and difagreeal'le, are frequent at certain feafons ot the year particularly in April and May, on thefea-coafts. The weather is lefs variable than in the middle and efpecially the fouthern ftates, and more fo than in Ca- nada. The extremes o( heat and cold, according to Farenheit's thermon:eter are frrm 20° below to loo^ above o. The medium is from 48"" to 50". The in- habitants of New England, on account of the dr) nefs of their atmofphcic, can endure without inconvenience, a greater degr:c of heat thin the inh.ibitants I'f a moift- er climate. It is Aippofed by fmie philof phtrs, that the dilference of moilture in the atmnfphcre in Pcnnfyl- v,<nia and New England \s fuch as that a pcrfon miglit bear at le.ill ten degices of heat more in the latter than in the lormer. The quantity of water which annually fills in Eng- land is computed at 24 inches ; in Neiv-Eiigl.ind, from 42 to 48 ; and yet in the latter they fulTer more from drought than in the forrr.cr. Thefe ficis evince the remarkable dryncfs of the atmofphcre, in this eaftera divilion of the United States, and in part account for its fingular healthfulnelV. Winter commonly com- mence . in its level ity, about the middle o( December ; f metlmes earlier, and f .metimes not till Chrillmas. Cattle are fed or h.ufcd, in the northern part- of New- Ergl in!, from about the 70'h • f N' vember to the 20th of May J iu the louihtrn part not quite:fo long. Thero 4 L baT« ew-Eny land. NEW C 634 ] NEW New-En»- have been frofts in every month in the year, though where, and therefore, as far asexcefs or want of wealth New-Eng- land, not in the lame year; but not very injurious. may prove dcllruifilve or falutary to life, the inhabitants '^"'1. ^'^'"'^"^^ The difeafes moll prevalent in New-England are the of this Hate may plead exempiicn from difeafes."- following, viz. Alvine fluxes St. Antiiony's Fire Afthnia Atrt phy Catarih Colic ind i Fevers. Inflammatory Slow nervous, a Mixed Pulinonary Confumption Q^alnfy Rhcumatifm. Of thefe diforders, the pulmonary confumption is much the mod dellruiflive, and i'; commonly the effeet of imprudent expifures to cold and rainy weather, and What this writer fays of Conne(fticut in particular, will, with very few exceptions, apply to New-England at large. The foil of New-England is diverfified by every variety, from a lean and barren fand, to the riehell clays and loam«. Tlie firll great divifion of foil is a brown loam every where mixed with gravel. With tliis the hills, which conllitute a great proportion of the whole furface, are univerfally covered. This foil is always favourable to the produsTion ot grals, and in the night air with the fame quantity of clot!;ing, and the weftern parts of the country (when not too moid) the wearing of damp linen; and among the lowefl of wheat and all other kinds of grain, and of every order of people, from the intemperate ufe of ftrong kind of fruit fuited to the climate. Maize, or Indian liquors, efpecially of frelh dillilled rum, which, in too corn, grows well, even on the wet grounds, where this miny inftances, proves the bane of morals, and the ruin foil cxills. of fam.ilie The fmall pox, which is a fpccihc, infe(flious dif- eafe, is not allowed at prcfent to be communicated by inoculation, except in hofpiials crefled for the pur- pofe, in bye places, and in cafes where there is a proba- bility of a general fpread of the inle(flion in a town. Nor is this difeafe permitted to be communicated gene Soil. Clayey foils are more rarely found, and are alio very produiflive, efpecially when manured. A rich loam, varying towards clay, begins at Guilford and Bran- ford in Couneclicut, and fpreads through the whole breadth of that ftate, terminating in Well Springfield. The fame foil prevails alfo in Salifbury and Sharon, and covers ab lut one quarter of the weftern halt of rally by inoculation, in any < f the United States, Conneflicut. This foil, wherever it exifts, is favour- except New- York, New-Jerfey, Fennfylvania, Delaware able to every kind of culiivation, and is furpalFed in and South Carolina. goodnefs by no land in this country. In populous towns, the prevalent difeafes are more Sand prevails very commonly on the plains, and numerous and complicated, owing to want of frefh air abounds in the fouth eaRern part of MalTachufetts, in andexercife, and to luxurious and fafhionable living. the old colony of Plymouth. • The yellow pine plains In thefe northern latitude';, the prevalent diforders are commonly a mixture of fand and gravel ; are light among the males of the winter months are /n/?<i.7!ma/or)'. and warm, and friendly to every produflion which Both men and w^imen fulTcr from not adopting a does not demand a richer foil. The white pine plains ■warmer method of clothing. are ufually covered with loam, as are fome of the yel- On I.,ake Champlain, and fome other waters, and low pine plains, and are not unfrequently fertile. The •where running dreams have been converted into nearly vallies, almoll without exception, are a rich mould, llagnant ponds, intermittents frequently prevail. But and friendly to every growth of the climate, this difeafe is feldom known within 30 or 40 miles of The intervals, which border the various ftreams, are the fea coall. In fome of the elevated parts of Ver- ufually lands lormed by earth depofited by the floods rnont, and in a few places in the weftern parts ot New- (or, as they are called, fre(hets) in the fprmg, and are Hamplhire, children, women, and fome men of deli- of the richeft quality. Marlhes, except of trifling ex- cate conllitution', are atFeded with fwellings on the tent, are rare. The mod confiderable are around New- throat. This efFeft i? afcribed to their drinking brook Haven, and along the eadern coaft of Maflachufetts and river water. Bodon, Providence, Newbur) port, and New-Hamplliire. and a few other places on the fea coad, and in the in- The principal rivers of New-England are the Scho- River*, terior country, have been villted with the yellow fever, due, Penobfcot, Kennebec, Amarilcoggin, Saco, Pifca- A late writer (a) has obferved, that " in other coun- taqua, Merrimack, Parkers, Charles, 'I'aunton, Provi- tries, men are divided according to their wealth or iiidi- dence, Thames, Conneiticut, Hooeftonnuc, or Strat- gence, into three cl.ilfes ; the opulent, the middling, ford, Onion, La Moille, and Miflllcoui. Penobfcot, and the poor; the idleness, luxuries and debaucheries Kennebec, Menimac and Conneflicut are the larged. of the fird, and the mnery and too frequent intempe- Innumerable fmaller rivers divide the ctuintry in ranee of the lad, dedroy the greater proportion of thefe every direfli'>n, enrich the foil, adorn the landfcape, two. The intermediate clals is below thole indulgen- and turnilh mdl feats to almoft every village. Wind- cies which prove fatal to the rich, and above thofe fuf- mills are erefted in very tew places. Tlie principal ferings to wliich the untnrtunale poor tall viiflims : this rivers will be defcribed under their proper headi. is therefore the happied divifinn of the three. Of the The principal lakes are Cliampl.iine and Memphre- Late,, rich and poor, the American Republic turnillies a much magog, lying partly in Vermont and partly in New- Ponds and fmaller proportion than any other didriifl of the known York ; Winuipil'eogee and Umbagog, in New-Hamp- Harbours. woild. In Connecticut pai ticularly, the didributiiiU fhire ; Sebago, Mjofehead, Willeguenguagun, and of wealth and its concomitants is more equal than elfe- Chilmacook or Grand Lake, in Maine. Small lakes, commonly (a) Dr Foolke, in a difcourfe read before the American Philofophical Society. NEW [ 635 ] N E W Kew-Eng hnd. ProJuc- • commonly called ponds, of every fize, are fcattered throughout the country. Springs and fmall brooks water alnioll every farm. Harbours abound in Maine and MafTachufett!. The moil ufeful ones at prefent, are thofe ot M.ichias, Fienchnian's Bay, Wil'calfa, Portland, and Wells, in Maine ; Pii'cataqua, in New-Hamplliire ; Ncvvburyport, Salem, Mai bleheaii, B' (Ion, Province Town, and New Bedford, in Maifachufelts proper; Newport, Briftol, and Providence, in Rhode-llland ; and New London, New-Haven, and Black Rock in Fairfield, in Connedi- cut. Burlington Bay is the mjll cuniiderable harbour in Lake Cliamplaine, on the Vermont Ihore. The produce of the fields in New-Engl.ind is of every kind luited to the climate. In the wellern half, and in various parts cf the eallern, wheat, before the ravages of the Htlllan fly, grew abundantly ; but that infed has not a little difcouraged the culture cf this grain. Indian corn is a moll abundant and ufelul grain, furnidiing a very healthful and pleafing food to the inhabitants, and yielding alfo the bell means of fittening their numerous herds of cattle and fwine. 'I'he kind, frequently called fweet-corn, is perhaps the moll delicious of all culinary vegetables, if eaten young, and one of the mod falubri<ius. The juice of the corn-llalk yields a rich molafTes, and a fpirit not inferior to that of the fugar cane. No cultivated ve- geta!)le makes fo noble an appearance in the field. — Fruits of every kind, which fuit a temperate climate, abound, or may be eafily made to abound here. The heat of the fumm^r brings to high petfecTion the peach, apricot, and neftarine. The orchards of apple-trees cover a confideruble part of the whole country, except the new fetllements. Cider is the common drink of the inhab'tants of every clafs, and may often be ob- tained, in the interior country, by paying for the labour of gathering the apples and making the cider. Pears, plums, cherries, currants, gocfeberries, whoitleberries, blackberries, bilberries, &c. abound. Perry is made in fome parts of the country, but not in great quanti- ties. Butternuts, fliagbarkr,, and various other fruits of the dilfercnt fpccies of the hickory and hazle-nuts, are plentiiully fumilhed by the fouthern half of New- Lni^land. Mtdeira nuts and black walnuts are raiely cultivated, although the lall grow very eafily and Japidly. Hortuiine produflions ate alfo abundant, of every kind found in this climsite, and grow with very little c.ire or cilture. Gardening is much improved, and (liU advancing.; ; many good gtrdens are feen in almoll every quarter ot New-F.ngland. But tlie moll impoitant produiflion of New. Engl. md is grafs. This not only adorns the face of the country, wiih a beauty unrivalled in the new world, but alio furniflu-s more Wealth and property to its inhabitants th in any rther kind of vegetation. A farm of two lunidred acres of the b ft grazing land, is worih, to the occupier, as much as a farm of three hundred acres of the bell tillage land. 'l"he reafiin is olivious. Par l.-fs labour is nc- celiary to gather the proiluce, and convey it to market. The beef and pork of New FnglanJ are abundant and excellent, and teed the inhabitants nl many other countries, 'i'he mutton ii, alf) exquifite, when well fed, and of the proper age ; but it muit be confelfcd, that, except in a part of the eallern half of this t< uni ry, k is very often bioui^'ht 10 market 100 younjj and indil- ferently fed, to the injury cf both the farmer and the NewEnj- confumer. The lamb is univerfally fine, but is moft '^J- excell.;nt in the Hates of New-Hamplliire and Vermont; ""^"^^"^ and pari^icularly in the parts of thele dates which bor- der on Cofincaicut river. A great difcouragement to the railing of (heep, exifls in a kind of enclol'ure which IS extcniive, the Itone wall i over this wall Iheep pafs with great eafe, and cannot, withoctt much d.fUculty and labour, be prevented from intruding into all the parts ot a farm, wherever this kind of fence is in life. This evil, which is not a fmall one, will, however, be probably removed by increafing the new breed of fiieep, called the OlUr hreal. Tliefe Iheep, which, it is faid, began in an extraordinary manner, at Mendon, in Maf- fichufetts (of which a fufliciently correc't account to be inlerted here has not been received), have legs fomewhat refembling thofe of a hare ; and while they are not inferior to the common breed, in flefh or wool, arc unable to climb any fence ; a circumllance which, in New. England, confers on them a peculiar value. The wool of the New- England (lieep is of a good ftaple, and may be improved (as it often has been by attentive farmers) to a high, but indefinite degree. The bell wool, and the belt mutton alfo are furnilhed by^fhort and fweet pallures, and in dry feafons. The veal of New-England is extremely rich and fine when well fed, as it is to a great extent. Batter and cheefe, in this country, are made in vafl quantities, and of various goodnefs. The baiter is very generally excellent, but is IliU very commonly rendered knfibly worfe in the firkin, by the imperfeet mannar in which it is prepared. A great quantity of ordinary cheefe is lliipped yearly, to the difadvantage of both the maker and the merchant. There is'alfo a great quan- tity of cheefe of a fuperior quality made throughout the country. The dairies in Pomfret and Brooklyn, and a lew of the neighbouring towns in the eaflern part of Conncaicut, are probably more generally of the firlt clals, than in any other quarter. Ot the torc.'ls of New-Kngland, and not improbably forclT}. of the world, the white pine is the fii II 01 nament : The greatell diameter of tliis extraordinary tree does not exceed fix feet, but its height, in ibme inllances, exceeds two hundred and lixty. Tins vail Hem is often exaflly (Iraight, and tapering, and without a limb, to the height ot more than one liundred and fi^ty feet. The colour and form of the foliage are exquifite ; and the whole crown is noble beyond any thing of this kind, and peitlaly fuitcd to the Hem which it ad.-rns. The murmurs of the wind in a grove of white pines, is one of the firlk poetical objefls in the field 01 n.iiure. 'I'his tree is ol vail importance I'.'r building. The white oak lit New-England is a noble and molt ufeful tree. It is Icls enduring than the hv,-, or tlie Englilh oak ; but the early decay nf iliip>, built of the white . <k, fogeneially compla:ned ot, is Icfs owing to the nature of the tree, than to the iialle and curelelfntfs of the liuilders. — When the timber has been well leletfted and leai'oned, ihips termed ot tliis material, hive come near to the age ot thofe built ol the En^lilli oak. Tlic ch>-fiuit is alio of incalciiiabU- importance as a material in the con- llruvlion ol buildings, and tor fencing. A fence com- p 'led ot good raiU oi this tiee, will endure fovcniy or ciglity years. The clielhut is very C' jnmjii thitugh- out the Ibuiheru half of New. England, aud is .; no' 4 L z. i'malll NEW C 636 ] NEW Ncw-EnR- fmall value, on account of the nouri{hment it affords to land. fi^iiie (.luring their growth. Tlic cou:itry liliewife abounds in a very great variety of Howciing fhtubs and plants, many oi which are not only Le.iulilul but highly ul'elul. Population New-England is the moll populous part of the and charac- United States. It contained, in 1790, 1,009,522 fouls, "'^* and in 180c, 4,233,011. The grcit body ot thefe are landholders and cultivators of the foil. As they pof- fefs, in fee fimple, the farms which they cultivate, they are naturally all attached to their country ; the culti- vation of the foil makes them robuil and healthy, and enables th.em to delend it. New-England may, with propriety, be c:dled a nur- fe: y of men, whence are annually tranfplanted, into other parts cf the United States, thoufands of its na- tives. Vail numbers of them, fince the war, have emigrated into the northern paits of New-Yoik, into Canada, Kentucky, the Welkrn Territory, and Geor- gia ; and indeed into eveiy Hate, and every town of note- in the Union. The inhabitants of New-England are almcft univer- fally oi Englilh defcent ; and it is owing to this cir- cumllance, and to the great and general aitentiun that has be-n paid to education, that the Englilh language has been prcferved among them fo free from corrup- tion. The Ncw-Englanders are generally tall, (lout, and well built. Their education, laws and fituation, fcrve to inlpire them with high notions of liberty. Their jealouly is awakened at the firll motion towards an in- vallon ot their rights. They are indeed olten jealous to excels ; a circumllance which is a Iruitful fource of imaginary grievances, and of groundlefs fufpicions and complaints agaiull government. Dut thefe ebullitions of jealuuly, though cenfurable, and produflive of fome political evils, Ihcw that the elfence of true liberty exifts in New-England ; for watchfulnels is a guardian of liberty, and a chaiafleriftic of free republicans. A chiet toundation ot treedom in the New-England llates, is a law by which intellate elfates defcend to all the children, or other heirs, in equal proportions. In con- fequence ol thefe laws, the people of New-England en- joy an equality ol condition unknown in any other part of the world : And it is in this way that the people have pieferved that happy mediocrity among them- felves, which, by inducing economy and indulby, re- moves from them temptations to luxury, and torms lliern to habits of fobncty and temperance. i\t the fame time, their inJullry and frugality exempt them from want, and irom the neceffiiy of fubmittmg to any encroachments on their liberties. In New-Enj;land, learning is more generally diffufed among all ranks of people than in any other part of the United States ; a fad ariling from the excellent ellablilhment ol fchools in every town. Ill thei'e fchools, which are generally fupported by a public tax, and under the diieiilion ot a Ichool com- mittee, are taught the elements ol reading, wrilnig and arithmetic ; and in the mere wealthy town.*., ihcy are beginning to introduce the higher branches of gram- mar, geography, &c. A very valu.ible fource of information to the people is the newfpapers, of which not lefs than 30,000 are printed every week in New-England, and circulated in almoll every town and village in the country, (a) A perfon ol mature age, who cannot both read and write, is rarely to be found. By means of this general ellablilhment of fchools, the extenfive circulation of newfpapers, and the confequent dilFufion of learning, every townlhip throughout the country is furnillied with men caoable of conducing the affairs of their town with judgment and difcretion : Thefe nien are the channels ot political lnformati-;n to the lower clafs of people, if luch a clafs may be faid to exift in New- England, where every man thinks himfelf at leaft as good as his neighbour. The people, from their child- hood, form habits ol CHnvailing public affairs, and com- mence politicians. This naturally leads them to be very inquifitive. It is with knowledge as with riches, the more a man has, the more he wilhes to obtain ; his delire has no bound. This defire alter knowledge, in a greater or lei's degree, prevails throughout all claifes of people in New-England ; and, from their various modes of eiprelfrng it, fome of which are blunt and familiar, bordering on impertinence, ftrangers have been induced to mention i/npertlneiU inquijitivenefi as a diflinguiihing charafleridic of New-England people. But this inqulfitivenefs is rarely troublefome, and ge- nerally plealing. Tiie common people in New-Eng- land are outdone by no common people in the world, in civility to llrangers. Before the late war, which introduced into New- England a flood of corruptions, together with many- improvements, the Sabbath was obferved with great ftriduefs ; no unneceUary travelling, no fecular buli- nefs, no vifiting, no diverlions were permitted on that facied day. The people conlidered it as confecra- ted to divine worlhip, and were generally pundual and ferious in their attendance upon it. Their laws were Hrid in guarding the Sabbath againft every inno- vation. The fuppol'ed feverity with which thefe laws were compofed and executed, together with lome other traits in their religious chaiaiffer, have acquired for the NtW-Englanders the name of a fuperftitious, bigotted people. But all perfons are called luperltuicus by thole lefs conl'cientious, and lefs dilpofed to regard re- ligion with reverence, than ihemfelves. Since the war, a catholic, tolerant fpirit, occalioned by a more en- larged intercourfe with mankind, has greatly increafed, and is becoming univerfal : And if they do not go beyond the proper bound, and liberalize away all true religion, of which there is very great danger, they wll counieradl that llrong propenlity in human nature, which leads men to vibrate Ir^m one extreme to its opp' lite. Tliere is ime diftinguifhing charaifleriftic in the re- ligious chardifter. of this people, which we mull not omit to mention ; and that is, tlie cultom 'f aniually celebrating falls and thankfgivings. In the Ipring, the New-Eng. land. (a) In 1798, there were one hundred and twenty different newfp:ipers printed in the United States, many of them dally papers, and more printed twice a week. In 1788, it i^as ellimated, that no lefs ihun Jour mi/liont ot aewfpapers were circulated through the country every year. They have probably nearly doubled fince. N E W [ ^^c7 ] NEW New-Eng. the governors of th» feveral New-England flates, ex- land, cept R^ ode Ifland, ifTue their proclamations, appoint- ^^^^^"^ ir.g a day to be religiciufly obferved in falling, liumilia- tion and prayer, thtoughout their refpeflive ftates ; in which the predominating vices, that particularly call for humiliation, arc enumerated. In autiimn, after harvert, that gladfonie era in the hufbandmun's life, tlie governors again ilTue their proclamations, appoint- ing a day of public thankfgiving, enumerating the pub- lic bleffings received in the courfe of the foregoing year. This pious cuftom originated with their venerable ancellors, the firll fettlers of New-England ; and has been handed down as facred, throut;!' the fucceffive generations of tlieir pollerity. A cullom fo rational, and fo happily calculated to cherilli in the minds of the people, afenfe of their dependence on the Great Bene- factor of the world for all their bleffings, it is hoped will ever be facredly preferved. The people of New England generally obtain their eftates by hard and perlevering labour : they of confe- quence know their value, and are frugal. Yet in no country do the indigent and unfortunate fare better. Their laws oblige every town to provide a competent maintenance for their poor, and the neceffitous ftranger is protcifled and relieved by their humane inflitutions. It may in truth be faid, that in na part of the world are the people happier, better furnidiej with the necef- faries and conveniences of life, or more independent than the farmers in New England. As the great body of the people are hardy, independent freeholders, their manners are, as they ought to be, congenial to their employment, plain, limple, and manly. Strangers are received and enteitained among them with a great deal ok artlefs fincerlty, and iriendly, plain hofpitality. Their children, thofe imitative creatures, to whofe edu- cation particular attention is paid, early imbibe the manners and habits of thofe around them ; and the ftranger, with pleafure, notices the honeft and decent refpcct that is paid him by the children as he palfes through the country. As the people, by reprefentation, make their own laws and appoiiH their own officers, they cannot be oppreilcd ; and, living under governments which have few lucrative places, lliey ha\e tew motives to bribery, corrupt canvailiuirs, or intrigue. Real abilities and a moral tharaifter unblemilhed, are the qualifications requifitc in the view i.t moll people,, for officeis of pub- lic trull. Tlie expreliion ot a wilh to be promoted, was, and is lliil, in lome parts of New England, the dired way to be diiappoinled. The inliabitants <ire generally fond of the arts and fciences, and have cultivated them with great fuccel's. 'i'heir colleges have Houiillied. Tl e illultii.)Ub char. in- ters they have pioductd, who have diUinguifued theni- felves in politics, law, divinity, the mathematics and ph;h>fophy, natural and civil liill.ry, and in tlie hue arts, partitulaily in poetry and painting, evince the truth of thefc oblervaiions. Many ot the women in New En,;l.ind are handfome. They generally have fair, trelli and healthliil tourtc- nances, mingled with much icmale loltrtels anj delicicy. Thofe wlio have liad tlie advantages of a goi.U educa- tion, and they arc numerous, arc genteel, enfy, and agreeable in their manners, and arc fprightly and fcrv. domeftic concerns with ncatnefs and ec( nomy. of ilie firft dirtln(flion and fortune, make it fible in converfation. They are early taught to manage New-Ki-. Ladies '^'«'- t a part of their daily bufinefs to fupcrintend the affairs of the fa- mily. Employment at the needle, in cookery, and at the fpinning wheel, with them is honourable. Idlenefs, even in thofe of independent fortunes, is univerfally difreputable. The women in country town?, manu- faiflure the greater part of the clothing of their fami- lies. Tlieir linen and woollen cloths are (Irong and decent. Their butter and cheefe is not inferior to any in the world. Among the amulements of the people of New Eng- land is dancing, oi wliich the young people of both fexes are extremely fond. Gaming is praiHifed by none but thofe who cannot, or rather will not, find a repui.i. /■/f employment. The gamefler, the hnrfe -jockey, and the knive, are equally dtfpi'cJ, and their company is avoided by ill who would fullain fair and irreproach- able chara(fters. The athletic and healthy diverfions of cricket, foot- ball, quoits, wreftling, jumping, hopping, foot races, and priibn bafs are univerfally ptadliied in tlie country, and Ibnie of them in the molt populous place.-, and by people of almoft all ranks. In New England there are eight colleees, i in Con- nedicut, i' in Rhodc-lfland, 2 in Malfachufctts, 1 in Maine, i in New Hamffhire, 2 in Vermont, con- taining, in the whole about a thoufand Rudents, and the number is annually increafing. There are about three times the number of refpectable academies, fcat- tered at convenient diftancef, through the country, containing not lefs than two thoufand fcholars, and a great number of grammar fchools, in which the dead languages are taught ; belides common fie; fihools al- r>.ady mentioned, in every village and neighbourhood in New England. For promoting general fcience, there Lave been in- flituted the American academy of arts and fciences, and the Malfachufetts hillorical iuciety at Bollon, and the Connecticut academy of arts and fciences, at New Haven. For the advancement of agricultural know- ledge, feveral focieties have been ettabiilhed, and many others have been formed for various charitable and humane purpo:es. The people of New England are Proteftant clirif- tians, excepting a few Jews, who have a fynagoguc in Ncwpirt, and a fmall 1> ciety of Roman Catholics, in Bollnn. The Protellants are divided into congrega- tionalills, wliich is the prevailing dtn imination, Epif- copalians, Baptills, Friends or (fakers, Mcthodills, and a few Univerl'alills. As in other parts of the United Slates, fo in the part we are dellribing, there are numbers who have lhe;r religion yet to cl.oofe. — They liave liberty, but no r;h^ion. 1"he clergy uf New England are a numerous body of men, and, generally ipeaking, are refpectable for tlieir pi-ty, pure morals, ieariii.g and ul'clul indullry, a id live in great harmony and aticcli n with tiieir p.t- j)ie. The canle of general literature is much ind-bteJ 10 their labours. Probably eight tenths ot the pull - calron^, in New England Irom its hrfl feltlement, have been from the pens of the Clerv;y. The number and pious exertions, of miffionary focie- ties of which feven or eight are inllituttd in the differ- ent NEW C 638 ] NEW Ncw-Eng- ent States, fome of them patronized by the govern- NEW GRANADA, a province in the fouthern NewGrB-. land, nient, do honour to tlie religious chirafler of New divifion of Teira Fimu, S. America, whole chief town "^^^i " England. At the expcnfe, and under the direcflion of is Santa Fe de B.ic:nta. — ii. j^J,^^ thele foc^eties, a large number of miffionaries are annu- NEW GRAN THAM, a townfhip in Chefiilre coun- Hampfhire. ally fcnt among the fronlier fettlers, who are deftitute ly. New H^mpfh're, was incorporated in 1761, and v.^-v-^*» of the m-.-ani of religious inllruflinn. The bufinefs of contains 333 iiihabitant-, and is about 15 miles iouth- inidionaries is to inftrud from lioufe to houfe, t > preach eaO of Dartmouth college. — ib. publicly, to admin.lkr ordinances, and diltribute bi- NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the United States blci and vaiious other religious books. The good ef- of America, is (itualed between lat. 43 41 and 45 n feifts which h.ive followed tliefe exertions, in preferving north, and belwren 70 40 and 72 28 welt long, tiom and chcrilhing the earlyjreligious habits of ihele people, Greenwich; bounded noith by Lower Canada; calt and guarding them againit the poifon of infidelity and by the Diftriift of Maine; fouth by MafTachufctts, and vice, have b^en great beyond calcuLition. well by Conneclxut liver, which feparates it from Ver- Bollon is tie laigefl town in New England, and may mont. Its lh.ipe is neaily that of a right angled tri- be confidered its capital. Belides this are Salem, and angle. The Diltiia of Maine and the lea its kg, the Newburyport in Mjlfichufetts ; Portland in Maine, hne of Midachufetts its petpendicular, and Connedlicut Portfmouih in New Hamplhire, Bennini^ton, Wind- river its hypothenufe. It contains 9,491 fquare miles, for, Rutland, in Vermont, Hartford, New Haven, or 6,074,240 acres ; of which at lead 100,000 acies are and New London in Connc^icut, and Providence and water. Its leiigih is 168 miles; its greateil breadth. Newport in Rhode Ifland. See thefe defcribed under 90; and its lealt breadth 19 miles, tlieir refpedlive heads. Exclufive of thofe above named. This Stale is divided into 5 counties, viz. Rocking- there arc in New England upwards of 100 towns which ham, Strafford, Ciiefhire, HiUfborongh, and Grafton. )iave each more than 2000 inhal)itants — many of which The chief towns are Portfmouth, Exeter, Concord, liave three, four, or live ihoiifand. Dover, Amherft, Keen, Charleftown, Plymouth, and New Engl.ind is the molt commercial part of the tlaverhiU. Moll of the townlhips are 6 miles fquare. United States. Of ninety-three millions tf dollars, and the whole number of townlhips and locations is tl'.e amount of exports from the United States in the 214; containing 141,885 peifons, including 158 flaves, year ending 3o:h Sept. 1801, New England exported In 1767, the number of inhabitants were eftimated at 18,761,867 dullirs, 01 about a fifth part of the whole. 52,700. This State has but about 18 miles of fea- Hii tonnigein 1798, ammnted to 360,911 more than coall, at its fouth-eaft corner. In this diftance there ha'f the whole belonging to the United States. About are feveral coves for filhing veflels, but the only har- 30,000 tons are ufually employed by Mdiradiufctts hour for fhips is the entrance of Pifcataqua river, the alone in carrying on the fifheries ; 50,000 in the coaft- fl ores of which are rocky. The fliore is mollly a fandy ing bufinefs, and the remair.der, to the amount of bei:ch, adjoin ng to wliich ate fjlt marflies, inierlcificd 281,436 tons (owned in Maffachufetts in 1798 J in fo- by cieekf, which produce good paflute for cattle and reign trade to all parts of the world. — Morse. Ihecp. The intervale lands on the margin of the great NEWENHAM, Cape, is the north point of Briftol rivers are the moll valuable, becaufe they are over- Bay, en the north-welt coall of North-America. All flowed and enriched by the water from the uplands along the coalf the Hood tide feti ftrongly to the north- which brings a fat Oime or i'ediment. On Connetlicut weft, and it is high water about noon on lull and change liver thefe lands are from a quarter of a mile to a mile days. N. lat. 58 42, W.lcng. 162 24. — il/. and an half on each fide, and produce corn, grain, NEW F.\IRF1ELD, the north-weileriimoft town- and grafs, efpecially wheat, in fhip in Fairfield county ConnecTicut. — ii. greater abundance and perftdion than the fame kind of loil does in the higher NEW F.\NE, the chief town of Windham county, lands. The wide fpreading hills are efteemed as warm Vermont, is iiiuated on Wefl; river, a little to the iiorih-well cf Braltleborough. In has 660 inhabitants. in Chefter county, and rich; rocky moill land is accounted good for pai- ture ; drained fwainps have a deep mellow foil ; and the vallies between the hills are generally very produc- tive. Agticulture is the chief occupation of the inha- bitants ; beef, pork, mutton, poultry, wheat, rye. ■!b. NEW GARDEN, a t^wnlhip Pennfylvania — il). Niw Garden, a fettlement of the Friends in Guild- Indian corn, barley, pulle, butter, cheefe, hops, tlcu- ford county, N. Carolina. — ii. I'.nt roots and plants, flax, hemp, &c. are articles which NEW GENEV.-\, a fettlement in Fayette county, will always find a market, and are railed in inimenfe Pennfylvania. — il>, quantities in New Hamplhire, both for home conlump- NEW GERMANTOWN, a po(l-tov.'n of New- tion and e.tportation. Apples and pears are the moll Jerfey, lituated in Hunterdon county. It is 28 miles common fruits cultivated in this State, and no huf- iioith-well of Brunfwick, 47 north by eaft of Trenton, Ixrndman thinks his farm complete without an orchard, and 77 norih-ealt by north tf Philaaelphia. — tb. Tree fruit of the firfl quality, cannot be railed in fuch NEW GLOUCESTER, a fmall poittown in Cum- a northern chmate as this, without particular attention, berland county, Dilhiift of Maine, 27 miles northerly New York, New Jerfey and Pennfylvania have it in per- of Portland, and 146 noith of Bolton. It was incor- feition. As you depart from that traff, either fouth- porated in 1774, and contains 1355 inhabitants ii. ward or northward, it degenerates. The uncultivated NEW GOl'TINGEN, a town ot Georgia, lituatcd lands are covei'ed with extenfive foreils of pine, tir, in Barke county, on tl-.e well bank of Savannah river, cedar, oak, walnut, 5cc. New Hamplhire is interfedt- about 18 miles eall of Vv^ayntlborgugh, and 3 J nonh- ed by feveral ranges of mountains. The firfl ridge, by weft of Ebeaezer.— i,J. the name of the Blue HJls, pafles through Rocheiler, Uarrington NEW C C39 ] NEW Kew E.irnngton and Nottingham, and the fevernl fiinimits and not by any other white fubfl viliiEil!^' ^""^ diftinguilhed by different names. Behind thefe are is n^ne. fevcral higher detached mountains. Fai ilier back the mountains rife (till higher, and among the third range, Chocorua, Oii'apy, and Kyarfarge, are the principal. Beyond tliefe is the lofty ridge which divides the branches of Conneclicut and Meniniack rivers, deno- minated the Height of Land. In this lidge is the cele- brated Monadnock mountain. 'I'hircy miles N. of which is Sunapee, and 48 miles fuitber is Moofeiiillock, called alio Moolhelock mountain. The ridge is then continued niirtheily, dividing the waters of the river Conneifticut from thofe of Saco, and Amarifcoggin. Here the mountains rife much higher, and the moll elevated fummits in this range, are the White Moun- tains. The lands W. of this lalt mentioned range of mountains, bordering on Connefticut river, are inter- fperfed with extenlive meadows, rich and well watered. Offapy Mountain lies adjoining the town of Moidton- borough on the N. E. In this town it is obferved, that in a N. E. dorm the wind falls over the mountain, like water over a dam ; and with fuch fcrce, as frequently to unroof houfes. People who live near thefe moun- tains, by noticing the various movements of attiacled vapours, can form a pretty accurate judgment of the weather ; and they hence ftyle thefe mountains their Alrnanack. It a cloud is attracted by a mountain, and hovers on its top, they predic'^ rain ; and if, after rain, the mountain continues capped, they expert a re- petition of (bowers. A (iorm is preceded for feveral hours by a roaring of the mountain, which may be heard to or 12 miles. But the White Mountains are undoubtedly the higheft land in New England, and, in clear weather, are dilcovered before any other land, by velTels coming in to the ealtern coa(i ; but by reaion of their white appearance, are frequently miltaken ior clouds. They are vifible on the land at the dillance of 80 miles, on the S. and S. E. fides ; they appear higher when viewed from the N. E. and it is faid, they are fcen from the neighbourhood ot Chamblee and Quebec. The Indians gave them the name ot Agiocochook. The number of fummits in this duller ot mountains cannot at prefent be afcertained, the country around them being a thick wildernels. The greatclt number which can be feen at once, is at Darimouth, on the N. W. fide, where feven lummits appear at one view, of which four are bald. Ot tliele the three highelt are the moll dilUnt, being on the eallern (ide of ilie clut- ter ; one of thefe is the mountain which makes io ma- jiftic an appearance all along the Ihorc ot tlie e.Hltcin counties of Mairachufelts : it h^is lately heen dillin- };uilhed by the name of Mount Washington. Dur- ing the period of 9 or 10 n<onihs, tiicic mountains exhibit more or lels of lliat briglu appearance, ti^m wliich they are denominated wjiiie. in the ipruig, when the fnow is partly dilfolvcd, ihey appear ot a pale blue, llre.tked with white; and alter it is wholly gone, at the dillancc of 60 nnles iliey are ahogeihcr of the lame pale blue, nearly approaching a Iky c. k-ui ; while at the fame time, viewed at ilic ililiauce 01 y miles or lefs, tlicy appear of the pr(i|>cr colour vi lijc (l,g ^oun ' '- - '^' " '^ ' ' •••• "6 rock. Thefe changes are nbie.vcd by ).cople wjio live F.lifield county on the well ; ab..ul 30 miles lontrVr.in within conllant view ol them ; and tioni ihclc laCIs and n^rth to Ibuth. and 28 f.om call to Will. It is d.vi '. obfervaii ns, it may with ceiiam y b; ccnciu.jec, that ed into 14 townlhips It contaii ed in i-e6 17 gc- tlie wlmcncls ot ihcm is wholly cau.ed by the lUow, i.^e perfons, and 226 (laves ; in 1774, Zj-.SjeVrecpeV. fons, ance, for in fadl there New Harapfhirc, The mod confiderable rivers of this Stale are C. n- ^''^'' neftlcut, Merrimick, Pifcataqua, Saco, AnJrofcog^in, yj^^^^^ Upper and Lower Amnnoofuck, befid;s many oilier fmaller areams. The chief lakes are Winnipifeogee, Unibagog, Sunapee, Scjuam, and Great Ollipee. Before the war, Ihip-building w.-s a fource cf coniider- able wealth to th's State ; ab",ut 200 velfels were then annually built, and fold in Europe and in the Wcft- Indies, but that trad.- is much declined. Alihough this is not to be ranked among the great commetcuil States, yet its trade is confidcrable. Its exports confift of Limber, (hip-limber, whale oil, flax-feeJ, live (lock, beef, pork, Indinn corn, pot and pearl allies, &.c. &c. In 1790, there belonged to Pilcataqua 33 velTeh above too tons, and 50 iinJer that burden. The ton. nage of foreign and American veli'els cleared out from the III of Oaober, 1789, to ill of Ortober, 1701, was 31,097 tens, of which 26,560 tons were Ameiic.in veliels. 1 he liihcries at Pifcataqua, inckidm'' the Ifle of Shoals, employ annuilly 27 fchooners and 20 boats. In I 79 1, the produce was 25,850 quintals of cod and fcale hlh. The exporis fri m the port of Pifcataqua in tuo ye.irs, viz. from id of Oflober, 1789. to ift of Oflober, 1791, amounted to the value tf 296,839 dollars, 51 cents; in the year ending Sep'ember 30th, 1792, 181,407 dollars; in 1793, '98,197 dollars; and in the year 1794, 153,856 dollars. The bank of New Hampliiire was ellabiilhed in 1792, with a capital of 60.OCO dollars ; by an art of allembly the If'ock- holders can increafe it to 200,000 dollars fpecie, and 100,000 dollars, in any other ellate. The only col- lege in the State is at Hanover, called D.irtmouih col- lege, which is amply endowed with lands, and is in a flourilliing I'ltuatlnn. The principal academies are thofe of Exeter, New Ipfwich, Atkinfon, and Amher.a. — Morse. NEW HAMPTON, a po(l-town of New HampHiIre, fituated in Stiailord county, on the W. fide of Lake Winnipifeogee, 9 miles S. E. of Plymouth, and 9 N. W. oi Meredith. The townlhip was incorporated in 1777, and contains 652 inhabitants. — ib. NEW HANOVER, a maritime county of Wilming- ton dilbid, N. Carohna, extending from Cape Fear ri- ver north-ead along the Atlantic ocean. It contains 6831 inhabitants, including 373S (laves. Chief town, W Iming'on. — ib. New Hanover, a townHiip in Burlington county, New Jerfey, containing about 20,000 acies of improv- ed laud, and a large quantity that u barren and uncul- tivated. The comp,<i;i part of ihe townlhip i^ called Niiv-Milli, where are about 50 houfes, 27 m les fiom Piiiladelphia, and 13 fr^ m Burlington ib. New Hanover, a townlhip in Morgan county, Penn- fylvani.i. — ib. NEW HARTFORD, a fmall poft-tnwn i.i Litch- field county, Conncdicu., 14 miles N. E. of Litchfield, 20 W. by N. of Hartford.—//^. NEW H.WEN County, Connecticut, extends a!on" the Sound beiween Middlellx county, on the ead, and NEW [ 640 ] NEW fons, and 925 fl^ves; a;id in 1790, 30,397 free perfons, and 433 (laves.—;*. ^ „■ • l l New Havln, (CityJ the feat of jultice in the above county, and die femi-metropolis of the Stale. This city lies ruiuid (he head of a bay which makes up about 4 miles north from Long Ill.md Sound. It covers part ot alargepUin which is ciVcumfcrihed on three fidesbyhigh hills or moiintaitis. Two fmall rivers bound the city eaft and well. It was originally laid our. in fquares of 60 rods J many of thefefquares have been divided by crofs (Ireets. Four ftreets run north-weft and fouth-eaft, and are crofled by others at rii^ht angles. Near the cen- tre of the city is the public I'quare, on and around which ate the public buildings, which are a Hate houfe, two college edifices, and a chapel, three churches for Con- jrrcgationallrts, and one for Epifcopalians; all which are handlome and commodious buildings. The college edifices, chapel, ftate-houfe, and one of the churches are ot biick. The public fquaie is encircled with rows of trees, which render it both convenient and delightful. Its beauty, however, is greatly diminidied by llie burial- ground, and feveral of the public buildings which occu- py a confiderable part of it. Many of the llreets are ornamented wilh rows of trees on each fide, which give the city a rural appearance. The prolpedt from the Ueeples is greatly vai legated and extremely beautiiul. There arc between 3 and 400 neat dwelling-houfcs in the city, principally of wood. The ftreets are Tandy but clean. Within the limits of the city, are 4000 fouls. About one in 70 die annually. Indeed as to pleafant- nefs of lituation and i'alnbrity of air, New Haven is hardly exceeded by any city in America. It carries on a conliderable trade with New York and the Weft In- dia iflands. The exports for one year, ending Sept. 30, 1794. amounted to tlie value ct 171,868 dollars. Manutaftutes of card teeth, linen, buttons, cotton, and paper are cairied on here. Yale college, which is efta- blilhed in this city, was lounded in 1700, and remained at KiUingwonh until 1707, then at Saybrook until 1716, when it was removed and fixed at New Haven. It has its name from its principal benefactor Governor Yale. There are at prelient fix college domic'iLs, two ot \\hich, each 100 feet long and 40 wide, are inhabited by the ftudents, containing 32 chambers each, fufficient for lodging 120 ftudents ; a chapel 40 by 50 feet, wiih a fteepl'e 130 ieet high; a dining-h.iU 60 by 40 feet ; a houfe for the prelldent, and an-nher for the protelfor of divinity. In the chapel is lodged the public library, confuting of about 3000 volumes, and the pbilofophical apparatus, as complete as nioft others in the United States, and contains the machines necetfary tor exhibit- ing expsrimeuls in tlie \^hole courle of esperimental phi- lolophy and altronomy. The mufeum, to which addi- tions are conltantly making, contains many natural cu- xiefities. Fr' ni the year 1 700 to I793,tiiere have been educated and graduated at this univcifity about 2,303. The number of Itudents is generally 150. The liar- bpur, though inferior to New London, has good an- ch'^ra ,e, with 3 tathom and 4 feet water at common tides and 2!- tathom at low water. This place and Haniord are the feats of the legiflaiure alternately. It is 40 miles S. W. by S. of Haiitord, 54 frtm New Lon- don, 88 from New-Y'irk, 152 iioin BoUon, and 183 north-call of Pluladelphia. N. lat. 41 18, W. long. 72 56. — lb. New Havev, a townfhip in Addifon county, Ver- mont, on Otter Creek or River, containing 723 inhabi- tants. — ib. NEW HEBRIDES, a clufter of iftands in the Paci- fic Ocean, fo called by Capt. Cook in 1794 — the fame v as the Arch'iptlago ef the Great Cyclades ot iiougainville, or the Terra y/u/?ra/ of Quiros. — ib. NEW HAMPSTEAD, a townlhip in Orange coun- ty. New York, bounded eafterly by Clarkftown, and foulherly by the ftate of New Jerley. It was taken from Haverl^raw, and incorporated in 1791. By the ftate cenfus of i 796, there were 245 of its inhabitants quali- fied eleiflors. — /'/;. NEW HOLDERNESS, a townfiiip in Grafton county. New Hamplliire, fituated on the E. tide of Pemigewaflet river, about 3 miles E. by S. of Plymouth. It was incorporated in i76i,and contains 329 inhabi- tants. — ib. NEW HOLLAND, a town of Pennfylvania, Lan- cafter county, in the midft of a fertile country. It con- tains a German church and about 70 houfes. It is 12 miles E. N. E. of Luncafter, aud 54 W. N. W. of Phi- ladelphia. — \b. NEW HUNTINGTON, a mountainous townfiiip in Chittenden county, Vermont, on the S. W. fide of Onion river, containing 136 inliaRitants. — ib. NEVVINGTON, a townfhip ; formerly part of Portf- mouth and Dover, in Rockingham county, New Hamp- fhite. It contains ^^xi inhabitants. — ib. NEW INVERNESS, in Georgia, is fituated near Darien on Alatamaha river. It was built by the Scotch Highlanders, 160 of whom landed here in »735— '■*• NEW IPSWICH, a townfhip in Hillthorough coun- ty. New Hamplhire, on the W. fide of Souhegan river, upon the louthern line of the State. It was incorporated in 1762, and contains 1141 inhabitants. There is aa academy, founded in 17S9, having a tund of about ;^'i,ooo, and has generally about 40 or 50 lludents. It is about 24 miles S. E. of Keene, and 75 W. S. W. of Portfniouth. — ib. NEW JERSEY, one of the United States of Ame- rica, is lituated between 39 and 41 24 N. latitude, and between 74 44 and 75 33 W. longitude fiom London j bounded E. by Hudion's river and the Ocean ; W. by Delaware Bay and river, which d vide it from the States of Delaware and Pennfylvania; N. by the line drawn from the niou'h of Mahakkamak river, in lat. 41 24 to a point on Hudfon's river, in lat. 41. It is about 160 miles long and 52 broad, containing about 8,320 fquare miles, equal to 5,324.800 acres. It is divided into 13 counties, viz. Cape May, Cuml)erland, Salem, Gloucelter, Burlington, Hunterdon, and Sulfex ; thele 7 lie iVnm S. to N. on Delawaie tiver ; Cape May and Gloucelfer extend acrofs to the fea ; Bergen, Eifex, Middlcfex, and Monmouth, lie from N. to S. on the ealliern tide of the --tate; Someri'et and Morris are inland counties. The number of inhabitants is 184,139, of wlu m 1 1,423 are (laves. The moft remarkable bay is Arthur Kail, or Newark Bay, formed by the union of Paliaick and Hackinl'ac rivers. Tlie rivers in tins S;ate though not large, are numerous. A traveller in palling the common road from New York to Philadelphia, en (fcs 3 conliderable river', wa. the Hack'nfac and Paf- faick, between Bergea aud Newark, and the Rariton by Bruofvvick.. New Haven, U New jerfcy. NEW C 641 ] NEW Kew Brunfwick. Paffaick is a very crooked river. It is navi- Jerfcy. gable about 10 miles, and is 230 yards wide at the "^"^''"^^ lerry. The catarai£l, or Great Falls, in this river, is one of the greateft natural curiolitles in the State. The river is about 40 yards wide, and moves in a flow, gentle current, until coming within a Ihort diftance of a deep cleft in a rock, which ciofles the channel, it defcends and falls above 70 feet perpendicularly, in one entire fiieet. One end of the clett, which was evidently made by fome violent convulfion in nature, is clofed ; at the other, the water rulhes out with incredible fwiftnefs, forming an acute angle with its former direftion, and is received into a large bafon, whence it takes a v/inding courfe through the rocks, and fpreads into a broad fmooth ftream. The cleft it from 4 to 12 feet broad. The falling of the water occafions a cloud of vapour to arife, which, by floating amidft the fun-beams, prefents rainbows to the view, which adds beauty to the tremen- dous fcene. The new manufaduring town of Patterfon is ereifled upon the Great Fall;, in this river. Rariton river is formed by two confiderable Ureams, called the north and fouth branches; one of which has its fource in Morris, the other in Hunterdon county. It palfes by Brunfwick and Ambuy, and mingling with the wa- ters of the Arthur KuU Sound, helps to form the fine harbour of Amboy. Bridges have lately been ere<5led over the Pailaick, Hackinfac and Rariton livers, on the poll-road between New-York and Philadelphia. Thefe bridges will greatly facilitate the intercourfe between thefe two great cities. The counties of Suifei, Morris, and the northern part of Bergen, are mountainous. As much as five-eighths of moft of the fouthern coun- ties, or one-fourth of the whole State, is almoft entirely a fandy barren, unfit in many parts for cultivation. All the varieties of foil, from the word to the bed kind, may be found here. The good land in the fouthern counties lies principally on the banks of rivers and creeks. The barrensproducelittleelfebut(hrub-oaksandyellowpines. Thefe fandy lands yield an immenfe quantity of bog iron ore, which is worked up to great advantage in the iron-works in thefe counties. In the hilly and moun- tainous parts which are not too rocky for cultivation, the foil is of a (Ironger kind, and covered in its natural ftate with (lately oaks, hickories, chefnuts. Sec. and when cultivated, produces wheat, rye, Indian corn, buckwheat, oats, barley, flax, and fruits of all kinds, common to the climate. The land in this hilly country is good for grazing, and farmers feed great numbers of cattle for New- York and Philadelphia markets. The orchards in many parts of the State equal any in the United States, and their cyder is faid, and n< t without reafon, to be the bell in the world. The markets of New York and Phi- ladelphia, receive a very confiderable proportion ol their fupplies from the contiguous parts of New-Jerfcy. Thefe fupplies coulill of vegetables of many kinds, ap- ples, pears, peaches, plums, ftrawberiics, clierries and other fruits — cyder in large quantities, butter, cheefe, beef, pork, mutton, and the lelfer me-ils. Tlie trade is carried on .ilmod folcly with and from thofe two great commercial cities. New York on one fide, and Pliiladel- phia on the other ; though it wants not good ports ot its own. Maiuifiifliires liere have hitherto been iiidiifide- rable, not fulficicnt to fupply its own confumption, if we except the articles of iron, nails, ;tnd leather. A Ipiiitof indullry and imprcvcniciii, p.irlicularl) in inanufatlurif, SufPL. \'oi.. II. has however, of late, greatly increafed. The iron manu- failure is, of all others, the greatell fource of wealth to the State. Iron-works are cretSed in Gloncefter, Bur- lington, Siiilex, Morris, and other counties. Tlie moun- tains in the county of Morris give rife to a number < f dreams, necelf.iry and convenient for thefe work', and at the fame time furnifli a copious fupply cf wood and ore of a fuperior quality. In this county alone, are no lefs than 7 rich iron mines, from whicli might be taktn ore fufficient to fupply the United States ; and to work it into iron, there are 2 furnaces, 2 rolling and flitting mills, and about 30 forges, containing from 2 to 4 fires each. Thefe woiks produce annually, about 540 lorn of bar iron, 800 tons of pigs, befides large quantities of hollow ware, Iheet iron, and nail rods. In the whole State it is fuppofed there is yearly made about i 200 tons of bar iron, i 200 do. of pigs, 80 do. of nail-rods, exclufive of hollow ware, and various other cading«, ot which vad quantities are made. The inhabitants are i coUeflion ot Low Dutch, Germans, Englilh, Scotch, Irilh, and New-Englaiiders, and their defcendants. Na- tional attachment, and mutual convenience, have gene- rally induced thefe feveral kinds of people to fettle toge- ther in a body, and in this way their peculiar national manners, cudoms and charai^er, are fti'l preferved, efpe- cially among the poorer clafs of people, wlio h.ive little intercourfe with any but thofe of their own nation. The people of New-Jerfey are generally indudrious, frugal, and hofj.itable. There are in this ftate, about 50 Ptef- byterian congregations, fulijcdl to the care of 3 I'refljy- teries; befides upwards of 40 congregations of Friend", 3D of Baptifts, 25 of Epiftopaliaiis, 28 of Dutch Re- formed, befides Methodills, and a fetilement of Mora- vians. All thefe religious denominations live together in peace and harmony; and are allowed, by thecondi- tution of the State, to worlhip Almighty God agreeably to the diiftates of their own confciences. The college at Princeton, called Nairau Hall, has been under the caic of a fucceflion of Prefidents, eminent for piety and learning ; and has furnillied a number of Civilian?, Di- vines, and Phyficians, of the fitd rank in America. It has confiderable funds, is under excellent regulations, and has gener-.lly from 80 to ico dudents, principally from the fouthern dates. There are academies at Frec- h(ild, Trenton, H.ickinfack, Orangcdale, Elizabeth- Town, Builingtcn, and Newark ; and grammar fcliools at Springfield, Moriidown, Bordcntown, and Amboy. There aie a number of towns in this State, nearly of equal fize and importance, and none that has more than 30ohoufescompa<ftly built. Trenton is one of the larged, and the capital ot the date. The other principal towns are Brunfwick, Burlington, .Amboy, Bordentown, Princeton, Elizabeth-Town, Newark, and Mt rridown. This date was the fe.n of war for feveral years, during the bloody conted between Grejt-Britain and Am-.rica. Herlolfes bi th of men and pr.perty, in proportion to the population and wealth of the State, was greater thar) cf any other of the Thirteen Sta'es. When General Wafli- ington was retreating through the Jcrfies, almoft forfakcn by all others, her militia were at all times obedient to h'S orders ; and, for a confiderable length of time, compofc.i the ftrength of his army. There is hardly a town in the date that lay in the progrtfs ot the Britifli arnn, ihit was not rendered fignal, by fume enter^rifc or ex- ploit. — ill. 4 M NEW KeW Jcrfey, NEW [ 642 ] NEW Ntw K«nt, NEW KENT, a county of Virginia, bounded on the II S. fide of Pamunky and York rivers. It is about 33 ^'''' miles lonj^, and 12 broad, and contains 6,239 inhabi- ii^'J^ tmts, including 3,700 flives. New Kent court houfe is 30 m Iss from Richmond, and as far irom WiUiaml- exrellent. It is about 32 miles E. by S. of Albany, N«^vlin. 103 north of New- York, and 6 W. of Pittsfield. — ib. NEWLIN, a. townlhip in CheRcr couniy, Pennfyl- vania. — il>. NEW LONDON, a maritime county of Connedi- cut, cjrapreliendia^ the S. E. corner of it, bordering NEV/LEBANON, a poR town in Dutchefs county, E. on Rhode-Illmd, and S. on Long-KLnd Sound, New York, celebrated for its medicinal fpring-^. The about 30 miles from E. to W. and 24 from north to compaft part of this town is pleafantly filuated partly fomh. It was fettled foon after the tirll fettlements in an cxtenlve valley, and partly on the declivity of the were tormed on Conne>5l!Cut nver ; and is divided into furroundins; hills. The fpring is on the fouth fide, and 1 1 tOA-nlhips, it which' New-London and Norwich are near th- bottom of a genile hill, but a few rods weft of the chief. It contained in 1756, 22.844 inhabitants, of tiie Malfacluifetts weft line ; and is furrounded with fe- whom 829 were Haves ; in 1790, 33,200, ot wliom 580 veral sood houfcs, which alFord convenient accommo- were llaves.— ;/<. dations for the valetudinarians who vifit thele waters. New London, a city, port of entry, and poft-town m Concernint- the medicinal virtues of this fpring, Dr the above county, and one ol the molt confiderable com. Waterhoufe, Profelfor of the theory and praflice of mercial towns in the Stite. It Rands on the W. fide phyfic at Harvard Univerfity, and who vilited it in the ot the riv^r Thames, about 3 miles from its entrance into fummer of 1794, obferves, " I confefs myself at a lols the SounJ, anJ is detended by Fort Trumbull and to determine the contents of ihefe vvaters by chymical Fort GnfwolJ, the one on the New London, the other analyfis, or any of the oidmary lefts. I fufpeft their on the Gioton (ide ot the Thames. A confid.rable impregnaMon is from fome caufe weakened. Except- p»rtof the town was burnt by BeneJiA Arnold in 1781. iaefroiti their waimth, which is about that of new milk, It has Imce been rebuilt. H:re are two places of pub- I never ftiojld have fufpe^^d them to come under the I'C worlbip, one tor Epilcopahans, and one tor Congre- h-^ad of medicinal waters. They are ufed for the vari- gitionalift,, about 300 dwelling houfes and 4,600 in- ous purpofes of cookery, and for common drink by the habitants. Tne harbour 1. large, iafe and commodious, neighbiurs, and I neve: could dilcover any other efFcils and has 5 fathoms wuer ; hi^h water at full and from drinkino- ih;m, than what we migiit expe^ fiom change, 54 minutes after 8. On the W. fiJe of the en- rain or river water of that temperature. There was no trance is a light houle, on a point ot land which pr. j.-fti vifible change produced in this water by the addition of coafiderably into the Sjund. The exports tor a year an alkali, nor by a folution of alum ; nor was any ef- ending Sep-.ember 30th, 1794, amounted 10557,453 iervefcence raifed by the oil of vitriol; neither d'd it change the colour^ of gold, filver, or copper ; nor did it redden beef or mutton boded in it ; nor did it extrafl a black tincture from galls ; neither did it curdle milk, dollars. In ihat year looo mules were Ihipped for the Weft Indies. It is 14 miles fouth of Norwich, 54 S. E. by S. of Hartford, 54 E. of New Haven, and 237 N. E. by E. of Pnlladelphia. N. lat. 41 25, W. long. the white; of eggsor loap. The quality of the waters 7^ 15- 'i'^* townlhip of New London was laid out in ..f the pool at Lebanon is, therefore, very dilTerentfiotn lots in 164S, but had a few Englilh inhabitants two ihofe of Saiaio-'a. Thele are warm and warmilh. thofe years before. It was called by the Indians Nameag or very cold, fm.irt, and ex'.iilarating. Frogs are found in th* pool of Lebanon, and (luusgiow and flouriftj in and aio.ind it ; but plants will not grow within the va- pour of thofe of Saratoga, and as for fin ill anim lU, t'.iey foon expire in it. Hence we co:iciude that th it (hiriius mlncial'u which fome call aerial a^id, or fixed air, abounds in the one bat not in the other. Yet the Lab i- mn pool is fimous for having wrought many cures, el\-eciall/ in rheuiiatifms, ftiff joints, fcabby eruptions 'Tuivaiui^, and liom bciag the feat of the Pequot tribe, was called Pejuot. It was the feat of Siijiinis, the grand raonirch ot Long-Iflaiid, and part of Connecticut and Narraganfet. — ;'^. New London, afnulltownrnipinHilltboroughcountjr, New Hamplhiie, inco: porated in i 779, and contains 3 i i inhabitants. It lie^ at the head of Black-watL;r river, and about 3 miles Irom the N. E. (Ide of Sunapee Like. — ib. New Londom, a poll town of Virginia, and the chief and even in vifceral obftruaions and indigeftions ; all town of Bed.ord coun'y. It Hands upon rifing ground, of which is very probable. If a perfon who has brought and contains about 130 houfes, a court hou'e and god. nn a train of chronic cjmpliints, by intemperance in There were here in the late war fevera! woik (liops for (Mting and drinking, Ihould fwallow four or hve quarts lepairing Hre arms.^ It is 133 miles VV. by S. of Rjch iif rain o river water in a day, he woald not feel fo keen an appetite for anim il f jod, or thit ft lor fpirituous liquais. Hence fuch a courf; of wat;r drinking wl'.l ope.i obftruiti jUS, rinfe out impuriliei, rend.-r perfpira- tion free, and thus remove that unnatural load trom liii animal maehin;, w;;ichcaufes and keeps up its dif- nrders. PolFibly, however, there may hz fomeihing fo fubtle in thefe waters as to elud; the Icrutiniiing hand of the chymills, fince they all allow tljitth; analyfis ot mineral waters is one am,n' the moft dilficnlt thini^s mond, 152 weft of Peterfburg, and 393 S. W. by ^V. of Plii'adeipliia. — ib. NEW M.'\DRID, in the northern part of Louifiana, is a fettlement on the W. bank of the Miffiilippl, ci<m- mewced lome years ago, and condadtcd by Col. Mor- gan of New Jeifey, under the patronage of the Spanilh king. The Ipot on which the city was propofed to be bum is filuated in lat. 36 30 N. and 45 miles below the mouth of Ohio river. The limits of the new city of Ma- drid were to extend 4 miles S. and 2 W. from the ri- in the chymical art." A Ibclety of Shaksn inhabit the ver; fo as to crofs a beautiful, l.vmg deep lake, of the Ibjth part of the town in view of the ma-n ftige-road, purell fpring water, 100 yards wide, and feveral miles vhich palFes through this town. Their manutaifures in leagth, emptying ilfelf, hy a conft:ant and rapid ndr- cf various kinds are co.iliJsrabk, and very nsat and row lUeam, throutjh ihs centre of the city. The banks of N E W [ <543 ] N E W Madrid, II ilewmar- ket. of this lake, called St. Annis, are high, bcauiiful and plealant ; the w.tter deep, clear and fweet, and well (lored wiih fi(li; the bcttom a clear far.d, free from woods, (hrubs, or other vegetables. On each fide of I this delightful lake, ftreets were to be hid out, loofeet wide, and a road to be continued round ir, rf the fame breadtii; and the ftre.ts were cliieifled to be preferved forever, for the health and pleafure ot the ciiizens. A (treet 120 feet wide, on th: bank of the M'ffilTippi, was laid out ; and the trees were direifled to be preferved for the fame purpofe. Twelve acres, in a central part of the city %vere to be preferved in like minner, to be crnanientcd, regulated, and improved by the magiftracy of the city for publ'c walks ; and 40 hall-acre lots f -r ether public ufes ; and one lot of 1 2 acres for the king's ufe. W; do not hear that this fcheme is profecuting, and conclude it is given up. The country in the vici- nity of this intended city is reprefented as excellent, and, jn many parts, beyond defcription. The natural growih conlifts of mulberry, locuft, fjffafr.i':, walnut, hickory, oak, alh, dog-wood, &c. with one or more grapevines running up almoil every tree; and the grapes yield, from experiments, good red wine in plenty, and wiih little labour. In ibme of the low grounds grow large cyprefs trees. The climate is faid to be fa- vourable to health, and to the culture of fruits of vari- ous kinds, particularly for garden vegetables. The praires or meadows are fertile in grafs, flowering-plants, ilrawberries, and when cultivated produce good crops of wheat, barley, Indian corn, flax, hemp, and tobacco, and are eafily tilled. Iron and lead mines and falt- fprings, it is afferted, are found in fuch plenty as to aflFord an abundant fupply of thefe necelfary article^. The banks of the Miffiffippi, for many leagues in ex- tent, commencing about zo miles above the mouth of the Ohio, are a continued chain of lime-flone. A fine traa of high, rich, level land, S. W. W. and N. W. of New-Madrid, about 25 miles wide, extends quite to the river St Francis. — ii. NEWMANSTOWN, Pennfylvania, fituated in Dau- phin county, on the eall fide of Mill Creek. It con- tains about 30 houfes, and is 14 miles E. by N. of Harrifburg, and 72 N. W. by W. of Philadelphia.— ;i. NEWMARKET, a towniliip in Rockingham coun- ty. New Hamplliire, north of Exeter, of which it was formerly a part, and 13 miles welt of Portfmouth. It was incorporated in 1727, and contains 1137 inhabi- tants. Foffil (hells have been found near Lamprey river in this town, at the depth of 17 feet ; and in fuch a fituation as that the bed of the river could never have been there. The lliells were of oyllers, mufcles, and clams intermixed. — ;7'. Newmarket, a village in Frederick county, Mary- land, on the high road to Fredcrickllown, from which it lies nearly 13 miles W. S. W. and about 36 noril:- weft of the Federal City. — i5. Newmarket, a village in Dorchcfter county, Miry- land, 3 miles nonheall < f Indian-Town, on Choptank river, 9 north-eaft of Cambridge, and as far north-well of Vienna. — Ih. Newmarket, a town in Virginia, Amherft county, on the north lide of James river, at the mouth of Tye river. It is a fniall place, contains a tobacco warc- houfe; is 100 miles above Richmond, and 378 from Philadelphia. — ii. NEW MARLBOROUGH, a townflilp In Uider C3unty, Niw-York. — ii. New Marlborough, Berklhire countv, MafTachu- fett=. It is 23 miles fouthward of Lenckj, and 14+ S. W. by W. of Boflrn.— /*. ^^ New Marlborough, a town in King George'u county, V.rgini^i, on the weft f.Je of Patoxmac livcr. 10 miles ealt ot Falmouth. — i NEW MEADOWS River, in the Diftridl of xM.ine, a water of Caico Bay, navigable for veffels of a. conft- derahle burden a fmall dUlance. — ii NEW MILFORD, a poft town cf Conneflicur. Litchfield county, on the eartern fide of Houfator.ick river, about 16 miles north of Danbury, 20 n.uth.w-ll of Litchfield, and 52 \V. by S. W. of Hartford.— //. NEW ORLEANS, the metropolis of Louillana, was regulaily laid out by the French in the year 1720, or« the eaft fide of the river Miililhppi, in lat. 30 2 north, .and long. 89 53 weft ; 18 miles from Detour des An- glois, or Enghlh Turn, and 105 miles from the Baliza at the mouth ot the river. All the ftreets are perfecfly ftralght but too narrow, and end each oth;r at right angles. There were, in 1788, 1,100 houfes in ihi> town, generally built witli timber frames, raifed about 8 feet from the ground, wi-.h large galleries round them, and the cellars under the floors level with ths ground; any fubterraneous buildings would be con- ftantly full of w.iter. Mift of the houfes h.xve garden-. In March, 1788, this town, by a fire, was reduced in five hours to 200 houfe;. It has fince been rebuilt. The fide next the river is open, and is fecured from th; inundations of the river, by a raifed bank, generalif called the levee, which extends from the Enghlh Turn, to the upper fettlenients of the Germans, a diftance of more than 50 miles witli a good road all the way. There is reafon to believe that in a fhort time New-Or- leans may become a great and opulent city, if we con- fiJer the advantages of its fituation, but a few leac^ues from the fea, on a noble liver, in a moft fertile country, under a moft delightful and wlmlefome climate, within 2 weeks fail of Mexico, and ftill nearer the French, Spanilh, and B:itilh Weft- India ilUnds, with a moral certainty ct its becoming a general receptacle for the produce of that extenfive and valuable country on the Miffiffippi, Ohio, and its other br.anches ; all which are much more than fu.lrcient to enfurc the future wealth, power, and profperity of this city. The velfels which fail up the Miffiffippi haul dole along fide the bank next to New Orleans, to which they make (d(\, and take in or difcharge their cargoes with the fame eafe as at i wharf. — ill. ^ NEW PALTZ, a townfliip in Ulfter county, New York, bounded eaftcrly by Hudfon river, foutherly by Mailborough and Shawangunk. It contains 2.309 in- habitants including 302 ifaves. The compact part of it is fituated on the eaftern fide of Wall Kill, and con- tains about 250 houfes and a Dutch chuich. It is 10 miles from Shaw.ingunk, 14 foutherly of Kingfton, 20 fouth-weft of Rhinebeck, and So noiih-north-weft of New York — //.. NEWPOR T, a townftiip of Nova Scotia, in Hanti county, on the river Avon. The road from Halifa.x runs part of the way between this townftiip and Wind- tor; and has feltlements on it at cert iln diftanccs. — ll>. Newport, a townll.ip in Chelliire county, New 4 M 2 Hampihirf, Xc» \UtU buryugh. H N'twprrj. NEW [ 644 ] NEW Newpnit- H..mpn>;rc. eaft of Claremont. It was incorporated in I 761, and contains 780 inhabitants.-/*. NhWPORT, a maritime county of the tlate of Rhode- Ifland, comprehending Rhode-inand Cannon.cut, 13'ock, Prudence, and feveral other fmall iQands. It is divided into 7 townlliips, and contains 14,300 inhabi- tants, including 366 Haves.— ;i. Newport, the chief town of this county, and the femi-metropolis of the Hate of Rhode llland; Hands on the fouthweft end of Rhode in.ind, about 5 miles from NtwpoRT, a townfhip in Luzerne county, Pennfyl- Nev^port, vania. — ib. B Newport, a fmall pod-town in Charles county, Newton. Maryland, 1 1 miles S. E. of Port Tobacco, 94 S. by W. of Baltimore, and 195 fouth-well of Pliiladelphia. —ib. Newport, a very thriving fettlement in Liberty county, Georgia, fituated on a navigable creek, 34. miles Ibuih of Savannah, and 7 or 8 fouih of welt i-com, Sunbury. Thi>> place, commonly known by the name the fea Its haibour, (which is one ot the hnelt in the of Newport Brilge, is the rival ol Sunbury, and corn- world) fpreads weftward beiore the town. The en- mands the piiicip.il part of the Uade of the whole trance Is eafy and fafe, and a large fleet may anchor in county. A polt-ofHce i» kept here.— /*. hand lide in perfcd fecurity. It \, probable this may, NEW RIVER, a river ot Tenneifee, which rifes oa in fome future period, become one of the man-ot-war the north lide of the Alleghany mountains, and running orts of the American empire. Tlie town lies nordi a north ealt courl'e enters Virginia, and is called Kan- nd fouth upon a gradual afceni as you proceed ealt- Laway.— /T-. /ardfromthe water, and exhibits abeaut.tul view tr>.m NEW ROCEiELLE, a townlhip in WeftChefter the harbour, and from the neighbouring hills which lie county, Ncw-Y..rk, on Longlfland Sound. It con- •wellward upon the main. Well of the town is Goat- tained 692 inhabitants, of whom 89 were flaves, in IQind on which is Fort Walhington. It has been 1790. In 1796, there were 100 of the inhabitants qua^ ports a war lihed eledtors. It is 6 miles S. W. of Rye, and 20 north-earterly of New York city. — ib, NEW S.'iLEM, or Pequottink, a Moravian fettle- mentj formed in 1786, on the E. fide of Huron river^ lately repaired and a citadel erefted in it. ihe fort has been ceded to the United States. Between Goat-IlUnd :.nd Rhode IHand is the haibour. Newport contains about 1,000 houfes, built chiefly ot wood. Irhas 10 ,, ^. houfes for public worlhip, 4 tor Baptilts, 2 tor Congre- which luns northward into Lake Erie.— ;i^. cationalills, one for Epiicopalians,one tor Quakers, one Ntw Salem, a townfliip in Hampdiire county, Maf- for Moravians, and one tor Jews. The other public fachufelts, bounded E. by the wefl: line of Worcefter bullain"-s are a ftate houfe, andanedidceforthepublic county. It was incorporated in 1753, and contains. libraryf The fuuation, form and architedure of the 1543 inhabitants, it is 85 miles W. by N. of Bofton^ ftate houfe, give it a pleafing appearance. It Ilands —ib. „..„,., fufficiently elevated, and a long whart and paved pa- New Salem, a townlhip in Rockingham county, rade lead up to it from the harbour. Front or Water New Hamplhire, adjoining Pelhamand Haverhill. — ib, ftreet is a mile in length. Here is a flouriOiing acade- NEW-SAVANNAH, a village in Burke county,. my under the diredlion of a redlor, and tutors, who Georgia, on the S. W. bank of the Savannali, 12 miles teach the learned languages, Englilh grammar, geo- S. E. of Augulla.— ii^ praphy, &c. A marine fociety was eftablifted here in I 752, for the relief of diareifed widows and orphans, and luch of their fociety as may need rehef. This city , far famed for the beauty of its fiuation and the ialu NEW-SMYRNA Entrance, or Mojilto InUt, on the- coall of Florida, is about 1 1 leagues north-north-weft, \ welt from Cape Cauaverel. — ib. NEW-SWEDELAND was the name of the terri- Virginia and New- York, when in pof- 'terwards poffelled, or The chief town was. brity of its climate, is no lefs remark.able for the great tory between Virginia and New- variety and excellent quality of frelh filh which the fefljon of the Swedes, and was afterwards poffelled, or market furnilhes at all feafons of the year. No lei's rath.-r claimed by the Dutch, than listy diilertnt kinds have been produced in this called Gottenburg. — ib. market. The excellent accommodations and regula- NEWTON (John), an eminent Englilh mathema- tions'of the numerous packets, which belong to this tician was born at Oundle in Northamptoiilliire, 1622.. port and vi'hich ply thence to Providence and New- After a proper foundation at fchool, he was lent to York are worthy ot notice. They are laid, by Euro- Oxford, where he was entered a commoner ot St Ed- pe.in 'travellers, to be fuperior to any thing of the kind mund's Hall in 1637. He took the degree of bachelor in Europe. This town, although greatly injured by the of arts in 1641 ; and the year following was created late war, and its cjnfequences, has a conliJerable trade A cotton and duck manufactory have been lately ella- blilhed. The exports for a year, ending Sept. 30, 1 794, amounted to 31 1,200 dollars. It was firft Icttled by Mr William Coddington, afterwards governor, and tlr niafter, among leveral gentlemen that belonged to the king and cmrt, then rellding in the univerlity. At which time, his genius being inclined to aflronoray and the matheniacics, he applied himfelf diligently to thole fciences, and made a great proficiency in them, which. father of Rhode Ifland, with 17 others, in 1639. It is he found of fervice during the times of the ufurpation, ^to miles S. by E. ot Providence, 14 fouth ealt of Bril- After the relloration of Charles 1.1. he reaped the fruits lol, 7; S. W. by S. of Boflon, 1 13 E. N. E. of New of his loyalty ; being created doflor of divinity at Ox- Haven, and 292 N. E. by E. of Philadelphia. N. lat. ford Sept. i66r, he was made one of the king's chap- 41 29, W. long, from Greenwich 71 17. — ib. lains, and reflor of Rois in Herefordfliire, in the place NtwpoRT, a fmall poft town in Nev/callle county, of Mr John Toombes, ejefled for nonconformity. He Delaware; fituated on thenorth fide of Chriftiana Creek, held this living till his death, which happened at Rofs three miles W. of Wilmington. It contains about 200 on Chrillmas-day 1678. Mr Wood gives him the inhabitants and carries on a confiderable trade with charadler of a capricious and humourfome perfon: how- Philadelphia, in flour. It is 6 miles N. E. by N. of ever that maybe, his writings are fufficient monuments CUriftiana Bridge, aud 31 S. W. ot Philadelphia.— /^. of his genius and ikill in ihs mathematics. Thefe are, I. /tjlro' NEW [ HS ] NEW Newton, i. yljironomia Britunnica, &c. in three parts, 1^)56, in U 4to. 2. Help to Calculation ; with Tabhs ot Decli- ^J^^IlJ^^J^ nation, Afcenfioii, &c. 1657, 4to. 3. Tn^onimetria Brilannica, in two books, 1658, folio; one compofed by our aurhor, and the other tranflated from the Latin of Henry Gellibrand. 4. Clnltada centum Lognriihmo- rum, printed with, 5. Geometrical Trigonometry, 1659. 6. Mathematical lilements, three parts, 1660, 4to. 7. A perpetULil Diary or Almanac, i66z. 8. Defcrip- tion fif the Uie of the Carpenter's Rule, 1667. 9. E- phemerid-s, fliewing the Intereft and rate of Money at 6 prr cent, &c. 1667. 10. Chiliadsi centum Logarilh- morum, et Tabula Parlium proporl'ionalium, 1667. II. I'he Rule of Intcrelt, or the Cafe of Decimal Frac- tio! s, &c. P.irt II. r66S, 8vo. 12. School-Pallimefor young Children, &c. 1669, 8vo. 13. Ait of pradical Gaugina;, &c. 1669. 14. Introduiflion to the Art of Rletoic, 1671. 15. The Art ot Natural Arithme- tic, in whole Numbers, and Fraiflions Vulgar and De- cimal, 167 I, 8vo. 16. The Englirt) Academy, 1677, 8vo. 17. Cofmography. 18. Inlroduiftion to Allm- •B/of. /5i'<?. nomy. 19. Introduftion to G:.ography, 1678, 8vo.* new edit. NEWTON, a pleafant towulhip in M:ddlefcx coun- ty, Malfachufetts, fituated on Charles river, and is 9 miles well of Bofton. It was incotporated in 1691, and contains 1360 inhabitants. — Morte. Newton, a fmall town in Chelter county, Pennfyl- vania, 22 miles fouth cf Philadelphia. — ii. Newton, a tnwnlhip in Rockingham county. New Hamplhire, on Powow river, adjoining Amefbury, in Maflachufetts, 10 or 12 miles foutherly of Exeter. It was incorporated in 1749, and contains 530 inhabi- tants. — ib. NEWTOWN, a poft-town in Fairfield county, Con- necticut, 9 miles eaft-north-eaft of Danbury, 26 well- north-well of New-Haven, 61 fouth-well ot Hartford, and So north-eafl of New-York. The town (lands pleafantly on an elevated fpot, and was fettled in 1708. — /•*. Newtown, on Staten-Ifland, New- York, is 3 miles N. E. of Old-Town, as far call of Richmond, and 9 louth-wefterly of New-York. — ib. Newtown, a townlhip in Queen's county, New- York, includes all the iflands in the Sound oppofite the fame. It is about 8 miles eaft of New York, and con- tains 2,111 inhabitants, "including 533 flaves. — ib. Newtown, a townlhip in Weft Cheller ciunty, New- York ; of whofe inhibitants 276 are eleflors. — ib. Newtown, a townlhip in Tioga county, New-York, lies between the fouth end of Seneca lake and Tioga river; having Chemung townlhip eaft, from which it was taken and incorporated in 1792. In 1796, 169 of ill inhabitants were elci'tois. — ib. Newtown, a lownfhip in Gloucefter county, New Jcrfey — :b. Newtown, the feat of juftice in Suflex county. New Jerky, is about 10 miles S. E. of Sandyftou. — ib. Newtown, the capital of 15ucks county, Pcnnfyl- vania. It contains a prefbyterian cliurch, a ftone jail, a cnurt-houfe, an academy, and about 50 houfes. It was lettled in 17^5, and ii 10 miles W. of Trenton, in New Jerfey, and 30 N. E. by N. of Piiiladclphia. — Tiiere arc two other townlhips of thi> name, the one in Delaware county, the other in that ol Cumberland. — ib. Newtown, a fmall town of Virginia, fituated in Fie- derick county, between the nortli and fouth branches of Shenandoah river; 7 miles fouth of Winchefter, New and 173 north-north-weli of Richmond ib Utrecht, NEW-UTRECHT, a fmall maritime town of New. " York, fituated in King's county, Long-Ifland, oppofite ^l^^^^J^' the Narrows, and 7 miles fouth of New- York city. The whole townlhip contains 562 inhabitants ; of whom 76 are qualified elcdors, and 206 flaves ib. NEW-^VINDSOR, a townlhip of Ulfter county. New- York, pleafantly fituated on the W. bank of Hud- fon river, jull above the high land,, 3 miles fouth of Newburgh, and 6 north of Weft Point. It contains 1819 inhabitants ; of whom 261 are qualified eledors, and 117 (laves. A valuable fet of works in this town for manufaauring fcythes wen: deftroyed by fire. In 1795, the legiflature granted the unfortunate proprie- tor, Mr. Boyd, ;^i5oo to enable him to re-eftablifli them. The compact part of the town contains about 40 houfes and a preftjyterian church, 64 miles north of New- York. The fummer refidence ot governor Clin- ton was formerly at a rural feat, on the margin of the river, at this place. — ib. NEW-WRENTHAM, diftria of Maine, a townlhip 6 miles E. ot Penobl'cot river, adjoining Orrington, and 15 miles from Buckfton. — ib. NEWYEAK's Harbour, on the north ccp.ft of Staten Land llland, at the fouth extremity of South America, affords wood and good water ; was difco- vered Jan. 1, 1775; hence its name. S. lat. 5449* weft long. 64 1 1. — ib. New-Year's IJlands, near the above harbour, within which is anchorage at north half weft from the har- bour, at the diftance of two leagues from it. — ib. NEW-YORK, one of the United S.aies o^ America, is fituated between lat. 40 40 and 45 north, and be- tween long. 73 10 and 80 weft ; is about 350 miles \n. length, and 300 in breadih; bounded fouth-eallerly by the Ailantic ocean; eaft by Conneiflieut, Malfachufetts, and Vermont; north by Upper Canada; fouth-wed- and weft by Pennfylvania, New Jerfey, and Lake Erie. It is fubdivided into 21 counties as fallows, viz. New- York, Richmond, Sutfolk, Weft Cheller, Queen's, King's, Orange, Ulfter, Dutchef-, Columbia, Ren- Ifelaer, Walhington, Clinton, Saratoga, Albany, Mont- gomery, Herkemer, Onondago, Otfego, Ontario, and Tioga. In 1790, this ftaie contained 340,120 inhabi- tants ; of whom 21,324 were Haves. Since that period the counties of Rsnlielaer, Saratoga, Herkemer, Onon- dago, Otfego, and Tioga have been taken from the other counties. In 1796, according to the ftate cenfus, there were 195 townlhips, and 64,017 qualified elec- tors. Electors in this ftate ate divided into die follow- ing clalfcs : Freeholders to the value of /"looo 36,338 Do. to ihe value ot/"2o anJ under /"too 4,83?? Do. who rent tenenients of 40/. per annum 22,598 Other freeholders 243 64,017 It is diflicult to afcertain accurately the p'opoftion the number of elei;ii)rs bears to the whole number of inhabitants in the ftate. In the countv of Herkemer, the cleiflors to the whole number of inhabi'.arts was, in 1 795, nearly as 1 to 6, but this proportion will not hold tJirough the ftate. In 1790, the number of in- habitants in the ftate was, as alreidy mentioned, 340,i20|Of whom 41,783 werceledcrs. In 1795, the nuiubcr NEW [ 646 ] N W New York, number of ekflors w.is e+.oiy, whlcli, if the propor- '•-^'^^'^^^ tion between the eleflors and the whcle number ot in- habitants be the lame, gives, as the whole number of Inhabitants in 1795, 5jO>'77. »" inci\are, in 5 years, of 190,057. The cliief rivers are Hudfon, Moliawk, and their branches. The rivers Delaware and Sufciuehannah lile in this It.ite. The principil lakes are Otl'ego, Oneida, George, Seneca, Cayuga, Salt, and Cliau- taughque. 'I'be principal bay is that ot York, which Ipre-ida to the fouihward before the city of Nevv-York. The legiflature of New. York, llimulated by the en- terprizing and aiflive Penidylvaniin?, who are compe- titors tor the trade of the weltcrn country, have I.ilely granted very liberal furas, towards improving thofe roads that traverfe the nmlt fettled parts of the country, and opening fuch as lead into the weftern and northern parts of llie Hate, uniting, as far as polfible, the eltab- iilhments on Hudfon's river, and the moll populous parts of the interior country, by the nearell pradicable diftances. By late elUblilhmeuts of polt-road?, a fafe and direvt conveyance is opened between the mod in- terior wellcrn paits of this (late, and the feveral llates in the Union : and when the obftruiftions between Hud- fon's river and lake Ontario are removed, there will not be a great deal to do to continue the water com- municaiion by the lakes, and through Illinois river to the Millldlpi. New-York, to fpeak generally, is inter- fered l)y ridges of mountains, extending in a N. E. and S. W. direi-Hion. Beyond the Alleghany mountains, however, the country is level, ot a fine rich foil, covered in its natural ftate with maple, beech, birch, cherry, black walnut, locuft, hickory, and fome mulberry trees. On the banks of Lake Erie are a few chefnut and oak ridges. Hemlock fwamps are interfperfed thinly through the country. All the creeks that empty into Lake Eiie have falls, which afford many excellent mill- feats. The lands between the Seneca and Cayuga lakes, are repreftnted as uncommonly excellent, being moll agreeably diverfified with gentle rillngs, and tim- beted with lofty trees, with little underwood. The legiflature have granted a million and a half acres of land, as a gratuity to theofficeis and loldiers of the line of this Hate. This traifl torms the military townlhips of the county of Ouondago. Ealt ot the Alleghany jnounta-ns, which commence with the Kaat's Kill, on the well fide of Hudfon's river, the country is broken into hills with rich intervening vallies. The hills are cloathed thick with timber, and when cleared afford fine pafture; the vallies, when cultivated^ produce wheat, hemp, Ha.v, peas, grafs, oats, Indian corn, &c. Of the commodities produced from culture, wheat is the principal. Indian corn and peas are likewife raifed for expf nation ; and rye, oats, barley, &c. for home confumpticn. The belt lands in the tlate, along the Mohawk river and north of it, and welt of the Alleg- hany mountains but a few years ago was moftly in a fl-ate of nature, but has been of late rnpidiy fettling. In the northern and unl'etiled parts of the llate, are plenty ct monfe, deer, bears, fome beavers, martins, and moll other inhabitants of the forell, except welves. The BalUloun, Saratng,,, and New-Lebanon medicinal fpiings are much celebrated. The fait made from the Salt Springs here is equal in goodnefs to that imported from Turk's Illand. The weight of a bulhel of the fait is 136 lb. A fpring is reported to h.ive been difco\er- ed in the Sufquchannah country, impregnated with New York, nitre, from which falt-petre is made in the fame manner ^-^"''''^•-^ that common fait is made from the Onondago fprings. Large quantities of iron ore are found here. A hlver mine has been worked at PhiUiplburg, which produced virgin lilver. Lead is found in Herkemer county, and fulphur in Montgomery. Spar, zink or fpcller, a femi- metal, magnez, uled in glazings, pyrites of a golden hue, vaiious kinds ot copper ore, and lead and coal mines are iound in this Hate, alio petrified wood, plafter of Paris, ifmglafs in Iheets, talcs, and cryftals of vari- ous kinds and colouis. Hint, afbeltos, and feveral other foffils. A fmall black Hone has alio been found, which vitririis with a (mall heat, and it is faid makes excellent glals. The chief manufaiitures are iron, glafs, paper, pot and peail allies, earthen ware, maple fugar and molail'es, and the citizens in general manufaifture their own clothing. This Hate, having a ihort and eafy accels to the ocean, commands the trade of a great pro- portion of the bell lettled and beH cuhivated parts of tlie United States. Their exports to the Well-Indie* are bifcuit, pea":, Indian corn, apples, onions, boards, ft.ives, horfes, Hieep, butter, cheefe, pickled oyllers, beef and pork. But wheat is the ftaple commodity of the ftate, of which no lefs than 677,700 bufhels were ex- ported fo long ago as the year 1775, befides 2,555 '°"* of bread, and 2,828 tons of Hour. The increal'e fince has been in proportion to the increafe ot the population. In wheat and flour about a million bufhels are now an- nually exported. Weft-India goods are received in return for the above articles. Belldes the articles al- ready enumerated, are exported flax-feed, cotton wool, farfaparilla, coffee, indigo, rice, pig-iron, bar iron, pot- afti, pearl-afti, furs, deer Ikins, logwood, fuftic, maho- gany, bees-wax, oil, Madeira wine, rum, tar, pitch, turpentine, whale-fins, fill), fugars, molaifes, fait, to- bacco, lard, &c. but moftof thele articles are imported tor reexportation. The exports to toreign parts, for the year ending September 30, 1791, 1792, &c. con- fiftlng principally of the articles above enumerated, amounted as follows; in 1791, to 2,505,465 dolls, to cents; 1792 — 2,535,790 dolls. 25 cents; 1793 — 2,932,370 dolls.; 1794 — 5,442,183 dolls. 10 cents; 1795 — 10,304,580 dolls. 78 cents. This ftate owned in 1792, 46,626 tons of (hipping, befides which (fie finds employment for about 40,000 tons of foreign velfels. There are in this ftate, two handfomely en- dowed and flourilhing colleges, viz. Columbia, formerly King's College, in the city of New- York, and Union College, at Scheneiftady. Befides thefe, there are dif- perfed in different parts of the ftate, 14 incorporated academies, containing in the whole as many as 6 or 700 ftudents. Thefe, with the eftablilhment of fchocb, one at leall in every diftriift of 4 fquare miles, for the common branches of education, mult have the- moil beneficial effedls on the ftate of fociety. The fums granted by the legiflature of this ftate for the encour- agement of literature fince the year 1790, have been very liberal, and is evincive of the wilelt policy. In March, 1790, the legiflature granted to the regents of the univerlity, who have by law the luperintendance and management of the literature of the Hate, feveral large and valuable tiaifts of land, on the waters of Lakes George and Champlain, and alfo Governor's Ifland in the harbour of New-York, with intent that the rents and income thereof Ihould be by them ap- plied NEW [ 647 ] NEW New York, plied to the advancement of literature. At the fame ^■^"^■^"^^ time they granted them £ioco currency, for the fame general purpofe. In April, 1792, they ordered to l<e paid to tlie regents ,^1500 for enlarging the library, jf 200 for a chemical apparatus, ;^I200 lor ere(fting a wall to fupport the college grounds, and ;^500o for creitinp a hall and an additional wing to the c'>llege : Alfo ^"1500 annually for 5 years, 10 be difcietioiially diftribut-d among the academics of the Hate. Alio £l^o, for 5 years, to be applied to ih; payment of the falaries of additional proftlfois. In their icflaons fince 1795, '^^ fjms they have granted lor the fuppoit of the colleges, academies, and of common fchocls throughoni the ftatc, have been very liberal. 'I'lie re- ligions fcils or denominations in this (late are, Englilli Pi elhytcrians, Dutch reformed, Bapiifts, Epifcopalians, Friends or Quakers, German Lutherans, Moravians, Methodifls, R man Catholics, Shakers, a few followers of Jern-nia Wilkmf. n at Geneva, and f<ime Jews in the city of New-York. The treafury of this Itate is one of the richell in the Union. The treafuier of the (late reported to the legiQ iture in Jan. 1796, that the funds amounted to 2,119,068 dollars, 33 cents, which yields an annuity of 234.21S dollars. JJeUdes the above im- nienfe fum, there was at that peri 'd in the treafury ;^I34 207 : 19 : 10} currency. The ability of the itate, theiefore, is abundantly competent to aid public inftituti'ins of every kind, to make roads, erect bridges, open canals, and pufh every kind of improvement to the moll defirabb length. The body of the Six Na- tions of Indian, inhabit the weftern part of this llate. The Englilh language is gen;ra!ly fpokcr. throngh.- out the Ihite, but is not a li:tle cjirupted by the Dutch dialeft, which is ftill fpoken in fome counties, particu- larly in King's, Ulller, Albany, and that part of Orange which lies S. of the mountains. But a-. Djtch Ichools are ahnoft, if not wholly difcontiiiued, that Itnguage, in a few generations, will probably ceafe to bo ufed at all. And the increafe of Englilh Ichools has alteady had a perceptible eifeift in the improvement of the Englilh language. Befides the Dutch and E'lg- lilh, there are in ;his ftate many eni'grants from Scot- Itnd, Ireland, Germany, and fome tew from France. Many G-rmans are fettled on the Mohawk, and fome .Scots people on the Hudfon, in the county ot W.ilhing- ton. The principal part cf the two former fettled in the city of Nsw-York, and retain the minners, the religion, and fome of them the language of their refpe<5tive c )untries. The French em grants fettled principally at New-Rochelle, and on St.iten-ltland, and their de- fcendants, fevcral of th^m, now fi.l Ibme of the h'ghell offices in the United State--. Tile wellern parts of the Rate are fettled and fettling principally from NewEng- land. There are three incorporated cities in this llate, N.-wrYork, Albany, and Hudfon — ib. New-York County, in the above (late, comprehending the ifland of New-York, or Manhattan, on which the metropolis Hands, and the f Uowing fmall ill mds : Great Barn, Little Barn, Manning's, Nuttcn, Bedlow's, IJucking, and Oyfler Iflinds. It contained, in 1790, 33,131 inhabitants, including 2369 ll ives. Now, in >796, the number of inhabitants amounts to about 70,000, of whom 7,272 are qualitied ele^'lots. — ib. Nkw-York C'uy is fitnated on the S. W. point of YcrL illaad, a: ih: confluence of liudf^^n and \LxX rivers, and is the metropolis of the (late of its n*me, XtwYijik- and the fecond in rank in the Union. The length of '■'^'^^^•^ the city on Eall river is upwards of two miles, and rapidly increallng, but falls fh irt cf that diftance oa the banks of the Hudfon. Its breadth, on an average, ii about a mile ; and its circumference, 4 or 5 miles. The plan of the city is not perfedlly rtgular, but is laid out with reference to tlie (iiuation of the ground. The ground which was unoccupied before the p;ace of 1783, was laid out in parallel flreets of convenient width, which has had a good efTeift upon the pans of the city lately built. The principal (Ireets run nearly parallel v/ith the rivers. Thefe are intcrfefled, though not at right angles, by ftreets running from river to river. In the width of the llreets theie is a great di- verlity. Water-ftreet and Pearl-lireet, which occupy the banks of Eall river, are very conveiiiently fituated for bufinefs, but they are low and too narrow; not. admitting in fome places of walks on the fides f ;r foot palfengers. Broad-llreet, extending from the E-xhange tj City Hall, is faffi.iintly wide. Tnis w.n originally built on each fide of the creek, which penetrated almoil to the City Hall. Tins (Ireet is low, but pleafant. But the mill cjnven eat and agreeable part of thj city is the Broaiway. It begins at a point which is lormed by the junflion of the Hudf.)n and Eall rivers — occupi.s the h.-ight of land between them, upon a true meridionil line — rifes gently to the mithw-ird — is nearly yD feet wide — adirnsd, where the fort for- merly flood, (which has hu^ly been levelled > with an elegant brick edifice, for the accommodation of the governor of the ftate, and a public walk from t;:e ex- tremity of the point, occupying the ground of the lower battery which is now demolifhsdj alfo with two Ej i:"- copal churches, and a number of elegant private build- ings. It terminates, to the northward, in a triangular area, fronting the bridewell and alms-hjU.'e, and com- mands from any point, a view of the Bay and Narrows. Since the year 1788, that part oi the city, which was baried in rums daring the war, has been rapidly rebuild- ing, the llreets widened, (IraiteneJ, railed in the middle under an angle futucient to carry off the water to the fide gutters, and foot-ways of brick made on each fide. At this time, the part that was dellrnyed by tire is all covered with elegant brick houfes. WaU-ilreet is gene- rally 50 feet wide and elevated, and the buildings ele- gant. Hanovi.rf^uareand Djck-flreet are conveniently lituated for bufinefs, and the houfes well built. William- (Ireet is alfo clev.ited and convenient, and is the plir^c:- pal market (or retailing dry goods. Many rf t!;e other llreets ate pleafant, but moll of them are irregular and n irrow. Tiie houfes are generally built of brick, and the roofs tiled. There arc remaining a fe-,» houfes built after the old Dutch manner ; but the Englilh tailc has prevailed almoll a century. The moll magnificent eddice in this city is F^J.'ral Hull, lituated at the head of Broad-dreet, where its fnmt appears to great advan- tage, in which is a gallety \z fe;t deep, pnarded by an elegant iron railing. In tliis gallery out beloved Wash- ington, attended by the fenate and hoafo of reprrfcnta- tives, look his oath of oflice in the tace of Ilraven, and in prefmce of a large conc.>mfc of people alFembled in fiont, at the commencement of the operation of ths Federal conllitution, Apiil 3o:h, 17S9. The other public buildii'-j^s iu ihc city aic, three ho\iki for public vri^rfliip NEW [ 648 ] NEW NfwYoik. wotfhip for the Dutch Reformed church, four Prcfby- ^'^"'^'^^ terian churches, three Epifcop.il churches, two for Ger- man Lutherans and C ilvinifts, two Friends' mceting- htnifss, two for IJaptifts, two for Methodills, one for Mor;ivians, one Roman Catholic church, one French Troteftant church, and a Jew's fynigogue. Befides thcfe there is the governor's honfe, already mentioned, a iiandfome building, the college, jail, and feveral other buildings of lefs note. The city is accommodated with four markets in different parts, which aie turnifh- ed with a great plenty and vaiiety of provifions, in neat and excellent order. King's college, in the city of New-Y<irk, was princi- pally founded by the voluntary contributions ot the inhabitants of the province, alTilled by the general alfcnibly, and the corporation of Trinity Church; in the year 1754. a royal charter (and grant of money) being then obtained, incorporating a number ol gentle- men therein mentioned, by the name of " The Gover- nors of the College of the province of New- York, in the city of New-York, in America ;" and granting to them and their fuccelfors forever, amongft various other rights and priveleges, the power ot conterring all fuch degrees as are ufually conferred by either ot the Englilh univerlltle?. By the charter it was provided that the prelident (hall always be a member of the church of England, and that a form of prayer collefted from the liturgy of that church, with a particular prayer for the college, fhall be daily ufed, morning and evening, in the college chapel ; at the fame time, no left of their religious perfuafion was required from any of the fellows, profetTors or tutors ; and the advantages of education were equally extended to ftudents ot all denominations. The building (which Is only one third of the intended flruflure) confilts of an elegant ftone edifice, three complete llories high, with four ft<iir- c.tfes, 12 apartments in each, a chapel, hall, library, muleum, anitomical theatre, and a fchool for experi- mental philofophy. The college is fituated on a dry gravelly foil, about 150 yard* from the bank of Hud- son's river, which it overlooks, commanding a mod extenfive and beautiful profpetfi. Since the revolution, the leglflatuie pafTed an acfl conftltuiing 21 gentlemen {of whom the governor and lieutenant-governor, for the time beinc, are members ex ojjiciis ) a body corpo- rate and politic, by the name and tlyle of " The Regents (if the Univeifity of the State of New-York." They are entrufted with the care of literature in gene- ral in the ftate, and have power to grant charters of incorporation for ereifling colleges and academies throughout the flate, are to vilit thefe inditulions as often as they Ihall think proper, and report their (late to the Ict'iflature once a year. King's College, which ■we have already defcribcd, Is now called Columbia Col- lege. This college, by an aft of the legifl.'.ture paffed in the fpring of 1787, was put under the cue of 24 gentlemen, who are a body corporate by the name and Ityle of " TheTruQees of Columbia College in the city of New- York." This body poifefs all the powers vefted in the governors of King's College, before the revolution, or in the regents of the univerlity, fince the revolution, fo lar as their power refpecTed this inflitu- tion. No regent can be a trudee of any particular college or academy In the ftite. The regents of the univeifity have power to confer the higher degrees, and them only. The college edifice has received no New York, addition lince the peace, though the ereiftlon of a hall *-'"^'^'*^ and a wing have been contemplated, and tund^ for the purpofe granted by the legiilalure. The annual reve- nue aiiling from the eftate belonging to the college, exduiive ot fome bond^, which are not at prefent pro- ductive, amounts tOj^'1,535 currency. Columbia col- lege conlilla of two (acuities; a faculty of arts and a faculty of phyfic. The tirfl has a prefid«nt and 7 protelibis, and the fecund a dean and 7 profeflbrs. The Itudents attending both the faculties at the begin- ning of the year 1795 amounted to 140. The officers of iiiltiuftion and immediate government in the faculty of arts, are a prelident, profelfor of mathematics and natural philofophy, a profelfor of logic and geography, and a protelfor of languages. To thefe have lately been added a profelfor of cbymlftry and agriculture, a protelfor of oriental languages a profelfor of law, and a proti-lfor ot the French language. In the faculty of phyfic, the dean is le^^urer on clinical medicine in the New-York holpital ; and there are the profelforlhlps of botany, of anatomy, of the obrtetric art, of materi.^ medica, of the inltitutes of medicine, of furgery, and the praSice of phylic. Thele profelfors afford the ne- celfary inlh udion in the healing art. The library and mufeum were dellroyed during the wir. Upwards of ;^8oo (of monies granted by the leglllature) have been lately expended in books to iucreafe the library. The philofophical apparatus is new and complete. The government of the city ^which was incorporated in 1696) is now in the hands of a mayor, aldermen and common council. The city is divided into feven wards, in each of which there is chofen annually by the people an alderman and an allillant, who, together with the recorder, are appointed annually by the council of ap- pointment. The mayor's court, which is held from lime to time by adjournment, is in high reputation as a court of law. A court of felllons is likewife held for the trial of ciiminal caufes. The fituation of the city- is both healthy and plealant. Surrounded on all fides by water, it is refrelhed with cool breezes in fummer, and the air in winter is more temperate than in other places under the fame parallel. This city is efteemed the motl eligible fituation for commerce in the United States. It almotl necelTarily commands the trade of one half New Jerley, moft of that of Connefticut, part of that of Malfachufetts, and almolt the whole of Ver- mont, belides the whole fertile interior country, which is penetrated by one of the largeft rivers in America. This city imports moft of the goods confumed between a line ot 30 miles E. of Conneifllcut river, and 20 miles weft ot the Hudtbn, which is 130 miles ; and between the ocean and the confines of Canada, about 400 miles ; a conliderable portion of which is the beft peopled of any part of the United States; and the whole territory contains nearly a million people, or one one-fifth of the inhabitants of the Union. Befides, fome of the other ftates are partially fupplied with goods from New- York. But in the ftaple commodity, flour, Pennfylvania and Maryland have exceeded it, the fuperfine flour of thofe ftates commanding a higher price than that of New- York ; not that the quality of the grain is worfe, but becaufe greater attention is paid in thofe ftates to the infpeftion and manufa-.'^ure of that article. In the inanuiafture likewife of iron, paper, cabinet works, &c. Pennfylvania N E Y [ 649 ] N I A 1 New York, Pennfylvania exceeds not only New York, but all her ( II filler States. In times of peace, however, New York Ncybe. ^^,|i] ct.mmand more commercial bufinefs than any town in the United S;ate^. In time of war it will be infe- cure, withe ut a marine force ; but a fraall number of lliips will be able to defend it from the nnll formida- ble attack'^ by fea. A want of good waicr is a great inconvenience lo the ci'.izens, there being few wells in the city. M'lft of the people are fapplicj every day with frelli water, conveyed to their doors in calk?, from a pump near the head ol Queen ftreet, which receives it from a fpiing almort a nnle from the centre of t!ie ciiy. This well is about 20 feet deep and four feet diameter. The average quantity drawn daily from this remarkable well, i-. no hoglheads of 130 gallons each. In fome hot fummer days 216 hoglheads have been drawn from it ; and what is very fmgular, there is never more or lefs than about 3 feet witer in the well. The water is fild commonly at three pence a liogihead at the pump. This inconvenience, however, has ot late been removed in a great degree by the in- troduiflion of the Manhattan water in pipes to various paits of the city, this, fo lar as it has been carried, ii of very grett advantage. On a general view of this city, as defcribed 40 years ag", and in its prefcnt (late, tlie comparifon is flattering to the prefent age ; particulai ly the improvements in talle, elegance of man- ners, and that eal'y unaflfcifled civility and p litenefs which form the hapoinefs ol fecial intercouife. The number of inhabitants in the city and county of New- Yi:rk in 1756, was io,S8i ; 1771, 21,863; 1786, 23,614; 1790,33,131; 1796, 7.272 eledors ; piobi- bly about 70,000 inhabitants. There is no bafon for the reception of velfcls, but the road where they lie in E.ift river, which is protected from the violence of the fea by the circumjacent illands. The great rapidity of the tides in the narrow channels between Long Iflrnd and York IflinJ, and between Long Ifland and Staten Illand, increafed by the water of Hudfon and Eaft ri- vers, preferves the channel from being obllrufled by ice; fo that navigation is always open, except a few days when the weather is uncommonly fevere. The entries from foreign ports only into thi* port in 1795 were 941, viz. Iliips, 178 — brigs, 309 — barques, 9 — fnows, 7 — fchooners, 268 — (loops, 170. Works of defence have been credled here to a confider.ible extent, and when completed on the original plan, will afford great fecu- rity to the city, from enemies' (hips. New York city is 95 miles N. E. of Philadelphia, 127 S. \V. of Hert- ford, 197 N. E. of Baltimore, 252 S. W. of Bodon, ■^75 irom Portland, in Maine, 373 from Richm-nd, 620 from Fayetteviile, 913 from Charlellon, and i.cJO from Savannah. N.lat. 4042 8, W.long. 74 9 45. — iL New York JJland, on which ^the city of that name ftandE, is about 15 miles long, and does not exceed two in any part in breadth. It is jcined to the main land by a bridge, called King's Bridge, i/milci N. of New York citv . — ib. NEYBE, or Ke'iva, a fertile plain on the fouth fide of the ifland of St Domingo; bounded E. by the bay SurPL. Vol.. II. and river of its n.ime, on the W. by the river of Dames, Niagara. and the Pond of Henriquelle. It contains about 80 fquare leagues, abounds with game, and it achofcn fpot f")r flamingoes, [jhe.ifants, and royal or crowned pe^- cocks. Thefe lall have a more delicate flavour and m(.re brdliant plumage y\nn the peacocks ol Europe. Nine l;aguei Irom the \V. bank of the N'.-ybe is the town, containing ab^.ut 200 houfes, and can turn out 300 men fit to bear arms. This town is 15 le-igues W. by N. ol A/.ua, and 16 from the point where the line of de- marcation cuts Brackilh Pond. This ten itory produces a fort of plaider, talc, and folFil fait. The natural re- produiflion of the I'alt is fo rapid, that a pret y large hollow, is abfolutely filled up again in the ccurfe of a year. The river m'ght be rendered aavieable for fmall craft, and the pl.iin is able to afford eligible fituatiocs for 150 fugnr plantatiuns. — ib. NIAGARA River and Falh. Niagara river, con- nefts ih.' N. E. end of Lake Erie wi:h Lake Ontario, and is about 30 miles in length, fr'.m Fort E;ie lo Niagara F rf, and forms a part of tii; boundary be- tween the United Srates and U])per Cmada. It re- ceives Chippeway or VVclland river from the W. and Tonewan:o Creek from the E. and embofoms Great and Nivy Iflands. Fort Sluflier Hands on the E. fide of this river near Navy Illand. The FjUs, in this river, are oppofite Fort Sliilher, about 7 or 8 miles fouih of Lake Ontario, and form the greatell curiofity which this, or indeed any other country, affords. In order to have a tolerable idea of this llupendous fall of water, it will be neceffary to conceive that part of the country in which Lake Erie is liquated, to be elevated above that w-hich contains Like Ontario, about 300 feet ; the flipe which feparates the upper and lower country is generally very lleep, and in many places almoll per- pendicular; it is formed by horizontal llrata of llone, great part of which is lime llone. The (lope may be traced by the north fide of I^ake Ontario, near the bay of Torento, rour.d the wxll end of the Lake ; thence the direction is generally eaft. Between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie it erodes the flrait of Niagara and the Genelfee river; after which it becomes loll in the country to- wards Seneea Like. It is to this flope tlie country is indebted both for the Cataradl ol Niagara and the great Falls of Geneffee. The Cataiafl of Niagara, Vome have fuppofed, was formerly at the northern lide of the (lope near the landing ; and that from the great length of time, and the quantity of water, and dillance which it falls, the folid llone is worn away fir about feven mile:, up towards Lake Erie, (b) and a ch.ifin is formed which no perfon can appr<'ach without terror. Down this chafm the water rulhes with a moft allonilhing noifi and velocity, after it makes the great pitch. Here the fancy is conllantly engaged in the contemplation of the moll rnm iniic and awlul profpcd imaginable; when the eye catches the falls, the contemplation is inllantly ar- relleil, and the bch Ider admires in filence. The river is about 742 yards wldeat the fill-. The perpendicu- lar pitch of this vafl boily of water produces a ii'Und that is frequently heard at the dillancc of 20 miles, and 4 ^' in (b) Gen. Lincoln, who vifited and examined thefe falls, in 1794, f^iys, " On a careful cxaminatioD of the bjiaks of the river, there appears to be no good foundation for this opinion." N I C [ 650 ] N I C Niagara, in a clear day, and f.iir wind, 40 and even 50 miles. II A pcrcept-ble tremulous motion in the carlli is felt fnr J]"^S^ fevjral rods round. A heavy cloud or fog isconftantly ^*^ afcendln;: from the f.(lls, in which rainbows may always be Teen when the fun Ihines. This fog or fpray, in the winter fcafi.n, falU upon the neighbouring tree-, where it congeals, and produces a mt It be.<uiiful ciyftalline sppe.irance : this remark is appHiable alfo to the Fills cf GenelTee. It is conj ifturcd that the water muft fill at lead 65 feet in the chafm; the perpendicular pitch at tliecataraa is 150 feet; other accounts fay only 137 feet: to thefe add 5S feet, which the water falls the l.id li.ilf mile immediately above the falls, and we have 273, which the water falls in the dillance of 7I miles. Animals fwimming near the Rapids above the great Cataraa are inllantly hurried to deRruaion. Jull be- low the Great Pitch, the water and foam may be feen pufTcd up in large fpherical figures ; they burlf at the top, and projea a column of the fpray to a prodigious height, and then fubfidc, and are fucceeded by others which bind in like manner. This appearance is irio(l remarkable about half way between the ifland that di- vides the falls and the weft fule of the ftrait, where the largcft column of water defcends. The defcent into the chafm of this Rupendous cataraa is very difficult, on account of the great height of the banks; but when once a perfon has defcended, he may g" up to the foot of the l\ills, and take (helter behind the defcending columii of water, between that and the precipice, where there is a (pace fufficient to contain a number of people in perfed fafety, and where convcrfation may be held without in- terruption from the noife, which is lefs here than at a confider^ble diltance. On Chriftmas night, 1795,3 fevcre iliock of an earthquake was felt here, and by which a large piece of the rock that forms the famous cataract was broken off. — ih. Niagara, a fort and pod town in the State of New York, fituated on the E. lide of Niagara river, at its en- trance into Lake Ontario, and oppofi,' to Newark, in Canada. Niagara Fort is a molt important poft, and fecures a greater number of communications, through a large country, than probably any other pafs in interior America. It is abnut 9 miles below the cataraa, 80 N. W. of Williamlburg on GenelFee river, 370 N. W. of Philadelphia, and 560 W. by N. of Bofton. N. lat, 43 20 W. long. 79. The fort was built by the French about the year 172.5, and was delivered up to the United States, according to the treaty of 1794, by the Britiih, in 1796. Although it is a degree N. of Bof- ton, yet the leafon is quite as mild here as at that town, and vegetation quite as early and forward. It is thought that the climate meliorates in the fame latitude as one proceeds from the Atlantic weftward. — lb. NICARAGUA, a lake in the province of New Spain, 117 leagues in circumference. lis wellern part is not more than 20 miles from the S. W. coaa of Mexico. It fends its waters eaft to the ocean, by a fpacious river of its name, which divides the province of Nicaragua from Colla R CO. This renders the towns on the banks of the lake of conliderable importance, particularly the cities «f Granada, Leon, and Nicaragua.. The firft is on the fcuth lide in lat. 1 1 8 N. and long. 85 12 W. and is 45 mites weftward of the city of Nicar.agua, that (lands at fume diftance fouth from the lake. Leon is at the weft end of the lake, and in lat. 12 N. and long. 87 W. The lake is interfperfed with feveral ifland', and full of Nic.iragua,| fifh, but ii.felUd with alligators. Nicaratrua river emp- il tics into the fea, nppofite to the ifland of Monglares. N. ,_^!!^-I!^ lat. 1 1 40, W. I'uig. 82 47. — ib. Nicaragua, a maritime province of Mexico, having Honduras on the n^rth, the North Sea on the eaft, Cofta Rico on the S. E. and the South Sea on the S. W. It is about 400 rr.iles long, and 120 broad. The air is wh'ilefome and temperate, and the foil fertile, producing quantiiies of fugar, cochineal, and fine cho- c'lae. This is confidered as the garden of America; being fo pleafant and fruitfu', that when the Sj'anlards firft vilited it, they called it Mahomet's paradife. — ib. NICHOLAS, Cipe Si, the north-weft exti emity of the ifland of St Domingo, in the Weft Indies. Ir is 2 leagues W. of the town of its name, but more commonly called The Mole, 9 or 10. leagues eaft of Cape Mayzi, at the eaft end of Cuba, and 46 leagues north-eaft by north of Cape Dame M.irie, and, with this laft cape, forms tlie entrance into the large bay called the Bite or Bight of Leogane tb. Nicholas, Port St, on the coaft of Peru, In S. Ame- rica, lies north of Port St John, about a league to lee- ward of the river Mafca, and 6 leagues S. S. E. of Port Cavallo. It is fafer than St John's harbour, but affords neither wood nor water. — ib. NICKAJACK, an Indian town on the S. E. fide of Tenncliee river, at the point of a large bend, about 36 miles north-eaft of the Creek's CroHrng Place. Half way between thefe lies the Crow Town, on the fame fide of the river. — ib. NICKER, one of the fmall Virgin Iflands, fituated between Anegada and Virgin Gorda, on the latter of which it is dependent. N. lat. 18 30, VV. long. 65 5. —ib.. NICOLE (Francis), a very celebrated French ma- thematician, was born at Paris December 23. 1683, His early attachment to the mathematics induced M. Montmort to take the charge of his education ; and he opened out to him the way to the higher geometry. He fiift became publicly remarkable by deteaing the fallacy of a pretended quadrature of the circle. This quadrature a M. Mathulon fo alFuredly thought he had difcovered, that he depofited, in the hands of a public notary at Lyons, the Aim of 3000 livres, to be paid to any perfon who, in the judgment of the Academy of Sciences, (liould demonftrate the falfity of his fulution. M. Nicole, piqued at this challenge, undertook the taik, and expofing the paralogifm, the Academy's judgment was, that Nicole had plainly proved that the reailineal figure which Mathulon had given as equal to the circle, was not only unequal to it, but that 't was even great- er than the polygon of 32 fides circumlcribed about the circle. The prize of 3000 livres Nicole prefcuted to the public hofpital of Lyons. The Academy named Nicole, Eleve-Mechanician, March 12. 1707; Adjuna in 1716, AlFociate in 171 8, and Penfioner in 1724; which he continued till his death, which happened the 1 8th of January 1758, a: 75 years of age. His works wsre all inferted in the different volumes of the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences ; and are as follow: i. A General Msihoj for determining the Nature of Curves formed by the Rolling oi other Curves upon any Given Curve ; in the volume for the year. 1707. Nicola, II Niibc. N I E C 6ji ] N I E 1707. 2. A General Method for Rei!l!fying all Rou- NIEUWLAND (Peter), prof-flTor of mathenialic^ ^■;eu^T!JH■!. lets upon Right and Circular Bafes, 1708. 3. General and natural philofophy in ilie iiniverfity of Leydcn, was ^-^~'"'*"*' Method ot determining the Nature of thofe Curves, bornat Diemermetr, a viUajje near Amfierdam, on the whicli cut an Infinity of other Curves given in Pofition, 5'h of November, 1764. His father, by trade a car- cutting them always in a Conftant Angle, 1715. 4. So. penter, having a great fondncfs for books, and being lution of a Problem propofed by M. de Lagny, 1716. tolerably well v cried in the mathematics, ir.ftrucled l.is 5. Treatife of the Calculus of Finite Differences, 1717. fon himt'cif till he attained to his eleventh year. Young 6. Second Part of the Calculus of Finite D:fFerences, Nieuwland appears to have difplayed ftrong marks of 1723. 7. Second Sedicn of ditto, 1723. 8. Addi- genius at a very eaily period. When about the age of lion to the two foregoing papers, 1724. 9. New Pro- three. Lis mother put into his hand fome prints, which pofition in Elementary Geometry, 1725. 10. New So- had fifty verfes at the bottom of them by way of expla- iution of a Problem propofed to the Englifh Mathema- nation. Thefc veifes ihe read aloud, without any in- licians, by the late M. Leibnitz, 1725. 11. Method of tentioii th.it her fen Ihould learn them; and fhe was Summing an Infinity of New Series, which are not fum- much furprifed fome time after to hear him repeat the mable by any other known method, 1727. 12. Trea- whole from memory, vviih the uimoll corrednefs, on tife of the Lines of the Third Order, or the Curves of being only fhewn the prints. the Second Kind, 1729. 13. Examimtion and Refo- Before he was feven years of age lie had read mo:e lution of lonie QnelUons relating to Play, 1730. 14. than fifty different books, and in fuch a manner that 1.= Method of determining the Chances at Pl.iy. 15. Ob- could frequently repeat palfages from them both in pro;e fervaiions upon the Conic Seftions, 173 1. 16. Man- and in verfe. When about the age of eight, Mr Aen<s ner of generating in a Siilid Body all the Lines of the at Amfterd im, one of the grcateft calculators of the Third Order, 1731. 17. Manner of determining the age, afked him it he could tell t!ie folid contents of a Nature of R >ulets formed upon the Convex Surface of wooden Ifatue of Mercury whicii flood upon a piece of a Sphere; and of determining which are Geometric clock-woik. " Yes (replied young Nieuwland), pio- and which are Reftifiable, 1732. iS. Sohuicn of a vided you give me a bit of the fime wood of which the Problem in Geometry, 1732. 19. Tlie Ufe of Series ftatue was made; for I will cut a cubic inch out of it, in refolving many Problems in the Invcfe Method of and then compare it wiih the ftatue." Poems «hlcli Tangents, 1737. 20 Obfervations on the Iireducible (fays his eulogill) dil'play the utmoll livelinefs of imi- Cafe in Cubic Equations, 1738. 21. Obfervations up- gination, and whioh he coiiipofed in his tenth year, on Cubic Equations, 1738. 22. On the Tnfcftion of while walking or amufing himfelf near hii father's houfe, an Angle, 1740. 23. On the Irreducible Cafe in Cu- were received with admiration, a:.d inferted in dilTerent bic Equations, 1741. 24. Addition to ditto, 1743. poetical colle(flion?. 25. His Laft Paper upon the fame, 1744. ^^'* lister- Such an uncommon genius muft foon burft through ir.ination, by Incommenfurables ar.d Decirnds, the Va- thofe obrtades which confine it. Bernardus and Jeroni- lues of the S:des and Areas of the Series in a Double mode Bufch, two of the fiift and wealthiell mtn at Pjogreffion of Regular Polygons, infcribed in and cir- Amlterdam, became young Nicuwland's benef.<flors, cumfcribed about a Circle, 1747.* and contrihuted very much to call forth his latent ta- NICOLA, or N'lcho^a Tw.un Gut, on the north eaft lents. He was taken into the houfe of the former in coaft of the illand of St Chrillopher's. — Morse. his eleventh year, and he received daily inftiuflion fioni NICOYA, or 5/ l.ucar, a town of Colla Rico, in the the latter for the fpace oi four years. Wliile in this kingdom of Mexico, North America, having a harbour li:uation he made confiderable progrtb in the L.itiii and on a bay of the North Pacific Ocean, in lat. 10 20 N. Greek languages, and he ftudied phllof phy and the and long. 88 10 W. About 10 leagi.'es is the bay of mathematics under Wyttenbach. In the year 1783 he Salinas, from whence the inhiibit ints of this place pro- iranflatcd the two diifertations of hi.-, celebrated nillruc- cure and fend to Panama the purple juice ot a flicll-fiili tors, Wyttenbach and de Bolch, on the opinions which found in it, bcfides fait, h ney, maize, fowls and wheat; the ancients entertained of the tlate of the foul after and here is alfo a pearl filhery. The town is up with- death, which had gained the prize ot the Te)krian llieo- in the land, but lliips ride in the liver Cipanfo, 2 leagues logical fociety. to the N. W. ;rom the ill.'.nd of Chira, ',0 take in goods Fi(im the month of September 17S4 to 1 7S5, Nieuw. from it; which river is navigable f r large periaguas land refidtd at Levden as a ftudcnt in the univerfity, that biing down the goods to the Ihips. The ifl.ind of and afterwards applied with great diligence, at Amfler- Chira affords plenty ol trclh water ar.d provifiors. — ib. dam, to natural phlofophy and every branch of the NIC lAlT, a river ol Nova Scotia, which waters the matiiematics, under the dirctflion of Prolclfor van Swin- towi.diip of Annipolis; on its banks arc quantities of den. He had fcarcely begun to tuin hi.> attention 10 bog and mount.iin ore. in the town. — ib. NICUES.\, Gulf of, is on ilie ead coaft of the cun- try ol Honduras, on the Spanilh Miin, having C ipe Graclas a Dios fur its north limit, ani.' Cape Bl.inc'^, on the fouth ; Catherine, or Piovidtncc, is duceaft l"io:ii it. — ib. NlEBE, or h'eybt, a biy and river on tlie fouth A bloomery has been ercflcd clicmiflry, wlien he ni^de luinfcK mader ot the thtory of the niUch-lan-.e.ttd Lavoilier, and ci uld ap; ly it to every phenomenon. He could read a work through with nncommon qu'cknei's, and yet retain in his mind tlie principal p irt of its content'. Nieuwland's attention was direi.'t.'d to three prii.cip il purlnits, wl.ich ai e k-ldom united ; poet' y, ihc pure ma- ihem.^iics, and natural philoft.phy. In 'he latter p.irt <f coaft 'f ti.e ifl.tnd of St Doini' go. Tht- bay is lituitfd his life he a Ulid to thefc alfo aftronomy. Among the at n iilh-ni nh-eaft non; C ipc Be.ita. N. lat. 18 3, W. p.)cnis which he (-ublifht-.t, his Orion ih ne ha« leuc; red l3"ii- 73 46 — /■*• his name imaicinal in :;«llanj. Ol tlie Itnall clfiy* 4 N : which N I E [ 652 ] N I E N;eu»lan(!. wlilcli he piiblillied in his youih, the two following are dertnok alfo to prepare a nautical almanacV, and to cal- Nltuwknd. ^"^""'"'^^ particularly dtl'crving of notice: 1. A Comparative culate the neccffiiry tables. Tlie mathematical p.irt was '«'^"^''^*-' View of the Value of thaditTerent Branches of Science; in general entrulled to Nieuwland ; but he afiilleJ alfo and 2. The beft Means to render general, not Loarn- his two colleagues van Swinden and van Keulen, in the in-', but Soundnefs of Judgment and Good T.ille. departments alligned to them, with fuch affiduity, that One of his great objects was to bring the pure mi- moll of the work publilhed on the longitude, together thematics nearer to perteiflion, to clear up and conieft with the three additional parts were the fruits of his their different parts, and in particular to apply them to labour. In the ferond edition of the explanation of natural philofophy and aftronomy. Cornelius D-'Uwes the nautical almanacic, he had alfo the prJncipil Ihare ; difcovered an eafy method of determining the latitude and he was the auth ir, in ptrticu.a'-, of the exp.anation of a p'ace at fea, not by the nieridi.m altitude of the of the equation of time, lli; method ol dctermiiiing ihs fun, but by two obfervations made at any other p,-riod gi ing of a time piece, and of calailating the deolina- of the day. Thi.- method, however, being lld'i irnper- tion of tie moon. feift, Nieuwland turned his thoughts towards the ini- Soon after Nieuvvhmd engaged in this emp'oyment,. provement of it, and in the beginning of the year 1789 , it appeared as if his d ftination wis about to be chang- wrote a paper on the fubjcdl, which he trsnfmitted to ed. In the year 1787, he was chofen by the States M. de Lalandc at Paris, ir.m whom it met with great of Utrecht to fucceed Profclfor Hinnert ; but ><n ac- approb .tion. In the year 1792, wh^n Nienwlard r;- cun ot certain circumilanCiS this appointment did not Tided two months at Gotha with Mijor von Za^h. iheie take place. He was, however, invited to Aiiiftcrdam two learned m.-n often converlcd on this method of by the magi Urates of that city, to give leiflures on ma- finding tlie latitude, and calculated the refult of ohfer- tl.ematics, allronomy, and navigation. While in this vations v.hich tliev had made with a fextant and an ar- (Ituation, he wrote his ufefiil and excellent treatife on tificial horizon. The above paper, enlarged by ihefe navigation, the firll part of whlcli was publifhcd at Am- obfervation^ was inferted Ijy Maj ir von Zich with Iteidimin 1793, by George Hulll van Keulen ; audit Nieuv.'land's name in the full Supplement to B jde's i: much to be wilhed that M. van Sw nden vviuld com- Aftronomical Aim inack, Berlin, 1793. plete this work from the papers bequeathed to him by This, however, was not the only i'erv.ce which Nieuw. his deceafed fiiend the author, land endeavoured to render to allronomy. It had been In agronomical purfuits, Nieuwland applied not only cbferved by N.;wtrn, Euler, De la Place, and oihers, to th.- tlieoretical, but alfo to the praflical part ; and in that the axes of the plane's do not 11 md perpendicular, this lludy he was encouraged and alli'.ted by Mijor von but inclined, to llie plane of their orbits; and Du Se- Zach, with whom he refided fome time in the courfe o£ jour, in his analytical trea'ife on the apparent motion the year 1792, and who inftrufled him in the proper of the heavenly b >dies, confiders it as highly probable ufe of the fextant. This affeiflionate friend publifhed that tliis phenomenon depends on fome piyficat cavk ; alfo all his obfervations and calculations in the before- v.'hich, however, lie does not venture to alTign. Nieuw- mentioned Supplement to Bode's Aftronomical Alma- land proceeded farther, and laid down principles, from nack. which he drew this conclu'lon, ihat the above pheno- In the yetr 1789, Nieuwland was chofen member of menon is intimately connefled with the whole fyllem a learned fociety whofe object was chemical experi- of attradi )n. On ihefe principles he m ide calculations, ments ; and fo apt wis his ger.ius for ac<)uiring know- the rcfult cf which was ex.iftly equ il to the angle of leJg?, that in a liitle time he made himfelf completely the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane ot its muter of the tlieory of chemiftry. A proof of this is orbit. Nieuwland communicated his dilcovery with the treatife which he read on the 24th of May 179', much modelly to the celebrated Piofeflor Damen at in the fociety, dillinguiflied by the motto ci( FJix Me- Leyden, who propofcd fome olijeifli ms to it which dif- rirls, and which has been printed in the firft part of the couraged N'euft'land, and induced him to revile his cal- New General Migizine [N'ww Aigemesn Migszyn). culati ons with more accuracy. Major von Zach tranf- At the f ime time he was able to examine the important mitted the paper which contained them to M. De la difcoveries made by the fociety, to alliil in preparing Place at Paris, and caufeJ it to be printed alfo, for the an account of them for the prefs, an J to pubMli them opinion <>f the learned, in the S ipplemen'. to Proiellbr with fulHcient accuracy in ihe French language. Three Piode's Agronomical Almanack for the year 1793. parts of this work appeared under the title of /J»- Tiie v.'iiter of this article is not acquainted ei'.her churches Plnjico ch^niinues- The firft part appeared in with the principles which this young aitronomer af- 1792, and was afterwards reprinted in the yuurnal de famed, or with the calcalations wh ch he mide from Phvftque. The fec^md w :s publilhed in 1793, and the them; but if he holdsgrivitation to be elTential to mat- fojithin 1794. Some letters ot his on chet^illry may ter, and the inclination of the axes of the plinets to be be fo'ind alfo in a peiiodical work called The Mijfenger the necelftrv refult of the law of gravitation, he is un- (LdtcrboJe). doubtedly in an err'r. Tlie axes of the planets are not This ingenious and diligent man was of great fervice all equally inclined, nor does the inclination vary in ex- alfo in the philofophical department to the above foci- a£l proportion to the fquares of the diftances. ety, Fc/ix Mentis, oi which he h.id been chofen a tilu- Nieuwland's talents and diligence loon recommended lar member on the 25th of January 17S8, and an ho- liim to the notice of his country. In his twenty-fecood norary member on the 15th of March 1791. The pa- year, he was app in'ed a member of the commlili ni pers for which it was indebted to him are as follows : — chofen by the College of Admiralty at Amllerdam for i. On the Neweft Dilcoveries in Aftronomy, and the determiiiing the longitude and improving marine charts. Progiefs lately m ide in that Science, 1788. This is On this labour he v.-as employed eight years, and un- aa extra^Tt from a L.itia oration which he intended to deliver N I E Nieuwlind, deliver at TJtreclit when lie expecled to fucceej Pro- .11 fefTor Hennerr. — 2. On the Figure of the Einh, 1739. ^^llF^il. — 3. On the Caiirfe of Comets, and the Uncertainty of the Return of l!ie Comet now ExpeflcJ, 1 790. — 4. On the Nature o; t!ii M itherrutics. The principal obje£t cif this paper was tn i'Uiflr;ite rlie iJe.i, that the mathemntici may be confiJered as a bean itul and per- {e& laoKuaj:e. — 5. On the Periodical Decr<;afe or In- creafe in the Lit;ht oi Certain Fixed S'irs, and Parti- Culaily of the Star Ali^ol, 1790. — 6. On <.]i'. Sdurion of Spherical Trigon)nie'ry by Me ins of a New Iiilliu- ment Invented by I^e G lin, 1791. M. le Guin hav- ing tranfniitted to the C )llege of Admir.ihy at Ani- ftcrJam an inllrument which mi^'ht be ufed witli great advantage in trigoncm trical operations, and by which, in calcula'ing the longitude, one could deduce the real from the apparent diltance, the admiiaiiy charged Nieu'.vUnd to enmine this inltrument; and he found that it might be of excellen' I'ervice /or the above pur- pofe. — 7. On the Relative Value or Importance of the Sciences, 1791 — 8. On the Syftem of Lavoilier, 1792. — 9 On the tijlenntopograi hia of Scluoder, J 793. — 10. On what is Commonly Called Cukivalion, laltiuc- tion, or Enlighiennig, 1793. Nieuwland had a|>plied clofely to the mathematics, aflronomy, and navigatifm, tor iix years ; dunng which time he mide confiderable iniprnveniei.ts in nautical charts, iwid tilled up his vacant hours wnli the fludv of philofophy and chemillry. In the month of July 1793 he was invi;ed to the univerlity of Leyden, to be pro- feflbr of philofophy, aftionomy, and the higher m ithe- niatics, in the room of the celebrated D imen ; and the admiralty of Amfterdam requelted him to continue his nautical refearches, which he did with great afllduity till the (leriod of his death. The only variation which lie now made in his ftudies related to natural philofo- phy, for with tlie mathematics he was alieady fulncient- Jy acquainted. He applied therefore to the experi- rnental part, and fpared no pains nor labour to become perfcil in it; which would certainly have been the cafe, iiad he not been fnatclied from fcience and his friends at tiie early age of thirty. He died of an inflammation in his thioit, accompaiiii;d with a fever, on the 13th of November 1794. In his external appearance, N'enwland was not what might be called handfome, n'.>r had he ever been at pains to acquire that e ife of dep rtment which diflin- tnilhes thofe who have ficqueatcd polite company. His liehaviour and convevlaiion were however agreeable, bc- caafe he could difcourfe with f.icility on fo many fnb- jed:-, and never w fiiid to appear but under his re il charaiSer. On the firlt view one might have difterned that he was a man of great modefty and the llri^.Tell morality. His father was a Lutheran, and his mother a baptilt ; but he lumfelf was a m-.-mbcr ol what is railed the reformed church, ;'. e. a Calvinilt, and alwa\ s Ih w. ed the utmofl reipecl for the Supreme Being both by his words and his afti ns. NIEVA //7.1'ia', Iks lomh-wcft ..f Miftake Bay, and on the noMJi-eall fide ot Hudlon's Straits. — ;i. NIEVA TERRA, near the eaft end ■ f Hudfon's S'.raits, in Ncrth Ameiica, in lat. 62 4 N. and long. [ C^Si ] N I G 67 7 W. and lias high water on the fprlng-tiJe days at 50 min. part 9 o'clock. — ii. NIGANICHE, an ifland on the coaft of Cape Bre- , ton Illand, and in the fouth part of the Gulf of St Law- rence, is tn the fouthward of a cape about 4 leagues fouth foiith-well of Achspe harbour, and 8 leagues from North Cape. — ii. NIGER, a large river in Africa, of which many erroneous accounts have been pnblifhed, and among them that which we have given in the Encyc!ij>>a:dia. By Her.' dntus, Pliny, Ptolemy, and other ancient au- thors, it is unihrmly faid t" flow from ivej) to eajl, di- viding Africa ;.s the Danube divides Europe ; and from the repf rt of the Africans, the firft of thel'e authors calls it a large river abotinding with crocodiles. In the tWi^lfth ccr.tury, however, Edrifi defcribes the Ni- ger, which lie calls the Nile of the negoes, as running from eajl to ii-ejl, and falling into the Atlantic Ocean ; and his arc<iUnt wa' univerfilly adopted by fubfcquent Writers, till its falfchood was difcovered by the African Alfociatinn. From a number of concurring reports, Majir Houghton was led to believe that the couife of ilie N'ger is from ivejl to eujl, according to the mod ancient account ; and the truth c>^ thefe reports has been eftablilhcd bey, nd all contrnverfy by Mr Park, who f.iw the Niger himfelf, and adually accompanied it for many miles in its majedic courfe as laid down by Herodotus. This river rifes in or near the country of Mandisg (which fee in lliis Siipflemcnt), between the parallels of 10 and II degrees of north latitude, and between the 5th and 9th degree of well longitude, which compre- liends a fpace the mofl elevated of all tliis portion of Africa. This is evident from the oppofite cc>urfes of the three great rivers which rife in it. Thefe are the Gimbia, vhich runs to the wcft-nnrth-weft ; the Se- negal, which runs to the north-weft ; and the Joliba ( a), or Niger, running to the caft-northeaft. Tlie head of the principal branch cf the Senegal river is about 80 geographical miles to the well of that of the N'ger ; and the head of the Gambia is again abi..ut 100 miles weft of the Senegal. Mr Park traced the Niger to Sill a, a confiderable town about 420 miles from its f urce ; and it wa£ there larger than t!-.e Thames at Weftminfter. But 420 miles are but a very finall part of the ccurfe of the Niger, which donbtlei's receives many tributary ftreams before it reach Kafllna, 700 miles fartlier eaftward, where there is every rcafon to believe that it was view, ed by the ancient R mans. O'lr traveller collected at Silla what information he could from the Moor Ih and Negro traders concerning the further courfe of this ma- j-.ll c llreani, as well as of tlic kingdoms through which It runs ; and the following notices he believes to be au- tlientic : Two ftiort days journey to the eaftward of Silla, is the town of Jenne, which is fuualed on a fmall ifland in the river ; and is faid to contain a greater mimber of inhabitants than Sego ii.elf, or any other town in Bam- barra. (See Stco, AV/yt/. ) . At the diftance fjf two days more, the river fpreads into a confiderable lake, called DMie \o\ the daik lake); concerning the eitent of Niganiclie, .11 Niger. (a) Thib is ihe negro name of the river, and fignlfics llic^rra/ waUr. N I L C 654 ] N I L Nigna, of which, all the information which our author could P obtain was, that in cruffing it, from wcfl to eaft, the ^'''' canoes lofe fight oi land one whole day. From this lake, the water iflueb in many different llreams, which lerniinate in two large branches, one wbereoi flows to- wards the north-eulV, and the other to the call ; but thefe branches join at Kabra, which is one day's jour- ney to the fouthward of Tumbiidoo, and is the port or fliipping-place of tliat city. The iraft of land which the two dreams encircle, is called JInbala, and is inha- bited by negroes ; and tlie whole dillance by land, from Jenne to 'rnmbu(51oo, is twelve days journey. From Kabra, at the dillance of eleven days journey, down the dream, the liver pafles to the fouthward of HoufT.i, which is two days journey didant from the river. Of the further progrefs of tliis great river, and its final exit, all the natives with whom Mr Park con- verfed feemcd to be entirely ignorant. Their com- mercial purl'uits feldom induce them to travel further than the cities of Tiimbuftoo and Houfla ; and as the fole objed of thofe journeys is the acquirement of wealth, they pay but little attention to tlie courfe of livers, or the geography of countries. It is, however, highly probable that tiie Niger affords a fafe and eal'y comraunicafion between very remote nations. All our author's informants agreed, that many ot the negro merchants who arrive at Tumbu(5ioo and Houlfa, from the eaftward, fpcak a diff^-rent language from that of Bambarra, or any other kingdom with which they are acquainted. But even thefe merchants, it would feem, are ignorant of the termination of the river ; for fuch of them as can fpe,-.k Arabic, defcribe the amazing length of its courfe in very general terms, faying only, that they believe il runs to the luorlcTs en.l. Major Rennel, by comparing a great many accounts of the progrefs of this river beyond Houfla, with the idea which prevails in that city ot its termination, has (hewn it to be in a very high degree probable, that the waters of the Niger have no direft communication w ith the fea, but that tliey are fpread out into a great lake in Wangara and Ghana, and evaporated by the heat of the fun. S.-e Wangara in this Supplement. NIGUA, a river on the fouih fide ot the illand of St Domingo. Its mouth is 7 leagues ead of the Nifao. The rivers Nigua and Jayna are not very far apart. But as they advance trom their fprings, they recede from each other, the former running wedward fiom the latter. Between them lies an exrenfive and fertile plain. The quantity of pure gold that was dugfiom its cavi- ties, its fugar, cocoa, indigo, and other plantations, paid duties of a greater amount than thole now paid by all the Spanidi part of the illind put together. All thefe rivers might be eal'dy rendered navigable. Tlieparilh and fmall town of Nigua contain about 2,500 perfo.ns, partly free people of col ur. — Mone. NILE, the name of a celebrated river, which, as it has been defciibed in the Eii-yclol'xdia, fliould not have been introduced in;o this place, did \\"e not think our- felves bound candidly to coafcfs that, in our opinion, its fources, at lead ihofe fourccj which were the objtffs of ancient curiofity, have never )et been feen by any European. Tliis feenis to be proved, beyond the pof- fibility ot controverfy, by M^jor Rennel in the Appen- dix to Mr Paik's Travels, and by Mr Browne in bis account of the Bjhr-el-ab'uid, and Dar-Fur or Souilan. See Soudan in this Suppuvient. Mr Bruce hinifclf acknowledges that the Nile, which waters Egypt, is the confluence oi two dreams, and that the weilcrn dream, which he, with others, calls Bahr-d-al'tiid, or the 'wh'ite rivir, is the larged of the two. Were a man therefore to travel from Cairo up the banks of the Nile in qued of its fource, he would, doubtlefs, when l;e ihould arrive at the divifii n of the river into two channels, continue his journey up tlie greater of thefe ; fur what could induce liim to turn afide with the lefs ? Not the name ; for neither the lefs nor the greater has by itfelf the name which, in Egypt, is given to both when united. The former, which un- doubtedly has its fource in Ab\dinia, is there called tlie Abay or Abavi ; and, in other countries through which it runs, the B.ihr el Afick ; the latter is, from its fource to its juniflion with the Abay, called the Bahr el abiad. Pliny believed that the Nile came from the wed ; and Ptolemy fays exprefsly that its remote fource is in the mountains of the vioon. But this Nile mud be the White River, which certainly rifes to the wedward of Abylfinia, and, according to Abulfeda, in the mountains of Komri or Kummeri ; which, in Ara- bic, fignifies lunar, being the adjedive of Kuinmer, the moon. In perfeifl conformity with this ancient account of the fource of the Nile, Mr Ledyard was told at Cairo by certain perfons from Dar-Fur, that this celebrated river has its coy fountains in their country, at the didance of 55 days journey to the wedward of Senaar, which biings thtm to the Komri mountains of Abulfeda, who, as well as Ptolemy and Edrifi, places the head of the Nile in a quarter far removed from Abydinia. Ptolemy has indeed mentioned Loth branches ; and while he de- fcribes the eadernin fuch a way as that it cannot be ta- ken for any other than the Abyffinian branch, or the Nile of Bruce and the Portuguefe Jefuits, fpeaks of a larger branch flowing from a more didant fource, fitua- ted to the fouth wed. But this can be no other than Biuce's white river, the Bahr el abiad of Ledyard and Browne. It is true, there is an apparent difference in the account given by thefe two lad mentioned travellers of the country in which the Bahr-el-abiad lifes ; but it is a difference only apparent. Ledyard was told at Cairo that it riles in Dar Fur ; Mr Browne, who re- fided long in D.ir-Fur, was there told, that the fources of the river are near to a place called Donga, the refi- dence of the chief or king of an idolatrous nation to the fouthward of Dar-Fur. It is to be obferved, how. ever, that the flavemerchants who trade between Don- ga and Cairo are always attached to the Soudan or Dar- Fur caravan ; and that therefore the perfons ulio told Ledyard that the Nile rif;s in their country were pro- bably from D.inga, though he took them tor Furians fiom tht name of their caiavan. Mr Browne informs us, that the country about Donga is very mountainous, and that in the fpot where the liver tiles there are faid t be forty dilli.d hilh, which irt called Kumri. Frt^m them illlies a great number ot Iprings, that, uniting in- t 1 oiit great channel, form the Bahrel-abiad, which luff-'s the fame periodical increafe and diminution a» ti'-' Nile in Egypt. The people of Donga are quite nak.d, black, and, as we have already obferved, idola- teis. Nile. N I M [ (^5S ] N I M Jlimiquas. tcrs . Major Rennel places the mountains of llie niocn ^•^~^'^^^-^ bttween 5" 40' and 8" 10' N. Lut. and between 24° 30' and 30° ^5' E. Long. Their ia;itu.)e and longi- Uidc, as laid down by Mr Browne, are fomcwhat, tho' very little, dilTerent; whilft Geefli, the fource ot B;uce's INilc, lies between tlie loth and i ith degree of N. L.it. and in about the 37th degree ot E. Long. NIMIQLfAS, a natit n, or, more pioperlr, two tribes in South Africa, called" by Vaillant ti.e Le/s and Greater Nimiquas. The country of the Lefs Nimiq'as extends in longi- tude from the m'"untains of Caniis to the fea on the vcft, /'. f. from tj" 25' to iR° 25' eall from London, and in latitude from zS" 12' to 29" 36' fouth. From the information which our author could colleif>, he thinks that the number of inhabitants throughout the vhole of this tra<ft does not exceed 6000 fouls. Even this number is annually dimiralhed by the frequent at- tacks of Bolhmen, and the aridi'y of the foil. Of the BosHMEN we have already given fuch an account as can leave no doubt of the dedruflive nature of their in- curfions ; and the foil mud be arid indeed, if it be true, as Vaillant affures us, that in the country of the Lefs Nimiquas rain never falls except vvlien it thunders, and tliat thunder is fo rare as frequently not to be heard for the fpace of a whole year. For this want of rain our author accounts in a fatis- faiflory manner: " The country (he fays) having nei- ther forefts nor lofty mountains to arreft the clouds, ihofe which come from the north pafb freely over it, and proceed on to Camis, where they burft and fall, eiiher in rain in the valleys, or in fnow on the fummits of thefe mountains, which are the loftieft throughout the f.nith of Africa." The country is of couife not fruit- ful, and its llcrillty obliges the inhabitants frequently to change their refidence, fo that they are the nioll wan- dering of all the Hottentot tribes. In this barren re- gion the Dutch colonifts fuppofe that gold mines may be found ; but our author dlfcovered among the hordes no traces of this metal, though he found many indica- tions of rich copper mines. The Lefs Nimiquas, though of a tolerable flature, are not fo tall as their neighbours to the eallward ; and indeed Vaillant affirms, that tlie people to the cad in the fouthern part of Afiica are much fupcrior to thofe of the well bnth in moral and phyfical qualities, while the animals are far inferior. The Lefs Nimiquas are great believers in witchcraft ; and our author gives a ridiculous account of an interview that he had with an old witch named Kukocs, who had a complete afcen- dency, not only ever the whole horde, but alio over the lavage Boihmen. Thefe robbers, he fays, never at- tempted to plunder the territory where fhe took up her refidcnce ; and ihe has been known, when their thefts came to her knowledge, to proceed alone, and unguard- ed, to their retreats in the midft of the woods, to threat- en them with her vengeance, and thus compel them to a"retlitutinn oftheftolen property. All her influence, however, over her own tribe, could procure for our au- thor and his attendants only fix Ihecp. The women of the hoide received his Hottentots with great kindnef. j and permitted them to difcover very lingular charms, of which it is necdlefs here to in- fcrt a defcription. Among this people he faw abun- (lacce of bracelets, necklaces, and ear-iings of copper ; and fome of thefe ornaments were fo well made and KbnJquas. finely polifhcd, that they mull have been manufaflur^d ^-^"^'^^ in Europe, and the fruits of an intcrcourfe with the whites. But he faw feveral others, which, fn m their grotefque lliape and rude \vorkmanlhip, evidently (hew- ed that they were fabricated by the lavages themielves. " Tliefe ornaments (fays he) are worn by the Nimi- quas in the fame manner as by the other lavages; yn I obferved am'^ng them fome whimlical peculiarities. I have feen perfons with fix ear rings of the fame (liapc in one ear, and none in the other; I have feen fume with bracelets from the wrift to the elbow on one arm, while the other arm was bare : I have feen others witli one fide of the face painted in compartments of various colours, while on the other fide both the colours and figures were different. In general, I obferved great propenfity to ornaments among the Lefs Nimiquas"; for thtir krolfes and all their garments were plentifully covered with glaf, and copper beads, ftrung on threads, and fallencd on every part of their drefs. They even wore them in their hair, which was p'afttred with greafe in the mod difgulling manner. Many had theii heads covered with a reddllli incrullation, compofed of greafe and a powder rcfembling brick duft, with which their hair was fo palled together, th..t you would have fworn it to be a cap of red morter. Thofe who had it in their power to difplay this luxury of diefs, were as proud as are our p,tils-muitra, when they can'fhake a head loaded with powder, perfume, and pomatum. The nuyp-hro<, or (hort apron, of the women, was adorned with rows of glafs beads hanging down to their feet ; in other refpeas they were drelTcd like the other Hot- tentots." The country of the Greater Kim:quas is placed by the author in nearly the fame longitude with that of the Lefs, and between 2^° and 2S" fouth latitude. It is barren like the other; but the people are much taller, being generally about five feet ten inchea high. The men are dull and lUipid, but the women are lively and extremely amorous; and both men and women are com. paratively handf me and of a (lender m.»ke. Extrav.i- gantly addifted to fmuking tobaeco, the young girls bartered tlieir favours for a fingle pipe ; and a« Vail- lant was chief of the caravan, a white, and pofleiror of tobacco of much better quality, many advances were made to him. " I have no doubt (fays he) but I might have formed, for a few pipcfulsonly, an alliance with every family in the horde. I was even prelTed fo clofely, as to be obliged to employ fome refillance: but, at the fame time, I mud confeG, th.it my refufals were given in fuch a way as not to offend ; and they who, in confcc^uence of their advances, had been expo- fed to thcm^ having foon found other arr-ingemcnts to make, did not Ihew me the lefs friendlhip. I muft here add, tliat the girls alone appeared to me thus free; ■while the married women on the contrary were modeft and referved. This is a chara^criftic difference, which dillinguilhes the Greater Nimiquas from the Hottentot people in general; as likewife does the low cringing air they affume when they have any tliing to a(k." It has been faid by Kolben, that the N'miqua wo- men, when they bear twins, dellroy one of the infants; but Vaillant affures us that this is a filfehood, as is like- wife another talc which is current in the colopy. It has been faij that ibc fathers, to (hcv what aJTc^ioa they N I M [ wj Kiraiquas. they bear iheir children, fcei! their eldeft in a particu- ^•^^"^^^ \^j maimer, as being of tlt!a!: the firft ol)je<a of p.itern.il care. Fur this pui poic they put him in a coop as it were ; th.it U, they fl.ut him up in a trench made un- der their hut, where, being deprived li motion, he lofes little by peilpiration, while they iced Kfid cram him in a maimer with milk and greafe. By degrees the child fattens, ar.d gets as round as a band ; and when he is come to ftich a (late as not to be able to walk, but to bend under his own weight, the parents exhibit him> to tlie admiration of the horde; who from that period conceive more or lefs efteem and conlideration fir tlie family, according as the monfler has acquired more or lefs rotundity. Such was the account given to our author by a man who aflirnicd that he had been an eye w itnefj of this mode of cramming the hcii-nppaient ; but whenever any queftions were alked on the fubjeifl of the Nimi- quas thcmfelve', the perfons addreffed were ready to laugli in our author's face. " Still (fays he), as it ap- peared flrange to nre, that a man Ihould talk of what he had feen, when he had in reality feen nothing ; as it was prffible that the table might have fome founda- tion, without being true in all particular; — I was wil- ling to convince myfelt what could have given rife to it ; and every lime I vifited a horde, 1 look care, under different pretences, to examine, one after another, all the huts of the krajl, and to afk which was the eldeft child of the family : but I nowhere faw any thing that indicated either this pretended coop, or this pietended cramming." The Nimiquas are great cowards ; yer, like the fur- rounding nations, they have their alT.igays and poifoned arrows ; and, like them, can handle thefe arms w ith dexterity. They polTsfs alfo thofe war oxen, lb for- midable in battle, and fo favourable to the cowardice or inailivity of the combatants. They have even a pe- culiar implement of war, which their neighbours have not. This is a large buckler, of the height of the per- fon who bears it, behind which the Nimiqua can com- pletely conceal himfelf. Bui, befide that his natural apathy prevents him from giving or taking offence, he is in reality pullllanimous and cowardly from the cold- nefs of his difpofition. To utter only the name of ffouzouana before him is fufficient to make him trem- ble. See HouzouANAs in this Supj)/. Notw ithftanding his frigidity, tlie Nimiqua is not in- fenfible to pleafure. He even feeks with avidity thofe which, requiring but little exertion, are capable of agi- tating him and procuring agreeable fenfations. Their jnuilcal inftruments are the fame as thofe of the other H ttentots ; but their dancing is very different, and lefembles the temper of the nation. If the counte- nance have received from nature features that can ex- prefs our paflions, the body alfo has its attitudes and movements that paint our temper and feelings. The dance of the Nmiiqua is frigid like himfelf, and fo de- void of grace and hilarity, that, were it not for the ex- treme gaiety of the women, it might be called the dance of the dead. Thefe tortoifes, to whom dancing is a fatigue, fliew little eagernei's for any thing but wagers games of cal- culation and chance, and all the fedentary amufements which require p.itience and rcfl-jaion, of which they are mere capable than they are of motion. When our 6s6 3 N I Z -Sil Nizofius. author, with j»reat propriety, prohibited gamn^ In his Ninety camp, the Nimiciuas, who had (laid long with him, U took thtir departure. ^ NINETY SIX, a diftiift of the upper country of South Carolina, well of Orangeburg dillrifl, and coni- prehenda the counties of Edgefield, Abbeville, Lrurens, and Newbury. It contains 33,674 white inhabitants, fends iz reprefentatives and 4 ienators to the State Ic- giflature, 3 of the former and ( ne of the latter for each county, and one member to Congrefs. It produces conliderable quantities of tobacco for exportation. Chief town, CdtnbrHgc, or, as it was formerly called. Nine y S'lx, which is 60 miles weft by north of Ci'lum- bia, 147 north well of Charletlon, 49norih of Augi:fta in Georgia, and 762 from Philadelphia. In Mny, 1781, this town was cl fely befieged by Gen. Greene, and bravely defended by the Britifli, commanded by Ccl. Cruger. — Morse. Nil'ECON, a large river which empties into Lake Superior, from the northward. It leads to a tribe of the Chippewas, who inhabit near a lake of the fame name. Not far frtm the NIpegon is a fmall river, that, juft before it enters the l,;ke, has a perpendicular fall, fri m the top of a mountain of 600 feet. It is very nar- row, appears like a white garter fufpended in the air. —ih. NIPISSING Lake is north-eaft of Lake Huron, and conneifled with it by French river. — ib. NIPISSINS. Indians inhabiting near the head wa- ters of the Ottowas river. Warriors 300. — ib. NiSAO, a river which rifes in the centie of the ifland of St Dcmingo, and falls into the fea on tlie fouth fide, and on the weftern fide of the point of its name ; 7 leagues W. of Nigua river. — \b. NISC^IIEUNIA, a fettlement in the State of Newr York, above the city of Albany. This is the principal feat of the fociety called Shakers. A few of this fe(5l came from England in 1774; and a ii'^ others are fcatteied in different p.irts of the country. — ib. NITTA, a fpecies of the Mimosa, which flourifhes on the banks of the Senegal in Africa. It is valuable to the inhabitants for its fruit, the pods of which are long and narrow, containing a few black feeds envelo- ped in a fine mealy powder, of a bright yellow colour, which refembles the f!cur of fulphur, and has a fweet mucilaginous tafte. When eaten by itfelf it is clammy ; but when mixed with milk or water, it conilitutes a very pleafant and nourilhing food, fupplying the placs of corn to the negroes. — Park's Travels. NITTANY Mountain, in Pennfylvania, is between the Juniatta and the W. branch of Sufquehannah river. — Morse. NIVERNOIS, a large bay at the eaft end of Lake Ontari'i.- — ib. NIXONTON, a poft town of N. Carolina, and ca- pital of Palquotank county ; lies on a northern water of Alljemaile Sound, and contains a couithoufe, gaol, and a few dwelling houfes. It is 28 miles N. E. of Edenton, and 468 S. W. of Philadelphia. — ib. NIZOLIUS (Marius), a grammarian of Italy, who by his wit and erudition contributed much to the pro- motion of letters in the i6th century. He publifhed, in 1553, Lib. 4. De ver'is Prlncipiis et vera RatioM philofophandi, contra Pfeudo philofophoi. In this work lie attacks, with much vivacity, the fchoolmcn, not on- N O M [ ^Sl ] NOR •Koblebo- ly for the barbarifm of their terms, but fnr many ridi- rough, culous opinions which they held. Leibnitz was fo „ j[ , ftruck with its fulidity and elegance, that, to expofe Dios. ''^^ obflinacy of thole who were zealoufly :ittaciied to v^^v^>w/ And >tle, he gave a new edition of it, wiih critic il notes of his own, 1670, in 410. Nizolius publ (bed A- fo, "Tbefaurus Ciceronianus, fivt Apparatus Lingua L.a- tiuit e Scr'iplis Tullii Ckeroiiis collciius, in fob >. 1'liis is a good L'tin diiflionary, compoled of the words and expreffions of Cicero; to which, it feera-, Nizolius fliewed as mucli bijjotry as the ichoolmen to their no- lion"; ; and fell under the chara>fter of the fe pedants Biog. DU- whom Er;ifmus has ridiculed in his Ciceronianus . We titnary. Jq f|ot find the year either of his birth or death. NOBI.EBOROUGH, a townliiip in Lincoln coun- ty, Dillrid of Maine, incorporated in 1788, and con- tains (fi6 inhabitants. It is lo miles S. E. of New- CaRle, and 192 N. E. of B^aon— Morse. NoBLEBOROuGH, z townlliip in the northeartern part of Herkemer county. New York, fituated on the north- wedern fide of Canada Creek. — ii. NOCKAMIXON, a townihip in Buck's county, Pennf) Ivan'a — ii. NOCTURNAL arch, is the arch of a circle de- fcribed by the fun, or a ftar, in the night. NODDLE'S IJIanJ, a fmall pleafant and fertile ill.ind in Bolion harbour, Malfachufetts. It is about 2 miles eaft north-eaft of the town, on the Chelfea (Lore. It is occupied as a faim, and yields large quantities of excellent hay. — Morse. NODWAY, a river or rather a long bay which com- municates with James' Bay, at the S. E. extremity of Rupert's river. — ii. NOIR, or Blaci River, in Louifiana, runs fouthward, and joins Rouge or Red River. — ii. NoiR, Ciipf, < n the S. W. coaft of the ifland of Terra del Fuego, at the entrance of the Straits of Magellan. S. l.if. 54 30, W. long. 73 13. — ii. NOIX, IJle an, or Nut IJle, a fmall ifle of 50 acres, near the north end of Lake Champlain, and within the province f Lower Canada. Here the Britifli have a garrifon containing ico men. It is about 5 miles N. N. E. of the mouth ot La Cole river, 20 nortli of Ifle La Motte, and i 2 or 15 fouthward of St John's. — ib. NOi^ACHUCKY, a river in the eadern part of the State of Tenneffee, which runs W S. \V. into French Broad river, about 26 miles fn'm H lllon river. Near the banks of this river Grenville college is eilablilhed. ~ii. NOLIN Creel, a branch of Green river in Kentucky. The bind here is of an inferior quality. — il. NOMAN'sZ,r7«</y)7<jW,liesalit.leS W. of Martha's Vineyard, and ib about 3 miles long and two broad. It belongs to Duke's county, Maifachufetts. N. lat. 41 15, W. lon^. 71 5. — ib. NOMBRE DP. DIOS, a port to the S. S. E. of the cape to the eallw.ird of Potto Bello, on the Spanifh Main, or N. coaft 01 S. America, at the dillance of ab'ut 7 leagues. It is at the boti m of a large deep bay, being wide to the eafl fide in l.it 9 43 N. and long. 78 35 W. The iflancis c.iUed Ballimeiio.s are in this bay. Large veffels feldom tieqncnt this part now, .lUliougli there i from 5 to 8 fathoms and clean p'Ound. Exie- rience p linted out tba: 'liey weie in danger (f I oiin !er- ing It iiuhor, fii' li is the fury with whith the lea pours SuppL. Vol. II. Norfolk. into the bay. Thofe vefTels that now viAt it, if their Nonibre dc bufinefs require any Itay, prefer riding at the B.idi- ^'f"> mcnto., or it Porto Bello. — .A. NoMBRE DE Dios, on the W. co.ift of Mexico, fituat- ed on the Nortli Pacific Ocenn, is a large and p( pulous tiwn, a little to the northward of tlie tropic of Cancer, and 20 leagues to the north of Guadalaxara. N. lat. 23 3^, W. long. 104. — ib. NONAGESIMAL, or Nonagesimal 7;f_jw, cal- led alfj the Mid heaven, is the highclt point, or 90th degree of the ecliptic, reckoned from its interfeii^ion With the horizon at any lime ; and its altitude is equal lo the angle that the ecliptic makes with the horizon at iheir interfeaion, or equal to the dillance of the ze- nith from the pole of the ecliptic. It is much ufed in the calculation of fiilar eclipfes. hONAGON, a figure h.iving nine fides and angles. In a regular nonagon, or that whofe angles and fides are all equal, if each fide be i, its area will be 6-1818242 = f of the tangent of 70", to the radius i. NONESUCH, a river of Cumberland county, Dif- triifl of Maine. It paffes to the fea through the town of Scarborough ; and receives its name from its extraor- dinary frelhets. — Morse. Nonesuch, a harbour at the E. end of the ifland of Antigua. The road is foul and full of rocks ; and it has not more than 6 or 8 feet water, except in one place, which is very diflicult. — ib. NOOHEEVA, one of the Ingrahain Iflands, faid to be the parent of them all, fituated about 10 leagues S, W. of Ooahoona. Capt. Roberts named it Adams ; it ib the fame which Ingraham called Federal Ijltnd. The lat. of the body of the iflind is 8 58 S. and near- ly in the fame meridian with Wuoapo, between 140 and 140 10 W. long, from Greenwich. All accounts of the natives concurred, fays Capt. Roberts, in reprefent- ing it as populous and fruitful, and to have a large bay with go d anchorage. — ii. NOORT Point, on the coaft of Chili, is the north point of the bay or port uf Coquimbo, the other is call- ed Point Tortugas. — ii. NORFOLK, a populous maritime county of MaHa- chuletts, lately taken from the fouthern part of SuiTolk county, and lies to the fouthward around the town and harbour of Bofton. And contains 20 townfliips, of which Dedham is the feat of juftice. Number of inha- bit ints 24,280. — ii. Norfolk, a populous county of Virginia, bounded north by James's river, which divides it fmm Warwick, It contains 14,524 inhabitants, including 5.345 flaves. — ;'/'. NtiRroLK, a port of entry and port town and feat of juliice in the above county, on the eaft fide of Eli/.abeth liver, immediately below the confluence of the eallera branch. It is the moft confiderable commercial town in Virginia. The channel of the river is from 350 to 400 yards wide, and at common flood tides has 18 (cet water up to the town. Thchaibnur is iAe and com- modious, and iHrge enourrh to contain 300 fliips. It was burnt on the ift ol Janu.iry, 1776, by the Liverpool man of war, by order oi ;l;e Britilh governor Lord Diin- mnre; and the lol>. amounted to ^^,'300,000 fterling. It n I'v contains about 500 dwelling houfes, a court houfe, gaol, an cpifcop.il and nicthodift thiircli, a theatre, and and an academy, la 1790, it contained 2,959 inhabi- 4 O tants, NOR C 658 ] N O R Norfolk, tants, including 129+ (laves. The town is governed by a mayor and feveral aldermen. It carries on a bri& trade to the Weft-Indies, Europe and the different ■ dates, and conditutes, wiih Portfmouth, which ftands on the oppolkc fide of the river, a port of entry. The exports for one year, ending September 30th, 1794, .-imounted to 1,660,752 dollars. A canal, of 16 miles in lengih, is now catting from ihe north branch of Al- bemarle Sound in N. Carolina, to the waters of the S. branch of Elizabeth river. It will communicate with Elizabeth river y miles from Norfolk. Merchant veffels of the largelt fize may go within a mile from the mouth of the canal; and here, the water being frelh, tlie worm, which does fuch dam.Tge to vcliels in Norfolk and Ponfmouth, will not afFc-a them. It is 1 14 miles E.S. E. of Richmond, 54from WiUiamfbiirg, 30 N. E. of Suffolk, and 3S9 S. by VV. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 36 55, W. long. 76 28. — ii. Norfolk, a townlliip in Litchfield county, Connefli- cut, 15 miles north of Litclitield, on the ^Ial^achufetts line. — il>. NORM.\L, is ufed fometlmes for a perpendicular. NORMAN, Ciipe, on the well coaft of Newfound- land ifland, is on the gulf of St Lawrence, and the weflern entrance of the narrow bay of Mauco, 20 leagues from Cape Ferrol. N. lat. 31 39, W. long. 55 58. High water at full and change days at 9 o'clock. — Alone. NORONHA I/IunJ, FenlinanJo, in the S. Pacific Ocean, laid down in lat. 3 56 foutli, and long. 132 38 veil. Captain Cook, in his fecond voyage, looked for it in lone;, i \2 5, but did not find it. — ib. NORRIDGEWALK, or Norndseivock, a poft-town in Lincoln county, on Kennebeck river, Maine, incor- porated in 1788, and contains 376 inhabitants. It is 10 miles well of Canaan, 239 N. by E. of liollon, and 587 norlh-eall of Philadelphia. The Indian town of this name llood about 40 miles above Fort Halifax, ■where Kennebeck river, as you afcend it, after taking a fouth-wedward courfe, turns to the northward, and forms a point where the town flood. It was dellroyed by a party under Col. Harman, in 1724. — ib. NORRISTON, the principal town in Montgomery county, Pennfylvania, is about 20 miles N. W. of Phi- ladelphia, on the N. bank of the Schuylkill, liaving about 20 houfcs, a court houfe and jail, and a hand- fome edifice of Hone for the preiervation of records, and an obfcrvatory. This town was the relidence of that celebrated philof^pher and philanthropift. Dr. David RilUnhoufi. In his clfervcilory, near his manliun houfe, he was interred, agreeably to his requell, June, "1796. Plis tomb-done contains nothing but his name and the liraple record of the days and yeai s of his birth and dealh. " Here, (fays the elegant writer of his eulogy, Dr. Rujh) (hall the philofophers of future ages refort to do homage to his tomb, and children yet un- born fhall point to the dome which covers it, and ex- ultingly fay, " There lies our Rf"enhoufc" — ib. NORTHAMPTON, a large uneven county of Pennfylvania ; fuuated in the N. E. corner of the Hate on Delawiire river, which feparales it from the ftate of New jerfey and New York. It is divided into 27 lownftiips and contains 24,250 inhabitants. — ib. Northampton, a townftip in Buck's county, Penn- fylvdcia. — ib. Northampton, a town in Northampton county, Nonhamp- Pennfylvanii, on the S. W. bank of Lehigh river, 5 '""' or 6 miles S. W. of Bethlehem. — ib. Korth Northampton-, a county of Halifax diftridl, North Carolina. Carolina, bounded north by the ftate of Virginia, con- \-^n''>«»' taining 9,981 inhabitants, including 4,409 llaves. — ib. Northampton, a maritime county of Virginia, fitu- ated on the point of the peninfula, which forms the E. fide of the entrance into Chefapeak Bay. It has the ocean E. and Accomack county on the north. Its fouthern extremity is Cape Charles, in lat. 37 1 1 N. and long. 75 57 W. off which is the fmall ifland called Smith's Ifland. This county contains 6,889 inhabi- tants, including 3,244 flaves. The lands are low and fandy. — ib. Northampton Court Houfe, in the above county, wliere a poft-ofiice is kept, is 40 miles S. by W. of Accomack court houfe, 43 north-eaft of Norfolk, and 239 fouth of Philadelphia. — ib. Northampton, a refpeftable poft town and capital of Hampfhire county, Maffachufetts, fituated within a bend of Conneflicut river, on its \V. fide, 40 miles north of Hartford, in Conneifticut, and 100 weft of Bofton. It contains a fpacious congregational church, a court houfe, jail, and about 250 dwelling houfes, many cf which are genteel buildings. Its meadows are extenfive and fertile ; and it carries on a confider- able inland trade. This townlhip was incorporated in 1685, and contains 1,628 inhabitants. — ib. Northampton, a townlhip in Burlington county. New Jerfey, which contains about 56,000 acres, half of which is under improvement, the other half is moftly pine barren. The chief place of the townfliip is called Mount Holly. It contains about 1 50 houfes, an Epifcopal church, a Friend's meeting- houfe, and a market-houfe. It is 22 miles from Trenton, and 20 from Philadelphia. —ib. NORTH BO ROUGH, a townfliip in Worcefler county, Maffachufetts, formerly the northern part of Weftborough. It was incorporated in 1760, and con- tains 619 inhabitants. It is lomiles E. of Worcefter^ and 1,6 W. of Bofton. — ib. NbraTIBRIDGE,atownniipinWorcefter county, Maflachufetts, taken from Uxbridge, which bounds it on the S. It was incorporated in 1772, and contains 569 inhabitants. Blackftone river runs through this town. It is 12 miles S. by E. of Worcefter, and 45 S. W. of Bofton.—;/;. NORTH CAROLINA, one of the United States, i': bounded N. by Virginia ; E. by the Atlantic Ocean ; S. by S. Carolina, and VV. by the ftate of Tenneffee. It lies between 33 50, and 36 30 N. lat. and between 76 8 and 83 8 W. long, being about 450 miles in length, and 180 in breadth, containing about 34,000 fquare miles. The diftrids of this ftate are claffed in three divifions, viz. The Eajlern diftrifts, Edenlon, Neiu'jern and Wilmington — the Allddle diftridls, Fayette- ■ville, Hilljborough and Halifax — and the IVtJlern diftrifrs, Morgan and Salifiury. The eaftern diftriifls are on the fea-coaft, extending from the Virginia line fouthward to S. Carolina. Tlie five others covet the whole ftate, \V. of the maritime diftrids ; and the greater part of them extend acrofs the ftate from N. to S. Thefe diftrifls are fubdivided into 58 counties, which con- tained, in 1790, 393'75i inhabitaLts, of whom 100,571 wsrc NOR C ^59 ] NOR The chief rivers of N. Carolina are Cho- latte Uortl, were flaves. i he chiet nvtn ot N. tJaroima are Uho- latter is an evergreen, and is food for the cattle In Korth ^^I^^^^J^ wan and its branches, Roanoke, Tar, Neus, and Cnpe winter. The milVletoe is common in the ba-k coun'ry Carolina Fear or Clarendon. Moft of thefe and the fmaller This is a (hrub, which difiers in kind, peihaps, from " rivers have bars at their mouths; and the coaft fur- all others. It never grows out i.f the earth but "" the tops of trees. Tlie roots (if they may 1>- {o called) run under the ba.k of the tree, and incorporate wiUi the wood, li is an evergreen refembling the garden bux-wood. The late war, by whi.h i\. Carolina w.,s greatly injured, put a (lop to feveral iron works. There nifhes no good harbours except Cape Fear. There are two remarkable fuiamps in this (late, the one in Currituck county, the other on the line between this ftate and Virginia. The mod remarkable founds are Albemarle, Pamlico and Core Sounds — the capes. Lookout, Hatteras and Fear. Newbein is the largcft are four or five furnaces' in the ftate, that are in bla(l town in the (late ; the other towns of note are Edentun, and a proportionable number of forges. The weftera Wilmington, Halifax, Hillfborongh, Salilbury, and parts of this (late, which have been fettled within llie Fayettevilie; each of which have been, in their turns, la(l 40 years, are chieiiv inhabited by Prefbyterlans the feat of the general affembly. Raleigh, fituated from Penufylvania, the dcfcendants of people from the near the centre of the (l.ite, has lately been cftabhfhed north of Ireland, and are exceedingly attached to the as the metropolis. N. Carolina, in its whole width, doctrines, difcipline and ufages of the church of Scot- for 60 miles from the fea. is a dead level. A great land. They are a regular induftrious people. Tlie proportion of this traft lies in foreft, and is barren. Moravians liave feveral flourifhing fcttlements' in tlie On the banks of fome of the rivers, particularly of the upper part of this (late. The Friends or Ou.ikers liave Roanoke, the land is fertile and good. Interfperfed a iettlement in New-Gardcn in Guilford county, and through the other parts, are glades of rich fwamp.and feveral congregations at Perquimins and Pafquo'tank ridges of oak land, of a black, fertile foil. Sixty or The Methodirts and Baptids are numerous and increa' eighty miles from the fea, the country rifes into hills fmg. The general allcmbly of N. Carolina, in D:cem- and mountains, as in S. Carolina and Georgia. Wheat, ber 1789, palfed a law incorporating 40 gentlemen, c rye, barley, oats and flax, grow well in the back hilly from each dlftrift, as truftee* of the Univetfity of N. country. Indian corn and pulfe of all kinds, in all Carolina. The ftate has given handlbme donations for parts. Cotton and hemp are alio confiderably culti- the endowment of this feminary. The general a (fembly vatedhere, and might be raifed in much greater plenty, in December, 1 791, loaned j^\,cco to the trudees.to en- The cotton is planted yearly : the ftalk dies with the able them to proceed immediately with their buildings, froft. The labour of one man will produce icoo There is a very good .academy at Warrenton, another pounds in the feeds, or 250 fit for manufaduring. A at Williamlborough, in Granville, and three or four great proportion of the produce of the back country, others in the ftate, of confiderable note. North Caro- confifling of tobacco, wheat, Indian corn, &c. is carried lina has had a rapid growth. In tlie year i-io it con- to market in S. Carolina and Virginia. The fouthern tained but about 1200 fcncible men. In 1704. the interior counties carry their produce to Charlefton, and number was eftimaled at about jo,ooo. It is now the northern to Peterfburg, in Virginia. The exports in point of numbers, the fourth ftate in the Union. Br from the lower parts of the ftate, are tar, pitch, turpen- the conllitution of this ftate, which was ratified in De- tirie, rofin, Indian corn, boards, fcantling, ftaves, cumber, 179^;, all legiflative authority is vefted in two fliingles, furs, tobacco, pork, lard, tallow, bees-wa.x, dillind branches, both dependent on the pecple viz. a myrtle-wax, and a few other articles, amounting in the fenate and houfe of commons, "-hich, when convened year, ending September 30th, 1791,10 524,548 dollars, for bufinefs, are ftylcd the general alfembly. The Their trade is chieHy with the Weft Indies and the northern ftates. In the flat country near the fea-coaft,the inhabitants, during the fummer and autumn, are fub- je(51 to intermitting fevers, which often prove fatal, as bilious or nervous fymptoms prevail. The weftern hilly lenatc is compofed of reprefentatives, one from each county, ch. fen annually by ballot. The houfe of com- mons confifts of reprefentatives chofen in the fame way, 2 for each c;mnty, and one for each of the towns of Edenton, Newbern, Wilmington, Saliftjury, Hillf- parts of the ftate are as healthy as any part of A me- borough, Halifax, and Fayettevilie. Tl:e hiftory of rica. That country is fertile, full of fptings and rivu- North Caroliiia is lefs known than that of any other of lets of pure water. Autumn is very pleaiant, both in the ftates. From the beft accounts that liiftory affords regard to the temperature and ferenity of the weather, the firft permanent fcttlement in Noith Carolina was and the lichnefs and variety of the vegetable produc- made about the year 1710, by a number of PdUilnes lions, which the feafon affords. The winters are fo from Germany, who had been reduced to circumftances mild in fome years, that autumn may be faid to conti- o( great indigence, by a calamitous war. The infant nue till fpring. Wheat harveft is in the beginning of colony remained under the general government of South June, and that of Indian corn early in September. Carolina, till about the year 1729, when fcven ol the The large natural growth of ihc plains, in the low proprietors, for a valuable confideration, veiled their country, is almoft univerfiUy pitch pine, which is a tall liandfome tree, far fuperior to the pitch pine of the northern ftates. This tree may be called tlie (laple commodity of N. Carolina. It affords pitch, tar, tur- pentine, and various kinds cf lumber, which, together, property and jurifjiaion in the crown ; and the colonv was erefted into a fcparate province, by the name of North Can hna, and its pielcnt limits cftablilhed by an order of George 11. — ih. NORTH C.-\STLE, a townftiip of New York, In conftitute at leaft one hjlf ri the exports of this ftate. Weft Chcller county, north of Mount Pleafant, and the No country produces finer wliite and red oak for ftaves. Wliite Plains on the borders of Connciflicut. In i-go The fwampi abound with cyprefs and bay ti»es. The it contained 2,478 inliabitants. In 1796, there were 40; ' ,-, North Cart]?. NOR C 660 ] NOR Norih- £aft, II North Kingf- town. 173 of the inliabitants qualified eleflois. It is 10 miles from Wliite Plains, and 20 from Ridgeticld in Connec- ticut. — ib. NORTH-EAST, a fmuU river which empties in at the head of Chefnpeak B.iy, about five miles below ' Charleftown ; only n iticeable for the quantity of her- rincjs caught in it. — ib. NOin'H-E.-\ST-TOWN, a townthip in Dutchefs county, New- York, about 90 miles N. of New-York city ; between Rhynbeck and Connedicut well line. In 1790, it contained 3,401 inhabitants. In I7<;6, there were in it yji qualified eleflors. — ib. NORTH-EDISTO Inki, on the coaft of S. Caro- lina, is n miles irom Stono Inlet, and 3 E. N. E. from South Edillo — ib. NORTHFIELD, a townfliip in Orange county, Vermont, between 20 and 30 miles W. of Newbury, in the W. part of the county. — ib. NoRTHFiELD, a thriving townlhip, in the N. part of H.implhire cnuiity, M-ilHichufetts ; filuated on the E. fide ot Connedicut river, 30 miles N. of Northampton, 100 N. W. by W. of Boltcn. It contains 868 inhabi- tants. The town was incorporated in 1673, ^"'' fome years after defolated by the Indians. The inhabitants returned again in 1685, but it was foon after dellroyed a fecond time. In 17 13 it was again rebuilt, and one third of the townfliip was taken off, and incorporated by the n.ime of Hinfdale. Fort Dummer was in the vici- nity of this town. — lb. NoRTHFiELD, 3 fmall town in Rockingham county, New Hamplhire, taken fiom Canterbury, on the E. flde of Merrimack river, and incorporated in 1780. It contains 606 inhabitants. — ib. NoRTHFiELD, a townlhip in Richmond county, Staten Ifland, New Yoik, containing 1021 inhabitints, including 133 qualified electors, and 133 llaves. — ib. NORTH HAMPTON, a townlhip uf New Hamp- fhire, in R'ckingliam county, which contains 657 inha- bitants, taken irom Haraptoo and incorporated in 1742. — ib. NORTH-HAVEN, a townfliip of Connefticut, fitu- ated in New-Haven county, on the E. fiJe of E.»ft river, 8 miles N. by E. of New-Haven, and 32 S. by W. of Hartford. It was fettled in 1660 by 35 men, prin- cipally from Siybror.k. This town is the birth-place of that learned, pious and excellent man, Dr Ezra Stiles late prelident of Yale college. — ib. NORTHHEMPSTEAD, a townlhip in Queen's county, Long-Iiland, New York, bounded ealterly by Oyfter Bay, northerly by the found, and fouh by South Hempllead. In 1790, it crntained 2696 inha- bitants, of whom 507 were flaves. In 1796, 232 of the inhabitants weie qualified eleftors. The foil is but indifferent. — ib. NORTH-HUNTINGTON a townfliip in Wefl- morel-ind county, Pennl'ylvania. — ib. NORTH Ifland. on the coaft < f S. Carolina, lies on the north fide of Winyah harbour — ib. NORTHLINED Lake, in N. America, i^ about 160 miles S. <if ths head of Chellerfield Inl t ; is full ot illands, and aho.it 80 miles long, and 25 broad. — ib. NORTH KINGSTOWN, a town in Wafhicgt-.a county, Rhode Uland, which carries on a confiderable trade in the filheries, befides fome to the Well Indies. Its harbour is calkd Wickford, on the weft fide of Narraganfet bay, oppofite the north end of Canonnicut Nurth Ifl.ind. It is about 8 miles north-weft of Newport, and Mountain, 20 foutherly of Providence. The townfliip contains j^ ,h m. 2,907 inliabitants. — ib. bcrland NORTH MOUNTAIN, one of the ridges cf the v-^-v^- Allegany Mountains, which extends through Virginia and Pennfylvania. There is a curious fyphon foun- tain in Virginia, near the interfeilion of lord Fairfax's boundary with the North Mountain, not far from Brock's Gap, on the flream of which is a grift mill, which grindb two bulhels cf grain at every flood of the fprine. — ib. NORTHPORT, a townfliip in Hancock county^ Diflrift of Maine, taken from the northerly part of Duck Trap Plantation, and incorporated in 1796. — ib. NORTH REEF, off the ilknd of St Domingo, in the Weft-Indies, lies in lat. 20 33 N. and long. 69 12 Vf.—ib. NORTH RIVER, in Maffachufetts, for its fize, is remarkable for its depth of water, being in fome places not more than 40 or 50 feet wide, yet vcll'els of 300 tons are built at Pembroke, and defcend to Maffachu- fetts Bay, 18 miles diftant, as the river runs. It rifes in Indian Head Pond, in Pembroke, and runs a ferpen- tine courfe between Scituate and Marflifield. The liver is navigable for boats to the firft fall, 5 miles from- its fource. Thence to the neareft waters which run into Taunton river, is only three miles. A canal to conned the waters of thefe two rivers, which commu- nicate with Narraganfet and Maffachufetts bays, would be of great utility, as it would fave a long and danger- ous navigation round Cape Cod. — ib. North River, a very confiderable river of New Mexico, in North America, which rifes in the north part of it, and direfts its courfe to the S. E. and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, at the W. end, in about lat. 26 I 2 north. — ib. North River, a branch of Fluvanna river, in Vir- ginia. — ib. NORTH SALEM, a townfliip in Weft Chefter county, New York, bounded foutherly by Salem, eaft- erly by Connedlicut, northerly by Dutchefs county, and wefterly by the middle of Croton river. In 1790, it contained 1058 inhabitants, including 58 flaves. In 1796, 162 ot the inhabitants were qualified eledors. — ib. NORTH SOUND POINT is the projefling point of land on the N. E. fide of the ifland of Antigua, in the Weftlndits, and is about S. S. E. from Long Ifland.— (7>. NORTHUMBERLAND, a town in Grafton county, New Hamplhire, fiiuated on the E. fide of C'nneiflicut river, at the m ■>uth of the Upper Amonoo- fuck. It was incorporated in 1779, and contains 117 inhabitants. — ib. Northumberland, a county of Pennfylvania, boundeJ N. by Lycoming, S. and W. by Dauphin and MifHiii touniies. It is divided into i6 townlhips, and in 1790 contained 17,161 inhabitants. The county of Lyc'.m.ng has fiuce the ccufus been lately taken from it, but the county is fi'ppofed to coatain nearly as many ii habitants as befoie; a great number of people having emigrated to this part ct the ftate. Chief town, Sun- bury — ib. Northumberland, a flourifhing port town in the above county, lltuaced on the £oiac of land formed by Norway. NOR I 66 Northum- the jundlion of the E. and W. branches of the Sulque- bcrland, hannah. It is laid out regularly, and contains about 120 houfes, a Pietbyteiian church, and an academy. It is 2 miles N. by W. ot Sunbury, and 124 N. W. by W. of Philadelphia.— ;i. NoRTHUMBLRLAND, a couuty of Virginia, bounded E. by Chefapeak Bay, and W. by Richmond. It c^n- tains 9,163 inhabitants, including 4,460 Haves. The courth'aile, where a poll office is kept, is 12 miles from Kinfale, 18 from Lancafter courthoufe, 86 from Erederickfburg, and 317 from Pliiladelphia. — 1/>. NORTH-WALES, a town of Caroline county, Virginia, on Pamunky river, about 2 miles below the juniftion cf N. and S. Anna branches. — it, NORTH-WEaT River, a branch of Cape Fear, or Clarendon river, in N. Camlina. It is formed by the juncflion of Haw and Deep rivers; and it is 300 yards wide at Alliwood, 80 or 90 miles above the Capes ; even when the ifream is low, and withm its banks. On the weft lide of this river, about 40 miles above Alhwood, in the banks of a creek, 5 or 6 feet below tlie fandy furface, are to be feen, pnjeifling out many feet in length, trunks of trees entirely petrified. — /i. NORTHWOOD, an interior and elevated townfliip in Rockingham county, New-Hamp(hire, in which, and on its borders, are a number of fmall ponds, vhofe waters teed Pifcacaqua and Suncook rivers. It was incorporated in 1773; contains 744 inhabitants, and is about 39 nules north-well of Portfmouth. Cryllals and cryllalline fpars are found here. — 16. NORTH-YARMOUTH, a poft-town of the Dif- tri(5t of Maine, in Cumberland county, on a fmall river which falls into Cafco Bay. It is 17 miles W. by S. of Brunfwick, 14 north of Portland, and 140 E. of Bofton. The townlhip is extenfive, was incor- porated in 1713, and contains 1,978 inhabitants. Cuf- fen's river divides it ffom Freeport on the N. E. — ii. NORTON, a townftiip in Elfex county, Vermont, fituated on the Canada line, having Canaan eall, and Holland on the welt — ili. Norton, a townfhip of MalTachnfetts, fituated in Brillol county, and 33 mile» foulhward of Bofton. It was incorporated in 171 i, and contains 1428 inhabi- tants. The annual amount of the nail manufaiflure here is not lefs than 300 tons. There is alio a manu- fai51urc of ochte which is found here, fimilar to that at Taunton. — ii. Norton, a fettlement on the north-eaft coaft of Cape Breton Ifland. — /''. Norton's Sound, on the N. \V. co.ifl c^{ N. America, extends iVom Cape Darby on the N. N. W. to Cape Denbigh, or Cape Stephen's on the S. or S. E. N. lat. 64 50. — /■/'. NORWALK, a ple.ifant poft-town in Fairfield county, Couneifticut, fituated on the north fide of I^iOng-lfland Smmd. It contains a Congregational and an Epifcop il church which are neat edifices, and be- tween 40 and 50 compaiS hMile?. It is 13 miles W. by S. of F-, rficld, 34 S. W. by W. of New-Haven, 54 N. E. cf New Yoik, and 149 from Philadelphia. N. lat. 41 9, W. long. 73 47. The tawnfiiip is fituat- ed in a t itle wheat country, and was fettled in 1651. Here are iri n-wrks and a number of mills. It has a fmall trade to New York and the Weft-Indies. — ib. I ] NOT NORWAY, a townfhip of New York, in Herkemer Norway, county, incorporated in 1792. By the State cenfua of P 1796, it contained 2,164 inhabitants, of whom lSl\Jt^^^-^ were eleftors. — ib. Norway, a new townfiiip in Cumberland ccunty, Diftiifl of Maine, incorporated 179". — ih. NORWICH, a conliderable t .wnfiiip in Windfor county, Vermont, on the weft fide of Connecticut li- ver, oppofite to Dartmouth college. It contains j 158 inhabitants. — ib. Norwich, a townfliip in Hampfhire county, MalTa- chufetts, 24 miles S. W. of Northampton, and 114 weft of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1773, and contains 742 inhabitants. — ib. Norwich, a city and poft town of Conneflicut, and of tlie fecond rank in New London county, fituated at the head of navigation on Thames river, 14 miles noith of New London, and 40 S. E. of Hartford. This commercial city has a rich and extenfive back country; and avails itfelf of its happy fituation on * navigable river, which affords a great number of con- venient feats for m.ills, and water machines of all kind?. The inhabitants manufaiflure paper of all kinds, ftock- ings, clocks and watches, chaifes, buttons, ftone and earthen ware, oil, chocolate, wire, bells, anchors, and all kinds of fnrge-work. The city contains about 450 dwel!ing-houfe!>, a court houfe, and two churches for Congreg-itionalifts, and one for Epifcopalians, and about 3000 inhabitants. The city is in three detached, compaft divifions, viz. Chelfea, at the landing, the Town, and Bean Hill ; in the latter divifion is an aca- demy, and in the town is an endowed fchool. The courts of law are held alternately at New London and Norwich. This t^wn was fettled in i66c, by 35 men, principally from Saybrook. It is 251 miles N. E. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 41 34, W. long. 72 29. — ib. Norwich, a townfliip in Tioga county, N;w Yc rk, taken from the towns of Jericho and Union, and incor- porated in 1793. It is fettled principally by people from ConneiSicut ; is bounded fnutherly by Oxford, and lies 55 miles weft of Cherry Valley. By the Slate cenfiis of 1796, 129 of its inhabitants were eledors. — //'. NOTCH, The, a pafs in the weftern part of the WHiite Mountains, in New Hampfliire ; the narrowed part cf which is but 22 feet wide, between two per- pendicular rocks. It is 25 miles from the Upper Coos. From the height above it a brook delcends, and mean- ders through a meadow, foimerly a beaver pond. Ic is (urrounded by rocks, which, on one fide, are per- pendicular, and on the others, rife in an angle of 45- degree-s a ftrikliigly piifturefque fcene. Tills defile was known to the Indians, who fotmerly led their captives tlirough it to Canada ; but it had been forgotten or neglecfled, till the year 1771. when two hunters palfed through it. There is a road this way now to the Up- per Coos. — ib. Notch, Cape, is the W. point of G^odluck Bay, in the Straits of Magellan. S. lat. 53 33, W. long. 74 34— '/'■ NOTTAWAY, a fmall river of Virginia, which runs E. by S. and receives Black ^Vater on the line of N. Carolina; thence purfuing a S. by W. courfe of about 10 miles, it joins the Meherrin ; the confluent ftream then afiumes the name of Chowan river, and em^jties ioto Albemailc Sound. — ib, NOTT./t(v N O X C 662 ] N U E Notfaway, II Noxan. NoTTAWAV, a county of Virginia, bounded N. and N. W. by Amelia, from which it was taken in the year 1788. — ih. NOTTINGHAM, a townfliipin Rockingham coun- ty, Ne\v-H;implliire, 14 miles N. of Exeter, and 25 N. W. of Ponfmouth. It was incorporated in 1722, and contains io6S inhabitants. — ib. Nottingham, JVefi, a townlhip in Hillfborough county, New-Hanipfliire, ficuated on the E. fide of Merrimack liver; was incorporated in 1746, and con- t,iins 1064 inhabitants. It has Maflachufetts line for its fouthern boundary, which divides it from Dracut, and is about 45 miles N. N. W. of Bollon. — ib. Nottingham, a townfliip in Chefter county, Penn- fylvania. — ib. Nottingham, the moft northern town of Burling- ton county, New Jcrfey, fitnated on the eaftern bank of Delaware river, between Bordentown and Trenton. —ib. Nottingham, a town in Prince George's county, Miryland, fituated on Patuxent river, nearly 16 miles north-eafterly of Pifcataway and 20 S. E. of the Fe- deral City. — ib. NOXAN, or Noxonton, or N(,s-Town, a town of New- NueTO. Caftle county, Delaware, 2 1 miles north of Dover, Kutlada, and 9 S. by S. W. of St George's town. — ib. NUBLADA, an ifland in the Pacific Ocean, with ^ 3 fmall ones north of it and near to it, W. by S. of Cape Coiientcs, on the coalf of Mexico, and eaft of Roco Ponida. N. lat. 16 40, W. long. 122 30. — ib. NUCHVUNK, a place in New-Britain, the refort of Walruffes, in winter ; with the teeth of thefe ani- mals the Indians head their darts. Lnt. 60 north. — ib, NUEL, or Newel, the upright port about which flairs turn, being that part of the ftaircafe which fuf- tains one end of the fteps. NUESTRA Scnora di la Pat, an epifcopal fee and town of Peru, in S. America. S. lat. 17 10, W. long. 64. — Morse. Ni;i;sTRA Senora tie la Vitloria, a town of Mexico. N. lat 18, W. long. 92 35. — ib. NUEVO Baxo, a bank called by the Britifli the New Bear, being about 32 leagues fouth of the weft end of the ifland of Jamaica, in lat. 15 57 north. It has a key, 2 cables length long and ly broad; (Iretching E. by N. and W. by S. The Britilh find this a good ttation in a Spmifli war, as moll fliips come this way from the Spanilh Main, going to the Havannah. — ib. o. Oachate, o , ACHATE Harbour, near the fouth point of Ulietea, one of the Society Iflands, in the S. Oakmulgce p_jj.j6c Ocean, N. W. of Otaheite. S. lat. 16 ss> weft long. 151 24. — Morse. OAHAHA, a river of Louifiana, which empties in- to the MidiiTippi from the N. W. in lat. 39 10 north, and 7 miles north of Riviere au Beuf. — ib. OAHOONA, one of tlie Ingraham Ifles, which is faid to be the northernmoll of all this clufter. It lies about 10 leagues nonheaft of Nooheeva. To this ifland Capt. Roberts gave the name of Majfachufells. Capt. Ingraham had before called it WaJInngton. — ib. OAITIPIHA or Aitepcha Bay, fituated near the north-eaft end of the lelTer peninfula of the ifland of Otaheite, has good anchorage in 12 fathoms. S. lat. 17 46, weft long. 149 14. — ib. OAK Bay, or the Devil's Head, in the Bay of Fun- dy, is 9 leagues S. S. E. of Moofe Ifland. It is very high land, and may be feen at 10 or 13 leagues dif- tance. — ib. Oak IJlattd, a long narrow ifland on the coaft of N. Carolina, which with Smith's Ifland forms the S. W. channel of Cape Fear river — ib. OAKHAM, a townfliip in Worcefter county, Maf- fachufetts; 15 miles north-weft of Worcefter, and 62 weft of Bollon. It was incorporated in 1762, and contains 772 inhabitants. — ib. OAKMULGEE River is the fouthern great branch of the beautiful Alatamaha, in Georgia. At the Oak- mulgee Fields it is about 300 or 400 yards wide. Thele rich and fertile fields are on the eaft fide of the river, above the confluence of the Oconee with this ri- ver ; thefe two branches are here about 40 miles apart. Here are wonderful remains of the power and grandeur of the ancients of this part of America, confifting of the ruins of a capital town and fettlement, vaft artifi- cial hills, terraces, &c. — ib, OASIS, (plur. Oases), a fertile fpot in the midft of a fandy defart. In the Sahara, or Great Defart of Africa, there are many Oafes of extreme fertility. OATARA, a fmall woody ifland on the fouth-eaft of Ulietea Ifland, in the S. Pacific Ocean ; between 3 and 4 miles from which to the north-weft are two other fmall iilands in the fame direflion as the reef, of which they are a part. — Morse. OBED's River, in Tenneflee, runs fouth-wefterly into Cumberland river 290 miles from its m^uth, by the courfe of the ftream. Thus far Cumberland river is navigable for large veffels. — ib. OBION, a navigable river of Tenreflee, which runs fouth-wellerly into the MitfilTippi, 24 miles foutherly of Reelfoot rivers. It is 70 yards broad, 17 miles from its mouth. — ib, OBITEREA, an ifland 100 leagues S. of the So- ciety Iflands. S. lat. 22 40, W. long. 150 jo. It contains no good anchorage, and the inhabitants are averfe to the intrufion of ftrangers. — ib. OBLATE, flatted or fliortened ; as an oblate fphe- roid, having its axis fhorter than its middle diameter; being formed by the rotation of an ellipfe about the fhorter axis. OBLIQI.TE ASCENSION, is that point of the equi- noAial O C G C 663 ] O D O Occoquan. noiflial which rifes with the centre of the fun, or ftar, or any other point of tlie heavens, in an oblique , fphere. Obli£wf C'lrclt, in the ftereogiaphic projeflion, is any circle that is oblique to the plane of projeftion. OmiiiUE Defcenjion, that point of the equinoctial whicli fets with the centre of the fun, or ftar, or other point of the heavens, in an oblique I'phere. OsLiQUE Fore:, or PcrcuJJion, or Po'ujer, or Slrcie, is that made in a dlreilion oblique to a body or plane. It is deniondrated, that the e£Fedl of fuch oblique furce, Sec. upon the body, is to an equal perpendicular one, as the (ine of the angle of incidence is to radius. OBLONG spMEKoiD, is that which is formed by an ellipfe revolved about its longer or tranlveife axis ; in contradilf indtion from the ol/att fpheroid, or that which is flatted at its poles, being generated by the revolution of the ellipfe about its conjugate or Ihoiter axis. OBSERVATORY, port.ible. See Astrono- my, n° 504, Encycl. OCCIDENT equinoctial, that point of the ho- rizon where the fun fets, when he crolles the equinoc- tial, or enters the fign Aries or Libra. OcciDF.KT Eftival, that point of the horizon where the fun fets at his entrance into tlie fign Cancer, or in our fummer when the days are longeft. Occident Hybenial, that point of the horizon where the fun fets at midwinter, when entering the fign Ca- pricorn. OCCO.'\, or Ocoa, a bay on the fouth fide of the ifiand of St Domingo, into which fall the fmall rivers Sipicepy and Ocoa. It lies eaft of Neybe or Julienne bay, and is bounded fouth-callward by Point Salinas, and wedward by the call point at the mouth of Bya river. Spanifli fhips of war anchor in this bay. Point Salinas is 22 leagues weft of the city of St Domingo. — Mors:. OccoA, a bay near the eaft end of the ifiand of Cuba, in the windward paflage, about 20 miles call of Guan- tanamo Bay. — ib. OCCOCHAPPO, or Bear-Crcch, in the Georgia Weftern Territory, empties thiou^h the S. W. bank of Tennefiee river, juft beluw the inufcle flmals. There is a portage of otily about 50 miles from this creek to the navigable waters of Mobile river. The mouth of this creek is in the centre ot a piece of ground, the diameter of which is 5 miles, ceded by the fouth- ern Indians to the United States for the ellablilhnient of trading ports. — ib. OCCONEACHEY IJlandt, two long narrow iflands nt the head I'f Roanoke river, in Virginia, jull below where the Staunton and Dan unite and form that river. — /■*. OCONA Port, on the coafl of Peru, on the South Pacific Ocean, is 1 1 leagues N. W. of Quilca, and a bold coaft, and 14 leagues S. E. of Attico. — ib. OCONEE, the north main branch of Alatamaha river, Georgia. It is, in many places, 250 yards wide. Its banks abound with oak, adi, mulberry, liic- kory, black-walnut, elm, faifafras, &c. — ib. Oconee T'jiun lies on the eaft hank of the river cf Us name in Georgia ; about 26 miles weft-north-wcft cf Golphington, and 62 weft by north of Augufta. — ib. OCCOQT-TAN, a river in Virginia which, after a fliort courfe, empties into Paiowmac river, at High Point, 5 miles below Colchefter. — ib. OCRECOCK Inlet, on the coaft of N. Carolina, leads into Pamlico Sound, and out of it into Albemarle Sound, through which all velicls muft pafs that are bound to Edenton, Wafliington, Bath, or Newbern. It lies in lat. ^^ 10 N. A bar of hard find erodes the inlet, on which is 14 feet water at low tide. The land on the norih is called Ocrecock, that on the fouth Portfmouth. Six miles within the bar, there is a hard fand fhoal which crofl'es tlie channel called the SwafU. On each fide of the channel are dangerous llioals, fometinies dry. Few mariners, however well acquaint- ed witii the inlet, choofe to go in without a pilot ; as the bar olten iliitts during their abfcnce on a voyage. It is about 7^ leagues foulh-weft \ weft of Cape Hat- teras. — ib. OCTANT, the eighth part of a circle. ODD, in arithmetic, is faid of a number that is not even. The feiies of odd numbers is 1,3, 5, 7, &c. ODDLY-ODD. A number is faid to be oddly-odd, when an odd number meafures it by an odd number. So 15 is a number oddly-odd, becaufe the odd number 3 meafures it by the odd number 5. ODOUR, that quality of certain bodies which ex- cites the fenfation of fmell. In the Jnn.iles ds Chimic, Vol. XXI. p. 254, we have a detailed account of cer- tain experiments made by M. Benedict Prevoll of Ge- neva, with a view to render the emanixtio^is of cdorant bodies perceptible to fight. The account is by much too long for a work like ours ; efpecially as we feel nut our- felves inclined to attribute to the experiments all the importance which feems to have been allowed to them by the firft clafs of the French National Inftitute. We fliall therefore ftate only a few of them, which feem moft to favour the author's hypothefis. 1. A concrete odorant fubftance, laid up-^n a wet glafs or broad faucer, covered with a thin ftratum of water, immediately caufes the water to recede, fo as to form a fpace of feveral inches around it. 2. Fragments of concrete odorant matter, or fmall morfels of paper or cork, impregnated with an odorant liquor, and wiped, being placed on the furface of w.i- ter, are immediately moved by a very (wift rotation. Romicu had made this obfervation on camphor, and er- roneoufly attributed the effeift to eleftiicity. The mo- lion was perceptible even in pieces of camphor oi feven or eight gros. 3. An odoiant liquor being poured on the water, ftops the motion till it is dilfipated by evaporation. Fixed oil arrefts the motion for a much longer time, and until the pellicle it forms on the water is taken off. 4. When the furface of the water is cleaned by a leaf of metal, of paper, or of glafs, plunged in and withdrawn fucceirively until the pellicle is removed, the gyratory motion is renewed. If a piece of red wax or of taper be dijiped in water, and the drops fhakcn oflf into a glafs of water containing odorant bodies in mo- tion, the movement will be ftopped. The fame effeA is not produced by metal. 5. A morfel of camphor, plunged to the depth of three or four lines in water, without floating, excites a movement of trepidation in t!ie furrounding water, which repels {inall bodies in its vicioity, and carries tbcm O D O C 664 ] O D O ojour. them atr^in to the camphor hj ftarts. The author folving camphor refides at that part where both the Odour. '^''^'^'^ concludes, that an elaltic fliiij efcapes from the (do- air and the water touch the camphor at the fame time. ^-^'^^'^ rant body in tlie manner of the tire of a fufee or the Hence he explains why, in like circumftances, camphor <lifchart;e of fire-arms. ev.iporaies more quickly in a moill than in a dry air; 6. When there is a certain propoilinn between the and why the Hollanders ufe water in their procel's for height of the water, and tlijt ot the fm dl fragment of fubliming this fubllance. camphor, the water is briflcly driven iff, returns again It might be thought that the camphor was decom- to the camphor, and agam retires, as if by an explofion, pofed at the fuiface of the water ; that the w.ucr might the recoil of which often caules the camphor to make ft;ize the acidifying part, which renders the camphor part of a revolution on its axis. concrete; and that the volatile part is ditllpated in the 7. Camphor evaporates thirty or forty times more atmol'phere. The author rtjeds this notion. He fpeedily when placed upon water, than when entirely thinks that water with camphor floating on its furface (urrounded with air. 8. Camphor, during the aft of dilTipation in the air, preferves its form and its opaque whitenefs ; upon wa- ter it is rounded, and becomes tranlpatent as if it had becomes cliarged with no more than a very fmall por- tion : I. BfCaufe in thefe circumftances the water ac- quires the farne tafle and Imell of camphor as it ob- tains when a fmall quantity of this fubflance is kept undergone a kind of iulion. It may be inferred, that plunged in the fame fluid. This water, by expofure to this ari.es from the acquired motion, which caufes it to the air, lofes the qualities with which it had been char- prefent a greater furface to the air. ged, and becomes infipid, and without fmell. 2. Be- 9. When Imall pieces of camphor are plimged in wa- caufe when the water is faturated with all it can take ter, the camphor becomes rounded and tranfparent, up, the diffipation of the camphor continues at its fur- does not acquire any motion, and its diffipation is lefs face as before. 3. Becaufe the aerial emanations of perceptible th in in the air. The concurrence of air camphor made at the furface of water do themfelves and water is therefore necelFary to difengage the fluid cryftallize into camphor. which is the caufe of the motion and total difllpation Camphor at the furface of the water does nothing, of odorant bodies. therefore, but dilTolve ; and when dilfolved at the ordi- 10. The motion of odorant bodies upon water decays nary temperature of the atmofphere, it is not at firft ia and ceafes fpontaneoufly at the end of a certain time ; the ftate "f vapour, as has been thought. It is fimplf becaufe the water having then contraifled a ftrong fmell, a liquid which extends itfelf over the furface of water the volatilization takes place in all the points of its fur- itfelf; and by this means coming into contaft with a face ; and the fmall mafs being thus furrounded by the great furface of air, it is afterwards abforbed and eva- odorant fluid, which ts no longer air, diflblves, as in porated. This is proved by the following faffs : i.The the ordinary odorant fluid', without forming the ga- folution of camphor at the furface of water is more ra- feous jet which is the caufe of the motion. The au- pid in proportion to the extent of the furface. In nar- thor compares the volatilization of the aromatic fub- row veifels, the fefti' n of the column would not be llance to a combuftion excited by water. completed in ten days, even though the water might be M. Prevoll hopes, that thefe and other experiments extremely pure. 2 When the column of camphor has which he explains, will contribute to the theory of pr. jcifling parts, the liquid may be feen ifluing by pre- odours, which fo nearly refembles that of the gafs. ference from certain points of the column, covering the He does not flatter himfelf with having exhaufled this furtace of the water, and driving fmall floating bodies fubjeift, but confidcrs his difcoveries as the means of before it, in the fame manner as floating bodies go and rendering odour perceptible by water, not only to the retu:n in a bafon into which the water of a canal enters fight but even to the touch, as are likewife the vibra- wiih rapidity. 3. Ifafmall piece of camphor, already tions of fonorous bodies. Men deprived of the fenfe wetted at one end, be brought near the edge of water of fmell, and even the blind, according to him, may in contained in a broad faucer, and be made to touch the this manner diftinguilh odorant bodies irom thofe which faucer itfelf, it depofits a vifible liquor, which is oily | have no fmell. " Perhaps ( f lys he ) this kind of odo- and by attacning itfelf to the faucer, deffroys the adhe- rofcope may, by improvement, become an odorimeter. fion between the velfel and the border of the water, fo The exceptions, fuch for example as that of the ceru- thai the water retires on account of the affinity of ag- men of the ears, which produces much efFefl on water giegalion, which not being oppofed by the attr^flion without being perceptibly odorant, and that of the of the faucer, caufes the water to terminate in a round fingers when hot or moilf, are merely apparent ; for if edge. If you remove the piece of camphor, the water our fenfes do not in thofe cafes difcover odour, thofe of will not return to its place until the oily fluid is evapo- auimals more powerfully energetic, fuch as the dog, rated. 4. In the fame manner, when the column of perceive and dillinguifh individuals by its peculiar cha- camphor is half immerfed in the water, the oily liquor rafter. The odorofcope may afford the information which ilfues forth dellroys the adhefion of the water to which is wanting relpefting thefe effluvia. Thus it is the C(>kimn, and produces a fmall furrounding cavity, that the fat of game, the fmell of which is nearly to us The folution flops, or is retarded for a moment, until imperceptible, is very much fo to dogs, and exhil its the fluid, exiending itfelf over the water, becomes eva- fenllble marks by the odorofcope." porated : the water then returns to its place, and touch- ProfelFor Venturi of Modena, who heard Prevoft's es the fame part of the camphor ; the folution begins memoir read in the National Inftitute, had himfelf made again, and in this manner the procefs is effcfted by al- fome experiments with camphor kept feparately in the ternations of contaft and apparent repulfion. air, in the water, and at the furface of the wa'er; Of thefe memoirs by Prevoft and Venturi, the Eng. whence he deduces, that the moll aftive virtue for dif- lifh reader will find accurate and full tranflations in the &tft O E C [ 66s ] O E C firfl volume of Nkholfon^ rlnlofophkal Journal, toge- ther with f ime judicious obfervacions on them by the editor, which we (hall take the liberty tu adopt. "The philofophical coufideration oi odorant bodies is fome- what obfcured by the old method of generalifing, or referring the properties of bodies to fome diftind prin- ciple or thing fuppnfed capable of being feparated from the body itfelf. Thus the odours of bodies have been fuppofed to depend on a fubftance imagined in a 1 oofe way to be common to them all and feparable from them. Hence the terms, principle of fmell, fpiritus reftor, and even in the modern nomenclature we find aroma. There does not in efFed fcem to be any more reafon to infer the exiftence of a common principle of fmcll than of tade. The fmell of ammoniac is the aflion of that gas upon the organ of fenfe ; and this odorant invlfible matter is exhibited to the fight when combined with an acid gas. But in the fam: minaer as ammoniac em.i- nates from water, and leaves mod part of that fluid be- hind, fo will the volatile parts of bod es be mjll emi- nently productive of ths aflion ; and very few, if any, natural bodies will be found which rife totally. The moil llriking circumilance in the effeil is, th it an ail of fuch power fljould be attended with a lofs by exha- lation which is fcarcely to be appreciated by weight, or in any other method during a fhort interval of time. But we know fo little of nervous acflion, and of other phenomena of eleiflricity, of galvanifm (fee Galva- nism in this Suppl.) or even of heat, which ftrongly affeifl the fenfes, but elude admeafurenisnt by gravita- tion, that the difficulty of weighing the effluvia of odo- rant bodies become.! lefs aftondhing." CECONOMISTS, a ka of phil .fophers in France, who have made a great noife in Europe, and are gene- rally believed to have been unfriendly to religion. The founder of this fed was a Dr Duquefnai, who had lb well infinuated himfelf into the favour of Louis XV. that the king ufed to call him his iktnker. The left was called coconomiJIs, becaufe the ceconomy and order to be introduced into the finances, and other means of alleviating the diftrelT.s of the people, were perpetually in their mouths. The Abbe Barruel admits, that there may have been foms few of them • Iio direded their fpecnl.itions to no other objed ; at he brings very fafficier.t proof that the great i. .1 of the majority of the fed was to eradicate from the minds ot the people nil reverence for divine revelation. •• Duquefnai (fays he) and his a Je, ts had more ef- pecially undertaken to pcrfurde their readers, that the country people, and mechanics in towns, were entirely deftitute of th it kind of inftiudi"n necelfary for their profelFionj ; that men of thia clafs, unable to acquire knowledge by reaJing, pined aw.iy in an ignorance cqu.illy fatal to theiiifelvei and to the ftite ; that it was necelfiry to eRabliih free fchiol-, and paiticulaily through 'ut the country, where children niigh: be brouj^ht up to d fferent trades, and inflruiled in tlie p inciples of agriculture. D'Alemb.rt, and the Vol- tai-.ein adepts, fo .11 perceived the advantages they could iv.ap fiom thefe ellablilhnien'.s. In union with the ce:o. nomiils.they prefented various m.-moriils to Lonib XV. in which n.it only tlie temporal but even the fpiiitual aJvantiges of fuch cdabi Ihni.nli for the people, are lii.inj;ly urged. The king, who really loved the people, embraced the pr jed wiili warni'.h. He opened his i;ui'rL. \'oL. II. mind on the fubjed to Mr Bcrtin, whom he Iionoured with hi;, confidence, and had entrufted with his privy purfe ;" and it was with great dilliculty that this miniller could convince him of the dangerous defigns of the fed. " Determined (fays he) to give the kinj, pofit ve proot that the cccon imifts impofed up m him, I fought to gain the confidence of thofe pedlars who travel through the country, and expofe their goods to fale in the villages, and at the gates of country feats. I fuf- peded thofe in particular who dealt in books to be no- thing lefs than the agents of philofiphifm wiih the good country folks. In my excurfions into the coun- try I fixed my attention above all on the latter. When they offered me a book to buy, I qtiellioned them what might be the books they had I Probably catechifms or prayer-book:,? Few others are read in the villages.' Ac tiieie words I have ksn m.uiy fmile. N) they anfvver- ed, thofe are not our works; we make much more money of Voltaire, Diderot and other philofophic wri- ting'.. What? laid I ; the country pe iplj buy Voltaire and Diderot ? Where do they find the money f jr fueh dear works ? Their condant anfwer was, we have them at a much cheaper rate than prayer-books ; we can fell them at ten foli (jd.) a volume, and have a pretty pro- fit into the bargain. Qjieftioning fome of them fiill farther, many of them owned that thofe books colt them nothing ; that they received whole bales of them without knowing whence they came, but being fimply defired to fell them in their journeys at the lowell priCe.'' " Louis XV. warned by the difcovery made by his mini tier, was at length fa'.isfied that the eflablilhmenc ot thefe fcnools, fo much urged by the confpirators, would only be a new inllrument ot fedudi in i.i their hands. He abandoned the plan ; but, perpetually ha- rafled by the protediug fophillers, he did not Itrike at the root of the evil, and but feebly impeded i's pro- grefs. The pedlars continued to promote the meafures of the confpirators ; yet this was but one of .he infe- rior me;".ns employed to fupply the want of their free fchools, as a new difcovery brou^rht to light one far more fatal. " About the middle of the month of September 1789, little more than a fortnight antecedent to the a- trocious 5th and 6th of Odober, at a time when th« condud of the National All'embly, having thrown the people into all the horrors of a revolution, indicated that they would fet no bounds to their pretenfiond, Mr Le R ly, lieutenant of the King's Hunt, and an acade- mician, being at dinner at the houfe of Mr D'Ange- villiers, intendant of the buildings of his majelly, the converfuion turned on the dil'allers of the revoluion, and on thofe tha'. were too cleai ly to be foreleen. Din- ner over, the nobleman above mentioned, a liiend of Le R >y, huit at having leen him fo gieat an admirer of the fo|>hillers, repro.iched him with it in the follow in;; exprellive word^: lr\-il! this, tun, is tk work of PhUo- fophy ! Thu.idetllnick at thefe words— .^las ! cried the academician, tj iv'.'em (fo you ftj fo ? J i/i'ii' it lut to* •w.'.l, aiij 1 Jhall di! 0,' or iff tin,/ lemorfc ! A.\. the word rimorj'e, the fame noMeiiian qiiclliontd him whether he had lb grea ly contiibulcd towards the revoluti >n as to u,^braid himfelf with it in that violent manner ? ' Yes (anfwered lie), I have contributed to it, and far more t.'ian 1 was aware of. I was fecretary ro the committee 4 I' to O G L [ 666 ] O H I Oenemad:, to which you are indebtcJ for it ; but I call heaven to II whnefs, that 1 never thought it would go to fuch ^^i^^j^^' lengths. You have ften me in the king's I'ervice, and you know that I love his peri'ou. I hrtle tlioujht ot bringing his fulijeds to this pitch, and 1 Jhall die of grief and reini'^fc ! ' " rrcli'ed to explain what he meant by this commit- tee, this fecret fociety, entirely new to the wh le com- pany, the academician relumed : ' This fociety was a ibrt of club that we philofophers had formed among us, and only admitted into it perfons on whom we could perfeiflly rely. Oir fittings were regularly held at the Baron D'Hulbach's. Lell our objsft Ihould be fur- rnifod, we called ourfelves ceconomills. We created Voltaire, though abfenr, our honorary and perpetual prefident. Our principal members were D'Alembert, Turgot, Condorcet, Diderot, La Harpe, and that La- moignon, keeper of the feals, who on his difmiffion ihut bimfelf in liis park.' " The whole of this declaration was accompanied with tears and fighs ; when the adept, deeply penitent, continued : ' The following were our occupations ; the moft of thofe works which have appeared for this long time paft againft religion, morals, and government, were ours, or thofe of authors devoted to us. They were all compofed by the members or by the orders of the fociety. Before they were fent to the prefs, they were delivered in at our ofHce. Tiiere we revifed and co- re>5ied them ; added to, or curtailed them, according as circumftances required. When our philofophy was too glaring for the times, or for the object of the work we brought it to a lower tint ; and when we thought that we might be more daring than the author, we fpoke more openly. In a word, we made our writers fay exaiflly what we pleafed. Then the work was pub- lilhed under the title or name we had chofen, the better to hide the hand whence it came. Many fuppofed to have been pollhiimous works, fuch as Chrijlianity Un- maficd, and divers others allriLtitid to Freret and Bou- hm^er after their deaths, were illued from our fociety. ' When we had approved of thofe woiks, we began by printing them on tine or ordinary paper, in fufficicnt number to pay our expences, and then an immenfe number on the commonell paper. Thefe latter we fent to hawkers and bookfellers free of coft, or nearly fo, who were to circulate them among the people at the lowed rate. Tliefe were the means ufed to pervert the people, and bring them to the ftate yon now fee tliem in. I Ihall not fee them long, for I Jhall die of grief :ind remorfe !' This recital is too well authenticated to be called in quellion, and ton pliin to need a commentary. Let it be a warning agiinll all i'ecret ficietie?, by whatever title of benevolence they may be defigned by thofe who form them. OENEMACK, the fouth point rf Rriftol B.iy, on the N W. coaft of N. America. N. lat. 54 30, W. long. 160 30 — Morse. OGEECHEE, a river of Georgi.i, 18 miles fouth of Savann-h river, and whole courles are nearly pa- rallel with each oth.r. It empties into the fea oppo- fite the north end of Olfabaw Illand, 18 miles fonth of Savannah. LniifviUe, Lexington and Georgetown are on the upper part of this river. — ib. OGLETHORPE, a new county on the north fide of Alatamaha river, weft of Liberty county. Fort Telfair is in the S. E. corner of this county on the Alat^^maha. — ib. OHAMANENO, a fmall but good harbour, on the W. fide of Ulietea, one of the Society Iflands, in the S. , Pacific Ocean. S. lat. 16 45, W. long. 151 38. The variation of the compafs in 1777, was 6 19 E. — ib. OHAMENE Ilirlour, a fine bay on tlie E. fide of Otalia, one of the Society Iflinds. It pafles in by a channel between the two fmail iflands Toahoutu, and Whennuaia. Within the reef it forms a good harbour, from 25 to 16 fathoms water, and clear ground. — ib. OHERURUA, a large bay on the S. W. part of the illand of Otaha, one of the Society Illands, and the next harbour to the northward from Apotopoto Bay. There is anchorage from 2c to 25 fathoms, and has the advantage of frelh water. The breach in the reef which opens a palTa^e into this harbour, is \ of a mile broad, in lat. 16 38 S. and long. 151 30 W. — ih. OHETEROA, one ot the Society Iflands, which is about 1 2 miles long and 6 broad, inhabited by a peo- ple of very large ftaiure, who are rather browner than thofe of the neighbouring iflands. It has no good har- bour nor anchorage. Lat. 22 27 S. long. 15047. — ib. OHETUNA, a harbour on the S. E. fide of Ulie- tea, one ot the Society Iflands. — ib. OHEVAHOA, an ifland in the South Pacific Ocean. S. lat. 9 41, W. long. 139 2. — ib. OHIO, a moft beautiful river, feparates the North Weftern Territory Irom Kentucky on the S. and Virgi- nia on the S. E. I;s current gentle, waters clear, and bofom fmooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a fingle inftance only excepted. It is one quarter of a mile wide at Fort Pitt ; 500 yards at the mouth of the Great Kanhaway ; 1 200 yards at Louifvllle, and at the Rapids half a mile, but its general breadth does not ex- ceed 600 yards. In fome places its width is not 400, and in one place particularly, far below the Rapids, it is lefs than 300. Its bre.idib, in no one place, exceeds 1200 yards; and at its jiimflion with tlie MUridippi, neither river is more than goo yards wide. Its length, as meafured ^iccording to its meanders by Capt. Hut- chins, is as follows : — From Fort Pitt to Log's Town is;- Little Miami 1 26 J Big Be iver Creek loi Licking Creek 8 Little Beaver Creek i3i Great M>ami 26i Yellow Creek la Big B ones 3^4: Two Creeks Long Reach End Long Reach 2li i6i Kentucky Rapids Low Country 443: ni Mufliingum 26i Buffalo river 64^ Little Kanhaway Hockhocking i2j 16 Wabafti Big Cave 971 42-1 Great Kanhaway 82^ Sh iwanee river 52 1 Giiiandoc 43 i Cherokee river '3 Sandy Cieek Sioio, or Scioto Hi 4«i Mall'ic MilFidippi II 46 Ohama- neno, I Ohio. n88 In common winter and fpring floods, it affords 30 or 40 feet water to Louifville ; 25 or 30 feet to La Tarte's Rapids ; 40 above the mouth of the Great: Kanhaway ; and a liifficiency at all times for light bat- tea'ix and canoes to Fort Pitt. The Rapids are in lat. 38 8. Tiie inundations of this river begin about the laft of March, and lubdde m July, although they fre- quently happen iq other months ; fo that boats which carry O I L [ 667 ] O I L ©hie, « Oil. carry 300 barrels of fiour from the Monongshela, or Youhiiigenx, above Plttfburgh, have ielJui-.i long to , wait for wjter. During thele floods, a tint rate inan- ot'->.var may be carried from Louifville to New Oile.ins, if the hidiien turns vi the river and the (trength ol its current will admit a late fteerage. It is ilie opinion oi fonie well informed i!;entlcmen, that a velFel properly bnilt for the Tea, to draw 12 feet water, when loaded, and carrying from 12 to 1600 barrels of fl )ur, may be miTL- eafdy, cheaply and fafely navigated from Pittf- burg to the fea, than thofe now in ule ; and that this matter only requires one man of capacity and enter- prize to afccrtain it. A veliel intended to be rigged as a briqantine, fnow, or Ihip, lh(Tuld be double-decked, take her mails on deck, and be rowed to the Ibbervilie, below which are no ilfind.-., or to New Orleans, with 20 men, fo as to aiford reliefs of lo and loin the night. Such a veifel, without tlie ufe of cars, it is fuppofed, would float to New Orleans from Plttfburgh in 20 days. If tnis be fo, what agreeable profpeits are pre- fented to our brethren and lellow-citizens in the weltern couniry I The Rapids at Louifville defcend about 10 feet in the diftance of a mile and a half. The bed of the river is a folid rock, and is divided by an ifland into two branches, the fouthern of which is about 200 yards wide, but impadable in dry feafons. The bed of the northern branch is worn into channels by the condant cour;e of the water, and attrition of the pebble Hones carried on with that, fo as to be palfable for batteaux through the greater part of the year. Yet it is thought that the fouthern arm may be mod eafily opened for condant navigation. The rife of the waters in thefe Rapids does not exceed 20 or 25 feet. There is a fort fituatcd at the head of the Falls. The ground on the fouth fide rifes very gradually. At Fort Pitt the river Ohio lofes its name, branching into the Monongahela and Allecjhany. — ii. Ohio, the nortli-wefternmod county of the State of Virginia, bounded ead by Walhington county, in Penn- fylvania, and N.-W. by the river Ohio, which divides it from the N. W. Territory. It contains 5,213 inha- bitants, including 281 flaves. Chief town. Liberty. — ib. Ohio Company's Purcbafe, in the N. W. Territory, is a tra<5l cf excellent land fituated on the north bank of the Ohio, ead of Cul. Symes's purcbafe. In this traifl there were about 2,500 inliabitants in 1792. — lb. OHIOPE, a fmall northern tributary Itream of Al.i- tamaha river, in Ogleihoipe county, Georgia. — ib. OHIOPIOMINGO, a traa of land fo called in the State of Kentucky, liluated in Nelfon county, on Ohio river, and fnuth weftward ot Salt river. — ib. OHIOPYLE Falls, in Youghiogany river, areabout 20 feet perpendicular height, where the river is 80 yards wide. I'hey are 30 or 40 miles from the mouih of this river, where it mingles its waters with the Mononga- hela — ih. OHITAIIOO, an ifland in the S. Pacific Ocean. S. lat. 9 55, W. l<jng. 139 6. — ib. OIL Cnck, in Alleghany county, Pennfylvania, ilfues from a fpriiig, on the top of which floats an oil, fimilar to that called Eaibadoes tar, and empiies into AHei^hany river. It is found in inch quantities, that a man may gather fevcial galh ns in a day. Tlie troops fent to guard the Wullvrn Polls, halted at tliis fpring, C>lleaed fomc of the oil, and bathed their joints with it. This gave them great relief from the rheumatic com- Oil-MSI. plaints, with wliich they were afHifled. The waieis, '-^'^^^'-^ ot v.hich the troops drank freely, operated as a gentle cathartic. — ib. OIL-MILL, a mill for cxprefling the oils from fruits, or grains, &c. As thefe States do not produce the olive, it would be needlcfs to defcribe the mills which are ennpl.ycd in the fouthern parts of Europe. We Ihall content oarl'elves, therefore, with a defcription of a Dutch oil mill, employed for grinding and prefling lint- feed, rape-feed, and other oleaginous grains. Farther, to accommod.ite our defcription (till more to our Ijcal circumltances, we fliall employ water as the fird mo- ver ; thus avoiding the enormous expeoce and complica- tion of a windmill. In Plate XXXVIII. fig. A, 1. Is the elevation of a wheel, over or underfhot, as the fituation may require. 2. The bell-metal locket, fupported by mafonry, for receiving the outer gudgeon of the water wheel. 3. The water courie. Fig. B. 1. A fpur wheel upon the fame axis, having 53 teeth. 2. The trundle that is driven by N'^ i. and has 78 ftaves. 3. The luallowcr, or axis for raifing the pedles. It is furniflied round its circumference with wipers for lifting \.ht pcjller, fo that each may fall twice during one turn of the water wheel, that is, three ivipcrs for each pedle. 4. A frame of timber, carrying a concave half cylin- der of bell-metal, in which the wallower (cafed in that part with iron plates) refts and turns round. It will be feen in profile, fig. G. 5. Mafonry fupporting the inner gudgeon of the water wheel and the above mentioned frame. 6 Gudgeon of the wallower, which bears againd a bell-metal Hep fixed in the wall. This double fupport of the wallower is found to be necelTary in all mills which drive a number of heavy dampers. Fig. C, Is the elevation of the pedle and prefu frame, their furniture, the mortars, and the prefs- pedles. 1. The fix pedles. 2. Crofs pieces between the two rails of the frame, forming, with thefe rails, guides for the perpendicular motion of the peftles. 3. The two rails. The back one is not feen. They are checked and bolted into the dandards N*^ 12. 4. The tails of the lifts, correfponding to the wiper* upon the wallower. 5. Another rail in front, for carrying the detents which hold up the pedles when not adling. It is mark- ed 14 in fig. M. 6. A beam a little way behind the pedles. To this are fixed the pulleys for the ropes which lift and Hop the pelUes. It is reprefented by 16 In fig. M. 7. The fald pulleys with their ropes. 8. The driver, which ftrikes the wedge that prefTcs the oil. 9. The difeharger, a damper which drikes upon the inverted wedge, and loolijns the prefs. 10. The lower rail with its crols pieces, forming the lower guides of die pedles. 4 P 3 II. A O I L [ 668 ] O I L Oil-Mill. ! I. A fmall cojT wheel upon ths walbwer, for turn- "*^'~^'^**^ ing the ffatula, which rtir^ about the oilfeeJ in the chiuffer-pan. It has 28 teeth, and is maiked N' 6 in fig.' M. 12. The four ftanJards mortifed below into the lloi.k, and above into the joills and beams of the build- ing. 13. The fu mortars hollowed out of the block itfelf, ,-inJ in fhape pretty much like a kitchen pot. 14. The feet of the peftle';, rounded into cylinders, and ihod with a gre.it lump of iron. I J. A board behind the peftles, llanding on its edge, but inclining a little backward*. There is fuch ano- ther in front, but not rcprelented here. Thefe form a Ibrt of trough, which prevents the feed from being fcat- tered about by the fall of tlie peftlef, and lolt. 16. The firft prcfs-lox (alfo hollowed out of tlie block), in which the grain is fqueezed, after it has come for the fir ft time from below the milftones. 17. The fecond prcfi hox, at the other end of the block, f jr fquee-zing the grain after it has palfed a fe- cond time under the peftles. 18. Frame of limber for fupporting the other end of tlie wallower, in the fame manner as al N" 4 fig. D. 19. Small cog wheel on the end of the wallower for giving motion to the mll-flones. It has 28 teeth. 20. Gudgeon of the wallower, bearing on a bell me- tal focket fixed in the wall. 21. Velfels for receiving the oil from the prefs- bcxes. 22. Joifts fupporting the block. Fig. D. Elevation and mechanifm of the mil- ftones. I . Upr'ighlfiafly carrying the great cog wheel above, and the runn:r mllflones below in their frame. 3. Cog-wheel of 76 cogs, driven by N" 19. of fig. C. 3. The frame of the runners. Tliis will be more diltinaly underllood in N° 4. fig H. 4. The innermoft runner, or the one nearefl the fhafr. 5. Outermoft ditto, being farther from the rtiaft. 6. The i/intr rahe, which colle<fls the grain under the outer runner. 7. The oi/cr raL', which collecfls the grain under the inner runner. In this manner the grain is always turned over and over, and crulhed in every direflion. The inner rake lays the grain in a finpe, of which fig. O. is a fe<5^ion ; tlie runner flattens it and the fe- cond rake lifts it again, as is marked in fig. P ; fo that eveiy fide of a grain is prefented to the milftone, and the reft of the h'g^^cr or ne'.hcr miljlom is fo fwept by them, that not a fingle grain i^ left on any part of k. ■ The outer rake is alfo furnilhed with a rag of cloth, which rubs againft the border or hoop that fur- rounds the nether milftone, fo as to drag out the few grains which might otherwife rema'n in the corner. 8. The ends of the iron axle which palfes through the upright (haft, and through the two runners. Thus they have two motions : \mt>, A rotation round the'r own axis. 2J0. That by which they are carried round upon the nether milftone on which they roll. The holes in thefe milftones are made a little widllh ; and the holes in the ears of the frame, wliich carry the ends of the iron axis, are made oval up and down. This great freedom of motion is neceftary for tlie runner Oil-Mill. milftones, becaufe frequently more or lefs of tlie grain ^^^"^"^^ is below them at a time, and they muft therefore be at liberty to get over it without llraining, and perhaps breaking, the fliaft 9. Thi ears of the frame which lead the two extre- mities of the iron axis. They are mortifed into th; under fide of the bars of the fq tare frame, that is car- ried round with tlie Ihatr. 10. The border or hoop which furrounds the nelher milftone. 1 1 . and 12. The nether milflone and mafonry whicli fupports it. Fig E. Form of the wallower, fliewing the difpofition of the wipers along its furface. 1. Two parts of this iliaft, which are nicely round- ed, and fortified with iron plates, and which reft upon the bell-metal concaves, which are rcprefented in n" 4, of fig. C. 2. The little wheels at each end, for giving motion to the two fpatul:r, marked n° 1 1. fig. C. 3. Tiie wipers for the fecond prefs. 4. The wipers for the firft prefs. 5. The wipers for the fix peftles. Fig. F. Reprefents the furface of the wallower un- folded into a re(5langul,ir parallelogram, in order to (hew the diftribution of the wipers, and confequently the fucceflion of the ftrokes given by the different peltles. This diftribution has fomething peculiar. Each peftle has three wipers ; and there are alfo three for the driver and difcharger of the fecond pref<. The driver and wiper of the firft prefs have but one and a half; one for the driver, and the half for the difcharger ; fo that it ftrikes twice, and the driver only once, in a turn of the fhaft. This is the Dutch pra<5lice, which differs from that of Flanders. The fucceffion of the ftrokes may be conceived as follows : Reckon 'he ftampers, in- cluding^ thofe of the prcft;s, from the water wheel to- ward the other end nf the wallower, and calling therti a, b, c, d, e,f,g, h, i, i, and fuppofing that a makes the firft ftroke, they proceed in the following order for one turn of the wallower. ab, d, /, /;, c, e, g, ah, d,f, h, c, e, g, ah, d,f, h, c, e, •. Here it may be observed that a and b ftrike together. They would do fo if allowed ; but one of them is held up by its detent till the workman fees proper to dif- engage it. Each peftle, and the driver and difcharger of the fecond prefs, make three ftrokes for one turn of the wallower. But the driver ,f of the firft prell> makes only one ftroke in that time, namely, in the interval between the laft ftrokes of e and g. The difcharger / of this prefs makes two ftrokes ; one of them in this fame interval, and the other al'^ng with the firft ftroke of ^.. The fecond prefting requiies a much more violent prel- fure than the firft, becaufe the cake muft be left per- fciStly dry and hard.. Fig. G. Profile of the frame of timber which carries the wallower, and greatly contributes to render its mo- tion fteady. Fig. H. Is a view of one of the milftones. 1. The nether milftones and the mafonry fupporting: the wh'le. 2. The runner. 3. A fort of cafe which enclofes the two w'ngs of the milftone at a very fmall diftance from it, in order O I L C 669 ] O I L Oil-Mill, to prevent the grain which (licks to it from being fcat- ^-^"^''^''^ tered. There is another methnJ praflifeJ at fome milN. Fi,!^. I. Reprefi.nts th.it of S.irtlamm. A A are two iron rods, about half an inch fqiiare, hinging on the axle, on each fide of the milftone. Thefe rods are joined by a crofs piece C. which almoll touches the milftone. A piece of le:nher is put between, which rubs upon the mihlcne, and clears it of the grain which chances to flick to it. N" 4. and 6. repril'er.t the ears of this frame, by which the en J nf the iron axle is fup- ported, and carried r und by the upright (h.ift n" 5. Fig. K. Plan of the runner mildones, ?nd the frame which carries them rourd. I, I. Are the two mllilones. 3» 3' 3' 3- '^''* outfide pieces nf the frame. 4. 4, 4, 4. The crofs bars of the frame which em- brace the upright fhaft 5, and give motion to the whole. 6. 6. The iron axis upon which the runners turn. 7. The outer rake. 8. The inner ditto. Fig. L. Reprefents the nether milftone feen from above. 1. The wooden gutter, which furrounds the nether milftone. 2. The border or hoop, about fix inches high, all round to prevent any feed from be'ng fcattered. 3. An opening or trap door in the gutter, which can be opened or Ihut at pleafure. When open, it allows the bruifed grain, colleifted in and Ihoved along the gutter by the rake's, to pafs through into troughs pla- ced below to receive it. ^. P.rlion of the cirtle defcribed by the outer runner. 5. Portion of the circle defcribed by the inner one. By tluTe we fee that the two ftones have different routes round the axis, and bruife more feed. 6. The cuter r.ike. 7. The inner d'tto. 8. The fweep, making part of the inner rake, oc- cafionally let down for fweeping ofF all t!ie feed when it lias been fulfijienily bruifed. I'he prelfure and ac- tion of thefe rakes is adjuited by means of wooden fpring?, which cannot be eafdy anj dlHindly reprefent- ed by any figure. The oblique pofition of the rakes (the ouier point going foremull) caufes them to Ihove the grain inwards ur toward the centre, and at the fime time to turn it over, fomewhat in the fame manner a' the mould-board "f a plough Ihoves the e.irth to the right hand, and partly turub it over. S-me mills have but one fweeper ; and, indeed, there is great vane'y in the form and conftruiflion I't iliis part of the machinery. Fig. M. Profile of the pell'e frame. 1. Se<5tion of the hoiiz'^ntal Ihaft. 2. Thrie wipers for lilting the pelll <;. 3. Little wheel of 28 teeth for giving motion to tlie fpatula. 4. Another wheel, which is driven by it, having 20 teeth. 5. Horizontal axle of ditto. 6. Another wheel on the fame axle having; 13 teeth. 7. A wheel upon the upper end of the fpinJle, having I 2 teeth. 8. Two guides, in which the fpindle, turns freely, and fo that it cannot be fhiited higher and lower. 9. A lever, moveable round the piece ri" '4. and ha- ving a hole in it at 9, through which the fpindle palTes, turning freely. The fpindle has in this place a Ihoulder which reds on the border cf the hole 9 ; fo that by the Oil-iMiII. motion of this lever the fpindle may be difengaged from ^»^^''^*^ the wheel work at pleafure. This motion is given to it by means of the lever 10, 10, moveable round its middle. The workman employed at the chautfer pulls at the rope 10, 11, and thus difengages the fpindle ani fpatula. 11. A peQle feen fidewife, 12. The li/t of ditto. 13. The upper rails, marked n^ 3. in fig. C. 14. The rail, marked u° 5. in fig. C. To this are fixed the detents which ferve to flop and hold up the pelllcs. 1 5. A detent, which is moved by the rope at its outer end. 1 6. A bracket behind tlie peflles, having a pulley, through which palfes the. rope going to the detent 15. I 7. The faid pulley. 18. The rope at the workman's h ind, pafTmg through tlie pulley 17, and fixed to the end of the detent 15. This detent naturally hangs perpendicular by its own weight. Wlien the workman wants to (lop a pellle, he pulls at the rcpe 18, during the rife of the peftle. When this is at its greateft height, the detent is hori- zontal, and prevents the pedle from falling by mean? of a pin projecling from the fide of the pellle, which reds upon the detent, the detent it(elf being held in that pofition by hitching the loop of the rope upon a. pin at the workman's hand. 19. The two lower rails, marked n° 10. fig. C. 20. Gr^nt wooden, and fometimes (lone, iJoci, in which the mort.trs are formed, marked n' 21 in fig. C. 21. Velfcl placed below the prefs boxes tor receiving the oil. 22. Chauffer, or little furnace, for warming the brui- fed grain. 23. Backet in the front of the chauffer, tapering downwards, and opening below in a narrow flit. The hair b.tgs in which the grain is to be preiTed af'er it has been warmed in the chauffer, are filled by plicini them in this backet. The grain is htted out of the chiuffer with a ladle, and put into thefe bags ; and a good quan- tity of oil runs from it through the flit at the bottom into a velfel fet to receive it. 14. The fpatula attached to the lower end of the fpindle, and turning round among the grain in the chautf;r-paii, and thus preventing it from (licking to. the bottom or fiJes, and getting too much heat. Fig. N. Plan cf patt of the works. 1, I. Furnaces for warming tlie grain. 2, 2. The backets for holding the facks while they are a filling. 3, 3. TTie pan in which the bruifed grain is heated by the chauffer. 4, 4. A trough fi r receiving the chips, into which the prelfed oil-cakes are cut, to be afterwards put into the pan and warmed. 5. The prefsbox for the fecond prelTing. 6. The prefs box for the firll prtlling. 7. The fix mortars. 8. The (loping boards, to hinder the fcatteting of the- oil feed. 9. The nether milllone, but out of its place. 10. Its centre a little higher than the rell. It. A rib rf wood going round the edge cf the- neiher milllone, and even with its furface, but rifing a-. O I L t 67 Oil-m!ll. rzry little outwards, and furrounded with a border or '-''"^^'^-' hoop about ;in inch high, to prevent the feed from be- iiiT fcaticred on ihc ground. 'Fig. Q^ A Raion, kngthwife, of the great block, with ihs riKirtars and prefs- boxes. 1. The fix pelUes. 2. The fix mortars, each of which has an iron plate at its bottom. 3. The i/rivin;: Clamper, wi.ich falls on the wedge of llie firft prelling. 4. Ditto, for the fecond ditto. 5. The difcharger, which (hikes on the inverted wedge in order to free tlie prefb. 6. Ditto, for the fecond preffing. 7. Wedge for freeing the prels. 8. Wedge for preffing. 9. Wooden cherLs, two inches thict, which are plac- ed between the middle wedge and the JJiding -wedoes on each fide. 10. Piefs-irons, between which are placed the hair- bags containing the bruifed grain. 11. Iron plate, called \hs foun/ain, at the bottom, pierced with hohs, correfponding with a hole in the block, for allowing the oil to nm off from the prefled grain. 12. Veflel for receiving ditto. 13. A long iron plate at the bottom of the prefsbor, under the drawing and difcharging wedges. Fig. R. Another view of the prefs-irons. I. The fide-irons laid flat. 3. Tlie fame feen edgewife. 3. The pierced iron plate, upon wliich the two irons, n" I. ftand upright, with the hair-bag between them. 4. One of the hair-bags. It may be obferved that the feams of thefe bags are made on the flat fides, and not on the edges, where they would be in danger of burfting. 5. A long hair-cloth, in which the bag is wrapped before it is fet into the prefs. The bag, being filled with bruifed grain, is placed with its bottom at a, and the top at b; the part caU lapped over it, reaching to t, and then the other end J is lajiped over that, and reaches to a, and the loop at its end ferves as a handle by which to lift it, and place it properly between the prefs-irons. Fig. S. The principal pieces of the prefs. 1. The wooden checks. 2. The difcharging wedge. 3. The driving wedge. 4 and 5. The Aiding blocks, which tranfmit the pref- fure produced by the driving wedge. The foregoing enumeration and views of the different parts of a Dutch oil-mill, are fiiflicient, we imagine, to enable an intelligent mill-wright, to whom the machine is altogether new, to underfland its manner of work- ing, and its adaptation to the various parts of the procefs for extrading the oil from feeds or kernels. It would recjiiire a very minute delcription indeed to ex- plain it to a perfon altogether unacquainted wi h mill- work. o ] OIL The Grft part of the procefs is bruifing the feed un- Oil-milt, der the runner (tones (a). That this may be more ex- '^-^■^''""*» peditioully done, one ol the runners is fet about -yds of its own thickncfs nearer the (haft than the other. Thus they have dilferent treads ; and the grain, which is a little heaped towards the centre, is thus bruifed by both. The inner rake gathers it up under the outer ftone into a ridge, of which the feflion is reprefented in Plaie XL. fig. O. The ftone palfes over it and flattens it. It is gathered up again into a ridge, of the form of fig. P. under the inner ftone, by the outer rake, which confifts of two parts. The outer part prelTes clofe on the wooden border which furrounds the nether (lone, and Ihoves the feed obliquely inwards, while the inner part of this r.ike gathers up what had fpread toward the centre. The other rake has a joint near the middle of its length, by which the outer half of it can be railed from the nether (lone, while the inner half continues preffing on it, and thus (crapes off the moid pafte. When the feed is fufficiently btuifed, the miller lets down the outer end of the rake. This im- mediately gathers the whole p.iRe, and fhoves it oblique- ly outwards to the wocdtn rim, where it is at lad brought to a part that is left unboarded, and it falls through into troughs placed to receive it. Thefe troughs have holes in the bottom, through which the oil drips all the time of the operation. This part of the oil is direifled into a particular ciftern, being confi- dered as the pured of the whole, having been obtained, wiihout prelfure, by the mere breaking of the hull of the feed. In fome mills this operation is expedited, and a much greater quantity of this bell oil is obtained, by having the bed of mafonry which (upporls the legeer formed into a little furnace, and gently heated. But the ut- mnfl care is necelfary to prevent the heat from be- coming confiderable. Thi":, enabling the oil to ditfolve more of the fermentable fubftance of the feed, expofes the oil to the rifk of growing foon very rancid ; and, in general, it is thought a hazardous pradice, and the oil does not bring fo high a price. When the pafte comes Irom under the (lones, it is put into the hair bags, and fubjefled to the fird pref- fing. The oil thus obtained is alfo efteemed as of the firll quality, fcarcely inferior to the former, and is kept apart (The great oil citlern being divided into feveral portions by partitions). The oil cakes of this preffing are taken out of the bags, broken to pieces, and put into the mortars for the firft ftiimping. Here the paile is again broken down, and the parenchyma of the feed reduced to a fine meal. Thus free egrefs is allowed to the oil from every vefide in which it was contained. But it is now rendered much more clammy, by the forcible mixture of the mu- cilage, and even of the finer parts of the meal. When fulhciently pounded, the workman (lops the pedle of a mortar, when at the top of its lift, and carries the contents of the mortar to the fii (I chauffer pan, where it is heated to about the temperature of melting bees wax (this, we are told, is the ted), and all the while dirred (a) We are told, that in a mill at Reichenhoffen in Alface, a confiderable improvement has been made by palling the feed between two fmall iron rollers, before it is put under the mildones. A great deal of work is laid to be laved by this preliminary operation, and finer oil produced, which we think very probable. The ftaroping and preffing go on as in other mills. Oil. Mil, I. . I'l \ I l-VWVTIT ',.f/V<'i-fl fi' V.fMf ^% i? hi TT ».V \\ 'ft. ♦, * \ o t. } t. :> t ;• 'J ,i I i Ej I'iij-.A'. E sH [ft J a 9 ^f ,i tt ^ « u If 11 n u M 'U i', /.ttW.fi II I '. O I L C (^11 ] OLD Oil-null, ftlrred about by the fpatula. From tlience it is again ^^""""^^ put into hair bags, in the manner already defcnbed ; and the oil which diips from it during this operation is confidered as the beft of the fecond quality, and in fome mills is kept apart. The pade is now fubje£ted to the I'econd pietllng, and the oil is that of the fecond quality. All this operation of pounding and heating is per- formed by one workman, who has conduit employ- ment by taking tlie four-inortats in fucceflion. The putting into the bags and conducing of the preffing gives equal employment to another workman. In the mills of Ficcardy, Alface, and moll of Flan- ders, the operation ends here; and the produce iiom the chauffer is increafed, by putting a fpoonful or two of water int" the pan among the pa(le. But the Dutch take moie pains. They add no water to the palle of this lhe\r Jir/lJ/am/>ing. They Uj that this gieotly lowers the quality ot the oil. Tiie cakes which refult from this prelTing, and arc there fold as food for cattle, are ftill fat and foftilh. The Dutch break them down, and fubJLifl them to the pelUes for the fecond faviptr.g. Thel'e reduce them to an impalpable pade, llifFlike clay. It is lilted out, and put into tlie fecond chautfer pan ; a lew fpoonfuls of water are add- ed, and the whole kept for fbme time as hot as boil ng Water, and carefully Itirred all the while. From thence it is lift^;d into the hair bdgs of the lall picfs, fubjeiffed to the prels ; and a quantity of oil, of the lowelf quali- ty, is obtained, fufficient for giving a f^tisfatflory profit to the miller. The cake is now perfeflly dry, and hard, like a piece of board, and is fold to tlie farmers. Nay, there are fmall mills in HnlUnd, which have no other employment than extra<5ling the oil from the cakes which they puichafe from the French and Bra- banters; a clear indication ot the fupciiority of the Dutch praflice. The nicety with which that induflrious people con- duct all their bufinefs is remarkable in this manu- faffure. In their oil ciftern, the parenchymous part, which un- avoidably gets through, in fome degree, in every opera- tion, gradually lublides, and tlie liquor, in any divifion of the cillern, comes to confifl of ftrata ot different de- grees of purity. The pumps which lift it out of each ilivifion are in pairs ; one takes it up from the very bot- tom, and the other only fiom half depth. Tiie I4II only is barrelled up for the maikei, and the other goes into a deep and nariow cillern, where the dreg again fub.'ides, and more pure oil of that quality is obtained. By fuch careful and judicious praftices, the Dutch not oiily lupply themfclves with this important article, but annually fend conlideiable quantities into the vey pro- vinces of France and FlanJers where they b>iUght the feed fiom which it was extrafled. When we re- fleO on tlie high price of labour in Holland, on the want of limber for m.ichincry, on the expenfe of building in that cruntry, and on the enormous expenfe of wind mill machinery, both in the fiifl ereL^ion and the fubfcquent ^■ear and tear, it mull be evident, that oil mills ereiflcd in this country on water falls, and after the Dutch man- ner, cannot fail <if beirg a great national advantage. The chatcllauie or felgniurie of L.ille alone makes an- nually between 30,000 and 40,000 barrels, each con- taiiii.'ig about 26 gallon'!. What is here delivered is only a fkeich. Every per- fon acquainted with machinery will underftand the ge- neral movements and operations. But the intelligent mechanic well kr.o.vs, that operations of this kind have miny minute circumUances which cannot be defcribed, and which, neverthclefs, may have a great influence on the whole. The rakes in the bruifnig-mill have an office to perform which refembles th:it of the hand, di- redled by a careful eye and uncealing attention. Words cannot communicate a clear notion of this ; and a mill, conltruded fi(;m the belt drawings, by the m.oll fsilful woikman, may gather the feed fo ill, that the half of it fliall not be btuifed after many rounds of the machi- nery. This produces a fcaniy return of the linetl oil; and the mill gets a bad charaffer. The proprietor 1 ifes his money, is difcouraged, and gives up the work. — There is no fecurity but by procuring a Dutch mill- wright, and giving him a liberal com.penfation. Such unhoped-for talks have been performed of late years by machinery ; and mechai;ical knowledge and invention is now fo generally diffufed, that it is highly probable that we fiiould foon excel our teachers in this blanch. But this very diffufion of knowledge, by en- couraging fpeculation among the artills, makes it a flill greater rifk to erccl a Dutcli oil-mill without having a Dutchman, acquainted with its moll improved prefent form, to conduifl the work. We do our duty in giving this counfel. OISTIWS Bay, is near the fouthern extremity of ihe idand of Barbadoes, in the Weil-Indies. It is formed to the S. E. by Kendal's Point. The bay is well de- fended by forts. The town of Oiflins Hands on this bay. — Morse. OKU jEsso. See Segalien in this Supph OLD CAPE FRANCOIS forms the N. point of Ecoffoife or Cofbeck Bay, on the N. E. part of the ifland of St Domingo. All the French fhips coming from Europe or the Windward iflands, and bound to tlie north or weft part of St Domingo Ifland, are obliged to come in fight of the Cape Samana, (near 27 leagues fouth-eaft by call of this cape; or at leafl of Old Cape Francois, on account of the dangers of flioals to the eaft. It is about 5 leagues eaft of Cape de ]a Roche. N. lat. 19 40 30, W. long, from Paris 72 22. — Alone. OLD FORT Bay is lituated at the louth end of the iflind of St Lucia, in the Weft-Indies, having St Mary's Ifland and B ly to the eaft. — ib. Old Fort Iflcnds, in El'quimaux Bay, on the coafl of Labrador, in N. America. N. lat. 51 24, W. Icng. 57 4«— '■'^• OLD ILirbotir, on the fntith coaft of the ifland nf Ja- maica in the Wcft-Indies, is to the weftward of P.iit Royal. There are a number of llioals and iflands in the entrance to it. Under fbme of them there is fate tid- ing, in from 6 to 8 fathoms. — ib- OLD MAN'S Cieck, in New Jerfey, empties into Delaware river, about 4 miles below Penn's Neck, and fcp.irates the counties of Salem .ind Gloucefter. — :b. OLD MEN'S Port lies northward of Lima river in Peru, S or 9 miles N. of Cadavayllo river. — ib, OLD ROAD, a town and harbour in the ifland of Antigua in the Weft-Indies — ib. Old Road Bjy, on the S. W. coaft of the ifland of St Chriftophet's in the Weft-Indies, between Church Gut W. and Bloody Point E. There is from 5 to 15 fa- thoms near the Ihorc, and the leall towards the fort. — ib. Old O M O C 672 ] O N I Oi.D Road To-xvn, on iliis bay, lies between Euft and Black rivers, and li a port ot entry.— /i. OLD TOWN, in the State of New York, is fituated on Staccn llluid, 3 miles S. W. of Newtown, and 12 f.iiith-wefterly of New Yoikciiv. — lb. Old Town, afmall poft town of Maryland, fituated in All.-gliany county, in lat. 39 30, on the N. bank of Patowmac river, and W. fide of Saw Mill Rtin ; 14 miles S. E. of Cumberland, 142 W. by N. of Baltimore, and 213 from Philadelphia. — lb. OLDTowN.in N. Carolina, near Brunfwick. — lb. Old Town, a finall town of Georgia, lying on the Ojjeechee river, 85 miles N. \V. by W. ot Savannah. —>b. OLEOUT, a fmall creek which empties into the eall branch of Sufqnehann.ih, 5 miles N. E, of the mouth <jf UnadiUa livcr. — lb. OLIND.-\, tiie chief town of the c.iptainfhip ofPer- rambuco, in Brazil, S. America. It is fometimes called Pernambiico, and has a good harbour filuaied north of Cape St Augulline, and iouth oi Paraibo. It was taken by the Dutch in 1630, but was retaken by the Portu- vuefe. S. lat. 8 13, W. long. 35 5.— /i. OLLEROS, Poini, on the coall of Peru, is 6 leagues S. E. of Qaemada M irro, or Headland, and as far N. W.W . of Porto Cavallo. It is little frequented on ac- count of want of trade, aliliough it is a good harbour in cafe of fqualls from the mountains, or ot llrong currents fetting down from the fea. — lb. OMAGUAS, a tribe of Indians inhabiting the banks cf the river Amazon, and converted to Chrillianity in the year 1686, by father Fiitz, a Spanilh milliunary. They flat the hind and fore part of the heads of their thildren, which gives them a monllr. us appearance. They make a jell of other nation-, caUing them calabafli heads. — lb. OMAR A, a river on the coaft of Brazil, whofe r.iouth is in lat. 5 o S. and long. 36 o VV. — lb. OMASUOS, a jurifdiction in toe diocefe ot La Paz, in Peru, It begins almoQ at the gates ot the city of L:i Paz, and extends 20 le.t).".)es, being bounded on the veR by the f.imous lake of -' 11 ' Caca. The air of this jurifdidtion is fomewhat cold, IJ that it produces little grain ; but has numerous flocks of cattle fed in its paf- turet>; there is be-fides, a very advantageous trade carried on in aniilher jurifdi(ftion by ll.e Indians living on the borders of the lake, who are remarkably indullrious in i.T.proving that advantage. — lb. OMEE, a corrupt name for The Miami of the Lake. The Miami towns on its banks are called the Omee towns, or An Mi, by the French Americans, as a con- trafti. n of An Miami. — ib. OMEETOWN, one of the Miami towns, fuuated on a pleafan: point tormed by the jnnflion of the rivers Miami and St J ileph. This town Hood on the E. bank of the latter, oppofite the mouth of St Mary's ri- ver, and was del\ro)ed in Gen. Harmar's expedition, in 1790. — lb. OMOAH, a fnoall f irtitied town in the Spanifli Main, at the bottom of the bay of Himduras, on the S. fide, and is within a gilf to the eallward of Dolce Gulf, into ■which the river ot its r;ame comci in iVom the fouth- ward. It has a good haibour, which is open to the N. VV. in which fhips of any burd.;n may ride in peifeift i«fety. The Br.tiOi admiial, Parker, in coij'indion tcr, with the people of Honduras, reduced the ftrong fort, Omphslop- \ihich is iituated on the E. tide of the river, in 1779. The fpoil wai immenfe, being valued at 3 millions of dollars. The Spaniards in vain offered 300,000 dollars as a ranfom for 250 quintals of quickfilver ; a commo- dity indifpenfably necetTary in working their gold and lilver mines. — ib. OMPHALOPTER, or Omphaloptic, in optics, a glafs that is convex on both tides, popularly called a co>ive.x lens. OMPOMPANOOSUCK, a (hort, rapid river of Ver- mont, which empties into the ConneiSlicut at Norwich, oppolite to Dartmouth College. Its courfe is S. £. its breadth not more than 40 or 50 yards. — lb. ONATIAYO, or Oneatuye, an itlind in the S. Pacific. Ocean. S. lat. 9 58, W. long. 138 51. — lb. ONEEHOW, one of the Sandwich Iflands, in the N. Paeific Ocean, called alfo Kechethcoiti, about 5 or 6 leagues to the weftward of Atooi. There is anchorage all along the coaft of the itland . It produces plenty of yams, and a fweet root called tee. N. lat. 21 50, \V. long. 160 15. — ib. ONEIDA, one of the Six Nations of Indians, con- t.diiing 628 foul-, who inhabit the country S. of Oneida Lake, called the Oneida Reteivation. I'heir principal village, Kahnonwolohale, is about 20 miles S. W. of Whiteflown. Thefe Indians, tor a number of years p ill, have been under the paiforal care of the Reverend Mr Kiikland, who with the Reverend Mr Sarjeant, have been chiefly fupported in t';eir million, by the fo- ciety eflablifhcd in Scotland f i r promoting Chrillian knowledge. 'This nation receive an annuity from the State of New York of 3552 do!lais, for lands purchafed of them in 1795, and an annuity of about 628 dollars from the Uiiit.-d States. Thele annuities, (which ope- rate as a difcourigement to induftiy) together with the c irn, beans and potatoes raifed by the fquaws, and the filh an J game, caught by the men, afford them a barely toleiahle fubfitlence. They are a pr.jud nation, and af- feift to defpife their neighbours, the Stockbtidgeand Bro- therlon lodian-, fir their attention to agiiculture ; but they already begin to feel their dependence on them, and are under a necellity of purchaling provifions of them. The natii n is divided into three tribes, or clans, by the names of the Jl'olJ, the Bear, and the Turtle. They have their name from their Pagan Deity, which fome few of the nation ftili worfnip, and which is nothing more than amilhapen, luJe, cyliadiicaly/onc, of about 120 pounds weij^'ht, in their language called Oneida, v.-hich fignifies the Upright Stone. Foinierly thia ftone was placed in the crot.:h ct a tree, and then the nati n luppofed ihemfelves invincible. Thefe Indians are all cf mixed blood; there has not been n pure Oneida for feveral years pall. — lb. Oneida LaLe is about 20 miles \Y. of Old Fort Sanwix, now c died Rome, S a:e ot N-w York, and is between 20 and 30 miles long, and narrow. It iscon- nefted with Lake Ontaiio on th; V/. by Ofwego river, and with Fort Stanwix by Wood Creek. — IL. ONEMACK Point is the fouth-wefl point of the con- tinent of N. America, in the N. W. coall, and the fiuth limic of Brilfol Bay. Ic is 82 leagues S. S. W. of Cape Newenham, or ihe n.r.h p.'in ot that extenlive bay ; and ill lat. 54 30 north, and long. 163 30 weft. — ib. O NIMAMOU, a h.iibour ou the S. E. coaft of LUietea, O N O C 673 ] ONI Ulietea, one of the Society Iflinds, in the S. Pacific lage ot Aurora, in the tcwnfliip of Scipin, This coun*' Ocean. It is north-eall of Ohetuna Harbour, on the is admirably (iiuateJ tor inland navigation, l)ein?in'e/. Cnonda^, E°\ fame coaft — //;. '^'^''^^ by the two navi-able rives Seneca and dhvego. ^"''''='^- ONION, Ca/>r, on the fouth-well fide of Ncwf unJ- having belides 5 lakes and a number of creeks. There land Iflmd, is about four leagues well ot Qu rpon were 1323 cf the mliabitanis qualified to be e'lcflors in Illand, or the norihern point of that extenfive liland Oniom River, in the State of Vermont, formerly c.:lled French River, and by the Indians Winoojli, rifes in Cabot, about 14 miles to the welt of Conned cut ri- ver, and is navigai'le for fmall velfels 5 miles from its mouth, in Lake Champlaiii, between ihe towns of Bur- lington and Colcherter ; and for boats between its fe- 1796, as appears by the State cer.fus.—//.. Onondago, formerly the chief town of the Six Ni- tions, fituated in a very pleafunt and fruitful coun'ry. and conliltcd of five Imall towns or villages, al out VJ miles S. W. ot Whiteltown — ,-^ ^ ^ ONONDAGOE.S, a tri ,e of Indians who live nc,r Onondago Lake. About 20 years fince they couKl furmlh 260 warriors. In 1779 a regiment of men was vcial falls. It is ( ne ot the finelt llreams in Vermont, feut from Albany, by Gen. 1. Clinton who furpiized and runs through a moll fertile country, the produce of the town ot thia tnbc, took 33 prifoners killed 12 or which for fever.il miles on each (ide of the river, is 14, and returned without the lofs of a man Ataitof bronght down to the lake at Burlington. It is fiom the Indians ^^ere then ravaging the American frontiers 20 to 30 rods wide, 40 miles from its mouth, and its This nation, which now condils of 4-0 fouls receives defcent in that dillance is 172 feet, which is abnnt 4 annually from the Itate of Nsw York 2 coo dollars • feet to the mile. Between Burhngton and Colcheder and from the United S'ates about 4-0' dollars ib ' this river his worn through a folia rock of lime-llone, ONISCL'S (See Encycl.). 'J"wo new fpecies of this which in Ibme time r^i remote antiquity mull have genus of infeds were difcovcred by La Mart'w-ere the formed at this place a prodigious cataradt. The chafm naturalift who accompanied Peroule on his lalf' vo'v ice is between 70 and 80 feet in depth at low water, and of cifcovery. For the information of fuch of < ur read- in one place 70 feet from rock to rock, where a wooden ers as are entomologiffs, we Ihall give the au'hoi's de- bridge is thrown acrofs. At Bolton there is a chafm fcription of ihele fpecies. Of the firft which he fay of the fame kind, but fomewhat wider, and the rock is only r^ear'y anfweis to ilie "eueric chara'ifler l^\ on Tfi'' atleall 130 fee; in height. From one fide feveral rocks E (fig. i.) is a view of tlie upper part of its bodv' Plate have fallen tcrofs the river, in fuch a manner as to form and at F of the lower. Its body is crull;)reon<: n d ' < XXXll. a natural bridge at low water, but in a fitualicn to be an opaque white, wiih two round ru(l-col",ure'd' foot an objed of curiollty only. It was along this river that on the anterior part of its ctrllet; ttvo others n h the Indians formctly travelled from Canada, vhen they larger, in the form of a crefcenr, are on the ,;'■/ • > made their attacks on the frontier fcttlements on Con- ihicld is alfo of the lame colour. The unde '^ \ ' f nefticut river.—/*. the thorax is furnilhed with four pair of lees -"^ thYfiUi: ONONDAGO Cajlk, on the Onondago Refervation and third of which are teiminatcd wiih Iharo 1 u- Lands in the State ot New York, is 25 miles fouth-well the fecond, fiom its form, ferves it to fwim with ' th * of Oneida Callle.-,*. . . „_ ^ ^^ ^^ , *f""h is very Imall confiding of two membra'naceou! Onond.ago, or Salt Lake, in the State of New York, threads. Some fcales, alfo membranacerus and v is about 5 miles long and a mi!e broad, and fends its channelled, m.iy alio perform the oSice offers- of th I- waters to Seneca liver. The waters of the Salt fprings the two lower are tlie largelf. Its belly i.s filled -th here are capable of producing immei.fe quantities of vermicular intellinei ot the (ize of a hair • its mouth ' fait. One perfon near the lake boiled down at the rate placed between the firlt and feci nd pair of leo-t and is of 50 bulhels a week, in the year 1792, which he fold of the form cf a (mall trunk placed between^two lips for five fiiillings a bulhel; but any quantity may be joined only at the upper extremity. ' made, and at a lefs price. Thefe fprings are in the Fig. 2. reprelents an inl'edt of the senus on/ZTaj State refervation, and are a great benefit to the country, L'mn. Its body is nearly of the form, conliflence and every part of which is fo united by lakes and rivers as colour, of the onifcm afellus, except that it is no't d'. to render the fupply of this bulky and necclfary article vided by fegments as ttiis lall is. It has a double tall' very eafy.— ,*. _ r m v ., u- u -r • u ^^'!^\'''""^\'.^^"S *^ '^'^ body ; from the infertion If ON0ND.iGO, a river ot New York, which rifes in the which, at the hinder part of the body, fprinT two lee-; Oneida Lake, and runs weltwardly into Lake Ontario ufed chiefly by the animal in t'wimmiri"- up,m i-s back' at Ofwego. It is boatabie from its mouth to the head The miitU viewed on the lower part'^H, prefents fi.? of the lake, 74 miles, except a fall which occalions a pair of legs; the two firll of which terminate in very portage of 20 yards, thence battcaux go up Wood- Iharp and thick points; it makes ufe if the third to Creek almoll to Fort Slanwix, 40 miles, whence there fwim with, and to balance its boav, together wiih that is a portage of a mile to Mohawk river. Toward the pair which is inferted at tiie bafe ot tlielail ; the fourth head of this river, falmon are caught in great numbers, pair, and the laigelt of all, is armed with two very (harp — '*• points, which the animal forces into the body cf any Onond.^co, a county of New York State, confiding tilh on which it Iti^es ; the two lad pair are nothing of military lands divided into 11 townlhips viz. Ho- more than very finely divided membranes. Between mer, I'ompey, Manlius Lvfander, Marcellus, Ulyffcs, the two firll is fituated it. trunk, fm. oth.'and about Milton, Scipio, Aurelius, Ovid, and Romulus. The half a line long ; at the bafe of the third pair are two county is bounded wcderly by On-ario county, and points, cf a horuey confidence, very hard, and fiimly northerly by Lake Ontario, the Onondago river, and fixed. The two horns a:fo below ihelai'e pair ot le'S Oneida Lake. The county coutts are held in the vil- aie, in like manner, very fimiiy ui,itcd''to its bodv SuppL. Vol. II. , <) ict . • 4 x^ Martinieie O O N [ 674 ] OPE Onflow, Marlinierc imagines it to be by means of tbefe darts who alfo keep them in fubj^aion. There is a channel II that it pierces th: body of the filh on which it ii found, between this and the land to the north, aboui a niile OMalaflikj. yj^j ,]jjj ,j,j(,^ changing its fituatlon, it finds means to introduce its trunk into ihe holes thua formed. When put into a gljfs it fmks to the bot'om, and rifes again 10 the furface with the greatcft eafe, advancing with the edge of its body, and defcribing curves. Its two Jung tails are very eafily pulled off, without the animal appearing to fuller any pain. ONSLOW, a ni.iiitime county of Wilmington dif- tria, N. Carolina, W. of Cape Lookout. It contains ^,387 inhabitants, including I748llaves. Chief town, Swanlb-irough. — Morse broad, in which are foundings from 40 to 27 fathoms. N. lat. 53 55, W. long. 166 31. — ill. OPAQUE, not tranllucent, nor tranfparent, or not admitiing a free pallage to the rays of light. OPARO or Oparro, the name given by Captain Vancouver to a fmall ifland which he difcovered in la- titude 27° 36' fouth, and in longitude 215° 49' eaft from Greenwich. It was eftimated at about 61 miles in length, and no other land was in fight. Its principal character is a clufter of high cragg) mountains, form- ng, in feveral places, moll romantic pinnacles, with per- Onslow, a townlh'p of Nova Scotia, Halifax county, pendicular cliffs nearly iVum their fummits to the fea ■at the head of the Ba'fin of Minas 35 miles N. E. of Windfor, and 46 N. by W. of Halifax. It was fettled by emit^rants from New England. — ib. ONr.-\RIO, one of that grand chain of lakes which divide the United States from Upper Canada. It is fituated between l.it. 43 15 and 44 N. and long. 76 30 and 80 W. Its form is neaily elliptical ; its gieateft length is from S. W. to N. E. and its circuniteience ab("ut 600 miles. The divifi.jn line between the State of New York and Canada, on the N. paffes through this lake, and leaves within the United States 2,390,000 acres of the water of Lake Ontaiio, accordinj^ to the calculation of Mr Hutchins. It abounds with filh of an excellent flavour, among whicli ate the Ofwego bafs, weighing 3 or 4 lbs. Its banka in mary places are deep, and the fouthem ftiore is covered principally with beech trees, and the lands appear good. It communicates with Lake Erie by the river Niagara. It receives the waters of Geneffee river from the S. and of Onondago, at Fort OlVego, from the S. E. by which it communicates through Oneida Lake, and Wood Creek, with the Mo- hawk river. On the N. E. this hike difcharges itfelf into the rivei Cataraqui, (which at Montreal takes the name of St Lawrence) into the Atlantic Ocean. It is alferted that thefe lakes fill once in 7 years ; but the fi£t is doubted. The iflands are all at the ealtern end, the chief of which are Wolf, Amherft, Gage, and Howe Iflands. — it. Ontario, a large, fertile county of New York, com the vacancies between the mountains would more pro- perly be termed chafms than valleys. The tops of fix of the hlghcft hills bore the appearance of fortified places, refembling redoubts ; having a fort of bluck- houfe, in the fliape of an Englilh glafs-houfe, in the centre oi each, with rows of palifadoes a ccnfiderablc way down the fides of the hills, nearly at equal di- ftances. Thefe overhanging, feemed intended for advan- ced works, and apparently capable of defending the cita- del by a few againft a numerous hoft of affailants. On all of litem people were noticed as if on duty, conllantly moving about. What we confidered ..fays the author) as block-houfe?, from their great fimiliariiy in appearance- to that fort of building, were fufficiently large to lodge a conlideiable number of perfons, and were the only ha- bitations we fdw. Yet, frcm the number of canoes that in fo ftiort a time affembled round the Englilh fhip, it is natural to conclude, that the inhabitants are very fre- quently afloat ; and to infer, that the fhores, and not thole fortified hills which appeared to be in the centre of the ifland, would be preierred for thelrgeneral refidence. Whether the fortified places here defcribed were in- tended for defences of the iflanders againft each other, or againft attacks ftom fome more powerful neigh- bours, could only be conjeftured ; but the latter idea feenis the mi ft probable. From the language of the people, and their refemblance to the Friendly iflanders, Captain Vancouver confiders them all as having fprung from the fame original flock. The people of Oparo,. prehending the Geneffee country, and bounded N. by however, are diftlnguiihed by two circumftances, cer- the lake of its name. It is well watered by Gennelfee tainly in their favour. Not one of them was tattowed ; river, its tributaries, and a number of fmall lakes. Here and though they appeared not to have ever feen a Eu- are 8 towndiips, viz. Geneffee, Erwine, Jerufalem, ropean before, they all feemed perfedlly well acquainted Williamfburg, Toulon, Seneca, Bloomfield, and Cana- with the ufes to which they could apply iron, and pre- daqua, or Kanandaigua, which lafl is the chief town, ferred articles of it to lookingglaffes, beads, and other fituated at the N. W. corner of Canandarqna Lake, 15 trinkets, with which fava^es are ufually delighted. miles W. of Geneva, and 30 N. E. of VVlUiamlburg. Tills county was taken from Montgomery in 1789, and in 1790, contained 1,075 inhabitants, including 11 fl.ives. Such has been the emigration to this county, that there were, in 1796, 1258 of the inhabitarits who were qualified to be cledlors. — ib. ONZ.\N, a c.ipe or point on the north coaft of Bra- zil, oppofite to cape St Lawrence, forming together the points of Laguariba river ; the laiter cape being on the well fide of the river. The river is 10 leagues S. E. by E. of Bohi'i Bax.i. — lb. OONALASHKA, one of the iflands of the north- ern Archipelago, on the N. W. coaft of America, the natives of which have the appearance of being a very ground near Though there appeared to be anchorin the north weft end of the Ifland, circumftances rendered it inconvenient for Captain Vancouver to land on it; fo that we are yet in a great meafure ftrangers to the difpofitions ef the people, though they appeared to-be hofpitable. OPECKON Creei, in Virginia, a fouth-weft water cf Potowniac river. — Alone. OPEN Flank, in fortification, is that part of the flank which is covered by the orillon or fhoulder. OPENING 0/ lie Trenches, is the firft breaking of gri und by the befiegers, in order to carry on their ap- proaches towards a place. OPERA Glass, is a diagonal perfpeilive, of which peaceable people, bsing much polillied by the Ruflisas, the folio i/ving coacife and perfpicuous delcription is ta. kea-.' O P II Ophry*. ken from Dr Hiitton's Mathematical DIflionary. — ^^"^"^^ ABCD (Plate XLl.) reprelcnts a tube about tour inclies lona; ; in each fiJe of which there is a hr>le EF and GH, exactly agiinft t!ie mUdle of a pl.ine mirror IK, which r-flfi5ls the rays fMling upon it to the convex glals LM ; ihruUi»h which they are re- fiaded to the concive eye gl.ifs NO, whence they emerge parallel t" the eye at tlie hole rs, in the end of the tube. Let P a Qbe an objeft to be viewed, from which proceed the rnjs V c, a b, and Q__(/.- ihel'e rays, bein^ reflefted by the plane mirror IK, will Ihew the objeifl in the diie<flion c p, La, d q, in the image p q, equal to the onjcfl PQ, and as far behind the mirror as the objed is before it: the minor being placed fo as to make an angle of 45 degrees with the fides of the tube. And as, in viewii.g near objcifls, it is not necef- fary to magnify them, the focal Jiftances of both the glafles may be nearly equal ; or, if ihat of LM be three inches, and that oi NO one inch, the dirtance l.etween them will be but two inches, and the objeift will be magnified three times, being fufficient for the purpofes to which this glafs is applied. When the ohjed is very near, as XY, it is viewed through a hole x y, at the other end of ihe tube AB, without an eye glafs ; the upper part of the mirror be- ing polilhed tor that purpofe as well as the under. The tube unfcrews near the objeff -glafs L M, for taking out and cleanfing the gluTes and mirror. The pofiip n of the objeiff will be ereft through the concave eye-glafs. The peculiar artifice of this glafs is to view a perfon at a fmall dilfance, fo that no one (hall know who is obferved ; for the inflrument points to a different ob- jedl from that which is viewed; and as there is a hole on each fide, it is impoffiblc to know on which hand the objeiff is lltuated which you are viewing. It is chief- ly ufed in play-houfes; and hence its name: but we have feen it mod indecently employed by thofe who fhould have fet a better example, even in a cathedral church ! OPHRYS (See Encycl.) A new fpecies of this plant has been lately defcribed in the Annual Hampjhlre Repofitory, by a Fellow of the Linnean Society, in the following words : " Skm — about i 2 inches high, erefl, ftlpulate, geni- culate, pubefcent at the upper genicles. Spike — ftriftly fpiral, flowers fpirally afcending, about 24, brightly white. Upper petal ovato-acuminate, pubefcent, lightly ciliate, ftraight. Two middle petals oblong-rccui vcd. Two lower petals oblong-acuminate, lightly ciliate only on the lower lide near the bafe, projeiffing like ele- phant's tiifks. A'i-aarv, broad, recurved, ragged, bici- pitate. Leaves Jloral — carinate acuminate, ciliate reach- ing and pointing to the middle of the flowers. Leaves radical — Hve or fix, about fix inches long, narrow, at- tenuate both ways, acuminate, the lower more hailate. Leaves cauline — lanceolate, alternate. " Obfervation. — This plant has much the habir, as well as autumnal florefcence, of Oriental fpiralis, and is fo perfeiftly fpiral alf), that the fp.citic name of ihe other fhould tie alteied, as being no longer exclufively fpiral; at the fame time that a fpeciiic name Ihould be given to this: neither of which (fays the author) I ihall prcfumc to do, but fhall fugged it tj the Linnean So- ciety, of which I have the honour 'o be a Fellow." — This ophrys flowered, for the & il time, it is believed, in Englanii, in Hamplhire, 0.5fober 1796. [ 675 ] OPT OPHIUCUS, a r^.i llellatinn of the nortliern hemif- Ophincns,. phcre ; called a^li. Herpentarius. OPIUM (See Enrycl.), is a medicine of fuch intrin- ^^^^^ . fie Value, and of fo high a price, that every methr^d wh'ch proniifes to incieafe the quantity in the market mild be of imp'irtance. It was therefore, with much pnipriety, that ibe Society for the Encourugement of Arts, i^i. fome time ago, voted 50 guineas to Mr John Ball ot Willitoii, S' merfetlhire, for the d'fcovery of his me- thod of preparing opium from poppies of the growth of Enjiland. The poppies, which he recommends as the mod produdive, are the doulle or femi-douilr, of a dark colour ; tlie feeds of which he advifes to be fown the latter end of February, and again abiuit the fecond week in March, in beds three feet and a half wide (well pre- pared with good rotten dung, and ofien turned or ploughed, in order to mix it well, and have it fine;, erhei in fmall drills, three in each bed, in the manner fallads are fownj and when about two inches high, to thin thtm one foot apart; or otherwife, to fow them in beds, in the broad-cad way, and thin them to tlie fame did<nce. If tliey be kept free from weeds, they will grow well, and will produce from four to ten heads, (hewing large and different coloured flowers ; and when their leaves die away, and drop off, the pods then be- ing in a green date, is the proper time for extracting the opium, by making fuch longitudinal incifi >ns as are, for this purpofe, made in the ead (See Of iUM and Pa- paver, Encycl.) Immediately on tlie incifion being made, a milky fluid will ilfue out ; which is the opium, and which, being of a glutinous nature, will adhere to the bottom <>f the incilion ; but fome poppies are {o productive, that it will drop from the pod on the lenves underneath. Tlie next day, if the weather Ihould be fine, and a good deal of funthine, the opium will be found a greyiih fubdance, and fome almod turning black : it is thet to be fcraped from the pods, and (if any there) from the leaves, with the edge ot a knife, or other indrument for that purpofe, into pans or pots ; and in a day or two, it will be of a proper confidence to make into a mafs, and to be potted. According to Mr Ball, fields cannot be fown with any thing more lucrative to the farmer than poppies, efpecially if thofe fields have a fouth expofure. " Bjr a calculation (fays he) which J have made, fuppofing one poppy to grow in one fquare foot of earth, and to produce only one grain cf opium, more tlian ,^"50 will be coUeded from one datute acre of land ; but if we confider, that one poppy produces from three or four to ten heads, that in each head from fix to ten incifions may be made, and that from many of them, (I mean from one incifion) I have taken away two or three grains of opium — What mud then be the produce i" Mr Ball produced to the Society letters from Dr Latham of Bedford-row, Dr Pearfon of Leiceder- /quare, and Mr Wilton of Bedford-ftreet, declaring, that, in their opini n, his EngMh opium is equal inef- feit, and fuperior in purity, to the bed foreign opium. OPPS, a village in Northampton county, Penn- fylvania, 6 miles fouth-cad of Bethlehem, and about 7 north bv e.\[l of Quaker's Town. — Morse. OPTIC iNEtjuALiTY, in adronomy, is an apparent irregularity in the motions of far didant bodies; fo call- ed, betaufe it is not really in the moving bodies, but arifing from the fituation of the obferver's eye. For if 4 Q 2 the o r T [ C>-jG ] OPT Plate T. fig I. Appen- dix- llie eye were in the centre, it would always fee the mo- tions as they really are. Optic Pyramid, in perfpeflive, is a pyramid formed by tliC vi.lble objcifl which is the la/e, and the rays drawn from the perimeter of that objeifl-, which me.-t at the eye in a point, which is the a;c.\ of the pyramid. Hence, alfu, we may know what is meant by an opiic triangle. Optic R.iyi, particuhrly means thofe by which an optic pyramid, fr optic triangle, is terminated. OPTICS. Under this head in the EncyclopseJia n* 259 to 264 have been defciibed various kinds o{ inicrofcope>, which fee. The Rev. Dr John Prince cf Silem, MalTachufetts has politely favoured the editor with the following defcription of the Lucernal MicROSCOPF, the improvements of which are his in- vention. This account was publilhed by Mr Hill from Dr Prince's letter in the Gentleman's Magazine for N)V. 1796, and af;erwards in Mr Jones's new edition cf Adjnis's Microfcopical Elfays. The Luctrn.il being generally allowed to be the mofl jierleifl micrufcope, and of the moll extenfive ufe of any yet made, and a very material inipruvement in the con- lirudion of that dcl'criijed in the Microfcopical Effays «.f that indefatigable artid and worthy man the late Mr George Adams, Iravlng been fiigjieCled to him by the Rev. Dr Prince of Salem, Malfachufetts, at a time vhen I had given orders for one, I w.rs the firft perfon lor whom he made one on the new principle. " In the former ccnftruciion there was no contrivance fur bringing the objedl into the field of view ; fo that, upon the lead variation iti fnuation or fize, you were obliged to find out the place for the ohj-v5t by moving it backwards and lorwards. This is now remedied by mounting the microfcope on a firm d -uble joint like a telefcojie (as at B). The adjufting apparatus is fixed at the broad end. The j 'int is neirly in the centre of gravity, fo that a very fmall motion will bring any objeift, lefs than an inch in diameter, into the fis!d of view. Tiiis motion is efre>fted by two fcrews at right angles to each other ; one fcrew raifing or covering the b'dy ; the other moving it fideways : the fcrew at the lame time forming a double joiiu to accommodate the parts to the movement (as at C). Tlie handle of the r.ickwork is Ihev^n at D. " To fcreen the image from the light (which will be often lound to be advantageous), there is a p)ramidi- cal box, of fuch a fize as to pack, when not ufed, in the body of the microfcope. When in ufe, the broad end of the fcreen-box is to be fl ded into the groove Jrom which the external cover at the end has been taken. This method is peculiarly ufcful in the day- liine ; a=, by fcreening the large lenfes from the light, it may even th;n be ufed with faiisfaftion." A A llrew the body of the microfcope. " The large lens may occaficnally be placed on the cuter-edue ot the fcreen-box (the other lens being taken out). The view on the grey glafo is by this means nragnified, -and appears to greiter advantage. But, befides the grey glafs ufed in the former conllruflion, there is a fecond in this, placed farther within the body (about where the dotted line is in the Iketch) ; and, when the l.ir-e lens is in the fcreen box, I think objeas appear better in this than the formsr way. It has a ftiU greater eff-.a upon ihofe who are unacquainted with the nature of lenfes, as it makes them judge the dilfance and magnitude mu.h greater than they really ^ aie, and is, therefore, more pleafing than the grey glafs in front." E (hews the bottom board, of mahogany. *' It is fcarcely necelfary to obferve, that only one grey glafs can be ufed at a time, and that both are to be taken out when opake objeds are viewed. " The ftage (F) is confiderably different from that figured in my eflays. It is much more convenient and commodious than the other, and anfwers with very little trouble, and fcarcely any alteration for both tranf- parent and opake objects. A truncated cone can alfo be here applied for cutting off fuperfiuous rays of light occafionally. " The method of illuminating the objsdls is alfo different. The mode now adopted anfwers better for opake and tranfparent cbjefts, throws a ftronger light, and is more convenient in application. It confilU of two lenfes (i and 2). The larger one is to be placed at the end of the bar next the lamp. The fmaller one to be adjuded fo as to give a (Irong light. A third is alfo added, to be ufed occafionally v/ith opake objeils. It is to be applied clofe to the hirge lens. Experience will (hew when it is to be ufed, and wlien laid afide. " By moving the bar G (on which ihefe lenfes are placed) round ab ut, you biini? it fo much fronting the ftage as effedually to enlighten opake objeds (by means of the lamp. The light thus afforded is receiv- ed direitly, and none is loll by refleiftion. " As f.ime objecfls (fuch as feiSions of wi^od) are fcen to advantage both as tranfparent and opake, a frame, co;it. lining a plain and a concave mirrur, is added to this inftrument, ferving two purpofes ; by bringing the bar to the front of the ftage, removing the latge lens, and putting the miror in its place, the objefS may be viewed either way, without moving from the feat, by turning the inftrument a little round. This experience will difcover. •» The light of the fun may be thrown by the plain mirror on the condenfing lens fo as to produce a ftror.-g full field of light on the grey glafs. This has a grand effedt when the large lens is at the end of the fcreenbox, and Could not at all be applied in this manner in former conftruftions. It bee ime alfo an opake folar micro- fcope by turning the bar round to enlighten opake ob- jefls. " By bringing the concave mirror to a focus that w'ill burn objedls, a fet of very curious and entertain- ing experiments mjy be made and exhibited on the grey glafs. The object for combuftion fhould be put in the nippers, and a piece of fiate tied as a ground on the ftage. The ebullition of a piece of alum viewed in this manner is very beautiful ; the bubbles, as they rife and pafs off rapidly, appear tinged with all the colours of the rainbow. " There are large-fized magnifiers for the purpofe of throwing tranfparent objefts on a fcreen, in imitation of the fohir microfcope. By removing the large hnfes in front, and the grey glafs, and placing the black tin cylinder (reprefented in the drawing by dofed marks) over the lamp, they may be fhewn in that manner to feveral perfons. Thus tliis inftrument fupetfedes the ufe of a lantern. The image may be contrafled occa- fionally by one of the large lenfes." With. Optics. O R A C ^11 ] O R A Wuh refpe<ft to my own improvement, it is certainly iiiflieJ from Spain ; and the fame may, in a great mea- trifling in C(imp;irifon with the former ; yet, as it unites fure, be fdid of the foldiers, who compofe the garrifun. thofe parts of the inftiumeni that were lieretofoie fepa- Five regiments aie commonly ftationed here ; but ow- rate, and theieby not only make^ the w-hole more com- ing to continual delcition, tlieir ftrength fcarcely equah pad, but keeps the lamp always in the p.>rition requir- tiiat of four complete regiments. One of them wholly eJ, notv.'ithllanding any motion of the niachii-eiy for confids cf maletaftors, who have been condenmed to adjuHing the focal dilUuce of the different iiiagnifiers, remain here for life ; the reft are fuch as have been 1 have fund it extremely ct^nvenicnt, and have no .tianfpoi ted for one or more years. There is here liLe- doubt of its being thought fo by oihirrs w-ho may pleafe wife a military Ichool. Around the city are pleafanc to adopt it. It is very limple, as the following de- gardens; but it is very dangerous to cultivate them, oq fcriptive reference to the plate w ill evince. account of the Moors and Arabs who frequently lie in H, the brafs fupporter to the arm G, to enable It to ambulh among them. The fame reafon prevents the fuftain the weight ot the lamp. This turns round cultivation of the fields in the vicinity ; and the garri- with the bar on the ftage pillar at M. fon and itihabltanls niuft be fupplied with provifiou.- im- I, a braf-icap (foldercd to the luppoiter), and which mediately from Spain, flips over the Aider that cairies the lens 2. ORANG's Key, one of the Bahama illands, in the K, a ftnmg joint lallciied to the faid cap, which Weft-Indies. N. lat. 24 28, weft Ion". 79 37. Morse. gives the lamp an horizontal movement when an ob- ORANGE, a bay on the north-eaft coallof the ifland lique light is required. At the end of this, the lamp of Jamaica, E. N. E. of the high mountain, a little is fixed in fiuh manner as eafily to flide in a perpendi- within land, under which is Crawford's-Town. Alfo cular dlreaicn to regul ite the height of the light. a bay at the n>jrth-weft end of the fame illand, between L, a fquare piece of brafs, to be occafionally fcrew- Gieen-Illand N. and North Negrll haibour S. or S. W. eJ into the refervoir ot the lamp, to carry the tin cy- — ib. linder when it is wifhed to throw iranfpaient ohjeds on Orange, a cape, the eaft point of Oyapok river a fcreen. f-mth-eaft ot Cayenne Mand. N. lat. 4 20, Will long. The fixing of Mr Hill's lamp to it is a convenience 50 50. — ib. in ufing the inftrumcnt ; but not effentlal, and it con- ORANGt Key, or Cay, a fmall ifland in Orange bay fines the lamp to this ufe only, wheieas on a ftand by at the north-weft end of the ifland of Jamaica. ib. itfelf it may anfwer as well for family ufe as for the Orange, a county of Vermont, which in 1790 con- niicrofcope. tained 10,529 inhabitants. Since that time feveral OR, Cape d\ in Nova Scotia, is fituated on the north other counties have been ereded out oTit. It is bound- Cde of the Bafin of Minas. Some fmall pieces of cop- ed weft by part ot Addifon and Chittenden counties per have been found here. — Murse. and eaft by Connedlicut river. It now contains 20 OR A Caleca Bay, on the north fide of the ifl and of townthips. The county-town, Neu bury, and the town- Jamaica, in the Weft Indies, has a ftrong fort on the fiiips fouth of it, viz. Biadford, Fairlee and Thetford eaft fide, and Salt Gat wefteily ; at both thefe places is Iront Coniiedllcut river. It is high land, and lends nu- good anchorage for large veifels. — ib. mtroui ftreams in oppofiie directions, boih to Connec- ORANAI, or Raiiai, one of the Sandwich Iflands ticut river and to Lake Champlaln. ib. in the N. Pacific Ocean, 9 miles from Mowee and Mo- Orange, a townlhip on the north line 1 f the above rotoi. The fouth point is in lat. 20 46 north, and county, in the uorth-eaft corner of which is Knox's long. 15652 weft. — ih. Mountain. — ib, ORAN, aconfiJerable city, occupied by the Spa- Orange, formerly Cardlgan,a. towndiip in Grafton niards, in the province of Mafcura, in the country of county. New Hamptliire, which gives rife to an eaft Algiers. It has ftrong and regular fortifications, and branch of Malcomy river. It was incorporated in can eafily be fupphed trom Spain with provifions and 1769; contains 131 inhabitants; and is 20 miles eaft of Warlike ftores. It lies in 35' of longitude weft from Dartmouth college. — ib. Greenwich, and in 35" 55' norili latitude. Since the Orange, a townlhip of MalFachufetts, fituated on the year 1732, the Spaniards have held uninterrupted pof- eaft line of Hamplhiie county, on Millei's liver qj. ietfion of Oian. It has a [arilh church, thiee inona- miles N. W. by W^. of B.jfton. It was incorporated lleiies, an hofpital : and the number of tlie iiiliabltants, in 17H3. and contains 784 inhabitants. ib. according to the account given if it by the Spaniards, Orange, a mountainous and hilly county of New. amount to 12,000. Towards the fea, the city rifes in York, which contains all that p.irt of the State bounded the form of an amphl'hc-atre, and is lurroundcd with foutheily by the State of New Jerfey, wcfterly bv the lorts and batteries. Clofe to the city lies a ftrong caftle. State of Pennl'ylvania, callerly by the middle of MudVon's Akazava in which the Spinifh governor refides. On river, and northerly by an eaft and weft line from llie the higheft hill ftands Fort St Croix, whofe guns com- middle ot Murderer's Creek. It is di\idcd into 8 mand the city and the adjacent country. From this tow.ihips, of which Golhen is the chief, and contains i'ort they make (ignals of the approach of iliips, and 18,492 inhabitants, of whom 2,09^ are eleiflors and carefully watch the motions of the Moors, who often 966 Haves. In this county are laifed large quan;iiies attempt predatory incurfion^ into the neighbouring di- of excellent butter, which is collected at Newburghand llrids. A con'.'ideral.le number of Mahoniedans take New Windfor, and thence tranfported to New York jefuge in Oran ; they dwell in a diftiiet part of the ci- On the N. Ildc of the mouiitaino in this county, is a very ty, receive pay from the court of Spam, and render fig- valuable iraiit called the Drowned Lands, containing lial fervices againft the Moors. The grcateft part of about 40 or 50,000 acres. The waters which defcend the inhabitants of Oiau confiils of fudi as have bt;en ba- from ihc furrouuding hill.', being but flow ly difdiargedi by O R A [ 678 ] O R A by tlie river ifTuing from it, cover thefe vad meadows every winter, and render them extremely fertile ; but they expoie the ii hibitants of the vicinity to intermit- tents. Wallkill river, which palfes through this traft and empties into Hudfon's liver, i.s in the Ipring, ftnred with very large eels in great plenty. The boitom ot this river is a broken rcclc j and it is fuppoftd that for /,'2,ooo the channel might be deepened fo as to drain oiT the waters, and thereby redeem from tlie floods a large- traa of rich land, for grafs, hemp and Indian corn. — ii. Orangr, called alfo Orangedale, a town in Effex county, New Jerfey, coniaiiung about 80 houfes, a Prefoyterian church, and a flourilhing academy, and lies norlhweft of Newark, adjoining. — ib. Orange, a county <.f HiHPoonnigh diftridl, North Carcilin.i ; bound.-d north by Cafwell counly, and fouth by Chatham. The rivers Haw and Enoe in this county have rich lands en their borders. It contains 12,216 inhabitants, of whom 2,060 are flaves. Chief town Hlllfcorough. — ib. Orange, a county of S. Carolina, in Orangeburg diftria.— /■*. Orange, a connty of Virginia, bounded north by Culpepper, and fouth by Albemarle. It contains 9,921 inhabitants, including 4,421 (laves. The court- lioufe ia fituated 20 miles from Culpepper court houfe, 30 from Charlotteville, and 273 from Philadelphia. —ib. ORANGEBURG.a diftria of S. Carolina, bounded fouth-wefl by Savannah river; eaft by the river San- tee ; and nurth-eaft by the Congaree, which divide it from Camden diftria; fouth by Beaufort, and fouth-eaft by Charlefton diftria. It contains 18,513 inhabitants, of whom 5,93 I are flaves. Sends to the ftate legiflature 10 reprelentdtives and 3 fenators ; and, with the dif- tria of Beaufort, one member to congrefs. It is divided into 4 counties, viz. Lewifburg, Orange, Lex- ington and Winton. — ib. Orangeburg, a pod town of S. Carolina, and capi- tal of the above diftria, is on the E. fide of the north branch of Edifto river. It has a court houfe, jail, and about 50 houfes; diftant 77 miles N. N. W. of Charlef- ton, 36 foutherly of Columbia, and 721 from Phila- delphia. — ib. ORANGE Men, an appellation affumed by certain focieties in Ireland, of which the firft was formed in the county of Armagh, on the 2 1 (I of November 1 795, others in fome town^ of UUler and Leinfler in the year 1797, another in the city of Dublin 1798; and fince that period, thefe focieties have fpread over the whole of that kingdom. The objta of thefe aflbciations is exhiliited in the following authentic Declaration of the Principles of Orange-men, publifhed 1799. " From the various attempts that have been made to poifon the public mind, and flander thofe who have had the fpirit to adhere to their kin^ and conllituiion, and to maintain the laws : — " We, the Protedants of Dublin, afTuming the name of Orange-men, feel ourfelves called upon, not to vin- dicate our principles, for we know that our honour and loyalty bid defiance to the Ihafts of malevolence and dif- affeaion, but openly to avow thofe principles, and de- clare to tbe world the objeas of our inditution. Orai'ge- town. " We have long obferved, with indignation, the ef- Orangec forts that have been made to foment rebellion in this Men, kingdom, by liie feditiou^, who have formed themfelves into focieties, under the fpecious name of United Irifj' men . s, " We have feen with pain the lower orders of our fellow-lubjeas, forced or fediiced froni their allegiance, by the threats or macliinations c.{ trailors. " And we have viewed with hoiror the fuccefsful ex- ertions ('( mijcreanis, to encourage a foreign enemy to invade this happy land, in liopes of rifing into confe- quence on the downlal of their country, " We therefore thought it high time to rally round the conlbiution, and there pkdge ourfelves to each other, to mainta'n the laws, and fupport our good king againft all his enemies, whether rebels to their God or to their country ; and by fo doing, ihew to the world that there is a body oi men in this ifland, who are ready, in the hour of danger, to ftand forward in defence of that grand palladium of our liberties, the conftitu- tion ot Great Britain and Ireland, obtained and eftab- liflird by the courage and loyalty of our anceftors under the Great King William. " Fellow-fubjeas, we are accufed with being an in- JlilutiuB, f 'unded on principles too fhocking to repeat, and bound together by oaths, at which human nature may fhudder : but we caution you nor to be led away by fuch malevolent falfehoods; for we folemnly affure you, in the prefence of the Almighty God, that the idea of injuring any one, on account of his religious opinion, never entered into our hearts : we regard every loyal fubjea as our friend, be his leligion what it may ; we have no enmity but to the enemies of our country. " We farther declare, that we are ready, at all times, to fubmit ourfelves to the orders of thofe in authority under his majetly, and that we will cheerfully under- take any dmy which they fliall think proper to point out for us, in cafe either a foreign enemy Ihall dare to invade oui coaft s, or that a domeilic foe (hall prefume to raife the tlandard of rebellion in the land. To thefe principles we are pledged — and in fupport of them we are leady to fpend the laftdropofour bh od. — (Signed) Thomas Verner, Grand Majler; John Clan. Beresford, Grand Secretary; William James, J. De Joncoi»rt, Ed- ward Ball." ORANGETOWN, or Greenland, a plantation in Cumberland county, Maine, N. W. of Waterford. One branch of Songo river rifes in the northern part of this plantation, within about 3 miles of Amarifcoggin river, where there is a pond, 2 miles Ion;:, called Songo Pond, from thence the ftream runs fouth ward. It is very difficult to effea roads through this mountainous country ; f ime of the mountains affording precipices 200 feet perpendicular. The fides of the mountains and vallies are fertile, produce good crops, and in fome inftances afford wild onions, which refenible thofe that are cultivated. Winter rye, which is the chief pro- duce, has amounted to 20 bulhels an acre The coun- try in the neighbourhood formerly abounded with variety of game, viz. moote, deer, bears, beaver, ra- coon, fable, &c. but fince it has been inhabited, game has become fcarce ; deer are extirpated from the vici- nity ; fome moofe remain among the mountains, and a few beaver, that are too fagacious to be taken by the inoft ORG [ C79 3 O R D Oraiigc- town, II Orchanl. moft crafty hunter. Since the deer have been deftroyed, the wolves have wholly left this part of the country. — Morse. Orangetown, in Orange criunty, New Yotk, is fituited un the well fide of the Tappan Sea, oppi)fiti Philipfburgh, and about 27 miles north of New York city. The townfhip is bounded ealUrly by Hudfon's river, and foutheily by the (late of New Jerfcy. It contains 1175 inhabitants, of whom 162 are electors, and 203 fl.ives. — ib. Orangetown, in WaOiington county, Maine, is 19 miles dillantfrom Machias. — ib. ORCHARD. As an appendix to this article in the Encycl. fome of our readers will be pleafed vi-ith the following means, employed by the Rev. Mr Ger- vierjhauffn, for promoting the growth of young trees, and intreafing the iu-t. and flavour of the fruit in or- chards. Having planted feveral young plum-trees in an or- chard, he coveted the ground, for fome ye ts, around the tiunks, as far as the roots extended, with flax-lhows (a) ; by which means thofe trees, though in a grafs- helJ, increafed in a wonderful manner, and far excelled other', piinted in cultivated ground. As far as theihows reached, the grafs and weeds were choaked; and the foil under them was fo tender and foft, that no better mould could have been wifbcd for by a florilh When he obferved this, he covered the ground with the fame fubllance, as far as the routs extended, around an old plum-tree, which appeared to be in alangttifhing ftate, and which ItooJ in a grafs field. The confequen- ces wete, that it acqtiired a lliong new bark ; produced larger and better-tailed fruit; and that thofe young (hoots, which before grew up around the (lem, and which it was every year neceffary to dellroy, were pre- vented from fprouting forth, as the covering of flax- fhows impeded the free accefs of air at the bottom of the trunk. In the year 1793, he tranfplanted, from feed-beds, into the nurfery, feveral fruit-tiees ; the ground around fome of which he covered, as above, with flax-rtiows. Notwithftanding the great heat of the fummer, none of thofe trees where the earth was covered with ihows died or decayed; becaufe the fhows prevented the earth un- der them from being dried by the fun. Ot thofe trees around which the ground was not covered as before mentioned, the fourth part mifcarried ; and thofe that continued alive were far weaker than the tormer. The Uaves which fall from trees in autumn may alfo be employed for coveiing the ground in like manner; but Hones, or loc;s of wood, mud be laid on them, to prevent their being difperfed by the wind. In grafs- iand, a fniall trench may be made around the roots of the tree, wlien planted, in order to leceive the leaves. If fl.ix-lh'.ws are ufed, this is not necelTary; they lie on the furface of the ground fo fall as to refill the force cf the moll violent ll .rm. The leaves which our au- thor found mod effedual in piomoting the growth and fertility of fruit trees, are thofe of the walnut-tree. Whether it is, that, on account of their containing a gi eater abundance of faline particles, tliey communicate manure to the ground, which thereby becomes tender under them ; or that they attraft nitrous particles (rom the atmofphere ; or that, by both thefe means, they , tend to nourilh the tree both above and below. Thofe who are defirous of raifing tender exotic trees from the feed, inoider to accuftcm them to our climate, may, when they tranfplant them, employ flax-fhows with great advantage. Thi^ covering will prevent the froll fiom making its way to the roots ; and rats and mice, on account of the (liarp prickly points of the flax-lhows, will not be able to Ihelter themfelves under them. ORCHILLA, a weed ufed in dyeing, which grows in the Canary Iflands, and is monopolized by the go- vernment. " It is a minute vegetable (fays Sir George Staunton), of the lichen kind, growing chiefly upon rocks of a loofe texture, and produces a beautiful vio- let blue colour." Orchilla, one of the Leeward ill.inds in the Well-Indies, fituated near the coall of Terra Firma, S. America; between the iflands of Tortuga and Reca, 15 or 16 leagues north-well of the former, and 6 or 7 E. and E. by N. of the latter. It is about 8 leagues long. On the S. and S. W. fide, the llrand is lleep and bold, fo that a fhip may lay her brsadfide clofe to the fiiore ; but the north fide is foul and rocky. Here is no good water, nor indeed any thing elfe but (belter from northerly winds, and goat's flelh. It is divided in- to feveral fmall iflands, feparated from each other by (hallow canals. N. lat. 1152, W. long. 65 15. — Morse. ORDADO Rock, near the coall of Peru, is 4 miles fouth by eall of Port Callao. Near it are fome fmaller ones, and round them from 9 to 16 fathoms water. — ib, ORDEAL. See this article in the Encydopdd'm, at the end of which we have given, from Dr Henry's Ki- ftory of England, fome llrong reafons fur fufpecfting that the ordeal, by fire at leafi, was a grofs impofitioi\ on the credulity of an ignorant and fuperflitious age. This fufpicion of impolture is raifed to certainty by ProfelTor Beckmann, who, in his Hillory of Inventions, gives us the whole procefs by which the clergy con- duced the trial, and brought proofs of innocence or of guilt at their pleafure. The perfon accufed was put entirely under their mandgement tor three days before the trial, and for as many after it. They covered his hands (when he was to lift red-hot iron) both before and after the proof ; fealed and unlealed the coverinij. The former was done, as they pretended, to prevent the hands from being prefared any how by art ; the latter^ that it might be accurately known whether or not they were burnt. Some artificial preparation was therefore known, el.e no precautions would have been necelfary. It is highly probable, that during the three fiifl days the preventa- tive was applied to thofe perlons whom th;y wilhed to appear innocent ; and that the three days after the trial were requifite to let the hands refume their natural ftate. The facred lealing fecured them from the examination of prefumptuous unbelievers ; tor to determine whether the hands were burnt, the three laft days were certain- ly not wanted. When the ordeal was abolifhed, and this (a) Shows are ihc rcfuii: oi £a;c wbea ii is fcut<,b«J cr heckled. O R F [ 68 Oreihou, this art rendered ufelefs, the clergy no longer kept it a II fecret. In the 1 3th crntiiry, an account of it was puh- Orfc^rJ. jjfi,pj ijy Albeuus M:ignus, a Dominican monk (a). H his receipt be genuine, it feems to have confifted ra- ther in covering the hands with a kind of pafte than in hardening them. The fapof the allhiea (marlhmallovv), the (limy feeds of the flea-bane, which is dill ufed for rtilfening by the hat-makers and filk-weavers, together with the white of an egg, were employed to make the parte adhere. And by thefe means the hands were as fafe as if they had been fecured by gloves. OREAHOU, or Oreehnu, a fmall elevated illand, clofe to the north fide of Oneeheow, one of the Sand- wich Iflands, with which it is connefled by a reef of coral rocks. It contains about 4,000 inhabitants. N. lat. 222, W. long. 160 S. — Morse. ORFFYREUS's Wheel, in mechanic?, is a ma- chine fo called from its inventor, which he aiferted to be a peipetual motion. This machine, according to the Huiion, account given of it by Gravefande, in his Oeuvres Pln- Diilionary. lofophtques, publiflied by AUemand, Amft. 1774, con- filled externally of a large circular wheel, or rather drum 12 ttet in diameter, and 14 inches deep; being very light, as it was formed of an aflemblage of deals, having the intervals between them covered with waxed cloth, to conceal the interior parts ot it. The two extremities of an irrn axis, on which it turned, relied on two fupports. On giving a flight impulfe to the ■wheel, in either dire(5llon, its motion was gradually ac- celerated ; fo that, after two or three revolutions, it ac- quired fo great a velocity as to make 25 or 26 turns in a minute. This rapid motion it aflually preferved du- ring the fpace of two months, in a chamber of the land- grave ot Helfe, the door of which was kept locked, and fealed with the landgrave's own feal. At the end of that time it was flopped, to prevent the wear of the materials. The prolelfor, who had been an eye wit- nefs to thefe circumrtances, examined all the external parts of it, and was convinced that there could not be any communication between it and any neighbouring room. Oiffyreus, however, was fo incenfed, or pre- tended to be fo, that he brcke the machine in pieces ; and wrote on the wall, that it was the impertinent cn- riofity of Profeffor Gravefande which made him take this Hep. The prince of Heife, who had feen the in- terior parts of this wheel, but fw.irn to fecrecy, being alked by Gravefande, whether, after it had been in mo- tion for fome time, there was any change obfervable in it, and whether it contained any pieces that indicated ("raud or deception ? anfwered both queftions in the ne- gative, and declared, that the machine was of a very * limple conflru(flirn. ORFOKD, a townfhip in Grafton county. New Hamplhire, fituated on the eaft bank of Connefticut river, about 1 1 miles north of Hanover, and oppofite to Fairlee in Vermont, 595 miles N. N. E. of Phila- delphia. It was incorporated in 1761, and contains O ] 540 inhabitants. o R I The foap-rock, which has the pro- perty of fuller's earth in cleanfing cloth, is found here; alfo alum ere, free-rtone fit for building, and a grey ftone, in great demand for mill flones, reckoned equal in quality to the imported burr-dores. — Morsf. Orford, Cape, the northwerternmoft point of the large i{l,ind to the wellward of Falkland's Sound in the Falkland's Iflands, in the S. Atlantic Ocean, and fouth- eaft of Cape Percival. — ih. ORICOU, a new fpecies of the vulture, difcovered by Vaillant at Orange river, in South Africa. As he thii ks it unqueftionably ihemoft beautiful of its genus, and tells, as ufual with him, a wrndeiful ftory about it, we have given a figure of this vulture in Plate XLI. Our traveller fays, that it is more than three feet high, and eight or nine in breadth of wing. Its feathers, the general hue of which is a light brown, are of a particular kind on the bread, belly, and (ides, where they are of unequal lengths pointed, curved like the blade of a fahre, and brilUe up dift'nfl from each other. The feathers being thus feparated, would difclofe to view the (kin on the breaft, if it were not completely covered with a very thick and beautiful white down, which is eafily fetn between the rtiffled plumage. A celebrated naturalill has faid, that "no bird has eye lafhes (r eyebrows, rr, at leaf!, hair round the eyes like that in quadrupeds." This aifertion, advanced as a general law of Nature, is a miftake. Not only the oricou has this peculiarity, but we know of many orher fpecies in which it exifls; fuch as, in general, all the c.ilaos, the fecretary, and feveral other birds of prey. Befide thefe eye laflies, the vulture in queftion has flifF black hairs on its throat. All the head and part of the neck are bare of feathers; and the naked fkin, which is of a reddifh colour, is dafhed in certain places with blue, violet, and white. The ear, in its external circumfer- ence, is bounded by a piomincnt fkin, which forms a fort of rounded crnch, that mull necelfarily heighten the faculty of hearing in this fpecies. Tliis kind of conch is prolonged for fome inches, and defcends down the neck ; which induced our author to give it the name of oricou. Its ftrength, he fays, mufl be very confiderable, if we may judge from its mtifcles and finews ; and he is perfuaded that there is not a flronger among the whole order of carnivorous birds, not excepting the famous condor, which fo many travellers have feen, but of which their defcriptions are fo different as to render its exift- ence extremely doubtful. But there was no occafion for this reafoning, and thofe inferences, if what he re- lates as fai5ts deferve any credit. The oricou which he defcribes, he firlf perceived perched on the carcafe of a hippopotamos, eagerly devouring its flcfh. He fhot at it, and wounded it flightly ; upon which, " though it had already gorged itfelf with a confiderable quantity of flelh (for upon opening it, he found in its ftomach no lefs a quantity xhan fx pounds and a half), yet its hun- ger (a) In his work De MiralUibut MtinJi, at the end of his book De Secreth Mulierum, Amflelod. lycz, 12m", p. 100. Experimentum mirabile quod facit homiucm ire in ignem fme Ixfione, vel portare ignem vel ferrum ignitum fine lasfione in manu. Recipe fuccum bil'malvoe, et albumen ovi, et femen pfylli et calcem, et pulveriza, et confice cum illo albumine ovi fuccum raphanl ; commifce ; ex hac confeft'one illineas corpus tuum vel manum, et dimitte ficcaii, et poftea iterum illineas, et poft hoc poteris auda&er fuftinere ignem fine nocu- jnento. ' O R O ger and voracity were fuch, that it ftruck its beak into the carcafe when attempting to take wing, as if defi- rous of carrying the whole ot it away. " On the other hand, the weight of the flefli it had devoured rendering it the more heavy, it could not ea- fily rife ; fo that we had time (fays he) to reach it be- fore it was on the w'ing, and we endeavoured to knock it on the head with the but-ends of our mufkets. It defended itfelf a long time with great intrepidity. It bit or ftruck at our weapons with its beak, and its ftrength was ftill fo great, that every (Iroke made a mark on the barrel of ihe piece," ORIENT, the eaft, or the eaftern point of the ho- rizon. Orient EqulnoHial, is ufed for that point of the horizon where the fun rifes, when he is in the equinoc- tial, or when he enters ihe figns Aries and Libra. Orient Aejli-val, ii the point where the fun rifes in the middle ot fummer, when the days are longeft. Orient Hybernal, is the point where the fun rifes in the middle of winter, when the days are fiiorteft. ORLEANS, the middle of the three northern coun- ties of Vermont. A part of Lake Memphremagog projefts into the northern part of it from Canada. It contains 23 townfliips. It is very high land, and fends its waters in almoft every diredion of the compafs. Clyde, Barton and Black rivers empty into Lake Mem- phremagog ; the waters of many branches of Miffifcoui, La Moelle, and Onion rivers, rifing here, fall into Lake Champlain ; thofe of Mulhegan and Pafumpfick empty into Connefticut river. — Morse. Orleans, a townlhip in the county of BarnQable, Maffachufelts, taken from the foutherly part of Eall- ham, and incorporated 1797. — ib. Orleans, Ifleof, is fitu.ited in the river St Lawrence, a fmall diftance below Quebec, and is remarkable for the richnefs of its foil. It lies in the middle of the river, the channel is upon the S. fide of the illand, the N. fide not having depth of water at full tide, even for fhallops. The S. W. end of the ifland is called Point Orleans. The coaft is rocky for a mile and a half within the S. channel, where there is a careening place for merchant fliips. Round Puint Levi, and along the S. E. fide of the river, the (hore is rocky, but the middle of the bafon is entirely free. — ib. Orleans, Old Foit, is fuuated on the W. bank of a bend of Miifouri river, in Louifiana, a confiderablc dil- tance from its mouth. — ib. ORODADA PENA, on the coaft of Pern, is two leagues due north ol Lobos de Payta, and i fouth by well of Pavta.— /i. OROMCOTO, a river of New Crunfwick, which empties into St John's river. By this palfage the Indians have a communication with Palfamaquoddy Bay.— /i. ORONDOCKS, an Indian tribe who live near Trols Rivieres, and could turniili 100 warriors about 20 years ago. — ib. ORONOKO, or Oromque, one of the largefl rivers of S. America, and is itmaik;ilile f'r its rifing and falling once a ytar only; for it gradually rifci during the f|).ice of 5 monih'i, and then leniains one month ft itii-iiiry, af er wliich it falls for 5 months, and in that flate continues fir one month alfo. Thefc alter- nate- ch.inges are regular, and even invariable. Perhaps SupfL, Vol. II. [ 681 ] O R O the rifing of the waters of the river may depend on Oronoko, the rains which conilantly fall In the mountains of the li Andes, (where the river has its fource) every year Orotava. about the month of April; and though the height of '~'"'''^~' the flood depends much upon the breadth or extent of the bed of the river, yet in one part where it is narrow- eft, it rifes to the aftonilhing height of 120 feet. The mouth of the river is S. by E. of the Gulf of Paria, in lat. 8 30 N. and long. 59 50 W. and oppofite to the Ifland ot Trinidad. It is large and navigable, and has many good towns on its banks, that are cliicfly inha- bited by the Spanifli, and is juincd alfo on the E. fide by the Lake Cafipa. There are two other iflands at its mouth, the entrance to which is alfo fcmewhat dan- gerous, as there is frequently a dreadful conflid between the tide of the ocean and the current of the river, that muft, for the reafons afligned, fometimes run very rapidly. It is faid the river, including its windings, takes a courfe of 1380 miles, and prefer ves the frefti- nefs of its waters twelve leagues from the mouth of that vaft and deep channel, within which it was confined. It may be confidered, however, as having many mouths, which are formed by die iflands that lie before its open- ing towards the ocean ; yet there are only two that are confidered as of any ufe for the purpofes of navigation. Thefe are the channels of Sabarima and Corobana, otherwife called Caribbiana. The latter lies in a S. by W. direiflion, and is alfo divided into two dillimft chan- nels, that afterwards meet again at the ifland of Trini- dad in the mouth of the Grand river. But pilots pretend to fay, that the mouth of this great river begins from the river Amugora, reaching from thence to the river Sabarima, and from thence about to the river Caribbiana ; and feme accounts Rate its mouths to be 40 in number, as it it were a coUeition of many rivers, all uniting at the mouth of the great river, and aflifling to convey the main flream of that river into the ocean. The weft paflage or channel of the river Oronoko, called by the Spaniards the Gulf of Paria, lies between Cape Salinas on the main, and the north-weft point of the ifland of Trinidad. It contains feveral iflands, which divide the ftream of the river into feveral branches, particularly the Great Boco, or mouth, which is the eafternmoft, being about gun-fhot wide, but having no foundings, with 300 fathoms, and the Little Boco, or Mouth, which is tlie wefternmoft, being * almoft as wide as the other, and having ground at from 50 to 60 fathoms. At New Cape Araya. on the north- ward tide of the mouth of this river, are fait pits which yield the linelt fait in the world. In fome maps, the head-waters are called Inircliia. — ib. OROPESA, a town in the jurifdiflion of La Plata, S. America; fituated 60 miles N. W. of that city, in the valley of Cochabaniba, on a fmall rivulet which empties into the river Guapay. It has a confiderable trade in corn and fruits. — ib. Oropesa, a town of S. America, in Peru, featcd at the foot ol the nn untains, 750 miles from Lima, and 150 N. E. of Potofi. S. lit. iS, W. h-ng. 63 ^o. — ib. OROTAVA, a town in the Ifland ci" Teiie'i iife, at the bottom of tl-.ol'e mountains out of which the Peek riles, neatly luiilt of done, on an irregular furface. The moft remarkable o'^jcfl near it is a dragon's blood tree, of which the trunk meafures, at the heiglit of ten feet tioni die ground, 36 lect in giith. Concerning this 4 R. tree O R O C 6'i Orotcliys. tree there is a tradition current in the ifland, that it ex- v^~^""»-^ ided, ot" no incoiiliderable dimenfions, when ths Spa- niards made the conquell of Teneriffe, about three cen- tuiies ago ; and thai it wa\i then, wliat it Hill is, a land mark, to dilliugullh the boundaries of landed pofief- lions near it. Diftant about three miles on the fea-coaft is the puer- to, or fea-port, of Orotava, where is carried on a con- liJcrable degree of commerce, principally for the expor- tation of wine. It is chiefly, as at Madeira, in the hands of a few Britifh commercial houfes, which im- port, in return, the nianufaflures of Great Britain. Within a mile is a coUefiion of living plants from Mexi- co, and other parts of the Spanilh dominions in Ame- rica. From hence they are to be tranfplanted into Spain. It is an eftab'ilhment of fume expence; and, whatever may be its fuccefs, it fhows a laudable atten- tion, en the part of that governman, to the promotion of natur.il knowledge. OROTCHYS and Bitchys, two tribes of Tartars, who were vifited by La Peroufe in 1787, and of whofe manners he gives fuch an account as renders it difficult to fay wlieiher tiiey have the bed claim to be called a favage or a civilized people. He fell in with a fmall village of them on the ealt co.ifl of Tartary, in a bay to which he gave the nan-.e of B.de de djirie, in lat. 51° 29' north, and long. 139' 39' eaft t'lom Paris. Thsir village, their employment, their drefs, and their apparent ignorance of all religion, befpoke them lavages. Their village was compofed of four cabins, built in a folid manner, of the trunks of fir-trees, and covered with bark. A wooden bench conipalfed the apartment round about ; ard the l;earth was placed in tlie middle, under an cpsuing large enough to give vent to the Imoke. This village was built upon a fngue of low marfhy land, which appeared to be uninhabitable during the winter ; but on the oppohte iide of the gulf, on a more elevated fituaiion, and expol'ed to the foulh, there was, at the entrance of a wood, another village, confirtlng of eight cabins, much laiger and better built than the firft. Above this, and a: a very Imall dilfance, were three yourts, or fubterraneous houfes, perfedtly fimilar to thofc of the Kamtlchadales, defcribed in the thiid volume of Captain Cook's lall voyage; they were cx- tenlive enough to contain the inhabitants of the eight cabins during the rigour of the cold feafon; befides, on fome of the ficirts of this village were feen fcveral tombs, which were larger and better built than the houfes ; each of them enclofed three, four, or five biers, of a neat workman(hip, orn.imentcd with Chinefe ftufl's, fome pieces of which were brocade. Bows, arrows, lines, and, in general, the moll valuable articles of thefe people, were fufpended in the interior of thefe monu- ments, the wooden door of vv-hich was clofed by a bar, fupported at its extremities by two prop-. Their fi le employment feemed to be the killing and ' curing of falmon, of which they eat raw, the fnout, the gills, the fniail bones, and fometlmes the entire fkin, which they ftiip off with infinite dexterity. When the liript falmon were carried to the huts, the women, in the moft difgufting manner, devoured the mucilagi- nous part of them, and feemed to think it the mcll ex- quifite fjcd. Every cabin wasfurrounded with a dry- ing place for falmon, which remain upon poles, espofed 2 ] O R O to the heat of the fun, after having been during three Omtcliyt. or four days fmoked round the fire, which is in the *>^^'^^ middle of their cabin; the women, who are charged with this operation, take care, as foon as the fmoke has penetrated them, to carry them into the open air, where they acquire the hardnefs of wood. The bones of the falmon fo cured were fcattered, and the blood fpread round the hearth ; greedy dogs, though gentle and familiar enough, licked and devour- ed the remainder. The naftinefs and ftench of this people are difgufting. There is not perhaps anywhere a race of people more feebly conftituted, or whofe fea- tures are more different from thofe forms to which we attach the idea of beauty ; their middle ftature is below four feet ten inches, their bodies are lank, their voices thin and feeble, like that of children ; they have high cheek bones, fmall blear eyes, placed diagonally; a large mouth, flat nofe, ihort chin, almoft beardlefs, and an olive-coloured fkin, varnilhed with oil and fmoke. They fuffer their hair to grow, and tie it up nearly the lame as we do ; that of the women falls loofe about their Ihoulders, and the portrait vvl-.ich has juft been drawn agrees equally well with their countenances as thofe of the men, from whom it would be diliicuk to dillinguifh them, were it not for a Ihght difference in the drefs, and a bare neck ; they are not, however, fubjecled to any labour, which might, like the American Indians, change the elegance ot their features, if nature liad fur- niflied them witii this advantage. Their whole cares are limited to the cutting and lewing their clothes, dif- pufing of their filh to be dried, and taking care of their children, to whom they give the breaft till they are thres or four years of age. With refpefl to drefs, the men and little boys are clothed vv'ith a waillcoat of nankeen, or the fkin of a dog or a filh, cut in the fliape of a waggoner's frock. If it reach beloW the knee, they wear no drawers; if it do not, they wear fome in the Chinefe flyle, which fall as low as the calf ot the leg. All of them have boots cf feal's fkin, but they keep them for the winter ; and they at all times, and of every age, even at the breall, wear a leather girdle, to which are attached a knife in a fheath, a fteel to ftrike a light with, a pipe, and a fmall bag to contain tobacco. The drefs of the women is fomewhat different ; they are wrapped up in a large nankeen robe, or ialmun's Ikin, which they have the art of perfeflly tanning, and rendering extremely fupple. This drefs reaches as low as the ankle-bone, and is fometimes bordered with a fringe of fmall copper orna- ments, which make a noife fimilar to that of fmall bells. Thofe falmon, the fkins of which ferve for clothing, are never caught in lummer, and weigh thirty or forty- pounds. Though they had neither priefts nor temples, they feemed to be belie'.ers in forcery, and took the motion of the Frenchmen's hands, when writing, for figns of magic. Thus far they appeared favages. Their facred regard of property, their attention to their women, and the delicacy of their polltenefs to llrangers, would, on the other hand, do honour to the moll civilized nation. While Peroufe and his people were in the bay, one of the families took its departure on a voyage of fome length, and did not return during their ftay. When he went away, the mailer of the fa- mily put fome planks before the door of his houfe, to prevent OUR C 68j ] O R Y ©r«tchy», prevent the dogs from entering it, and in tliis (late left II it full of their effeifls. " We were foon (fays our Orrington. author) fo perfeftly convinced of ihe inviolable fidehty ^■^~''^*^ of thefe people, and their almoft religious refpecT for property, that we left our facks full of ftuffs, beads, iron tool';, and, in genera), every thing we ufed ai ar- ticles of barter, in ^he middle of their cabins, and un- der no rther Teal of fecurity than their own probity, without a fingle inftance rf their abufint; rur extreme confidence ; and on our departure fr^im this bay, we firmly entertained the opinion, that they did not even fufpeift the exigence of luch a crime as theh." Their attention to their women, fo uncommon among favages was difplayedintheirexempting them from hard labour; in their never concluding a bargain with the Frenchmen witiiout prcvioufly confulting their wives ; and in their referring the pendent filver ear-rings and copper trinkets, which they purchafed, for their wives and daughters. Of the delicacy of their manners to ftrangers, we (hall give the following interefting inftance in the words of Peroufe's tranflator: Obferving with what repugnance they received pre- fents, and how often they refufed them with obftinacy, " I imagined (fays Peroufe) I could perceive, that they were perhaps defirous of more delicacy in the manner of offering them ; and to try if this fufpicion were well founded, I fat down in one of their houfes, and after having drawn towards me two little children, of three or four years old, and made them fome trifling careifes, I gave them a piece of rofe-coloured nankeen, which I had brought in my pocket. The moft lively falisfadlion was vifibly tellitied in the countenances of the whole family, and I am certain they would have refufed this prefent, had it been direcftly offered to tliemfelves. The hufband went out of his cabin, and foon afterwards returning with his molt beautiful dog, he entreated me to accept of it. I refufed it, at the fame time endeavouring to make him underftand, that it was more ufeful to him than to me : but he infilled ; and perceiving that it was without fuccefs, he caufed the two children, who had received the nankeen, to ap- proach, and placing their little hands on the back of the dog, he gave me to uuderltand, that I ought not to re- fule his children. " The delicacy cf fuch manners cannot" exift but among a very polillied people. It feems to me, that the civilization of a nation, which has neither flocks nor hufbandry, cannot go beyond it. It is neecelfary to obfervc, that dogs are their moll valuable property ; they yoke them to (mall and very light iledgcs, ex- tremely well made, and exacftly fimilar to tlicfe of the Kamtfohadales. Thole dogs, of the fpecies of wolf dogs, and very Ilrong, thouj.'h of a middle fize, are ex- tremely docile, and very gentle, and feem to have im- bibed the charaifler of their maflers." ORPHAN'S Banl; a filliin^ bank of the S. E. point of Chalcui'i Bay, on the- N. L. coall of New Brunf- wick, in N. America. On it is from 75 to 30 fathoms water. — Mane. Orphan's JJland, a fetilcment belonging to Han- cock county, Didriiftof Maine, haviug 124 inhabitants. —ill. ORRINGTON, a plantation in Hancock county, Diftriit of Maine, having 477 inhabitants. It lies oa the ead fide of Penobfcnt river, 16 miles above Buckf- Orthodro- tov/n, and 256 N. N. E. of Bofton. — ih. "'''^'> ORTHODROMICS, in navigation, is great-circle „ l failing, or the art of failing in the arch of a great circle, .^^ which is the fhortell courfe : For the arch of a great v-^~v^n^ circle is orihodromta, or the fliorteft ciftance between two points or places. ORUA, Oriibo, or /Iniha, the mofl weflerly cf the Ciribbee Klands in the Well Indies, called by the Spa- niards Las Illas de Sottovento. It is on the coad of tlie Spanifh Main. N. lat. 12 3, W. long. 69 3. — Morse. ORURO, a jurlfdiflion in the archbifhcpric of La Plata. Its capital is San Phelipe de Alluria de Oruro, 30 leagues from the city of La Plata. — il. ORWEL, a townfhip cf Vermont, tlie north-weftern- moft in Rutland county, and fituated on the eall fide of Lake Champlain. It contains 778 inhabitant.. Mount Independence (lands in this townfhip oppofitc Ticondernga, in the (late of New York. Near Mount Independence is a chalybeate fpring. — ih. ORYCTEROPUS, the name given by M. Geof"- froy, proteflor of zoology in the Fiench mufeum of na- tural hillory, to the animal called by other zoologifts Myrmscopliaga Capenjis. (See Mvrmecophaga, En- eye/.) He conliders it as a dilliiiifl genus, and feems indeed to have proved, by a comparifon of the organs of the oryderopus wiih thofe of the laloiu tfujipiis of Lin- nxus, and of the mvrmecophagi, that this genus is in- termediate, by its forms and habits, between thofe two families. It approaches to the tatous in its organs cf maftication, and the form of the toes and nails, and in having a fhort and (ingle coscum, whilft ih.it of the myrmecophagi is double, as in birds, by the reuniting of the bones of the os pubis, which are not articulated together in the myrmecoph.igi. The oryiteropus, however, bears a relation to the lad, fince it has, like them, a very fmall mouth, whence its tongue, covered with hair, may be protruded to a conliderable length. Finally, the habits of the oryfteropus refemble thofe of the animals to which it approaclies the mod ; it does not climb trees, but lives under the earth like the ta- tous ; it feed? like them on roots, but alfo it hunts after anthills, like the myrmecophagi. Its fnout terminates in a blunt callus i a charafler which is peculiar to it. It may be dillinguilLed in the works of naturalills by the following delcription : Oryfleropus. Molar teeth (fii) with flat vertices; the body covered with hair. The oryfleropus, as appears from the preceding, connefts the tatous with the myrmecophagi and with the pangolin manis of Linnxus. The large folTile fpecies found in Paraguay, for which Citizen Cuvicr has eda- blKhed a new genus, under the name of vi.'gaUrium, is intermediate between the (loth and the myrmeco. phagu'i ; and, ladly, the adonidilng animal cf New Holland, covered with bridles like the porcupine, fup- ported by very Ihort leg'-, and of very (ingular con- formation, and with a head round at the occiput, ter- minating in a fnout, without teeth, very (lender, long, and cylindrical, and defciibed by Mr George Shaw under the name of myi mecophaga aculeata, appe irs to have very linking relations to the pangolin and the orvderopus : from hence it follows, that in confequence 4 R 2 of OSS C 684 ] OTA Otobalo. or ihefe important acquifitions, we ought for the fu- ver, form Gnat Ofipee River, which empties into Saco Offnoblau, lure to count, in the number of our natural orders, that river, near the Uivillon line between York and Cumber. H of tlie edaitalld, or eder.tcd, conlilUng ot the following hiiid counties, in Maine, between Limerick and Gor- creneTA- Dj,^pus,oryacrafus mynnecophjsa,dndaculeata, ha.m.—ii. h myrmffoph^'-a, ,m^aUr\a,n et bradypuu OSSNOBIAN, or Jljfenehnyne Indians, a tnbe found ' <- - - ■'^ "• ■ ■ who inhabit fouth of about the fource ot Olihobian or All'eneboyne river, tar mams O SAGES,' an Indian nation the MiiFouri, and can furnilh 400 warriors.— iUorj^. Osage s, a river of Louifiana, which runs eatlward to the Millbuii. — lb. OSCILLATION, in mechanics, vibration, or the reciprocal aicent and delcent of a pendulum. Axis of Oscillation, is a line parallel to the ho- rizon, fuppoled to pafs through the centre or fixed W. of Lake Superior. Tliey are faid by the Moravian miifionaries to live wholly on animal (ood, or at leall to confine ih .mfelves to the fpontaneous produiftious of nature ; giving thofe who dig the ground, the appella- tion ofy^uwx. Bread is unkno>vn to them. A traveller, who lived fome months in their country, offered to fome a few remnants of bread, which they chewed and Thefe Indians, point about which the pendulum ofciUates, and perpen- fpit out again, calling it rotten wood dicular to the plane in which the ofcillation is made. as well as thofe numerous nations who inhabit the C^rt/;\? o/'OsciLL^TioN, in a fufpendeJ body, is a country from Lake Superior, towards the Shining certain point in it, fuch that the ofcillations of the body Mountains, aie great admirers of the bell hunting- will be made in the fame time as if that point alone horfes, in which the country abounds. The horfes pre. were fulpended at that diltance fiom the point of pared by them for hunters, have large holes cut above fufpenfion. Or it is the point into which, if the whole their natural noftrils, which they fay makes them longer weight of the body be colleded, the feveral ofcillations winded than others not thus prepared. The Olfnobians will be periormed in the fame time as before : the ofcil- have no permanent place of abode, but live wholly in lations being made only by the force of gravity of the tents, made of buifaloe and other hides, with which they ofcillatin? hndy. travel from one place to another, like the Arabs ; and as OSCULATION, in geometry, denotes the contaft foon as the food for their hori'cs is expended, they re- between any curve and its ofculatory circle ; that is, the circle of the fame curvature with the given curve, at the point ofcontaftorof ofculation. See Involution in this Suppl. move, and pitch their tenis in another fertile fpot ; and fo on continually, fcarcely ever returning to the iame fpots again. — ib. OSTICO, a fmall lake in Onondago county. New Oscula'tion alfo means the point of concourfe of York, partly in the S. E. corner of Marcellus, and N. two branches of a curve which touch each other. For ex- W. corner of the townlhip of TuUy. It fends its wa- ample, if the equation of 3 curve be _)> = .^Z x -{- " v' «'» ters from the N. end, which is eight miles S. wefterly of it is eafy to fee that the curv; has two brandies touch- Onondago CalUe, by a ftream 16 miles long, to Salt inf one another at the point where x zz o, becaufe the Lake. — ib. roots have each the figns -|- and — OSNABURG, afmall illandinthe S. Pacific Ocean, having the appearance of tlie roof of a honfe. It is about 4 leagues in circuit ; is high laud ; full of cocoa- OSTINES, or Charkjloivn, a confiderable town in the iiland of Barbadoes. — ib. OSWEGATCHIE River and Lake, in Herkemer county, New York. The river empties into the river has "^10 anchoring place, and fcarcely affords St Lawrence, or Cataraqui. Ofwe^atchie Lake is jhoui landing for a boat. It was difcovered by Capt. Wallis, •and is c.illed M.ii:ea by the natives. S.lat. 17 52, W. Ion;;, i486. — Alone. OsNABURG, another ifland in the fame fea, difcovered by Capt. Carteret. S. lat. 22, W. long. 141 34.—/*. OsNABURG Houfe, a iettlement of the Hudion's Bay Company, in N. America ; fnuated at the N. E. cor- ner of L.ike Sr Jofeph, 120 miles W. by S. of Gloucef- t«r Houfe. N. lat. 51, W. long 90 15.— /i. OSORNO, an inland town ot the kingdom of Chili, 19 miles long, from S. W. to N. E. and 7 broad, and fends its waters north-eaftward into the river of its name. It is about 10 miles S. E. of The TJioufand Lakes, near the entrance into Lake Ontario. There is a fort of the fame name, fituated on the Cataraqui ri- ver, 58 miles N. E. of Kingfton, on Lake Ontario. — ib. OSWEGATCHIES, an Indian tribe refiding at Swagatchey, on the liver St Lawrence, in Canada. They could furnifh about 100 warriors, 20 years fince. fituated on the N. bank of the river Buena ; 42 miles — ib. E. of thefea coaft, and 45 S. E. of Baldivia. The ad- OSWEGO, a navigable river of New York, which jacent country is far from being fruitful, but very rich conveys the waters of Oneida, and a number of fmall in gold mines, which renders tlie plate very populous. S. lat. 40 30, W. long. 71 50 — ib. OoSABAW Souud and IJland, on the coaft of the State of Georgia. The found opens between WalTaw Ifland on the N. and Olfabaw Ifland on the S. and leads into the river Ogeechee. — ib. OSSIPEE, nr Ofapy, a townfhip, mountain, and pond, in New Himplhire, in Strafford county, near the E. line of the State. The town was incorporated in 1785, and has 339 inhabitants. The lake lies N. E. of Wiiiipifeoree Lake, between which and Ofllpee Lake is Offipce Mouiilain, defcribed in the account of New Hampfliire. Its waters luu E. and, joined by South ri- great quantities of fugar. lakes, into Lake Ontario. It is more commonly called Onondago ib. Oswego, a fortrefs fituated on the E. fide of the mouth of the above river, and fouth-eallern fide of Lake Ontario, in lat. 43 18 N. and long. 76 30 W. It was taken by the Britilh from the French in 1756, and confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. It was delivered up to the United States July 14, 1796. It ia about 150 or 160 miles E. by N. of Niagara. — ib. OTABALO, ajurifdidfion in the province of Q^ito, joined on the fouth to that of Sin Miguel de Ibaira. The lands are laid out in plantations, and produce The Indians in the villages, at O T S C 685 ] O U A Otffgo. Owbalo, as alfo thofe wlio are independent, manufaifture great " variety of cottons, viz. car[.ets, pavilions for beds, , quilts in damalk work, v\h(lly of cotton, either white, blue, or variegated with different colours ; all which are highly valued, both itj the province of Q^iito and Pen), where they are difpufed of to great advantage. The wheat and barley here, is fowed like Indian corn, in little holes, a foot dillant from each other, putting 5 or 6 corns into each ; and they generally reap above an hundred fold. I'iie country is remarkably fertile, and large quantities of cheefe are made. — lb. OTABALO, the princip:d village of the above ju- rifdiftion, is large and populous, and faid to contain 18,000 or 20,000 fouls. Among them is a conl'ider- able number of Spaniards. — ib. OTAHA, one of the Society Idands in the S. Pacific Ocean, whofe north end is in lat. 16 33 fouth, and Ions;. 151 20 weft. It his 2 good harbours. — lb. OTAKOOTAI, a fmall ifland in the S. Pacific Ocean, 4 leagues Ir 'm Wateeoo, and about 3 miles in circuit. S. lat. 19 15, W. long. 158 23. — ib. OTCHIER, a bay on the north coaft of S. Ameri- ca, to the weft.'.arJ of the river or creek called Usano, and eafl of Cape Caldero. — ib. OTEAVANOOA, a Lrge and fpacious h.irbour and bay on the fouth-wefl c^aft of the illand of Bola- bola, one of the Stjciety Iflands. S. lat. 16 30, W. long. 151 ArZ.—lb. OTISFIELD, a plantation in Cumberland county, Diftriift of M.une, ealt ol Bridgetown in York county, and 152 miles N. N. E. uf Botlon. A ftream from Songo Pond palles through the wefterly part of this town, on its way to Sebayo. It is very free of ragged hills and mountains. The greateft part of it aiFords a growth of beecii, maple, a(h, bals, and birch, and is good land. It contains 197 inhabitants. — ib. OTOGAMIES, an Indian nation in the N. W. Territory, who inhabit between the Lake of the Woods and Miffiffippi river. Warriors 300. — ib. OTOQUE, an Ifland on the N. Pacific Ocean, or W. coaft ot New-Mexico, fituated in the Bay of Pa- nama, 17 le igues S. of the city of that name, from whence it i-. fuijplied with provifions. N. lat. 7 50, W. long. Si 10. — ib. OTSEGO, a county of New- York, on tlie S. fide of Mohawk river, oppofite the German Flats. The head wateis of Sufquchannah, and the Cookquago branch ot Delaware, interfeft this county. Here are alfo the lakes O.fego, and Caniaderago, wliich fend their waters, in an united ftream, to the bufquehannah. It contains 9 townlhiiis, viz. Konripht, Harper>field, Franklin, Cherry Valley, Doilach, Richrield, Otfegn,, Burlingt"n, and Unadilla. It contained, a few years ago, about 1000 inhabitants; but fucli h.is been the rapi^; feitlement oi this coun'y, that in January, 1796, it cont.iined 3237 inhabitants, qualified 10 be eleiilors. In 1791, when tliis county was but thinly fettled, as many as 300 chefts of maple I'gar, were mannfafliired here, 40olbi. ea. h. The courts are Iield at Cooperft.)wn, in t' : tnwn(hip of Otfego. — ib. OrsiiCO, a townfli p and lake, in the county above defcribed. Tlie townlhip was taken from Unadilla. and incori lared in 1796. On the E the townlhip enclofcs Lake Oliego, vhich fepaiates it from Ciierry Valley;. Lake Olfego is about 9 miles long, and litila more than a mile wide. The lands on its banks are Oitawss, very good, and the cultivation of it eafy. In 1790, H it contained 1702 inhabitants, including 8 flaves. By ^^^^^^^i^ the State cenlus ci i^gO, there were 490 of its inha- bitants eleiftors. — H. OTTAWAS, an Indian nation in the N. W. Ter- ritory, who inhabit the E. fide of Lake Michigan, 21 miles from Mlchilimacklnack. Their hunting grounds lie between Lakes Michigan and Huron. They could furnifh 200 warriors 20 years ago. A tribe of thefe alfo lived near St Jofeph's, and had 150 warriors. Another tribe lived with the Chippewas, on Sagulnam Bay, who together could raife 200 warriors. Two of thefe tribes lately hoftile, figned the treaty of peace with the United States, at Greenville, Auguft 3d, 1795. In confequence of lands ceded by them to the United States, government has agreed to pay them in goods, 1000 dollars a year, forever. — ib. Ottawas, a large river of Canada, which empties into the St Lawrence at the Lake of the Two Moun- tains, 9 miles from Montreal. The communication of the city of Montreal with the high lands, by this river, if not impradlicable, is at leall very expenfive and precarious, by reafon of its rapids and tails. — ib. OTTER Bay, on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Newfoundland, is between Bear Bay and Swift Bay, and near Cape Rave, the fouth-weft point of the ifland. —lb. Otter Creei, called by the French Riviere a Lotris, a river of Vermont, which rifes in Bromley, and pur. fuing a northern diiection about 90 miles, empties into Lake Champlain at Ferrifturg ; and in its courfe re- ceives about 15 fm.aU tributary ftreams. In it aie large falls at Rutland, Pittsford, Middlebury, and Vergennes. Between the tails the water is deep and navigable for the largeft boats. Velfels of any burdea may go up to the falls at Vergennes, 5 miles from its mouth. The head of this river is not more than 30 feet from Batten Kill, which runs in a contrary direc- tion, and falls into Hudfon's river. Its mouth is 3 miles north of Bafon Harbour. — ib. Otter Creek, a fmall ftream which empties into Kentucky river, in the ftate of that name, and E. of Boonfborough. — ib. Otter's Head, a fmall peninfula, proje(5lingfrom the north-eaftern (hore (^i Like Superior, and north-weft of Mlchiplcoton Ifland. — ib. OU.ADELIM and Labdesseba, two tribes of Arabs inlnbiiing the Sahara ox Great Defert of Africa, ofwhom almoft nothing was known to Europeans till the publication of Biilfon's narrative of his ihlpwteck and captivity among the latter tribe. He defcribes the Guadclim and LabJelfeba as the moft formidable of all the interior tribes of Arabs, and as often extending their ravages to the very gates of Morocco. " Their hordes (he fiys) are frequently Intermingled with thofe of the Roufege, Rathidium, Clicliis, Tucanois, and Ou- adeli tribes, as they have no diftinct boundaries, and change their habitations as ilic dcfart affords pafturage and Wrtier. They are tall, h.u.dfomt.-, It 'Ut, ind vigo- rous men. Tiicir haii is briftkJ, and llicir nails, which, they ofien ufe in battle, as l.>n;; as cl.iws; larve lung- ing ears and a liing b.arJ give then a ftern ferocious air. The Ouadeliiii ui particul.ir are fieice, atroganr, and warlike, but foon dilpirited by obftiuate lefiltance,. efpecially O U A C GQ6 ] O U A Ouadclim. efpcclally when they have not a tleclJeJ fiiperiority in '^^'^■^^'^ numbers. In tlieir hordes they lodj^e by families, in tents which are coveretl with a thick cloth of camels hair, whii-h the women fpin am! weave upon a loom fo fniall, tliat iliey worii litiiii;; on the gr-.-'und. The fur- niture of their tents conlill of two large facks of lea- ther, in wliich they keep old ch'thes and pieces of old iron, tlirce or four goat (kins for iiolJing milk and wa- ter, two large Hones for grinding tleir barley, afmaller one fordrivmg the pins of their tents, an ozier malting ■which ferves for a bed, a thick carpet for a covering, a fmall kettle, and fome wooden dirties, witii pack-faddlcs for their camels. The perfun who, befides thefe arti- cles, poflelles a few horfcs, camels, ihsep, and goats, is reckoned wealthy, as there are many i\rabs who only poffefs Iheep and goats. Except fore eyes and the cho- lic, they are fubjei.'t to few endemic dlfeafe«. The firft diforder is cauled by the reflexion of light from the burning fands of the defirt, the other proceeds from the verdigrcafe which contaminates all their viftuals. Their kettles are not tinned, and never wafhed, fo that they are quite crulled over with verdigreafe, the viru- lence of which is probably diminirtied by the quantity of milk they ufe. Wlien they refide long in one place, they fonietimes plough the fpots which are moiftened by the rain, and fpi inkle them with feed in a carclefs man- ner. Plentiful crops are often thus produced ; but in- llead of waiting till the grain attains maturity, they cut it down, and dry it over hot cinders. Treachery and petfidy are the innate vices of the Arabs ; affafiinatlons are frequent ; no man trufts the promfe of another ; no man makes a written agreement, as the poignard cancels .-ill bonds and obligations. The men often re- late their exploits to each other ; the embelliihing of a llory is fucceeded by a charge of falfehood, and the poignard folves every difficulty. The ancient rites of hofpitality, however, are pradifed among thefe tiibes in their utmoft extent. The Arab, who in the field is a rapacious plunderer, becomes liberal and generous as foon as he enicrs his tent. War is only a Ipccies of rapine, and the viflory is decided at the firll fljock. The Arab is devoid ot fangninary courage ; he attacks only to plunder, and never thinks that booty is to be put in competition with his life. When the battle is ended, each party makes graves for the rtain, and enclofe the tombs with mounds of (tones. The ages of the warriors arc denoted by the fpace of ground which the grave occupies, and the funeral proceffion is clofed by the hovvls of the females. " The women never alTume the name of their huf- hands, and never eat with ihem at meals. They are faithtul to their hulbands, and cannot be divorced ex- cept by the decree of the feniors of the horde. The Arabs difplay their opulence by the ornaments of their women, whole ear«, arms, and legs, are generally adorn- ed with rings of golc '.d filver. An Arab beauty mull have long teeth Ihocting out of her mouth, a body ex- tremely thick, and limhs of the longefl fize. At the birth of a fon, every woman, to teltify her joy, black- ens her face for 40 days. At the birth of a daughter Ihe only daubs the half of her face during the fpace of 20 days. A mmher treats her fon with the fame re- fpca as her hufband, almoft as foon as he is able to walk ; rtie prepares his food, ferves him, and eats when he has finilhed his repaft. In the education of their young rr.cr, tlie mod important acquifuions are, dexte- Omdellm. rity in the ufe of the poignard, Ikill in embowellnig ^■^"■^^^*~' their enemies with their long nails, and a plaufible air in uttering a falfehood. More ludeand ferocious than the tiibes whole territories lie upon the Ihore of the fea, the Labdeifiba and Ouadelim Arabs are alio more confined and illiberal in their ideas, not only believing that they are the firll nation in the world, but fancy- ing that the fun riles only for them. BrilTon relates, that fome of them exprelfed this idea in unequivocal terms. ' Behold (faid they) that luminary, which is unknown in iliy country. During the night, thou art not enlightened, as we are, by that heavenly body, which regulates our days and our fall?. Kis children, (the ftars) point out to us the hours of prayer. You have neither trees nor camels, Iheep, goals, nor dogs. Are your women (imilar to ours ?' « How long diult thou remain in the womb of thy mother (laid another) ?' 'As long (replied Biiffon) as thou in that of thine.' ' Indeed (faid a third, counting the fingers and toes of the Frenchman) he is made like us; he differs only in his colour and language.' ' Do you fow bai ley in your houfes ?' faid the Arabs, alluding to the Ihips of the Europeans. ' No (laid Brilfoii), we fow our fields al- moft in the fame feulVn as you.' ' How ! (cried feve- ral) do yon inhabit the earth ? we believed that you were born and lived upon the fea.' Thefe Arabs, ac- cording to the Turkdh proverb, believe that all the woild is like their father's houfe: unacquainted with the manners of other nations, and unaccuftomed to re- fled upon the caufes of national charafter, every varia- tion from their own cuftoms appears not only ridicu- lous, but monftrous; every difference of opinion not only abfurd, but criminal. This ignorance of the A- rabs, conjoined with their local and religious prejudices, enables us to account for the infulting treatment which Brilfon and his companions received, without having recourfe to inherent depravity of nature." That treat- ment was indeed rtiocking. Brid'on liad furrendercd himfelf, on his fhipwreck, to Sidi Mahomet, a Talii; or priell of the tribe of Lab- deffeba. During the abfcnce of the priefl, the Lab- delfeba, who guarded the captives, were attacked and maltreated by a parly of the Ouadellms, and during the buftle which enfued, Brilfon had almoft loft his life. Inftead of compafhonating his forlorn fituation, the women threw fand into his eyes, as they faid, to dry his eyelids. The Arabs, into whofe hands he had fallen, had only come down to the feacoaft to gather wild grain, three days before the fhipwreck ; and to prelerve their booty, they immediately retreated to the interior part of the deiart. A guide preceded the horde, to place at intervals fmall pyramids of ftone, to direi^ their courfe, at a diftance from every hoftile tribe. After pafling fome very high mountains, wholly covered with fmall greyifh pebbles as fliarp as flints, they defcended into a fandv plain overfpread with thorns an>l thirties. When Brilfon was unable to walk, on account of the bleeding of his feet, he was mounted on a camel ; the briftly hair and hard trot of v/hich foon excoriated him fo much, that the blood run co- pioufly down its flanks. By throwing heated Ikones into a wooden vert'el, filled with barley meal, diluted with water procured on the fea-lhore, preferved in a goat's (kin, and mixed with pitch to prevent putrefac- tion O U A L 687 ] QUA Ouadclim. tion, the Arabs prepared a kind of fnup, which they ^'^'^■^^^^' kneaded with their hands, and ate uiichewed. They roafted a goat in heated fand, ate iti fat J.iw, and af- ter having devoured the fleth, jinawed the bones, and fcraped ihem with their nails, threw them, to lliillon and his connpanions, defiring them to eat quickly, and load the camels, that the j-iurney might not be impe- ded. Proceeding eaftward, they croifed a vad plain, covered with fmall ftones white as fnow, round and flat us a lentil, where not a fingle plant was prodi:ced. The earth beneath their feet refcunJed dull and hol- low, and the fmall ftones pricked llieni like fparks of fire. The refleiftion of th^ rays of the fun trom the fand wa-. fcorching ; ;he atnicfphere w.is loaded with a red vapour, and the country appeared as it tilled with flaming volcanoes. Neither bird- n^T inleds could be feen in the air. The profound filence was fiightlul. If a gentle breeze ever arofe, it produced extreme lan- gour, chopping of the lips, burning heat ot the fkin, with fmall fmaiting pimples. This pl.un was ev<.u Ihun- ned by wild bcalls. Alt(.-»travjrllng '.hi. plain, ihey entered another, where the wind had thriAvn up in fur- rows the fand, which was 1 f a reddilh col. ur. On the tops of the furrows grew a few fwectfc.nted plants, which were devoured by the camels. On quitting this faiidy plain, they entered a valley furronnded by moun- tains, where the foil was white and lliiny, and wiiere they found water of a noxious ImtU, covered with green mofs, and foon after difcoversd a horde of the friendly tribe Routfye. Alter another journey of fixteen days, they arrived at the tents of the LabdetTeba horde, to wliich Sidi M;diomet belonged. The tents pitched among thick bulliy tree-, and the numerous tlocks feeding along the (ides of the hill:, prefcnted at a dillance an afpetft of happinefs and patloral Imiplicity. On approacliing near, ihe trees of beautiful green foliage proved to be only old gummy Humps, almoil void of branches, fo encircled with thorns that their Ihade was inaccelGble. The women approached, with loud crits and the molt fawning ferviliiy, to welcome their tyrants, to tlirovv ftones at the Chriflians, and tpit in their faces, while the children imitated the example of their mothers. Briffon, who endeavoured to ingi atiate himfelf with his matter's favourite, not >.nly tailed in this, Ijut incurred her implicable releutment, through his irritability, which to the Arab women teemed extremely to re- feni'ule petulance. Daring his relidence with Sidi Ma- homet, tiie hardthips he endured were almoft incredi- ble. With the exccilive heat, the milk of ihe Iheep, goats, and camels, diminilhed, and tiicn the dogs fared better than the Chriltians, "^ho were forced to fubf.tl on wild herbs and raw fnails. When the lains fell, and the leall preifure made the water to Ipriiig up through the fandy foil, the Ciiridians tlept behind a bulh, un- fheltered, on the bare ground. Briifon and his matter fornetimes real'oned abi ut religion ; when the latter al- ways anfwered the harangues of the former by decla. ring, that he preferred a bowl of churned milic to fuch abfurdities. Several of his companions perilhed, and were left by the Arabs to be devoured by the ravens, while in the tlruggles of death. One of them was fup- poled to be murdered by his mafler for milking his ca- mels clandellincly. An application made by Brilfon to the conful at Mogador, by a letter enttuHed to a Jew- Ouafioto. idi merchant w.is fiullra'ed th.rou:;!) the negligence of Ouais's, tile vice-conful ; and the Labdetieba Arabs thought the journey too dangerous to be encountered for the ran- iom of their flares. He was however at lalf relieved, through the humanity of his mailer's brother-in-law, who carried him to Morocco, where liis ranfom was paid by the Emperor, and whence he returned to France. For H fuller accouut of thefc two favage tribes, fee Saugtiia's av.A Ihijun's A'.iiralivrs ; or a very pleafing HiJIoncal and Phiiofothical Skclch of the Dijcov.nej, iSt. oj the Europeans in Northern and WcJLrn Africj, pub- hfhed 1799 by Syifiin^ion Edinburgh, and Firnor ^ml Hood London. OUAIS's Bijy and River, are about 2 leagues round the north point of ti)e ifland of Cape Breton, in the Gull of St Lawrence, and fouth-fouih-wcll of the ifland ot Limbach. — Morse. OUANAMINTHE, a French parifh and village on the N. tide of the illand of St Domingo, about a league and a half W. ot Daxabon, in the Sp mith part, from which it is feparatcd by the river Maifacre ; 6 leagues from the mouth of the river, and 5 S. E. of Fore Daupliin. — ib. OUAC^APHENOGAW, or Ehanfanola is a lake or rather matlh, between Flint and Oakmulgee rivers, in Georgia, and is nearly 300 miles in circumference. In wet feafcns it appears like an inland fea, and has fe- veral large illands of rich land ; one of which the pre- fent generation of Creek Indians reprcfcnt as the niofl. blifslul fpot on earth. They fay it is inhabited by a peculiar race ot Indians, whofe women are incompara- bly beautiful. They tell that this terreltrial paradifc has been feen by lome enterprizing hunters, when in purfuit of their game, wlio being hit in iacxtiicable fwamps and bogs, and on the pcii;t of peritain"', were unexpecledly relieved by a compjny cf beautiful wo- men, whom they call daughters of the Sun, who kindly gave them fuch provinons a. they had with them, con- iltliiig of fruit and corn cakes, and then enjoined them to t]y for fatety to their own country, becaul'e their hutbands were tierce men and cruel to llrangers. They further fay that thelij hunters had a view of tlieir fettle- ments, lituated on the elevated banks of an illand, in a beautiful lake ; but in all their endeavours to approach it, they were involved in perpetuid labyrinths, and, like enclianted land, fliU as they imagined they had jult gained it, it feemed to fly before them ; and having- quitted the delulive purfuit, they with much ditnculty etfedted a retreat. They tell another ftory concerning this fequcltercd country, whicii feenis not improbable, which is, that the inhabitants are the pofterity of a fu- gitive remnant of the ancient Tamafes, who efcaped m.iiracre after a bloody and decilive battle between them and tiie Creeks, (who it is certain, conquered and nearly exterminated that once powerful people) and. here found an at'ylu.ni, remote and I'ecure from the fury of their proud conquerors. The rivers St Mary and Slilia, wiiich fall into the Atlantic, and the beautilul Lil'le St juan, which empties into the bay of Appalachi at St Maik's, arc laid, bv Bartram, to flow from this lake.— ;A. OU.-\SIOTO Mountain, are fituated N. W. of the. Laurel Mountains in N. Carolina and \'irginia. They are 50 or 60 miles wide at the Gap, and 450 in length, N. E. and S. W. They abound in coal^ limc^ O W E [ 688 ] O X Y l!m;, ana f.ee-nnne. Their fumniits nre generally co- vered with good foil, and a variety of timber, and the , intervale kinds are well w.itered. — ib. OUEPAS, a town on the coaft ofCofta Rica, on the N. Pacific Occiin, and S. of Cartliago. — w. OUI ATANON, a fmall ftock.ided fort in the N. W. Territory, on the weftern fide of the Wabafti river, in lat. 40 38 N. and long. 87 57 W. and faid to be about 130 miles foutherly of Fort St Jofcph. This was for- merly a French pod. Thus far the Wabafh is naviga- ble, 412 miles from its mouth, for batteaux drawing 3 ft-et water. A filvcr mine has been difcovered here. The neighbouring Indians are the Klckapoos, Mufqui- tons, Pyankifhaws, and a principal part of the Ouiata- nons. The whole of ihefe tribes could furnilh, about 20 years ago, loco warriors. The fertility of foil, and diverfity of timber in this country are the fame as in the vicinity of Poft St Vincent. — ib. OUINEASKE, or Shelburue Buy, on the E. fide of Lake Champl.iiii, fcts up S. eafterly through the town of Burlington in Vermont into the northern part of Shelburne. — ib. OUISCONSING, a navigable river of the N. W. Territory, ivhich empties into the Milllffippi in lat. 43 33, and long. 94 8 ; where are villages of the Sack and Fo.\ tribes of Indians. This river has a communication -with Fox river, which, paffing througli Winnebago Lake, enters Puan Bay in Lake Michigan. Between the two rivers there is a portage of only 3 miles. On this I iver and its branches refide the Indians ot its name. Warriors 300, — ib. OULIONT, a village of the (late of New- York, on the pod road from Hudfon to the Painted Port. It is 35 miles W. of Harpersfield, and 50 N. E. of Union, on Sufquehannah river, and lies on the north fide of a creek of its name which empties into Unadilla river. — ii. OUTER Buoy, in Hiidfon's Bay, lies in lat. 51 38 N. and 5 leagues eaft of North BlufF. — ib. Outer IJlaml, on the coaft of Labrador, is in the duller called St Auguftine's Square ; S. W. of Sandy Ifland.and eaft of Inner lil^nd. — ib. OUTIMACS, a tribe of Indiins, in the N. W. Ter- ritory, refiding between Lakes Michigan and St Clair. Warriors 200. — ib. OVEN'S MOUTH Bay, in the Diftria of Maine, lies on the S. fide of Booth-bay townftiip, in Lincoln county, 12 miles from the fliire town, and 190 N. by ■E. of Bofton. — \l. OVID, a townfhip of New-York, in Onondago coun- ty. It was incorporated in 1794; is feparated from Milton on the E. by Cayuga Lake, and comprehends all the lands in the county on the W. fide of Seneca Lake. The centre of the townlhip is 20 miles S. of the W. fide of the ferry on Cayuga Lake. In 1796, there were 107 of its inhabitants qualified to be elec- tors. — ib. OWASCO, a lake, partly in the towns of Aurelius and Scipi<i, in Onondago county. New York. It is about 1 1 miles long, and one bread, and communicates with Senec.i river on the N. by a ftream which runs through the town of Briitu-s. The high road from Kaats' Kill weftward, palTes towards Cayuga ferry, neai the N. end of the lake. — ib. OWEGO, a poft-town in Tinga county, New York, on the eaft branch of the Sufquehannah, 20 miles weft- Owego, erly of Union, 34 N. E. of Athens, at Tioga Point, [I and 284 from Philadelphia. In 1796, 170 of its inha- ^^^ygjy^ bitants were eled'^rs. — ib. Owego Creek, in Tioga county, ferves as the eaft boundary of the townlhip of its name. It has feveral fmall branches which unite and empty through the N. bank of the eaft branch of Sufquehannah river, about iS-i miles W. of the mouth of Chenengo river. — ib. OUYATOISKA Bay and Ri-ver, on the coaft of Efquimaux, or N. fiiore of the Gulf of St Lawrence, is to the weftward of Natachquoin river. — ib. OWHARREE, a harbour on the northern part of the weft coaft of Houaheine, one of the Society Illands, 25 leagues N. W. by W. of Olaheite Ifland. S. lat. 16 44, W. long. 151 8. — ib. OWL's Head, a head land on the W. fide of Penob- fcot Bay, in the Diftriiff of Maine. It has a good har- bour on the larboard hand as you go to the eaftward. The harbour makes with a deep cove ; has 4 fathoms water, and a muddy bottom. It is open to the E. to N. and E. N. E. winds ; but in all other winds you are fafe. The tide of flood fets to the eaftward, and the tide of ebb S. W. through the Mufcle Ridges. — ib. OXBOW, Great, a bend of the river Connedicur, about the middle of the townfiiip of Newbury, in Ver- mont. It contains 450 acres of the fineft meadow land in New England. — ib. OXFORD, a townfhip in Worcefter county, MafTa- chufetts. It contains 1000 inhabitants; is 11 miles fouthward of Worcefter, and 54 S. W. of Bofton. — ib. Oxford, a village in Briftol county, Mailachufetts. —ib. Oxford, a parifti in the northern part of Derby, in Conneiflicut, containing 140 families ; 17 miles N. W. of New Haven. — ib. Oxford, a poft-town of New York, in Tioga county, 45 miles N. E. of Union, and 20 S. W. of Butternutts. This townfiiip, lies between Jericho and Union, and is bounded northerly on Norwich, and wefterly by the tradt called the Chenengo Triangle. It was incorpo- rated in 1793. Here is an incorporated academy. — ib. Oxford, a townfhipof New Jerfey, fituated in Sulfex county, on the eaft bank of Delaware river, 15 or 20 miles N. E. of Eafton in Pennfylvania. it contains 1905 inhabitants, including 65 flaves. — ib. Oxford, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, fituated in Philadelphia county. There is one of the fame name in Chefter county. — ib. Oxford, a port of entry, on the eaftern fhore of Chefapeak Bay, in Talbot county. Its exports in 1794 amounted to 6,956 dollars. It is 13 miles S. by W. of Eafton, and about 48 S. E. of Baltimore. — ib. Oxford, a fmall poft-town of N. Carolina, 36 miles from HilHborough, and about 416 from Philadelphia. —ib. OXYGLYCUS CERASU3, the name given by the editor of Dalzel's Hillory of Dahomy to a very fingu- lar fruit produced in that country, as well as in fome other parts of Africa. It refembles a Imall olive in every refpedt but the colour; being of a dullcy reddilh hue, changing at the end next the ftalk to a faint yel- low. The pulp is firm, and almoft iniipid ; the ftone is hard like that of the olive. After having chewed one or more of fuch berries, and fpit out or Iwallowed the O X Y [ 689 ] O X Y 0.xy-Mari- atic Acid. Oiyglycus, the pulp at pleafure, a glafs of vinegar will tafte, to the perfon trying the experiment, like fweet wine ; a lime will leem to have the flavour of a very ripe China , orange ; and the fame change is produced on other acids, the ordinary eifefls of which upon the palate is deftroyed in a very unaccountable manner, without ef- fervefcence or any fenfible motion. Indeed, the eiFe(fl is very different from neutralization, aiifing from the mixture of acid and alkali ; fuch combination produ- cing a neutral faline liquor, wliilft this miraculous ber- ry feems to convert acids to fweets. Food or drink, not containing any acid, fuffer no change by the pre- vious ufe of this fruit ; its elfedl upon acids continues, even after a meal, though in a much fmaller degree. Tlie natives ufe it to render palatable a kind of gruel called gudJoe, which is made of bread after it becomes too ftale for any other purpofe. They defcribe it as the fruit of a large tree. Plants fix or feven inches high were raifed from this fruit by Mr Dalzel, who tried to carry them from An- gola to the botanic garden at St Vincent's ; but they died on the paflage. He preferved the berries in fpi- rits, in fyrup, and in a dry form ; but they loft their fingular quality in all thofe preparations. The plant is an evergreen, and the leaves in this infant ftate are like thofe of the olive. OXY-MuRiATic Acid (See CHEMisTRy-/n</cx in this Sup(il.),\% the principal agent in the new procefs of bleaching (fee Bleaching, Suppl.) ; but, till very lately, at leall, il nr't even at prefent, the bleachers were in the practice of adding fome alkali to the acid, notwithftanding the ftrong objeiftions which M. Ber- thoUet made to that addition, and notwithftanding the proofs urged by Mr. Rupp, that it increafes the ex- pence of bleaching about 40 pir cent. The chiet rea- fon for perfifting in a practice to which fuch ohjedions were urged was, that the addition of the alkali deprives the liquor of its fuffocating effefts without deftroying its bleaching powers. Mr Kupp, however, has contri- ved the following apparatus, in which may be fafely ufed the pure oxy-muriatic acid fimply dilfolved in water, which is at once its cheapeft and beft vehicle. Figure I. (Plate XLI.) is a fedion of the appa- ratus. It confills of an oblong deal ciftern ABCD, made water tight. A rib EE of aih or beech wood is firmly fixed to the middle of the bottom CD, being mortiled into the ends of the ciftern. This nb is pro- vided with holes at FF, in which two perpendicular axes are to turn. The lid AB has a rim GG, which finks and fits into the ciftern. Two tubes HH are fixed into tlie lid, their centres being perpendicularly over the centres of the fockets FF when the lid is up- on the ciftern. At I, is a tube by which the liquor is introduced into the apparatus. As it is neceffary that the fpice within tiic rim GG be air.ti;.^ht, its joints to the lid, and the ji>iiits of the tubes, muU be very clofe ; and if neceffary feciired with pitch. Two perpendi- cular axes KL, made of afli or beecii wood pais thro' the tubes HH, and reft in llic fcickets FF. A piece nf ftrorg canvas M is fewed veiy light round the axis K, one end of it projeiJling from the ;ixis. The other axis is provided with a fimilar piece of canvas. N arc pieces nf cloth rolled upon the axis L. Two plain pulleys 00 are fixed to the axes, in order to prevent the cloth from flipping down. The fliafts are turned SuppL. Vol. II. by a moveable handle P. QJs a moveable pulley, round Oxy-Muri- which paffes the cord R. This cord, which is faftened "'cAdd- on the oppofite fide of the lid (fee fig, 2.), and paffes '"^''"'''^*~^ over the fmall pulley S, produces fridion by means of the weight T. By the ft^igot and fauffet V, the liquor is let ofl" when exhaufted. The dimenfions of this apparatus are calculated for the purpofe of bleaching twelve or fifteen pieces of -J callicoes, or any other ftuffs of equal breadth and fub- ftance. When the goods are ready for bleaching, the axis L is placed on a frame in an horizontal pofition, and one of the pieces N being faftened to the canvas M by means of woc^den fkewers, in the manner reprefented in fig. I. it is rolled upon the axis by turning it with the handle P. This operation muft be pei formed by two perfons ; the one turning the axis and the other direfling the piece, which muft be rolled on very tight and very even. When the firft piece is on the axis, the next piece is faftened to the end of it by fkewers, and wound on in the lame manner as the firft. The fame method is purfued till all the pieces are wound upon the axis. The end of the laft piece is then faftened to the canavs of the axis K. Both axesare afterwards placed into the ciftern, with their ends in the fockets FF, and the lid is put on the ciftern by pafling the axes through the tubes HH. The handle P is put upon the empty axis, and the pulley Qjipon the axis on which the cloth is rolled, and the cord R, with the weight T, is put round it and over the pulley S. The ufe of the fiiflion, produced by this weight is to make the cloih wind tight upon the other axis. But as the effeft of the weight will increafe as one cylinder increafes and the other leffens, Mr Rupp recommends tliat three or four weights be fuf- pended on the cord, which may be taken off gradually as the perfon who works the machine may find it con- venient. As the weights hang in open hooks, which are faftened to the cord, it will be little or no trouble to put them on and to remove them. Things being thus difpofed, the bleaching liquor is to be transferred from the veffels in which it has been prepared into the apparatus, by a moveable tube paf- fing through the tube I, and defcending to the bottrm of the ciftern. This tube being connefled with the veffels, by means of leaden or wooden pipes provided with cocks, hardly any vapours will efcape in the trans- fer. When the apparatus is filled up to the line a, the moveable tube is to be withdrawn, and the tube I clofed. As the liquor rites above the edge of the rim G, and above the tubes HH, it is evident that no eva- poration can take place, except where the rim does not apply clofely to the fides of the box ; which will, how- ever, form a very trifling furface if the carpenter's work be decently dune. Tlie cloth is now to be wound from the axis L upon the axis K, by turning this ; and when this is acconipllflied, the handle P and pulley () are to be changed, and the cloth is to be wound back upon the axis L. This operation is, of courfe, to be repeat- ed as of"ten as neceffary. It is plain, th.tt by this pro- cefs of winding the cloih from one axis upon the other, eveiy part of it is expofed, in tlie moll complete man- ner, to the a>.^ion of the liquor in which it is immerfed. It will be necelfiry to turn, at firft, very brifkly, not only becaufe the liquour is then the ftrongeft, but alfo becaufe it requiies a number of revolutions, when th* axis is bare, to move a certain length of clodi in a given 4 S time O Y S [ 690 ] O Z A Oxy-Muri- atic Acid, II Oyfttr. time, thnugh tills may be performed by a fingle revolu- tion when the axis is filled. Experience muft teach how long the goods are to be worked; nor can any rule be given rdpe(5ilng the quantity and ftrength of the lio,uor, in ord;r to bleach a certain number of pieces. An intelligent workman will foon attain a fuf- ficient knowledge of thefe points. It is hardly necef- firy to oblerve, that, if the liquor Ihould retain any llrength after a fct of pieces are bleached with it, it may again be employed for another fet. AVith a le.v alterations, this apparatus might be made • applic;ible to the bleaching of yarn. If, for inftance, the pulley O were removed from the end of the axis K, and fixed immediitely under the tube H ; — if it were perforated in all direflions, and tapes or rtrings palfeil lhrou.',h the holes, fkains of yarn might be tied to thefe tapes undernvalh the pulley, fo as to hang <!cwii t >waidi the bottom of the box. The apparatus bcin'j r.f.erx'. ards filled with bleaching liquor, and the axis turned, the motion would caufe every thread to be aifled upon by the liquor. Several axes might thus be turned in the fiime box, and being connefted with each other by pulleys, they might all be worked by one per- fon at the fame time ; and as all would turn the fame way and with the fame fpeed, the fkains could not pof- fiblv entangle each other. OVSTER Bay, a townfliip of New-Ycik, fituated in Queen's county, Long-Ifland, extending from the Sound S. to the Atlantic Ocean, arid includes Loyd's Neck, cr Queen's Village, and Hog-Ifland. It con- tains 4097 inhabitants; of whom 611 are eleftors, and 381 llaves. — Morse. Oyster Bay, a harbour for fmall veflels in the S. W. limits of the town of Barndab!:, in Barntlable county, Maflachufetts. It affords excellent oyfteis ; hence its name. — ib. Oyster Beds, in Delaware Bay, lie oppofite Nan- tuxet Bay. — \h. Oyster Fo'tnt, on the coaft of S. Carolina, where the water does not ebb till an hour and a half after it begins to ebb at the bar of Afhley river, near Charlef- ton. It is bell to go in an hour and an halt before high water. — ib. Oyster Pond, a part of the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, which fet up weftward into Long-Iiland, in the State of New- York, between the north-eafternmoft point of the illand called Oyfler Pond Point, and Gardner's Kland. Off the point are \.\so fmall ifles, one of which is called Plumb- Ifland. — ib. Oyster River, a W. branch of Pifcataqna river in Ntw-Hamplhire. Duihara liands on its S. fide, near its jun(5lion with the main ftream at Htlion's Point. —ih. O-YONG-WONGEYK, on Lake Ontario, at J.)hn- fon's Landing-Place, about 4 miles eaftwaid of Fort Niagara. — \b. OZAMA, one of the largeft rivers of the ifland of St Domingo, in the Wed-lndies, and on wh'ch the city of St Domingo is fituated. It is navigable 9 or 10 leagues from S. to N. One may judge of tije enor- mous volume or water which the confluent ftieam of Ifahella and Ozama i'ends to the fca, by the red colour it gives it in the time of the floods, and which is per- ceivable as far as the eye can diftlnguifh. There is a rock at the moufh, which prevents the entrance of vef- fels drawing more than 18 or 20 feet of water. The river for a league is 24 feet deep ; and its banks are 20 feet perpendicular, but N. of the city this height is re- duced to 4 feet. This real natural bafon has a bottom of mud or foft fand, with a number of careening places. It feldom overflows its banks, except in very extraor- dinary inundations. The road beioie the mouih of the Ozama is very indifferent, and lies expofed from W. S. W. to E. It is imp^'lTible to anchor in it in the time of the fouth winds, and the north winds drive the veffels from their moorings out into the fea, which here runs extremely high. The mouth of the river is in lat. t8 18 N. and long, from Paris 73 38 W. — ib-. P. P ABLO, St, a ]a't;e in the jurifdidiion of Otabalo, in the province of Quito, 3 leagues in length, and about half a league in breadth. The lake is every where furrounded with a fpecies of ruflies called Toto- ral, among which are vaft numbers of wild geefe and galarettes. Its waters empty into the Rio Blanco. — Morse. Pablo, St, a village on the above lake, inhabited ptincipally by Indians. — ib. Pablo, St, a town on the S. coaft of the Ifthmus of Darien, in the province of Veragua, S. America. — ib. PACAJES, a province of S. America, which is rich in filver mines, though they are not much work- td. Here are alfo mines of talc, called Jafpes Blancos de V'erenguela, on account of their tranfparent white- nefs. In this province are an abundance of emeralds. — «*. PACAMORES, a diftrifl of Peru, in S. America. Pacamores,., The air is temperate, and th.e earth abounds in gold. || An Indian nation of this name inhabit the banks of ^^'^''^"™* Amazon river. — ib. PACAYITA, a volcano in Guatimala, in New- Spain. In 1773 the lava which iffiied from it dellroy- ed the city of St Jago, which was fituated in the val- ley of Panchoi. — ib. PACHACAMA, or Pachamac, a famous, fruitful, and pleafant valley in Peru, 4 leagues from Lima, formerly beautified with a magnificent temple built by the Incas, and dedicated to the Creator of the Univerfe. The Peruvians had in it feveral idols ; but they had fo great a reverence for God, whom they called Pacha- CAMAC, that they offered him what they efteemed mod precious, and durft not look upon him ; fo that their kings and priefts entered his temple with their backs tow'ards his altar, and came out again without daring to P A I [ 691 to turn about. The ruins of tliis fuperb ftruftuie, fays Jovet, do yet demonllrate its former magnificence and greatnefj. Such immtnfe treafures had been laid up in it, that Ferdinand Pizarro found to ths value of 90o,oco ducats in it ; although 400 Indians liad taken away as much as they could carry ; and the Spanifli foldiers pillaged it before he came. The cruel Spani- ards tortured the native?, but could not extract a dif- covcry of the hidden treafure. — ib. PACHEA, the moft northerly of the iflands called the Pearl or King's lll.inds, all low and woody, and about 12 leagues from Panama. Within a leas>ue of ihis ifl-tnd there is anchorage in 17 fatlioms. — ib. PACHEGOIA, a lake of New SouTh Wales, in N. America, in hit. 55 N. — ib. PACHEQIJE, a tine, but fmall ifland on ths vS. W. fide of the bay of Panama, on the coall of the N. Pa- cific Ocean, and one of the beautiful iflands within the femicircular bay from Panama to Point Mala. Thefe iflands yield wood, water, fruit, fowls, hogs, &c. and afford excellent harbour for fliipping. — ib. PACHUCO, a town of Mexico famous for the fil ver mines in its vicinity, there arc 1000 of them, of Mexico. — ib. PACKERSFIELD, a townOiipof New-Harpplhire, Chefliire county, E. of Kcene, on the head branches of Afliuelot river. It is 86 miles wefterly of Portf- mouth, was incorporated in 1774, and contains 721 inhabitants. — ib. PACMOTE, a bay on the eart fide of the ifland of Martinico, between Vauclin Bay on the north, and Fere Ance or Creek on the fouth. — ib. PACOLET, a fmall river of South Carolina, which rifes in the White Oak Mountains, and unites with Broad river, 30 miles above Tyger river, and 24 fnuili of the North Carolina line. lis courfe is about fcuth- eaft, and on it are the celebrated Pacolet Springs, 17 miles above its confluence with Broad river. — ib. PADOUCAS, a weftern branch of Miffouri river. The tribe of Indians of this name are faid by fome to be of Welch origin. — ib. PAGET's Port, a fmall harbour witliin the great found in the Bahama Iflands, and in the moil ealterly part of the found. — ib. PAGl'ISA, or Pciquifa, on the weft fide of South- America, in lat. 21 55 S. and 10 leagues north of the harbour of Cobija, in the bay ot Atacama. Haguey de Paguifa, or the watering place of Paguifa, is 15 leagues from Cobij.i. The whole coafl between is high, mountainous and rocky, in the dire.5tion of north- north-eaft. — ib. PAINTED Pojl, a ftation, fo called in New- York- State, in Tioga county, on the northern lide of Tinga river, between Bath and N;wtown; 40 miles N. W. ] P A I antiquity, wliich, after being lofl for many ages, was rcllored, as is commonly believed, by the celebrated Count Caylus, whofe method was greatly improved, liilt by Mr Jofiah Colebrooke, and afterwards by Mifs Greenland, who brought the rudiments of her know, ledge from Italy (See Enc.iustic, Emycl.). In that country encauHic painting had employed the attention of various artifts and men of learning, fuch as Requcno, Lorgna, and ARori, &o. ; but tire bcR acccun: of ic that has fallen under our notice, is in that valuable mil- cellany called the PkiLfol>hical Mugazine, taken from a work of Giov. Fabbrorii, pubiifhed at Rome in the year 1797- According to this author, " the knowledge and uTe of enc«u(tic paiming is certainly older than the time ot the Greeks and the Romans, to whom the learned Re- quetio feems to afligir the exclufive polfefllon of this art; becaufe the Egyptians, who, with the Etrufcans, were the parents of the greater part of the inventions known among mankind, and from whom the Greeks learned fo much, were acquainted with and emp'.oyed encauftic painting in the ancient ages of their grealnefs It is faid that within 20 miles and fplendour, as is proved by the valuable fr=;gments It lies 60 miles from the city of the bandages and coverings of feme mummies which he had examined. No oil-painting (he fays), of cmly two or three hundred years old, exhibits a white paint which has kept fo well as that feen on thefe fragments ; and this circumftance fufficiently proves the fuperiority ot the encauflic method over the common oil-painting, which, notwithftanding the general opinion, cannot, he thinks, have been unknown to the ancients. ' " It is impnflible (fays he) that in Egypt and Phcs- nicia, where fo much ufe was made of flax, the oil pro- cured in abundance from that plant fhould have been unknown. Thofe who have kept oil, or who have fpilt any of it, whether nut or lintlised oil, mud have re- marked that it polTefles the property of foon drying by the effefls of the atmofphere ; and therefore it may be eafily believed that mankind mud foon have conceived the idearf employing it, particularly for fliips, which, as Herodotus fays, were painted with red ochre in the earlieil periods, and adorned with figures and orna- ments. The ufe of oil afforded painting a much fimpler and eafier method than that of wax ; it muft therefore have been fiifl adopted, and the tranfiiion from oil to wax muft be confidered as a ftep towards bringing tlie art to pcrfcclion ; becaufe encauftic painting is not ex- pofed to the irremediable inconveniences that arile in oil-|iainiIng, the value of which we extolled through ig- norance, and praifed as a new invention. ♦' Oil In general, and in particular drying oil which the p.iinters ufe, has naturally a ftrong inclination to combine itfelt w ith the vital air or oxygen of the atmo- fphere, and by imbibli^g oxygen it f.ecomes dry, and alfumes the characier of refin ; but the col.^ur then be- raiiUing. by W. of Tioga Point, or Athens, 58 iouth-call of comes darker, as is the cafe with tranfparent turpentine, Williamft)urg on Geneffec river, and 230 N. W. of Philadelphia. A poft-office is kept here. — ib. PAtNTED Rock is on French Broad river, by which the line runs between Virginia and Tennellee. — ib. PAINTER'S Harbour, on the weft cohU of Cape Breton Ifland, is nearly due eaft of Eaft Point in tlie iiland of St John's. N. lat. 46 22, W. long. 61 16. —ib. Encaustic PAINTING is an art of very high which gradually becomes a black pitch. " Actordir.g to the new and more accurate method of decompofing bodies, oil confifts principally of hy- drogen and carbon. By coming into contad with the atmifpherc, and abforbmg its niygen and light, it un- dergoes a flow and imperceptible combuftion, which is not edenti.illy dilferent froni the fpeedy and vi.lent one which it would irndergn in the common mode of burn- iDg. It firft palFcs, by imbibing oiygcn, into the ftate 4 S 2 of 1> A I C 692 ] P A I Painting, of a more or lefs dark refin ; lofes gradually its eflential wax-painting, and the latter certainly alludes to paint- Palming;. """^^^^^"^ hydrogen, which makes a new combination, and after- ings in oil. It is well known that paintings with wet *«^'^''>»' wards the' oxygen itlelf which has attracted the carbon ; chalks or water colours do not become black by age, and at len"-th leaves behind a thin layer of adual car- and that this is the cafe alfo with encauftic. Of this bon which in the end becomes black in the courfe of any one may be convinced, not only by the exprefllons time, and confiderably obfcures the oil-painting. By of the above quoted authors, but by one's own eyes on a continuance of the before-mentioned flow combuftion, furveying the Egyptian fragment alluded to. Galland the carbon itfelf, as it were, burns alfo : if it be flrong- proves, on various grounds, that a painting was made ly afted upon by the light, it attrafts the oxygen of with oil fo early as the reign of Marcus Aurelius ; and the atmofphere, and again brings forward the carbonic if no fpecimens of that period have reached us, this is acid or fixed air, which gradually flies off. By this, perhaps to be afcribed to the frail and periftiable nature which I may call the fecond degree of combuftion, the of this fpecies of painting." painting mull become dully and friable, like crayon Sign. Fabbroni, after fome farther obfervations, cal- piiiri/irig. culated to prove that metallic oxyds or calces could not " Hence it appears (fays our author) that one can have been employed as pigments on fuch mummies as hope only tor a tranfieut or deceitful effedl from the re- ftill retain their colours freih, proceeds thus: " Thofe frelhing of oil-paintings with oil; becaufe the harmony who are acquainted with the accuracy and certainty of of the tones, which the painter ellabliflies as fuited for the method not long fmce introduced into sliemical the moment, does not proceed with equal fteps, and operations, will be convinced, that in 24 grains of the cann' t preferve itfelf in the like nieafure for the courfe encauftic painting, which I ventured to detach from of a few years, as each tint, as they fay, ought to in- the above-mentioned Egyptian fragment, in order to creafe, or, to Ipeak more properly, to burn in propor- fubjedl it to examination, the mixture of an hundredth tion to its antiquity. It thence follows, that mere part of a foreign fubflance would have been difcovered walhing may be prejudicial to an old painting; and that with the greateft certainty ; that the refin of Requeno the method of refrefliing paintings, as it is called, by muft undoubtedly have been perceptible to me, and daubing over the fiirface, fiom time to time, with new that the alkali of Baclielier and Lorgna could not have drying oil, is highly prejudicial and ill calculated for efcaped the counterafting medium. But in this Egyp- the intended purpofe, fince the oil when it becomes dry tian encauftic I found nothing except very pure wax, contraifls in its whole furface, carries with it the paint though I varied my analyfis in every known method, under it, and occafions cracks in the painting. New I muft therefore conclude, that modern learned writers, oil of this kind gives occafion to mineral paints to be at leaft in refpeft to this Egyptian mode of painting, reftored ; but covers the pifture with a new coat of re- were as far from the truth as the accounts of ancient fin, and then of carbon, which arifes from the gradual authors appear to me precife and fatisfaiftory ; and that com'uuftion, and always caliles more blacknefs, and the the encauftum with which formerly the fore part of decay of the painting which one wifhes to preferve. fnips and ihe walls of houfes and temples were painted, " Wax, on the other hand, undergoes a change which was fometliing different from foap or refinous crayons, is very different irom that of drying oil. The wax, " 1 am well aware that it will be afked, In what inftead of becoming black by the contaft of the atmo- manner can wax at prefent be rendered lufficiently li- fphere, increafes in whitenefs, and, according to its na- quid for the ftrokes of the pencil, if it be not convert- tural quality, is not deconipofed in the air, and it does ed into powder or foap? This queftion, in my opi- not ftrongly attraifl the oxygen of the cakes or metallic nion, can be fully anfweied from the words of an an- afhes which are commonly uled in painting. Moreover, cient author, and, in the next place, by experience, the fo called earths, which are in themfelves white, and " Vitruvius in particular, bo ik vii. chap, ix, exprefles are never variable either by the prefence or abfence of himfelf in the following clear manner : cxy£;en, cannot be employed in oil-painting, becaufe ' Thofe (fays he) who wi(h to retain cinnabar on that fluid makes them almoft tranfparent, and caufes walls, cover it, when it hat been well laid on and dried, them to remain as it were without body, and not to with Punic wax diluted in a little oil (let this be well produce the willicd-for elfeifl. That beautilul vvliite, remarked); and after they have fpread nut the wax which may be obfcrved on the before-mentioned Egyp- with a h.iir brulh, they heat the wall by means of a tian encauftic, is nothing elfe than a fimple earth, and br.-i'/'ier tilled with burning coals (hence it is called en- according to our author's chemical experiments, a chalk caullic painting), and then make it Imooth and level which is alfo unalterable." by rubbing it with wax tapets and clean cloths, as is That the ancients were once acquainted with the ufe done wlien marble ftatues are covered w'ah wax. The of oil-painting, and neglefted it on account of the great effeift of tliis wax crull is, that the colour is not de- fuperiotity of the encauftic method, our author thinks llroyed by the light of the fun or the moon (a).' farther evident from tiie different accounts which we " It here appears, that the liom.ms, who copied the have of the ancient paintings. " Tiuis Petronius praifes Grecian procels, which the latter borrowed from the the frefti appearance which the valuable works of Zeuxis Egyptians, mixed the wax with an oil to make it pli- and Apelks had, even in this time ; but Cicero, on the able under the brnfli ; but no maftic, alkali, or honey> other hand, fpeaks of the paintings of the ancients ha- as has been ingenioufly imagined, and which fome have ving fuffered from blacknefs. The former fpeaks of thought might be employed with fuccefs. The ditK- culty (a) The reader will find the original of this paffage, with a tranflation fomewhat different, in the article ■Encaustic, Encycl. P A I [ C93 ] P A I 'Painting, culty now will be confined to point out in what manner II. this oil was employed. It does not appear that they ^'J!14J1^ ufed thofe fat oils which are commonly called drying oils ; becaufe they could have employed thefe as we do, without the addition of wai, which, in fuch a cafe, would have been entirely fuperfluous. Fat oils which do not dry would not have been proper for that pur- pofe, as they would have kept the wax continually in the (late of a foft pomade or fjlve. Befides, my expe- riments (continues the author) would without doubt have ftiewn me the exiftence of any oily matter. «' With regard to elfential or volatile oils, a knowledge of them is not allowed to the ancients, as the invention of diftilling is not older than the eighth or ninth cen- tury, and therefore falls in with the period of Geber or Avicenna." Yet it is certain, that, in order to ufe wax in their encaullic painting, they mull have com- bined it with an ethereal volatile oil, of which no traces fhould afterwards remain ; becaufe this was neceflary for the folidity of the work, and becaufe no oil was found in the fragment that was exHmined. But naphtha is fuch an oil, much lighter (lays our author) than ether of vitriol itfelf. It is exceedingly volatile, and evaporates without leaving a tiace of it behind. On this account it is ufed when fiynatures and mAnufcripts are to be copied; becaufe the p;iper, which is moillened by it, and fo rendered tianfparent, quickly becomes white and opaque as before by the complete evapora- tion of the naphtha. That tlie AliViians, Chaldeans, and Perfians, were well acquainted with the properties of naphtha is known to every fcholar; and hence our author thinks it highly probable that it was ufed by thofe nations to render wax fit for painting. " It ap- pears to me (fays he) that the Gieeks, as was the cafe with many other things, learned encaullic from the Egyptians, who probaljly derived it from the Alfyrians or Chaldeans ; and it fo, we have difcovered the real mixtuie ufed tor ancient encauftic painting." To put the matter, however, b;;yond a doubt. Sign. Fabhroni prepared, tor an eminent Saxon painter, a fo- lution ot Vepetl n wax in highly purified naphtha, de- tiring him to mix up witli it the C( lours necelf-iry for a painting. The anilt complied ; and b'>th he and our author were allon Ihed, as well as all their friends, at the high tone which the C"lours atfunied, and the agree- able lullie which the painting altervvards acquit ed when it had been rubbed over with a fdft cloth A fimilar folution nf wax was made for another artift, in which the (pirit of turpentine was ul"';d inllead of naphtha with equal liicceis. Our author therefore concludes, we think with reafon, that if he has not difcovered the real comp'Wition empl lyed by the ancients m tlieir en- caultic pointings, he has ^t leal! approached much nearer to that difcovery than any nt his iTedecelfors who have enipli yed their learned labours in the fame field of in- vellii;ati')n. PAINTINGS, or Pictures, are often dene upon objeitb trom which, when they are valuable, it would be dclirable to transfer them. Thus, a connoitfeur in painting might naturally with to transfer an old and va- luable picture from the ceiliiig or walls of his room to llretchcd canva« ; and fuch a man would coiifider hlm- fclf as deeply indebted to the artill wlin Ihould perform fo arduous a talk. This talk lias aflu.illy been perform- ed by Mr Rol/ert Salmon of Woburn, BeJfordihire, who was honoured by the Society for the Encoui-ageimnt e/Talntings. Arts, isfc. with the greater lilver pallet, for communi- '^^'^'^^-^ eating the method by which he accompli thed it. " The firft thing (fays Mr Salmon) to be attended to with refpea to paintings, either on plaftered walls or ceilings, or on boards, is, that the place in which they are be fecure from wet or damp. If the paintings are on old walls in large builings, or other places where this cannot be attained by art, then the fummer feafon Ihould be taken tor the purpole, as the pidure will rarely efcape damage, if wet or damp gets at it while under the procefs. At the fame time, care (hould be taken that the room, or other place, be not over- heated ; as th-tt would produce equally bad effefls. " Thefe precautions being taken, the next thing is to examine the furface of the painting. If there are any holes in the fame, they muft be carefully filled up with a parte or putty, made of glue and whiting: this, if the holes are large, Ihould be twice or thrice done, fo as entirely to fill them up, and leave the furface even and fmooth ; but if there are any bruifed places, with paint Hill remaining on the furface of the bruifed parts, then this Hopping mull not be applied, but the fecur- ing-canvas, hereafter defcribed, mull be prelTed down into thefe places. In the places that are liopped, there will of courfe appear blemilhes when the pifture is trans- ferred ; but the piocefs is rendered much more certain and fure by being fo done. Attention muft next be paid to lay down any blillcrs, or places where the paint is leaving the ground : this is done by introducing, be- tween the paint and the ground, tome very llrong palle of Hour and water; and the furface of the bllftercd paint being damped with a wet fponge or brulli, it may be preffed with the hand home to the ground, to which it will then adhere. " All the unlound places being thus fecuved, care mull be taken to clear the furface of any greafe or dirt, as alio of any particles of the palle that may happen to be left on it. The next thing is, to determine tiie fize of the painting meant to be taken off: If it is on a plnin furface, a board of the fize of the piiflure muft be procured, not lei's than an inch in thicknel's, and framed together with well feafoiied wood, in fmall pan- nels, imooth and fiulli on one fide. Tliis done, a piece of fine open canvas mull be provided, fuch as ijie finell fort ufed for hanging paper on ; which canvas is to be fomewhat larger than the piflure, and fo fcwed to- gether, and the team fo prelfed, iliat it be perfcflly fmooih and even. This is wh.u Mr S ilmon calls the feciiring canvas; which, being lb prepared, is to be lltick on the furface ot the pidiurc with a palte made ot Itrorg beer, boiled till it is lialf reduced, and then mixed with a iuthcient quantity of flour to give it a very llrong confillence. To l.irge piflures on walls or ceilings, the canvas muft for fome time be prelfed, and rubbed with the hand as fmooth as pollible, workine it from the middle to the outfide, fo as to make it toler- ably light; nblerving, as it dries, to prefs it, with the hand or a cl 'th, into any h.llow or bruifed places, (o that it may adliere to every part of the painting : this done. It is lefl to dry, which it will gener.dly do in 2 day ■. r two. When dry, a fccond canvas, of a ftrong- er at J clofer fori, and of the i.mie liie as the otiier.'is in like in.tii'icr to be attached on the top of ihe tirft. This kill v,ill w^nc very liliie attcotion, as it will rea- dily P A I [ 694 ] P A I l';.lnting. dily adlieft; to the firft ; and, being drv, attention muft "-'^^'"^^ be paid to take olV any fmall icnots or uneveiinefs that ni ly be upon the furfacc of it ; which done, the whole llioiild be again covered with a chin pade of fize and wliiiinR; vUiich is to be pumiced over when dry, fo as to make the vviiuk peifertly i'mooch and even. " 'I'he painting being thus fecured, the board, al- ready prepared to the fi/.e of the picture, is to be put with tlie fmooth fide againll the furface thereof, fo as exaflly to cover as much as is intended to be transfer- ' red. The edges of the canvas, which, as before di- rected, is to belarger than the painting, are then to be ptilled tight over, and clofely nailed to the edge of the board. If the painting is large, and either on a ceil- ing or wall, the board mull, by proper fupports, be hrmly fi-ied againll it, fo that it can readily bs lowered down when the plalkr and painting are detached. " The canvas and board being fixed, the painting is to be freed from the wall or ceiling, together with a certain portion of tlie plalleiing : this, with projier care and attention, may be readily done. If on a ceiling, the firft tiling is to make fome holes through the plaf- tering, round the outfide of the board and painting ; and, with a fmall faw, to faw tlie pLiftering from one hole to another, till the whole is difunited from the other parts of the ceiling : this done, the workman mull get at the upper fide of the ceiling, where he muft free the plaftering from the laths, by breaking off the keys thereof, and with a chifel cut out the laths ; whereby the plaftering, together with the pi<aure, will be left refting on the board and fupports. " If the painting is on a brick or ftone wall, the wall muft be cut away at top, and down the fides of the painting ; and then, by meanb of chlfels or faws in wood- en lian'dles, of different lengths, the wall muft be cut away quite behind the painting ; leaving the fame, to- gether with the plaftering, refting on the board. This operation may iometimes be done with a faw ; or, if the wall be not thick, nor the other fide of much con- fequence, the bricks or ftones may be taken out from that fide, leaving the plaftering and painting as before. This laft method (fays the author) I have not praftifed : the other, of cutting away fome part of the wall, I have, and fee no difficulty, or very great labour, in the operation ; but that, of courfe, muft be various, accord- ing to the texture of the wall and mortar. " If the paintings are on curved furfaces, fuch as the coves of ceilings, then the only difference of operation is, that fome ribs of wood muft be cut out, and board- ed fmooth to the curve of the furface of the painting, and then fixed up thereto, in place of the before-defcri- bed bearing-board ; the painting is then to be freed, and left with the plaftering, refting on the bearers. " For paintings on wainfcot or boards, the fame fe- curing and procefs is to be exaflly followed ; only that, as the wainfcot or board can always be cut to the fize wanted, and laid horizontal, the fecuring canvas is to be ftretched thereon, and turned over the edges of the fame, till it is dry ; after which the edges are again to be turned up, and nailed to the board, in the fame man- ner as with refpeft to painting, from walls. " Having, as before defcribed, in any of the afore- mentioned cafss, freed the paintings from their original places, you have got them fecured to two thickneffes of canvas, with their furfaces on the board prepared for that purpofe ; tliis being the cafe, they can readily be 1': removed to any room or lliop, to be finifhed as follows: ^ Having can led the painting into the fliop or room, which Ihould be moderately warm and dry, but by no means overheated, lay tlie bo.ird on a bench or trelfels, fo that the back of the plflure be iippermoft , the plaf- tering or wood, as may happen, is then to be cleared away, leaving nothing bat the body of paint, which will be firmly attached to the fecuring canvas. To per- form this, a 1 irge rafp, a narrow plane, and chifelf, will be requilite. This operation, though dlHictilt to be de- fcribed, would foon be learned by any one who fhould make the attempt; nor is it very tedious-; and being performed, the pifture is ready to be attached to its new canvas, as follows. " The painting being cleared, and lying on the board, the back thereof is to be painted three or four times over fucceflively, with any good ftrong-bodied paint ; leaving one coat to dry before another comes on : a day or two between each will generally be found fufficient. Each of thefe coats, and particularly the firft, ihould be laid on with great care, taking but a fmall quantity in the brulh at a time, and laying it very thin. This precaution is neceffary, to prevent any of the oil or paint from palling through any fmall cracks or holes in the furface of the pidlure ; as fuch oil or paint would run into the pafte, and fo attach the fecuring canvas to the picture, as to prevent its being afterwards got off. If any fuch holes or cracks are obferved, they fhould be ftopped up with the glue and whiting pafte, and the painting then repeated, till a complete coat is formed on the back of the pidture. It is then ready for at- taching to its canvas, which is done by fpreading all over the piflure a pafte made of copal varnifh, mixed with ftiff white lead, and a fmall quantity of any other old fat paint ; all which being fpread equally over with a pallet knife, fuch a canvas as the firft fecuring canvas is laid thereon, and ftrained and nailed round the edges of the board ; in which ftate it is left till it becomes tolerably dry : then a fecond canvas, of a flronger fort, muft be in like manner attached on the firft, and left till it is perfeiftly dry and hard. This generally takes about two months ; and the longer the painting is left, the more fecurely it will be attached to its canvas, and lefs liable to crack or fly therefrom. When fufficiently dry, all the four canvaffes are to be unnailed from the board, and the edges turned up the reverfe vv-ay, and nailed to a proper ftretching-frame. This is done by unnailing from the board a part on each fide at a time, and immediately nailing it to the ftretching-frame, fo as never to leave the canvas to crack or partially ftretch, which would damage the pifture. In this man- ner, by degrees, the cloths are entirely detached from the board, and firmly fixed on the ftretching-frame. The fuperflous canvas, left larger than the frame, may then be cut off, and the wedges put in the frame, ami moderately tightened up. There remains then only to clear the furface of the painting from the fecuringcan- vas ; which is done by repeatedly wafbing the furface with a fponge and moderately warm water. In doing this, no violence or force muft be ufed ; and, by frequent and gentle wafhings, the pafte will all be worked out with the fponge. The edges of the outer canvas are then to be cut round, and ftnpped off: the other, next the furface of the piilure, is to be ferved in like manner ; which P A I C 695 ] PAL Fainting, which done, notliing remains but to take the pafte clean ^•""^''^"^ ofF, and repair any defe>5lb : the pidure will then be as ftrnng as it" painted on the canvas. " For taking pldlures off walls, without taking the walls down, or cutting away m re thereof than the plaf- tering, the t'ollowing procels is propoled : " The furface of tiie p'duie is to be firft fecured, in the manner before defcnbsd ; but inftead of the plain board, a bearer Ihould be prepared wiih a convex fur- face, comp'-'fed of ribs boar.leJ over, fo as to form part of a cylinder, of not lels than five feet radium, and as long as the height of the piflure. This hearer being prepared, in order to apply it, a floor or platform (hould be ere(5led, and placed horizontally, with its furface level, and its edge immediately in contaift with the bot- tom of the pi(flure meant to be transferred. The ufe of this platform is tor the above dcfcribed bearer to rell and move upon; i\hich bearer (hould be feton its end, with one edge in c()nta(fl with the w.iU, at one fids of the pidtiire ; conlcqnei.tly the other edge will be at fome diitance from the wall, according to the fize ot the picture and convexity of the bearer. Being thus placed, the fupeiflu'us edge of the fecuring-canvas Ihouid be turned over, and nailed to that edge of the bearer that is next the wall : This done, the operation of cutting away the plaftering fliould be begun •, which may be done with tlie corner and end > f a fltoit faw ; fawing between the brick-w.'rk and plafteiing, and lea- ving the thicknefs, or part of the thicknefs, of the plaf- tering on the p.iin'Jng fattened to the hearer. When this edge of the pifluie is freed, the whole he'ght, for nine or ten inches under the edge of the bearer that is fanhelf from the will, muft then be gentl) forced near- er; ccnfequently the other edge, together with the painting and plafter that is freed, wili leave the wall, and give an opportunity of introducing the faw behind, and cutting away the fame to a certain dift.inre farther under ; and, by repeating this, the wh'ile of the pii^ture will at length be freed, and leit on the bearer. Each time the bearer is removed, and, as it were, r. lied on the vertical furface of the wail, caie muft be taken to turn and nail the fecuring canvas on the top and bot- tom edges of the bearer, fo as to feeure the freed plaf- tering and pidure from mrving aljout ; and, lallly, be- fore the be trer and plaftering de moved, to nail the other edge of the pifluie in the fame way, which will iecure the whole to the bearer. This done, the pic- ture and bearer are at liberty to be jnoved to a proper place, in order to be treed fr(;m the rem lining plaller. The edges may then be unnailed ; the painting and can- vas flipped irom this beaier on to a plain board; and the new c.invas may be then put on ; which is to re- main till dry, as in other cafes. " It may appear, that tlie bending of the canvas and plaftering to the convex bearer will crack tlie plaf- ter, and damage il.e painting ; but, from experience {fays Mr Salmon) I have oblerved, that, to a curve of I'uch or even Ufa radium, plaftering will bend, without any vifible crack, even on the exterior part thereof ; and that part next the bearer, not having occafion, in bend- ing, to extend its parts, will confequently be much lefs liable to he difturbed by fuch bending." la clearing the wood from the paintings, our au- thor never nude ufe of aquafortis, or any other liquid ; the ufe of whicli he conceives would be very tedious, and attended with danger, left it fliould get thro-jgh the paint, and wet or damp the pafte by which the fe- curing canvas is fixed. In working olF the wood, he , generally made ufe of fuch planes as by the joiners are called the L-velleJ rabbit plane, and fma/i rounds. By the comers of the former, and proper handling of the lat- ter, the wood is cleared off without force or violence : even the fmalleft particles miy, in general, be got oiF; although in fome paintings, and in particular parts of others, he has met with places on whicli he thought it belt to leave fome particles, or fine I'plinters, of wood, but nothing more. Rafps, and fumetimes a tine chifel, are ufeful, to clear off fuch parts as may be in hollow places, or where particles of wood are left, as above. The time required will be various, according to the manner in which the painting was originally done ; lome being painted on boards previoully prepared with a water colour ; others jmmediately painted with oil on the wood. This laft fort is by much the moft dilhcult ; the other is more eafy, as the previous preparation pre- vents the wood from imbibing the oil, and confequently admits it to be more eafily feparated. PAJARO, Pajaros, or Paxaros, iilands on the coaft of Chili, on the South Pacific Ocean. Thefe are 3 or 4 rocks, the largeft of which is called Pajaro Ninno, or Paxaro Ninno, and 2 miles M. W. by N. from the fouthernmoft point oi the Main, or Point Tortugas, that does the port of Coquimbo. — Mone. PAjAROS, LES, or I/l<wJs of Birds, a clufter of fmail Iilands on the coaft of Chili, 8 leagues N. N. W. of the Bay of Coquimbo, and 7 S. S. E. of the har- bour of Guafco. The ifland of Choros is 4 miles north ot thefe iflands, towards the harbour of Guafco. — tb. PAKANOKIT, the feat of MafaffAt, the famous Indian cliief, wa;. fituated on Namalket river, which empties into Narraganfet Bay. — ib. Palatine, or Palenune, a townfliip in Mont- gomery county. New York, on the north fide of Mo- hawk liver, and weft of Caghnawaga. In 1790, it contained 3,404 inhabitants, including 192 flaveo. In I 796, 585 of the inhabitants were eleclors. The com- pact part of it ftands on the bank of the Mohawk, and contains a Reformed Dutch church, and 20 or 30 houfes. It is 36 milss above Slienectady. — \b. Palatine To-un, in the ftate of New York, lies on the eaft bank of Hiidfon's river, and north iide of the mouth of Livingfton river, which empties into the former ; 1 1 miles north of Rhynbeck, and 15 foutherly of Hudfan city. — ib. PAI.ILICUM, the fame as Aldcbaran, a fixed ftar of die firil magnitude, in the eye of the bull, or fign Taurus. PALLIFICATION, or Piling, in architefture, denotes the piling of the grotind work, or the ftrength- ening it with piles, or timber driven into the ground; which is praifliftd when buildings are erected upon a moill ■T ma'lhv f il. PALLISER's Ijliwls, in the South Pacific Ocean, are between 15 and 16 degrees of S. l;:t. and from 146 to 147 degrees of W. long. From lat. 14 t" 20 S. and long. 138 to 150 W. the ocean is ftrewed with low, h.dl-overflowed illanj-, which renders it neciiTiry for navigators to proceed with much caution. — Mone. PALM, an ancient long meafure, taken from the extent of tiic hand. See Palmus, Encyd. PALMA, , Pajaro, II Palm. PAL [ 696 ] V A U PALMA, a town of Terra Firma, in N. Amciica, 50 miles N. VV. of St Fe de Bagota. N. lat. 4 30, W. long. 73 40. — Morse. PALMiE, pnlms. See Encyclopaedia. The fubjedl is introduced here to notice a kind of palm, the produdl of North America, of which we have the following ac- count by Dr li.trton. " There i^rows upon the river Mobile a fpecies of palm, which'^is but little known to natui»ali(ls, but which promifes to be an important article of food to man. It has no llalk or ftem above ground. The leaves fpread regularly all round, and when fully expanded are flabel- liform. In the centre of thefe leaves is produced the receptacle of the fruit, which is ot the form and il/e of a common fugar-loaf. This receptacle confilh of a vaft number of drupes, or berries, of the fize and Ihape of common plums : each is covered with a fibrous, fari- naceous, pulpy coating, of confiderable thicknefs. This fublfance is faid to refemble manna in texture, colour, and tafte ; or, perhaps, it dill more refembles moift brown fugar, with particles cf loaf fugar mixed with it. It is a moft delicious and nourifliing tood, and is dili- gently fought after in the places where it grows. Upon hid tailing it, it is fomewhat bitter and pungent." PALMAS, a large river on the weft coal! of the Gulf of Mexico, whofe mouth is in lat. 25 N. and long. 98 36 W. Some of its branches run in a courfe almoll direiflly eaft from the mountains to the eaftward of the Gulf of California.— ./l/o;n-. PALMER, a rough and hilly townrtiip in Hamp- fliire county, Maflachufetts, 82 miles W. by S. of Bof- ton. It is fituated on the fouth fide of Chickopee river, and bounded eaftward by Wcftern, in Worceller county. An ad palled in laft feliion, 1796, to incor- porate a fociety to make a turnpike-road between thefe two towns. It was incorporated in 1752, and contains 809 inhabitants. — ib. Palmer's River, a water of Narraganfet Bay, which empties with another fmall river, and forms Warren river, oppofite the town of Warren. — ih. PALMERSTON's ///^jnJ, of which one in particular has been fo named, is in lat. 18 S. and long. 162 57 W. and is the fecond in fituation from the S. E. of a group of 9 or 10, all known by the fame general name. It affords neither anchorage mr water ; but if the wea- ther is moderate, a (hip that is palfmg the S. Pacific Ocean in this track, may be fupplled with grafs for cattle, cocoa-nuts, fifti, and other produdions of the illand. The principal ifland is not above a mile in circumference ; ntr is it elevated more than 3 feet above the fuiface of the fea. — ib. PALMETTO, the moft eafterly point of the bay fo ciUed, on the fouth-weil coaft of the idand of St Chriftoi)het'!., in the Weft Indies. The fhrre is rocky, and a fort proteils the buy. — Alfo the moft northerly point of the iftand of Jamaica, having Manatee Bay on the weft, and Ifland Bay on the eaft. — ib. PALMISTE Po:nt, on the north fide of the N. W. part of the illand of St Domingo; three leagues fouth of Point Portugal, the eaft point of the fmall iQand La Tortue, and 5 eaft of Port de Paix, — ib. PALMYRA, a town, and the only port of entry and delivery, in tlie ftate of Tenelfee, conftituted a port of entry by law of the United States, January 31,1 797. — ib. Panama. PALOMINOS, fmall idands on the coaft of Peru, Palommoj, South America; 3 miles weft of St Lawrence Ifland, or St Lorenzo. They have from 13 to 18 fathoms water round them. — ib. PALONQUE, the cape eaft of Nifao Point, at the mouth of Nilao river, on the fouth fide of the ifland of St Domingo, in lat. 18 13 N. and long. 73 2 W. of Paris. — ib. PALTZ, Nenxi, a townfhip on the W. fide of Hud- fon's river, in Ulfter county, New York, about 20 miles N. W. of Newburgh, and 32 north of Gofhen. It contains 2,309 inhabitants, including 302 flaves. — ib. PAMBAMACCA, a lofty mountain in the pro- vince of Quito, being one of the pikes of the eaftern Cordilleras. — ib. PAMLICO Sound, on the eaft coaft of N. Carolina, is a kind of lake or inland fea, from 10 to 20 miles . broad, and neatly 100 miles in length. It is feparated from the Atlantic Ocean, in its whole length, by a beach of fand hardly a mile wide, generally covered with fmall trees or bufhes. Through this bank are feveral fmall inlets, by which boats may pafs ; but Ocrecock Inlet is the only one that will admit veffels of burden into the diftriifls of Edenton and Newbern. This inlet is in lat. 35 to N. and opens between Ocre- cock Ifland and Ct)re Bank. This found communi- cates with Core and Albemarle Sounds ; and receives Pamlico or Tar river, the river Neus, befides other fmall ftreams. — ib. PAMPELUNA, a town of New Granada, in S. America. In its vicinity are gold mines. N. lat. 6 30, W. long. 71 30. It is 150 miles from Santa Fe, and 200 from Maricaibo. — ib. PAMUNKY, the ancient name of York river, in Virginia ; but this name is now confined to the fouthern branch, formed by the confluence of the North and South Anna. This and the northern branch, Matta- pony, unite and form York river, juft below the town of De La War.— /i. PANA, an ifland on the coaft of Peru, 7 leagues E. N. E. of Santa Clara, and as far from Guayaquil. At Point Arena, which is the wefternmoft point, all Ih'ps bound farther into Guayaquil Bay ftop for pilots, as there is good anchorage over againft the middle of the town in 5 fathoms, and a foft oozy ground. It is alfo called Puna. — ib. PANACA, a burning mountain on the W. coaft of New Mexico, about 3 leagues from the volcano of San- fonate. — ib. PANADOU. or Menadou, a bay on the coaft of Cape Breton Ifland, near the S. part of the Gulf of St Lawrence. — ib. PANAMA is the capital of Terra Firma Proper, S. America; fituated on a capacious bay of its name, on th>; fouth lide of the Ifthmus of Panama, or Darien, oppofi'e to Porto Belln, on the N. fide of the ifthmus. It is the great receptacle of the vaft quantities of gold and filver, vvith other rich merchandize from all parts of Peiu ami Chili. Here they are lodged in ftore- houfes, till the proper feafon arrives to tranfport them to Europe. The harbour of Panama is formed in its road by the fhelter of feveral iflands, where fhips lie very fafe, at aboirt 2|- or 3 leagues diftant from the city. The tides are regular, and it is high water at the ftiU and change at 3 o'clock. The water rifesand falls P A N [ ^97 3 P A P Panorama. Panama, falls confideiably ; fo that the fiiore, lying on a gentle whatever extent tliis inHJc inclofure may be, there miif^ flope," is at low water left dry to a great diftance. be over it (fupported from the bottom, cr fufpended Pearls are found here in ftich plenty, that there are from the top) a Ihadecr roof; which, in all direftionf, few perfims of property near Panama, who do not Ihould projeft fo far beyond this inclofure, as to prc- employ all, or at leaft part of their flaves, in this filh- vent an obferver from feeing above the drawing or p.iinr- ery. The Negroes who fifli for pearls muft be both ing when lo'^king up; and there mull be without this expert fvvimmers, and capable of holding their breath inclofure another interception, to reprefent a wall, pa- a long time, the work being performed at the bottom ling, or other interception, as the natural objefts repre- of the fea. This city is a bifliop's fee, whofe bidiop is fented, or fancy, m^y dired, fo as elTcaually to prevent the obferver from feeing below the bottom of the draw- ing or painting ; by means of which interception, no- thing can be seen on the outer circle but the drawing or painting intended to reprefent nature. The entrance to the inner inclofure muft be from below, a pro'per building or framing being erected for that purpofe, fo that no door or other interruption may dillurb the circle on which the view is to be reprefentcd. And the primate of Terra Firma. It was built by the Spa- niards, who, in 1521, conftituted it a citV) vvith the ufual privileges In 1670 it was taken, facked and burnt by John Morgan, an Englifh adventurer. The new town was built in a more convenient fituation, about a league and a half from the former. In 1737, •this new town was almoft entirely deftroyed by an ac- cidental fire. It is furrounded with a (lone wall and other fortifications, and tht public buildings are very there (hould be, below the painting or drawing, proper handfome. N. lat. 8 57 48,^ W. long. 82 5 14.— 'Vi. ventilators fixed, fo as to render a current circulation of air through the whole; and the inner inclofure may PanAiMA, a province of Terra Firma, of which the city above-mentioned is the capital. This province is called by moll writers TVr/vj Firma Proper. It con- tains 3 cities, 12 villages, and a great number of rancherics or affemblages of Indian huts ; thefe are fitu- ated in fmall plains along the fhore, the reft of the country being covered with enormous and craggy barren and uninhabited mountains. It has feveral gold mines ; but the pearl filhery affords a more certain profit, and at the fame time is acquired with much greater eafc-^-^i. PANAMARIBO, on the coaft of Surinam, in Guiana, in S. America, is E. S. E . ot Demarara, in lat. about 6 N. and long. 56 26 "W.—ib. PANECILLO, an eminence near Quito, which fupplies that city with excellent water. — ib. PANIS. There are two Indian nations fo named. The White Panis inhabit S. E. of the Miffouri, andean furnilh 1500 wariors ; and the Speckled Panis S. of the Milfouri, 1200 warriors. — ib. PANORAMA, a word derived from Tav and ofa,«a ; and therefore employed of late to denote a painting, whether in oil or water colours, which reprefents an entire view of any country, city, or other natural ob- jeifls, as they appear to a perfon ftanding in any fitua- tion, and turning quite round. To produce thiseffefl, the painter or drawer mull fix his ftaiirn, and delineate corre<fHy and connedledly every objcifl which prefents be elevated, at the will oi' an artift, fo as to make ob- fervers, on whatever fituation he may wilh they fhould imagine themfelves, feel as if really on the very fpot. PANSE, De La, a branch of AVabafh river, in the N. W. Territory.— Tl/or^f. PANTON, a townfliip in Addifon county, Vermont, fituatcd on the E. fide of Lake Champlain, between Addifon and Ferrifburg, and about 87 miles N. of Bennington. It cf^ntains 220 inhabitants ib. PANUCO, or Guiijlica, a province of N. America, in New Spain, bounded E. by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by the provinces of Mechoacan and New Bifcay. The tropic of Cancer divides this province. It is about ^^ leagues each way. The part neareft to Mexi- co is much the beft and richell, abounding with provi- '"■ and having fome veins of gold, and mines o£ Other parts are wretchedly poor and barren. fait. —ib Panuco, the capital of the above-mentioned pro- vince ; it is the fee of a bifiiop, and ft mds upon a river of its own name, 17 leagues from its mouth, on the W. fliore of the Gulf of Mexico, and 60 N. W. of the city of Mexico. The river is navigable for large fliips a great way above the city; but the harbour has lo large a bar before it, that no Ihips of burden can enter it. N. lat. 23 50. VV. long. 59 50 lb. PAPAGAYO, a gulf on the n' Pacific ocean, and tfelf to his view as he turns round, crncluding his on the W. fide of the Ifthmus of Nicaragua, a fmall drawing by a connection with where he began. He diftance from the wcftcrn parts of the lake of Nicara- muft obfervc the lights and Ihadows, how they fall, and gua, and in lat. about 1 1 15 N. ib. perfect his piece to the beft of his abilities. There muft be a circular building or framing erected, on which this drawing or painting may be performed ; or the fame may be done on canvas, or other matcri.rls, and fixed or fulpended on the fame building or framing, to anfwer the purpofe complete. It muft be lighted en- tirely from the top, either by a glazed dome, or other- wife as the artift may think proper. There muft be an inclofu.e within the faid Circular building or fram- ing, which IhiU prevent an obferver going too near the drawing or painting, fo as it may, from all parts it can be viewed, have its proper effeiS. This inclofure may reprefent a room, or platform, or any other fituation, and may be of any form thought moft convenient ; but the circular form is particularly recommended SuiTL. Vol. II, PAPALOAPAIN, the largeft river of Guaxaca, in New Spain, called alfo Alvarada. It rifes in the moun- tains Zoncoliucan, and, being enlarged by the accellion of lelfer rivers, falls into the North Pacific Ocean. — ib. PAPER is an article of fuch importance, and at prefent* offoen .rmous a price, that no improvement in its manula^^ure fliould pafs unnoticed in a work of this nature. The difcovery made in France by M. Ber- tholct of the efficacy of oxy-muriatic acid in expediting the procefs of Bllaching (fee that article in th;s Su/>J>i.), has contributed elfentirfUy to facilitate the ma- nulaaures, not only of cotton and linen cloths, but alfo of paper, of which it has even incre.ifed the mate- rials. Formerly writing paper could be m:ide of un- Of /i/nW linen alone; but by moans of the procefs of M. 4 ^ Ber'.liolet Paiiff, Pap 180I. P A 1' [ 6c,8 ] PAR r.rc Bciiholet even piinteJ linen may be made into the fineft ' and whitcft piiptr. In the year 1795, a patent was gtaiUcJ to Mr Eli IS Carpenter, of Beiniondlay, Suirey, i'or a method of bleaching paper of foch materials in the -Molcr-kafoTjhe.'l, and fizing it without drying. In the preparation of the pulp, the ccrfer rags are to be macerated for two or three days in a caullic al- kaline ley, and wrought into flieets of paper in the iifual way ; a ftrong wooden box or trough is then to be procured, of a lize prcpoitioned to that of the pa- per, lined on the infide with white paint, and furniflied with feveral ftages of crofs bars of glafs ; tlie bottom of the box is to be covered with a flraium about one inch deep of caullic ley, and the paper laid by quarter reams, or U-fs, acrofs the glafs bar. A hole muR be made in the box to admit the be.^k of an earthen-ware retort, into which mufl be put manganefe and fea fait, in pow- der, fulphuric acid, and an equal quantity of water im.- pregnated wiili the Reams of burning fulphur (fulphu- reotis acid). The cover of the box is to be made air- tight by luting or flips of paper dipped in parte. The app.iiatus being thus prepared, the belly of the retort is to be plunged in water, kept boiling, and in a fliort time the oxy-n.uriatic cas will be diiven into the box, will j)enetrate the paper, and render it of a dazzling whitenefs, while the alkaline ley at the bottom will, by gr:idually ahfurbing it, prevent its becoming fo concen- trati-'d as to dertroy or injure the texture of the paper. Fiom three to four pounds of fulphuric acid will fufFice for one hundred weight of paper, and the operation will he completed in about eight hours. The (lieets as they are taken out of the box are to be fized with the following mixture : To I cwt. of clippings of fkin add 141b. of alum, 7 of calcined vitriol, and i ib. of gum arable, with a fuf- iicient quantity of water to fize 50 reams of fools-cap. The fame method will ferve equally well to clean en- gravings or printing; for though theoxy-muriatic acid difchi'irges all ilaiu', dirt, &c. yet it is incapable of aiS- iiig nn printers ink. Thi;, however, is not the only improvement in the r.ianufaflure of paper derived from modern chemiftry. In Crell's Chc:r.i-al Annals for the year 1797, W'e have an account of fome curious experiments made by M. Ij Brugnatelli, with the view of rendering Patek. incombuftiblc, and the writing on it, of c,~,urfe, inds;ftiuflible by fire. Of all the fubftances whidi lie tiied, he found the liquor of flints the moft proper to fecure paper from dellrucflion by fire. He dipped a fbeet of paper fevcr.il limes in the above li- quor frefli made, or daubed it feveral times over the whole paper with a hair brufli, and dried it in the fun or in an oven. Paper prepared in this manner loll fome of its foftncfs, became a little rougher than before, and acquired a lixivious caurtic tarte. In other refpefls it was not different from common white paper. When this paper was laid upon glowing coal?, it did not burn I'.l.c common paper, but became red, and was converted to a coal, which however did net fall into allies like the coal of common paper, fo that it m'ght therefore be confidered as petrified paper. This coal, however, is exceedingly fri;iUe; for when it is taken between the fingers, or preffed together in any manner whatever, it drops to pieces. Still the difcovery mud be a valuable nr.e, if ihcrc be any kind of ink of fach a nature as that the charafters written with it continue vifible on this coal. Such an ink M. Brugnatelli made by combining dill'olved nitre of zinc with common ink ; and found, that the colour of this mixture, though it appeared fomewhat pale on common paper, became fo dark on. prepared paper, that words written with it appeared more ci nfpicuous than wcjrds written witli common ink. When the paper v,as burnt, or reduced to a coal, thofe chaiai-lers were fo vilible, in a clear luhite colour on a dark ground, that they could be read with as much eafe as charaflers written with tlie beft ink on white paper. If the ingenious autlior fucceed in his attempts to difcover a method of rendering his prepa- red paper lefs friable when burnt, his difcovery will be one of the moft important of the prefent age. PAPINACHOIS, a bay on the north Ihore of the river St Lawrence, in N. America, 5 leagues fouth- well of St Margaret's 1 iver. An Indian nation of the fame name nhabii the country fouth of Piretibbe Lake in Lower Canada. — Morse. PAPPA FORD, on Pelefon or Clinch river, lies 12 miles from Emery's river, and 10 from Campbell's Station, near Hulfton. — ib. PAPUDA, on the coaft of Chili, and on the S. Pacific Ocean, 5 leagues north of the fhoals of Qiiin- tero, and 4 from Port Liga The water is very deep in Papuda, but the anchorage is good, and the entrance fafe.-»7i. PARA, the moft northern of 5 colonies or govern- ments. Para, Maragnon, Matlo-Grofib, Goyas, and St Paul, in S. America, at which places the Indians have been united in 117 villages, over which a white man prefides with defpotic fway. The government of Para comprehends that portion of Guiana which belongs to the Portuguefe, the moft barren and unwholfomc country in all thefe regions. — ib. Para IJland is one of the range of iflands to the fouth ea ft of Sypotriba, to the eaftward of the great river Amazon, which is the north-weft limit of the Brazil coaft in S. Anieiica. Thefe iflands form the great river or bay of Para. About y leagues eaft by fouth of this ifland is Cape Cuma, the weftern boundary of the great golf i>f Maranhao. On the ifland is a fort belonging to the Portuguefe. There is alfo a fmall river of the fame name, at the mouth of which is good riding for large (hips, becaufe the ifland breaks off the fed, and two high points fecure it from the north and eart winds. — ib. Para Ri'uer or Bay, near tlie N. W. part of the coaft of Brazil, in S. America, has a town of its name at the mouth of ir, with a large fort and a platform of cannon at the water's edge, commanding the road. Above this is the caft'e ieated on a high rock, fur- rounded by a ftrong ftone wall that is alfo mounted with cannon. The road, within the mouth of the liver, is good, having clean ground, and fecured by high land on both fides. The mouth of the river is about 6 miles broad at the town ; and fliips may ride in 15 fathoms, within a cable's length of the fhore, and in 10 fathoms clofe under the fort. This harbour is much frequented for all kinds of prorifions which abound here. Tobacco is carried from this to Per- nambuco, to be fhipped for Europe. The river is about 200 miles long. — ib. PARABOLIC Conoid is a folid generated by the rotation Tapina- chois, II Parabolic. PAR C 699 ] PAR raranolic, rotation of a parabola about its axis. This folid is equal tl to half its circumfcribed cylinder ; and therefore if the ^^^^^^}^ bafe be multiplied by the height, half the product will be the folid content. Parabolic PyramidoiJ, is a folid figure, thus named by Dr Wallis from its genefis or formation, which is thus: Let all the fquares of the ordinates of a para- bola be conceived to be fo placed, that the axis Ihall pafs perpendicularly throuijh all their centres ; then the aggregate of all thefe planes will form the parabolic pyramidoid. This figure is equal to half its circuni- Icribed parallelopipedon. And therefore the folid con- tent is found by multiplying the bafe by the altitude, and taking half the produifl j or the one of thefe by half the other. Parabolic Space, is the fpace or area included by the curve line and bafe or double ordinate of the para- bola. Parabolic Spindle, is a folid figure conceived to be formed by the rotation of a parabola about its bafe or double ordinate. Parabolic Spiral, is a curve arifing from the fuppo- fition that the common or Apollonian parabola is bent or twilled till the axis come into the periphery of a circle, the ordiuates dill retaining their places and per- pendicular pofitions with refpeft to the circle, all thefe lines llill remaining in the fame place. This figure is fometimes called the Helkoid parabola. PAK.ABOLOIDES, parabolas of the higher or- ders. The equation for all curves of this kind being a """ jc " ^ j> ™, the proportion of the area of any one to the complement ot it to tlie circumfcribing parallelo- gram, will be as « to n. PARACENTRIC Motion, denotes the fpace by which a revolving planet approaches nearer to, or re- cedes farther from, the fun, or centre of attraflion. Paracentric Solicilatian of Gravity, is the fame as the vis centripeta. PARACA, a bay on the coad of Peru, 40 leagues S, E. by S. of the port of Callao. Ships receive Ihelter here, when driven out of the harbour of Ci«n- gallan or Sangallan, which is 3 leagues S. E. of Carette Ifland, and N. N. W. of the liknd of Lobos. — Morse. PARACHUTE, a kind of large and ftrong um- brella, contrived to break a perfon's fall iVom an air- balloon, Ihould any accident huppen to tlie balloon at a high elevation. This contrivance was firil thought of by Blanchard, who, at different times, by means of the parachute, let fall from his balloon dogs and other ani- mals. He ventured even to dufcend in tiiis manner himfelf; but, whether from the bad condriK'lion of his paracliute, or from falling among trees, he had th; mif- fortune to break one ot his legs. Citizen Garnerin, as he choofes to be called, was more fucceUful. On the z lit of Oflober, 1797, he afcended Ironi the garden de Maulfcux at half pafl five in the evening ; between the balloon and tiie car, in which he fat, was placed the pa- rachute, half opened, and lorming a kind o( tent over iJie atrial traveller ; and wlicn the whole apparatus was at a confiderable height, he feparated the parachute and car from the balloon. The parachute unfolding itfelf, was, by his weight and that ot the car, drawn of courfe towards the earth. Its fall was at firll How and vertical ; but foon afterwards it exhibited a kind of ba- lancing or vibration, and a rotation gradually increafing, which might be compared with that of a leaf falling from a tree. The aeronaut, however, reached the ground unhurt. This parachute was of cloth, and its diameter, when unfolded, about twenty-five feet. To ufc fuch InQru- ments with fucccfs, it is necelfary that the car be fuf- pended at a confiderable diliance from the paracl;ute, fo as that the centre of gravity of the whole (hall be vertically below the centre of refinance made by tlie air to the defcent of the parachute ; for if the car be otherwife placed, it is evident that the par.'.chute will incline to one fide, defcend obliquely, ofcilla'.e, and the fmallefl irregularity in its figure will caufc it to turn round its vertical axis. PARADISE, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in York county. — Morse. PARAGUATAN, a kind of wood which grows in Guiana, and promifes to be of great utility as a dye (luff. We have feen no botanical dcfcription of the tree ; but from the report made to the council of tradi; and mines, by D. Dominique Garcia Fernandez, in- fpector of coinage, we learn tliat its bark, boiled in wa- ter, affords a coloured extraifl which refills the agency of acids ior a longer time than brazil or logwood ; that the colour may be revived by means of alkalies, after it has been deftroycd by combination with acid» ; that vi- negar, lemon-juice and tartar, render this colour more brilliant, while they entirely deflroy the colours of bra- zil and logwood ; that the fecnla of the bark of para- guatan fixes and attaches itfelf to wool, cotton, and filk ; and that the colour is brighter on filk than on wool, and brighter.on wool tlian on cotton. The fame fecula dried is afterwards foluble in alcohol, to which it communicates a tinge fimilar to that afforded by cocliineal ; but it mull be confeffed, that the colour ob- tained from paraguatan has not the force of tliat of cochineal, though it is fuperior to thofe of madder> brazil wood, and logwood. From thefe fadls D. Fer- nandez confiders the paraguatan as one of the moft va- luable produifllons which America futnilhes to Spain. PARAGUAY, a large river of S. America, whicii failsinto the river La Plata thatforms the fouthern boun- dary of Brazil. At the diilance of ico leagues from the \^i, where this and Pxrana river fall into the chan- nel, it is at hall to leagues over. — Morse. PARAIBA, or Parayia, the mod northern province of Bi-azil, in S. America, lying between Rio Grande to the north, and the river Tamarack to the fouth, the South Atlantic Ocean to the call, and Figuares to the wed. It belongs to the Portuguefe, and abounds in fugar-canes, Brazil-wood, cattle, tobacco, cotton, S:c. This diilrii.^ was given by Jolin III. of Portugal, to the hidorian De Birnis, but lie negl;£led the peopling of it. Some vagabonds went over in 1560, and in 159; were fubdued by the Frcndi, who were foon obliged to evacuate it. Philip III. crafed a city to be built upon this royal domain, which is at prefcnt known by the name o( A'oirc D.inie de Neves- — (/'. P.\RAiBA, the metiopolis of the above province, or captainfliip, fituatcd on the fouth bank of a river of its nime, three leagues from the lea ; according toothers, 10 leagues; the river being navigable tor ihips leaded with 600 rr 700 hhds. of fugar, a confiderable didance above the city. The Dutch captured it in 163J ; but the Portuguefe retook it foon after. It lias many llately 4 T 2 houff PAR C P.ar.i!bi, houfes decorated with marble pillirs, together with large warehoufes and magazines belonging to the merchants. The mouth of the river is well fortified. S.lat. 6 50, W. long. 49 53.— i3. PARALLAX (foe Encycl.) is ufed, not only in adronomy, but alfo in levelling, for the an^le contained 700 ] PAR have only the (liuttei s, which are kept open from fix Paranur- o'clock in the morning until fix at night. As for chlm- '^°' neys, there are none in the colony; no fires being light- ed except in the kitchens, which are always built at fonie diftance from the dwelling-houfe, where the vidluals are drell'ed upon the floor, and the fm^-ke let between the line of true level and that of apparent le- out by a hole made in the roof: thefe timber houfes vel And in other branches of fcience, for the differ- are, however, very dear in Surinam, one ot them ha- cnce between the true and apparent places. ving coft above ;^ 15,000 fterhng. There is no fpring PARALLEL Ruler, is a mathematical inftru- water to be met wuh ni Paramaribo ; moft hou(e.s have meat, conlifting of two equal rulers, either of wood or wells dug in the rock, \\hich afford but a brackilh kind iri-lal, conneded together by two llender crofs bars or of bever..ge, only uled for the negioes, cattle, &c. and blades of eqinl leng h, moveable about the points of the Europeans have refervoirs or ciilerns, in which they iunaion with the rulers. There are other forms of the ■ preferve rain-water for their own confumption ; thofe "inflrument; fonie, for inilance, having the two blades of nicer talle let it firlf orop through a filtering Hone croirine in the middle, and fised only at one end of into large jars or earthen pots, made by the native In- them, "the other two ends Hiding in grooves along the dians on purpofe, which they barter at Paramaribo for two rulers &c. o.her commodities. The inhabitants of this country. The ufe' of' this inftrument is obvious. For the of every denomination, fleep in hammocks, the negro edge of one of the rulers being applied to any line, the flaves excepted, who moftly lie on the ground: the other opened to any extent will be always parallel to hammocks ufed by thofe in iuperior ftations are made the former; anJ coni'equcntly any parallels to this may be drawn by the edge of the ruler, opened to any ex- tent. PARALLELS, or Flacks of Arms, in a Gege, are deep trendies, 15 or 18 feet wide, joining the le- of cotton, ornamented with rich fringe ; thefe are alfo made by the Indians, and fometimes worth above twen- ty guineas; neither bedding nor coveiing is necefTary, except an awning to keep off the mufquitoes. Some people indeed lie on bedlteads ; in that cafe they are veral attacks together ; and ferving to place the guard furroundcd, inllead of curtains, with gauze pavilions, of the trenches in, to be at hand to fupport the work- which admit the air freely, and at the fame time keep men when attacked. There are ufually three in an at- off the fmalka i.ifecl. The houfes in general at Para- tack : the firft is about 5oo yards from the covert-way, maribo are elegantly furnilhed with paintings, gilding, the fecond bet\^een 3 and 400, and the third near or on cryftal chandchers, chma jars, &c.; the rooms are never the glacis. It is faid they were firft invented or ufed papered or plaftered, but beautifully wainfcotted with by Vauban. cedar, and Brazil, and mahogany wood. PARALLELISiM of the Earth's Axis, is that The number of buildings m Paramaribo is computed invariable fituation of the axis, in the progrels of the at about 14CO, of which the principal is the governor's caith thro' the annual oibit, by which it always keeps palace, whence there is a private paffage through the parallel to itfelf ; fo that if a line be drawn parallel to garden which communicates with Port Zelandia. This its axis, while in any one pofition, the axis, in all other houfe, and that of the commandant, which has lately pofitions or parts of the orbit, will always be parallel to been burnt, were the only brick buildings in the colo the fame line "" " " " * ' "" PARAMETER, a certain conflant right line in each of the three conic fections ; otherwife called alfo liitus red:im. PARAMARIBO, the capital of the Dutch fettle- nient at Surinam, is fituated on the right fide of the beautiful river Surinam, at about 16 or 18 miles di- ny. The town-hall is an elegant new building, and co- vered with tiles ; here the different courts are held, and underneath are the prilons tor European delinquents, the military excepted, who are confined in the citadel of Foit Zelandia. 'i'he Proteilant church, where di- vine worlhip is performed both in French and Low Dutch, has a fmall fpire with a clock ; befides which iUnce from its mouth. It is built upon a kind of gra- there is a Lutheran chapel, and two elegant Jewifii {y v^Uy rock, which is level with the rell of the country, nauioeues, one German the other Portu^uefe. Here 1 in the form of an oblong fquare ; its length is about a mile and a half, and its breadth about half as much. •\\\ the Ilreets, which are perfeiftly flraight, are lined with orange, fhaddock, tamarind, and lemon trees, which appear in everlalling bloom ; while, at the fame time, their branches are v\'eighed down with the richeft clufters of odoriferous fruit. Neither (lone nor brick is made ufe of here for pavement ; the whole being one nagogues, one German the other Portuguefe. tlere is alio a large hofpital tor the garrifon, and this manfion is never empty. The military llores are kept in the fortref-, where the fociety foldiers are alfo lodged in barracks, with proper apartments for fome odicers. The town of Paraiiiaiibo has a noble road for fhipping, the river before the town being above a mile in breadth, and containing fometimes above 100 veffels of burden, moored within piftol-ihoi of the lliore. Before Hol- suntinued gravel, not inferior to the finell garden walks land became a province of France, and thereby loft in England, and llrewed on the furface with fea fhells The houfes, which arc moftly of two and fome of three Uories high, are all built of fine timber, a very few ex- cepted ; moft of the foundations are of brick, and they are roofed with thin fplit boards, called _/Z'/«ct/«, inftead of dates or tiles. Windows are very feldom feen in ihis country, glafs being inconvenient on account of her trade, there were feldom fewer than 80 fliips at Pa- ramaribo, loading coffee, fugar, cocao, cotton and in- digo, for the mother country, including alfo the Gui- nea-men that bring flaves from Africa, and the North American and Leeward Ifland veflels, which bring flour, beef, pork, fpirits, herrings, and mackarel falted, fpermaceti candles, liorfes, and lumber ; for which they the heat ; inftsad of which they ufe gauze frames : fome receive chiefly molaffes to be diftiUsd into rum. This tOWB PAR [ town Is not fortified, but is bounded by the river on the fouthealt ; by a huge favannah on tlie weft ; by an im- penetrable wood (in the north eaft ; and is protected by Fort Zelandia on the ealt. This citadel is only feparated from the town by a large efpknade, where the troops parade occallonally. The fort is a regular pentngon, with one gate fronting Paramaribo, and two baftions which command the river ; it is very fmall but ftrong, being made cf rnck or hewn (lone, furrounded by a broad folfe well lupplied with water, belides fome out- works. On the eall fide, fronting the river, is a bat- tery of 2 I pieces ot cannon. On one of the baftions is a bell, which is llruck with a hammer by the centinel, who is dire(5ted by an hour-glafs. On the other is planted a large enfign-llaff, upon which a flig is hoifted upon the approach of (hips of war, or on public rejoi- cing days. The walls are fix feet thick, with embra- fures, but no parapet. P iramaribo is a very lively place, tlie ftreets being ge- nerally crowded with planters, faih'rs, Ibldiers, J;ws, Indians, and Negroes, while the river is covered with canoes, barges, &c. conftantly palTingand repaffinglike the wherries on the Thames, often accompanied with bands of mufic ; the fliipping a!fo in the road adorned with their different flags, guns firing, &c. not to men- tion the many groupes of boys and girU playing in the water, altogether form a pleafing appearance ; and fuch gaiety and variety of objeOls ferve, in fome mejfure, to conipenfate lor the many inconveiiiencies of the climate. Their carriages and drcfs are truiy magnificent; filk embroidery, Genoa velvets, dian-.ondj, gold and lilver lace, being daily woin, and even the mailers if trading Hiips appear witii buttons and buckles of folid gold. They are equally exiitnfive at their tables, where every thing that can be called delicate is produced at any price, and ferved up in plate and china ot the newell lafhion, and moft exquifite workmanfhip. But nothing difplays the luxury of the inhabitants of Suiinam more than the number of flaves by whom they aie attended, often twenty or thirty in one tamdy. White fcivants are fcldom to !)e met with in this colony. The current money are ftamped cards of different value, from five Ihillings to fifty pouiido : gold and fil- ver is fo fcarce, that the exchange premium for f|> -cie is often abo\e lO per cent. A baie Dant/.ic com called a hit, value fomething lefs than fixpence, is alio current in Surinam. Englilh and Porluguefe coin are fome- times met with, but moflly ufed as ornaments by the Mulatto, Samboe, Quaderoon, and Negro girls. The Negro flaves never receive any paper money ; for as they cannot read, they do not underdand its value ; bcfides, in their hands.it would be liable to many acci- dents, from fire or children, and ptrticularly fiom the rats, when it becomes a little greafy. This town is well fupplied with provifions, t/'z. butchers meat, fowls, fifli, and venifon. Vegetables in particular tlic country abounds with ; befides the luxu- ries peculiar to this climate, they import wliatevcr Eu. lopc, Africa, and Afia can aiford. Provifions, how- ever, are excelllvcly dear in general, cfpccially thofe im- ported, which are moftly foid by the Jews and mailers of (hips. The firil enjoy extraordinary piivileges in this colony ; the latter ered temporary warehoufei for the purpofe of trade, during the time their Ihips are oi ] PAR loading with the produftions of the climate. Wheat flour is fold from four-pence to one (hilling per pound; butter, two (liilliagi ; butcher's meat never under one Ihilling, and often at one (hilling and fix pence ; ducks and fowls from three to four fliillings a couple. A fingle turkey has fbmetimes coft one guinea and a half; eggs are fold at the rate cf five, and European pota- toes twelve, for fixpence. Wine three fhi!!;ngs a bottle Jamaica rum a crown a gallon. Fifh and vegetables are cheap, and fruit almoft for nothing. PARATEE, a bay on the fouih-weff fide of the illand ot Jamaica. It is fouth-eaft of Canifter Bay, its fouth-eaft point is alfo called Paralee.— Morse. PARAYBA, a river on the coaft of Brazil, lo leagues N. of Port Francezes. The city lies 8 leagues from us mouth. S. lat. 6 50, W. long. 4.9 si—'b- PARDUBA, a bay on the coaft of Brazil, 10 leagues W. N. W. of Brandihi Bay.— /'i. ^ PARHAM To-^n and Harbour, on the north fide of the ifland of An'igua, in the Welt-Indies. The har- bour IS defended by Byram Fort, at Barnacle Point, en the welt (ide, and farther up by another fort on the E. (ide. The town is regularly built, and lies at the head of the harbour, and in St Peter's parifli.— /A PARI A, or A'fTt) Andalujia, a country ol S. America, and in Terra Firma, bounded on the north by the north fea, and (outh by Guiana. The fca coaft is moftly i:>. habited, on which there are feveral towns 'ib. Paria, a juiifdiaion in the archbilhoprick of La Plata, in S. America, beginning 70 leagues N. W. of that city, and extending about 40 leagues. It h.is fome filver mines ; and the cheefe made here is much efteemeJ, and tent all over Peru.— /3. - Pari.*, Gulf of, a ftrait lying between the N. W. part of New-Andalufia, and the fouthern (hore of tlie rlLud of Trinidad. N. lat. 9 12, W. long. 62 5.— ;i. P.iRINA, a point N. W. of the harbour of Payta, on the coaft of Peru. The country within the point is high and mountainou.-. Between Pavta and it, is a large bay, having (hoals. The land i^ low, and fome whue hills all tlie way. — ib. ^ PARINA-COCAS, a jurifdidion in the dioce-^e of Guamanga, in the audience of Lima, beginning about 20 leagues fouth ol the city of Guamanga. and extend- tng above 25 leagues. It has excellent paftures, grain, and iruits. The mines of (liver and gold are mote pvodudtive than formerly; and thefe form the chief branch of its commerce. — ib. PARIS (Francis), a man more famous after his death thin during his life, by the miracles which were (aid to be perfoimed at liis tomb. He is generally known by the n.ime of Abbe Paris ; and his jfrttendcd miiaclcs, with others of like manufadure, have furn^lli- ed deiltical writci-s, and Mr Hume in particular, with a kind ot argument againft tlie reality of the miracles of which we have an account in the Gofpel. It is mere- ly that we may liate his prcttnfi.^ns fairly, that we hav« inir(duced liim to the notice of our readers; for in eveiy other refped he \% wholly unworthy of their re- gatd. He was the Ion of a counlellor in Parli.m-.cnt, and had the proiptd, if he had chofcn it, of fucceed- ing to his father's appointment ; but he chofe rather to become an eccleliaftic, and he became a very zeal us one. lie gave up all his pollelfions 10 his b.'u.her, re- fufed. 1 PAR C 70^ ] p R Pirs. fufid prefertrent intended tor bin) by tbe catdinal de ^'"'■'""'^ Ncalllss, devoted himfclt entirely to retirem:nt, and made ftccldngs lor his own fupporr, .ind for the affill- arce of the poor. He died, perhaps in confequence of bis rigorous mode of life, May i, 1727, at ibc age of only 37. His brother raifed a monument to him in the fmall churchyard of St Medsrd, to which the poor and the pious focn begnn to flock ; and afier a time it was reported, that, in confeqiience of their prayers at that tomb, fome fick perfons had received cures. As Paris had been a rigorous Janfenift, this was a fine opportu- nity for that fefl to gain credit to their caufe ; the mi- racles were therefore multiplied, and a variety of per- fons afFefted the mofl fingular convulfions. The minds of the people becoming inflamed by thefe c:;travagancies, the court found it neceffary to fliut up the churchyard, which was done on the 27th of Janu- ary 1732. On this occafion, fume profane wit wrote upon the wall of the place, De par le Roy, defenfe a D!eu, De faire miracles en ce lieu. The convulfions were continued, for a little while, in private houfes, but by degrees the matter fubfided, and the Abbe Paris was forgotten. The dillinflion between miracles exhibited to ferve a party, and attefted only by thofe who are zealous in its fupport, and miracles performed in the fight of un- believers, who, in fpite of their deep-rooted prejudice?, »v/ere converted by them, is too llriking to be overlook- ed by any, but thefc who are defirous of drawing a falfc and impious parallel ; yet has Mr Hume dared to reprefent the miracks performed at the tomb of this faint as outvying in number, nature, and evidence, tlie miracles of Chril\ and his apnllles — with what truth, the following obf.rvations will fliew : ijl. It was often obje(5led by the enemies of the faint, and the objeiSion was never confuted by his friends, that the proflrathns at his fepulchre, like ani- mal magnecifm more lately, /iroj^ucft/ more difeafes than I hey fun</. Such, furely, was not the nature of our Saviour's miracles. zdl\'. Though the crowds of fick and infirm perfons •who tiocked to the tomb for relief were, by all accounts, innumerable ; yet all the cures, of which the zealous hillorian of the Miracles could procure vouchers, a- mounted only to nine ! Now, were thoufands, and ten thoufands of difeafed perfons to apply to fome clrcum- foraneous qaack, in full affurance of his extraordinary abilities and fkiU in phyfic, could it furprife any perfon, if the diftempers of eight or nine of them fliould take a favourable turn while they were under a courfe of his ufelefs medicines ? 3a'/v, We do not read that of thofe nine who were cured by the dead Abbe, the greater part were Jefuits and enemies to the Janfenifts ; whereas the greater part of our Savicur's miracles were performed upon uncon- verted Jews, and one of them upon the fervant of the high pried, who was thirfting for his blood. ^ihly. The cures reported to have been performed at the grave of Paiis were all fuch as might have been ac- complidied by natural means. Thus, a Spaniard who had loft one eye, and was diftrefTed with an inflamma- tion in the other, haft the inflamed eye gradually cured, but not the loft eye reftored. Another perfon having pricked his eye with an awl, loft the fight of it in con- fequence of the aqueous humour dropping out ; but his fight was reftored iihiljl he was paying his devo- tions to the Abbe — and lb it would have been while he was curfing the Abbe, had he continued his execra- tions for a fufficient length of lime. 5//f.{)', None of the cures faid to have been perform- ed were injlantamous. AH the worfhippers at the tomb pei filled tor dap, feveral of them for weeks, and fome for months, daily imploring the intercefllon of the Abbe before they received relief from their complaints. dtkly, Mnft of the devotees had been ufing medicines before they applied to the faint, and continued to ufe them during the ivhole time ot their application ; whilft it is confeli'ed that the diftempeis of others had abated before they determined to folicit his help. "flhly. Some of the cures attefted were incomplete, and only of a temporary duration. Thus, the Spaniard was relieved only from the moft inconfiderable part of his complaint, and that too but for a veiy fliort period ; for foon after his return home he relapfed into his former malady, as was fully attefted by certificates and letters from Madrid. All this has been completely proved by the Archbilhop of Sens; who in his Pajloral Injlruc- tion, publiflied at the time the miracles were making a nolle, has, Zthly, Clearly detefled the deceit and little artifices by which thofe pretended miracles were fo long fup- ported. To that work we refer our readers ; requeft- ing them, after they have read it, to compare the evi- dence for the miracles of Paris with the evidence which in the article Miracle [Er.cycl.) we have ftated for the reality of the Gofpel miracles, and to judge for themfelves with the impartiality of phllofophers. Paris wrote a few very indifferent books of annota- tions on the Epiftles to the Pv.omans, to the Galatlans, and the Hebrews; but few have ever read them, nor would they have refcued the author from oblivion, with- out the aid of his lying wonders. Paris, a thriving townfhip of excellent land in New- York ftate, Herkemer county. It is fouth-weft of Whlteftown 6 miles, from which it was taken, and in- corporated in 1793. In 1795, 4 townftiips vi'ere taken from it, viz. Hamilton, Sherburne, Brookfield, and San- gersfield. It contained, by the ftate cenfiis of 1796, 3.459 inhabitants, of whom 564 were eledlors. Iron ore IS found in the vicinity of Paris. Hamilton acade- my is fituated in this town, in Clinton parifii, where alio a Congregational church has lately been eredled, and marks of rapid progrefs in improvements and wealth arc vifible. — Morse. PARKER'S JJland, in Lincoln county, Diftria of Maine, is formed by the waters of Kennebeck river on the weft, by the fea on the fouth, by Jeremyfquam Bay on the eaft, and by a fmall ftrait, which divides it fmm Arrowfick Ifland, on the north. It derives its name from John Parker, who purchafed it of the natives in 1650; and a part of it ftill remains to his pofterity. It is in the townfiiip of Georgeto'Vjri. — ii: Parker's River takes its rife in Rowley, In ElTex county, Maflachufettf, and, after a courfe of a few miles palfes into the found which feparates Pliirab-Ifland from the main land. It is navigable about two miles from its mouth, where a bridge crolfes it 870 feet long and 26 feet wide, confifting of follJ piers and 8 wooden arches. I'arU, Par'KC PAR [ 703 ] P A R Parkhurft. arches. It Is on ihe poft-road from Bofton callward, Grammar, without Points, adapted to the life of Learn- Tarkhurft. ^-^''"'"^-^ and was built in 1 758. It is fiipported by a toll. — ii. ers, 1762," 410. To attempt a vindication of all the '"'^^'''•'^ PARKHURST (the Rev. John), was the fecond etymological and philolophical difquiruions which are fon of John Paikhiirft, Efq ; of Catelby in Northarop- fcaitered through this dldionary, would be very fruit- tonlhirc. His mother was Ilicarda Dormer, daughter )efs; but it is not perhaps too much to fay, that wc of Judge Dormer. He was born in June 1728, was have nothing of the l;ind equal to it in the Enj;lilh Ian- educated at the fchoo! of Rugby in Warwicklhire, and guage. He continued, however, tocorred andimprovc was afterwards of Clare-l)all, Cambridge; B. A. 1748, it; and in 1778 another edition of it came out much M. A. 1752; and many years fellow of his college. enlarged, and a third in 1792. Being a younger brother, he was intended lor the His philological lludies were not confined to the He- church ; but not long afler his entering into holy or- brew language; ior he publilhed a Cieek and Ens^lilh ders his elder brother died. This event made him the Lexicon to the New Tellament; to which is prefixed, heir of a very confiderabie eftate ; though, as his father a plain and eafy Greek Grammar, 1 769, 410 ; a fecond was dill living, it was fume time before he came into edition, 1 794 : and at his death there was in the prefi a the full poifellion cf it ; and when he did come into tlje polfeffion of it, the acquifuion of fortune produ- ced no change on his manners or his purfuits. He continued to cultivate the fludies becoming a clergy- man ; and from his family connections, as well as new edition of both thefe lexicons, in a large 8vo, with his lad ccrreflions; for he continued to revd'.-, correfl, add to, and improve, tlicfe works, till within a iew weeks of his death. As, from their nature, there cannot be fuppofed to be any thing in di^ionarics that irom his learning and pisty, he certainly had a good is particulajly attradive and alluring, this continued in- " "" creafing demand for thefe two feenis to be a fufHcient proof of their merit. He publiilied, "The Divinity and Pre-exiaence of our Lord and Saviour Jefus Chrill, demonftrated from Scripture ; in anAvcr to the firft oeflion of Dr Prieft- ley's Introduaion to the Hiftory of Early Opinions concerning Jefus Chrift ; together with Stridures on feme other Partes of the Work, and a Poftfcript rela- ting to a late Publication of Mr Gilbert WakefidJ, 1787," Svo. Tliis work was very generally regarded as completely performing all that its title-pjge pronjl- {ed i and accordingly the whole edition was foon fold off. The brief, evafivc, and very unfatisfadoiy notice right to look forward to preferment ia his profclTion ; but betaking himfelf to retirement, and to a life of clofe and intenfe ftudy, he fought for no prefer- ment ; and, according to the autlior of the biographi- cal fkctch of liim publillied in the Gentleman's Maga- zine, he lived not in an age when merit was urged for- ward. Yet, in the capacity of a curate, but without any falary, he long did the duty, with exemplary dili- gence and zeal, in his own chapel at Catefby, which, afler the demolition of the church of tlie nunnery there, ferved as a parifli church, of which alfo he was the patron. When, feveral years after, it fell to his lot to exercife the right of prefentation, he was fo unfaflfionable as to taken of this able pamphlet by Dr Piicdley, in " A confider church patronage as a trull rather than a pro- Letur to Dr Home," &c. flicwed only that he was pcrty ; and, accordingly, relifling the influence of inte- unable to aafwer it. reft, favour, and afTeflion, prefented to the vicarage of Mr Parkhurft was a man of very extraordinary inuc- Epfom, in Surrey, the Rev. Jonathan Boucher, who pendency of mind and firmnefs of principle. In earlv dill holds it. This gentleman was then known to him hte, along vvlih many other men ot didinguilhed learii- tinly by charader ; but having dlftinguilhed himfelf in 'ng> 't was alfo objected 10 him, that he was an Hut- America, during the revolution, for hi- loyalty, and by chinfon an ; and on this account alone, in common with teaching the iinfophiflicaietl dodrines of the church of them, it has been faid that he was ntgleded and (hun- England to the pc<^ple of America at the peril of ned. liis life, Mr I'arkhuiil thought, and juflly thought, that There Is not, in the hiftory of the times, fays the lie could not piefent to the vacant living a man who biograpiier already quoted, a circumdance more difli- had given better proofs of his having a due fenfe of the cult to be accounted for than the unmerited, but increa- duties c( his office. fiug, difcountenance Iheun to ihofe perfons to wlioni In the year 1754, r.[r Parkluiift married Sufanna Hutchinfonianlfm was then objeeled. Methodifts, Pa- Mylier, daughter, and, we tifHeve, .heirefs of John P'fts, and ledaries of any and of every name, all ftood Myfter, Efq ; of Epf< 'm. It was thus thai he became i» better chance of beir.g nt)ticed and efteemed than patron of the llvlnp wliich he beftowed on Mi Boucher. Hutchinfonians. Had it even b;en jnoved that the This lady died in 1759, leaving him a daughter and few peculiar tenets by which tliey were diftinguiP.ied two fons; both the fons arc now dead. In the year from other Chriftians were erroneous, the cppofitlcr. 1761, he married again MUliccnt Nonhey, daughter of they experienced might have been deemed /jiirJ me.ijlire, Thomas Northcy, Ef j ; by whtmi he Iiad one daugh- becaufe even their opponents allowed their principles to ler, now married to the Rev. Jofcph Thomas. In the year 1753, he began '"^ career of autliorfliip, by pubhlhing, in Svo, "A friendly Addiefs to the Rev. Mr John Welley, in relation to a principal Dodrine maintained by him and his affiftants." This work we Iiave not feci;\ ; but thciigh we have no doubt rf its va- lue, wc may faftly fiy that it was of very little import- ance, when compared wiili his next publication, which was " An Hebrew and Enghfli I^exicon, without Points;, to which is added, a meihod!c.il Hebrew be inoffenfive, and ihemfelves to be learned. Is this a lair iiate of the cafe ? We think not. The early Hutchinfonians had imbibed all ih; j ecu'.iar no- tions cf their mailer, and maintained them wi;h a de- - grce of acrimony which would have difgiaced any caiife. Being in general very little acquainted with tie higher i):athemaiies, as Mr Hutchlnlon himfelf fecms hkewile to have been, liiey cenfured dognialicaiiy works which, wiihcut that knowledge, they could ni.t fully under ft and; whilft they maintained, with equal do-jn.atilm,, P A R Purkhurft. d-igmalifm, as matters of fafl, Iiypothefes, which a mo- "-^"""^^ derate Ihare of maihematicMl fcience would have (hewn them to he impofllble. H:td they llopt here, no harm would have been done; they m^ght have enjoyed their favouri'e notions in pence : but unfortunately they ac- cufcd of Ath';ifm, D-ifm, or Socinuinifm, all who thought not exaflly as ihiy thought, bmh in natural phi- lofophy, and in theology. Becanfe Newton and Clarke had denionftrated that the ni'nions of the planets can- not be theeffefl of tlie itnpulfion of any material fluid, Il'itchinfon, with fome of his fcllovveis, affirmed, that tlitfe two ilkiftrious men had entered into a ferious de- fign to overtuin the Chrilli.in religion, and elhiblifli in England the worfhip of the Heathen Jupiter, or the Stoical a?i:mn mtindi. Becanfe the Bifhops Pearfon, Bull, and other";, who had unifrrmly been confidered as the ahlcft defenders of the Catholic faith, thought not cxaiflly as Hutchinfon thought of the filiation of 704 ed P A 11 a pulillanimity of which Mr Parkhurfl: was inca- Parkimrd. pable. What he believed he was not afraid to profefs; ^^''^"^^^ and never profelfed to belisve any thing which he did not very fincerely believe. An earnefl lover of truth, he fought it where only it is to be f und — in the Sciip- tures (a). The ftudy of thefe was at once the hufinefs and the pie :fure of his life ; from his earlieft to his la- teft years, he was an hard lludent ; and had the daily occupations of every 24 hours of his life been portioned out, as it is faid tliofe of king Altered ^^■ere, into three equal parts, there is reafon to believe that a deficiency would rarely have been found in the eight hours allotted to lludy. Whit the fruits have been of a life fo conduc- ed, few theolcgians, it is prefumed, need to be inform- ed, it being hardly witliin the fcope of a fuppofuion, that any man will now fit down to the fludy of the Scriptures without availing himfelf of the affiftance to be obtained from his learned labours. Thefe labours the Son of God, they were condemned by the pupils of ceafed at Epfom in Surry, where this great and good liis fchool as Jrians, or at leall Semi-arians , and the Jnan died, on March the 21ft, 1797. Befides the works writer of this ikctch has heard a living Hutchinfonian which we have mentioned, there is in the Gentleman's pronounce the fame cenfiire, and for the fame reafon, Magazine, for Auguft 1797, a curious letter of his on on the prefent illuftrious Bilhop of Rochefter, and the the Confufion of Tongues at Babel, no lefs illudrious Whicaker. Mr Parkhurlt's character may be collefled with to- That meji, who thus condemned all that before lerable accuracy even from this imperfeft fketch of his them had been deemed great and good in phyfical life. His notions of church patronage do him honour; fcience and Chriftian theology, (hould meet with fome difcountenance while they continued of fuch a fpirit, needs not furely excite much wonder; but that the dif- countenance is incrcafing, we believe not be true. The Hutchinfonians, as foon as they became lefs vio- lent againll thofe who differed from them, had their (hare of preferment, in proportion to their number, with others ; and we doubt not they will continue to have it, while they allow that a man may be no heretic, though he believe not Mr Hutchinfon to have been in- fallible. The late excellent Bifhop Home was an avow- ed Hutchinfonian, though not an outrageous one like Julius Bate ; and we have been told, and have reafon to believe, that the Bifhop of St Afaph is likewife a moderate favcurer of the fame fyftem. There may be and as a fai ther inftance of the high fenfe he entertain- ed of ftrift jurtice, and the fteady refolution with which he praiSifed it on all occafions, an incident which oc- curred between him and one of his tenants, within thefe ten years, may here be mentioned. This man tailing behind hand in the payment of his rent, which was. L, 5C0 /ff flH«um, it was reprefented to his land- lord that it w'as owing to his being over rented. This being believed to be the cafe, a new valuation was made ; and it was then agreed that, for the future, the rent fhould not be more than L.450. Juftly inferring, moreover, that if the farm was then too dear, it muft neceflarily have been always too dear, unafked, and of his own accord, he immediately ftruck off L.50 from the commencement of the leafe ; and inftantly refunded others on the epifcopal bench ; but perhaps two out of all that he had received more than L.450 per annum. twenty-fix is the full proportion of Hutchinfonian di- vines of eminence in England. It is true that Mr Parkhurfl was a man of great learning and great worth ; but before we attribute his want of preferment in the church to his Hutchinfoniafm, it i» incumbent upon us to fay why Mr Whitakcr, who is no Hutchinfonian, is flill nothing more than the recflor of Ruan-Lanyhorne. Mr Parkhurft, however, was not, if his biographer deferves credit, a thorough-paced Hutchinfonian ; for though he continued to read Hutchinfon's writings as long as he read at all, he was ever ready to allow, that he was oftentimes a confufed and bad writer, and fome- times unbecomingly violent. To have been deterred from reading the works of an author, who, with all his faults, certainly throws out many ufeful hints, for fear of being thought a Hutchinfonian, would have betray- Mr Parl^hurft was in his perfon rather below the middle fize, but remarkably upright, and firm in his gait. He was all his life of a fickly habit ; and his leading {<) remarkably fludious and fedentary a life (it having, for many years, been his conflant prailice to rife at five, and, in winter, to light his own fire) to the very verge of David's limits of the life of man, is a confolatory proof to men of fimilar habits, how much, under many difadvantages, may flill be effe£led by ftrift temperance and a careful regimen. He alfo gave lefs of his time to the ordinary interruptions of life than is cummon. In an hofpitable, friendly, and pleafant neighbourhood, he vifited little ; alleging, that fuch a courfe of life neither fuited his temper, his health, nor his ftudles. Yet he was of fociable manners ; and his converfation always inftrudive, often delightful : for his (a) This is vague language, which is the fource of much ufelefs controverfy, and therefore ought to I)e avoided. If by truth, in this paffage, be meant religious truth, we admit the alfertion in the only fenfe in which we think it can have been made. If the author means all truth, he vfrites nonfenfe ; for the Scriptures treat not of geo- metry or algebra, where truth is certainly to be found ; and -we think that they have a higher objeft than even mechanics and ajlrciwmy. PAR C 705 ] PAR Parkinfon. his (lores of knowledge were Co l.irge, that lie too has PArkiufon's defcriptions, in miny inflances, appear to be ^^'^'""^^ often been called a walking library. He belonged to new. He is more particular in pointing out the places no clubs ; he frequented no public places ; and there are of growth. Johnfon had defcribed about 2850 plants, few men who, tow.^rds the clofe of life, may not, on a Parkinfon has near 3800. Thefe accumulations ren- retrofpeil, leflecl with fhame and forrow, how much of dered the Theatrum Bolanicum (he mod copious book their precious time has thus been thrown away, or, per- on the lubjevft in the Englilh language ; and it may be haps, worfe than thrown aw^ay. prefumed, that it gained equally the approbation of Like many other men of infirm and fickly frames, medical people, and of all thofe who were curious and Mr Parkhurii was alici irritable, and quick, warm, and inquifitive in this kind of knowledge." earned, in his refentments, though never unforgiving. PARODICAL Degrees, in an equation, a term But whether it be or be not a matter of reproach to that has been fometimes ufed to denote the feveral re- poffefs a mind fo conftituted, it certainly is much to gular terms in a quadratic, cubic, biquadratic, &c. any man's credit to counteraft and fubdue it by an at- equation, when the indices of the powers afcend or df- tention to the injuiidions of religion. This Mr Park- fcend orderly in an arithmetical progrefflon. Thus, .v' hurft effeiftually did : and few men have palfed through -f- m x' -f- « v = /> is a cubic equation where no term a long life more at peace with his neighbours, more re- is wanting, but having all its parodic degrees ; the in- fpedled by men of learning, more beloved by his friends, dices of the terms regularly defcending thus, 3, 2, i, c. or more honoured by his family. PARRA.MORE, one of the fmall iflinds in thi PARKINSON (John). Of this ingenious Englidi Atlantic Ocean, which line (he eaft coaft of North- Sio'. Dia. botanift, one of the firll and mod indudrious cultiva- ampton county, Virginia — Morse. tors of that fcience among us, the memorials that re- PARR's Point, is the fouth-ead point of Half-Moon maia are very fcanty. He was born in 1567, was bred an apothecary, and relided in London. He rofe to fuch reputation in his prnfeffion as to be appointed apo- thecary to King James I. ; and, on the publication of bay, on (he north-ead fide of the illand of St Clirido- pher's, in the Wed-Indles. The coaft here is rocky. —ib. PARSONS (James), an excellent phyfician and po- 5«». Din. his Theatre of Plants, he obtained from the unfortu- lite fcholar, was born at Barndaple, in Devonfliire, in nate fucceifor of that prince the title of £(j;i;«;V«j Regis March 1705. His father, who was the youngcft of primarius. The time of his de.ith cannot be exaiflly nine fons of Colonel Parfons, and nearly related to the afcertained ; but, as his Herbal was publilhed in 1640, baronet of that name, being appointed barrackmifter and it appears that he was living at that time, he muft at Bolton in Ireland, removed with liis family into that have attained his 73d year. kingdom foon after the birth of his then only fon Parkinfon's fird publication was, his i. Paradift in James, who received at Dublin the early part of his Sole Pdraiiifui Ufrdjhis, or, A Garden of all Sorts of education, and, by the affidance of proper mafters, laid Pleafant Flowers which our Englifli Ay re will permit a confiderable foundation of clidlc.tl and otlier nfclul to be nurfed up: with a Kitchen-garden of all manner learning, which enabled him to become tutor to Lord of Herbes, Roots, and Fruits, for Meat or Saufe, &c. Kingdon. Turning his attention to the dudy of me- &c. CoUefted by John Parkinfon apothecary, of Lon- dicine, he went afterwards to Paris, where (to ufe his don, 1629, folio, 612 pages. In this work the plants own words) " he followed the mod eminent profclFors are arranged without any exad order: nearly tooo in the feveral fchools, as Adruc, Dubois, Lem:ry, and plants are feparately defcnbed, of which 7S0 are figu- others; attetiJed the anatomical leifluies of the mod red on 129 tables, which appear to have bsen cut ex- famous [Hunaud and De Cat] ; and chemicals at the pref»ly for this work. Parkinfon was, it is conceived, King's Garden at St Come. He followed the pliyfi- the fird Englifh author wiio feparately defcribed and cians in both hofpitals of the Hotel Dieu and La Cha- figured the lubj^ifls of the flower-garden ; and this book rite, and the chemical leiflures and demondrations ot is therefore a valuable cuiiofity, as exhibiting a com- Lemery and Bouldoc ; and in botany Jufheu. Having plete view of the extent ol' the EngliOi garden at the finilbed thele dudles, his profelPirs gave him honour- beginning of the 17th century. It may, perhaps, be able atteftations of his having followed them with dill- necelfiry to inform the reader, that Paradlfus in Sole, gence and indudry, which intitled him to take tl)e de- ls meant to exprefs the author's name, Parh in fun. grees of doiflor and pro'e(f>r of (he nrt ol medicine, ia 2. In 1640 he publlllied his Theatrum Bolanicum; or any univerfity in the dominions of France. Intending Theatre cf Plants, or an Herbal of a large extent: to return to England, he judged it unnecelTary to take containing therein, a more ample and exiA Hidory degrees in Paris, unlefs he liad relolvcd (o refide there ; and declaration of the Pliyfical Herbs and Plants tiian and as it was more expenlive, he therefore went to the arc in other Authors, &c. &c. London, folio, 1746 univerfity of Rheims, in Champaign, where, by virtue pages. This woik had been the labour ci the author's of his attedation>, he was iram;diatcly admitted to lite; and he tells us that, owing to " (he difadrous three examinations, as if he had finilhed his dudles in times," ar,d other impediments, the printing of it was that academy; and there was honoured with his dc- long retarded. Dr Pukcney is of opinion, that, allow, grees June 11. 1736. In the July following he came ing lor the defe>.^s common to the a^e, Parkinfon will to London, and w is foon employed by Dr James Don- appear " more of an otiginal auvhor than Gerard or glas to .iflid him in his anatomical works, wliere in f.>me Joluifon, iidcp-iudcnc (if the advantages he niit;ht derive time he btgiu to praclife. He was elefled a member from being pofterior to them. His the tre was carried oi (lie Ro)al Society in I7.^o; and, after due exanii- on tlirou.'.h a long fcricb of years, and he pn.d'.ed by nation, was admitted a licentiate of the college of phy- the works of fome late autlurs, which J. 'hnfn, though ficians April i. 1751; paying college fees and bond th.ey were equally in his power, had neglc(5lcd to ufe. damps of dlffersnt denominations to the am unt of SurpL. Vol. II. 4 U L.41 P A K r 706 ] PAR Prirfons. L. 4 1 : 2 8, fubjeft alio to quarterage ot L. 2 />fr a««»/n. In 175J ha piiid a farther fum of L. 7, which, with the quariera^^e money already paid, made lip the fum of L. 16, in lieu of all future payments." On his arrival in London, by the recommendation of his Palis fi lends he was introduced to the acquiintance of Dr Mead, Sir Hans Sbane, and Dr James Douglas. This great anatoraid made ufe of his afliftance, not on- ly in his anaiomical preparaiitn?, but aUb in his reprc- fintations of morbid and other appearances ; a lift of fe- vcral of which was in ihe hands of his fiicnd Dr Maty, who had prepared an eU^e on Dr Parfon?, wliich was rcvcr ufed, Ijuc wi:ich, by the favour of Mis Pailbn?, Mr Nichols has prtferved at large. Though Dr Par- fons cultivated the feveral branches of the prolelfion of pliyfic, he was principally employed in the oblletrical line. In 173S, by the intered of his friend Dr Dou- glas, he was appointed phyfician to the public infir- mary in St Giles's. In 1739 ha married Mifs Eliza- beth Reynolds, by whom he had two fons and a daugh- ter, who all died young. Dr Parfons refided for ma- ny years in Red Lion Square, where he frequently en- joyed the conrpany and converfation of Dr Stukcly, Di- "lliop Lyttlcti n, Mr Henry Baiter, Dr Knight, and ni.Huy < ther of the molt dillinguilhcd members of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and that of Arts, Manufaftures, and Commerce ; giving weekly an ele- gant dinner to a large but felei5t party. He enjoyed al- io the literary cnrrefpondence ot D'Ar^enville, BufTon, I>e Cat, Becc.iria, An)b. Bertrand, Valltravers, Afca- nius, Tutberville Necdham, Dr Garden, and others of the moft dilUnguiflied rank in fcience. As a prafti- tioiier, he was judicious, careful, honeft, arrd remarkably humane to the poor ; as a friend, obliging and commu- nicative; chearful and decent in convetfation, fevere and (Irifl in his moral?, and attentive to fill with pro- pi iety all the various duties of life. In 1769, finding his health impaired, he propofed to retire from bufi- ncfs and from London ; anil with that view difpofed of a confiderable number of his books and foQils, and went to Briftrl. But he returned foon after to his old houfc, and died in it after a week's illnefs, on the 4th of April, 1770. By his lall will, dated in 0>-T:ober I 765, he gave his whole property to Mrs Parfons'; and in cafe of her death before him, to Mifs Mary Rey- nolds her only filler, " in recompeuce for her af- fedionate attention to him and to his wife, for a long courfe of years, in ficknefi and in health." It was his puticular requeft, that he fhould not be buried till Icjme change Ihould appear in his corpfe ; a requeft which occalioned him to be kept unburied 1 7 days, and even then fcarce the flighteft alteiation was perceivable. He was buried at Hendon, in a vault which he had caufed to be built on the ground purchafed on the diath of his fon James, where his tomb had a very commendatory inlciiption. It wouLl carry us beyond our ufual limits to enter into an enum':ration of the many curious articles at v.i- lious times communicated to the public by Dr Parfons, which may bs feen in the Anecdotes of Bowyer. We (hall therefore clofe this article with an extradf from Dr Maty's Eulo2;ium : " The furprifing variety of branches which Dr Parfons embraced, and the feveral living as well as dead languages he had a knowledge of, qualided him abundantly for the place of afliftant fe- cretary for foreign cnrrefpondences, which the council Parfons. of the Royal Society beftovved upon him about ths ^■^'"^^^^ year 1750. He acquitted himfclf to the utmoft of his power of the tunclions of this place, til! a lew years before his death, when lie religned in favour of his friend, who nov/ gratelully pays this laft tribute to his memory. Dr Parfons joined to his acidemical honours thofe which the Royai College of Phyficians ff Lon- don beftovved upon him, by admitting him, after due examination, licentiate, on the tirft day of April 1751. The diftullve ipirit of our tnend was only equalled by his defire of information. To both thefe piinciples ho owed the intimacies which he formed with f .me of the greateft men of his time. The names of Folkes, Hales, Mead, Stukely, Needbam, Baker, CoUinfon, and Gar- den, may be .mentioned on this occalion, and many more might be added. Weekly meetings were formed, where the earlieft intelligence was received and commu- nicated of any difcovery both here and abroad j and. ncff trials were made, to bring to the teft of cxperiencj the reality or ufefulnefs ot thefe difrovei ie.'. Here it was that the microfcopical animals found in feveral in- fufions were firlt produced ; the propagation of feveral infeifls by liiflion afcertained ; the conltancy of Nature amidlt theie wonderful changes eftablilhed. His Re- mains of Japhet, being Hlftorical Enquiries into the Affinity and Origin of the European Languages, are a moft laborious pertoiniance, tending to prove the an- tiquity of the firlt inhabitants of thefe iflands as being originally defeended from Gomer and Magog, above 1000 years belore Chiift, their primitive and ilill fub- fifting language, and its affinity with fome others. It; cannot be denied but that there h much ingenuity, as well as true learning, in this work, which helps con- viiaion, and often fupplies the want of it. But we cannot help thinking that our friend's warm feelings now and then mifie-^d his judgment, and that fome at Icalt of his conje<5lures, relling upon partial traditions, and poetical fcrapb of Irilli filids and Welfh bards, are lets fatiilaflory than his tables of affinity between the feveral northern languages, as deduced from one com- mon llock. Literature, however, is much obliired to ... ^ him for having in this, as well as in many of his other Works, opened a new field of obfervations and difcove- ries. In enumerating our learned friend's dilfertations, we find ourfelves at a lofs whether we fhould follow the order of lu'ojei5ls or of time ; neither is it eafy to account for their furprifing variety and quick fuccef- fion. The truth i?, that his eagcrnefs after knowledge was fuch, as to embrace almoft with equal facility ;-.ll its branches, and with equal zeal to afcertain the merit of inventions, and afcribe to their refpc^ftive, and fome- . times unknown, authors, the glory of the difcovery. Many operations, which the ancients have tranfmittcd to us, have been thought fabulous, merely from our ig- norance of the art by which they were performed. Thus the burning of the fhlps of the Romans at a confider- ablc dillance, during the fiege of Syracufe, by Archi- medes, would pel hap? ftill continue to be exploded, . had not the celebrated M. BufFon in France fhev.m the pnffibility of it, by prefenting and defcribing a model of a fpeculum, or rather alicmlilage of mirrors, l^y which he could fet fire at the dillance of feveral hun- dred feet. In the contriving, indeed, though not in the executing of fuch an apparatus, he had in feme .mea- fure .PAR [ 707 ] PAS Parfoni. Aire hecn foreflnlled lijr a writer now very little known much defpifed iliofe additional graces whlih command Taiiy, ^'^~'^^'^^ or read. This Dr Parfons proved in a very fitisfac- attention when joined to learning, obferv:ition, and U lory manner; and he had the pleafure to find the found rcafoning. Let us hope that his eiamplc and f^^ii^^i^' Fiench philofopher did not refute to the Jefuit his fpirit will animate all his colleagues; and that iliofe (hare in t!ie iiiven;i?n, and was not at all offended by pradlitioners who are in the fame circumftances will he the liberty he had taken. Another French difcovery, induced to join tlieir brethren, fnre to find amoni'ft 1 mean a new kind of painting fuhered upon the an- them thole great bledlngs of life, freedom, equality, in- cienrs, was reduced to its real value, in a paper which formation, and friendlhip. As long as thefe great prln- fhewed our author was poffeffed of a good talle for the ciples fliall fubfifl in this fociety, and I trull they will fine arts : and I am informed that his (kill in mufic was outlafl the longed liver, there is no doubt but the mem- by no means inferior, and that his favourite amufement bers will me;t with the reward hon^il men are ambi- was the flute. Richly, it appears from thefe peifnrm- tious of, the approbation of ilieir confcience, the cUeem ances, did our author merit the honour of being a mem- of the virtuous, the remembrance of pofteriiy." ber of the Antiquarian Society, which long ago had PARTY Arches, in architeftuic, are arches built aiTociated him to its labours. To another fociety, between fepar.ite tenures, where the property is intcr- fonnded upon the great principles of humanity, patrio- mixed, and apartments over each other do not belonp tifm, and natural emulstion, he undoubtedly was great- to the fame ellate. iy ufcful(A,\ He afTifted at moll of their general Party ll^alis, are partitions of brick made betu-een meetings and committees, and was for many years buildings in feparate occupations, for preventing the chairman to that of agriculture ; always equally ready fpread of fire. Thefe Ihould be thicker than the exter- to point out and to promote ufeful improvements, and nal walls ; and their thicknefs in London is regulated to oppofc the interefted views of fraud and ignorance, by act of parliament of the 14th of George III. fo infeparable from very extenfive affociztions. No PARSONSFIELD, a townfhip of the Diflrict of fooner was this fociety (d) formed, than Dr Parfons Maine, in York county, fituated on the New Flampfhire became a member of it. Intimately convinced of the line, between great and Little Offipee rivers ; and is noblenefs of its views, though from his tlation in life 118 miles north of Bollon. It was incorporated in lifle concerned in its fuccef*, he grudged neither attend- 1785, and contains 655 inhabitants. — Morse. ance nor cxpenfe. Neither ambitious of taking the PARTIDO, a fmall illand, under the high hill of lead, nor fond of oppoiiiion, he joined in any meafure St Martin, in the foutli-well part of Campeachy Gulf, he thought right ; and fubmitted cheerfully to the fen- It lies in the fair v/ay acrofs the bay from Cape Ca- lim-ents of the majority, though againtl his own private toche to ^'era Cruz.— ;.^. opinion. The jull ideas l:e had of the dignity of our PARTRIDGEFIELD, a towrfh'p of Maffachii- profetfion, as well as of the common links which ought fetts, in Berkfliire county, 26 miles W. N. W. of Nor- to unite all its members, notwithflanding the differences thampton, and 128 wellward uf Bollon. It was in- of country, religion, or places of education, made him corporated in 1775, and contains 1041 inhabitants.— ii. hear imp.-itiently the Ihackles laid upon a great number PASCAGOULA, a liver of the Georgia Wcllern of refpeilable pracflitioners : he wilhed, fondly wilhed, Territory, which purfues a S. by E. courfe through to fee thefe broken ; not with a view of empty honour Well Florida, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, by and dangerous power, but as the only means of ferving feveral mouths, wliich together occupy a fpace of 3 or mankind more eff.'rtually, checking the progrefs of 4 miles ; which is one continued bed cf oyllerfhcll:, defigning men and illiterate praftitioners, and ditfufing with very Ihoal water. The welternmoll branch has through the whole body a fpirit of emulation. Though 4 feet water, and is the deepell. After eroding the by frequent difappointments he forefaw, as well as we, bar, there is from 3 to 6fithoms water for a great dif- the little chance of a fpcedy redreA, he nobly perfided tance, and the river is fiid to be navigable more th^n in the attempt; and had he lived to the final event, 150 mi!;,. The foil on this river, like that on all the would undoubtedly, like Cato, ftill have prefetrcd the others that pafs through Georgia into the Gulf of Mex- conquered caufc to that fupportcd by the gods. After ico, grows better as y<iu advance to its fource. — ib. having tried to retire from bufmefJ! and from London, Pascagoula, an Indian village on the E. fide of for the fake of his health, and having difpofed of moll the river Mi'.liflippi, which can furnilli aboat 20 w.arriors. of his books with that view, lie found it inconfillent It is about 10 miles above the Tonica village. — Ih. with his happinefs to forfake all the advantages which PASCATAQUA, or Pifcataqna, is the only large a long refidence in the capital, and the many connec- river, whofe whole courfe is in New Hampfhiie. Its tions he had formed, had tendered habitual to him. He head is a pond in the N. E. corner of tlie town 01 therefore returned to his old houfe, and died in it, after Wakefield, and its general courfe thence to tlie fea is a Ihort iUnefs, Apiii 4. I 770. The llyle of our friend's S. S. E. about 40 miles. It divides New I lamplhirc compnfition was fufficicntly clear in defcription, iho' from York county, in the Diftri(fl of Maine, and is in argument not fo clofe as could have been wifiied. called Salmon-Fail river, from its head, to the lo\ver Full of his ideas, he did not always f) difpofe and con- falls at Berwick, where it adumes the name of Newi- nefl them together, as to produce in the minds of his chawannock, which it bears till it meets with Coche- rcaders that conviflion whi^h was in his own. Ho too cho river, which comes from Dover, when both run 4 U 2 together ■ — " ■■ ■ - ' " -'■ ■ ■ ■ ■- ■ ■ ■- ' — ..— ■ I — (a) The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Maiiufaiflure*., and Commerce. He likewife was airociaicd to the Economical Society at Berne, Dec. 26. 1763. (n) A Medical Society inflituted by Dr Fothcrgill, and other refpcclabic phyfician', licentiates, in vif.Jicalion cf their privileges; where, it lliould icem, this eulogy was intended to be pronounced. PAS [ 708 ] P A Pafpaya, toge;her in one channel to Hilton's Point, where the 'I wellern branch meets it : from this juiiiflion to the fea, J^JlfJili^, the river is fo rapid that ii never freezes ; the diftance is 7 miles, and the courfe generally from S. to S. E. The wellern branch is formed by Swanfcot river, which conies from Exeter, Winnicot river, which comes through Greenland, and Lamprey river, which divides Newmarket from Durham ; ihefe empty into a bay, 4 miles wide, called the Great B.iy. The water, in its further proj^refs, is contrafled into a lefier bay, and then it receives Oyfter liver, which runs through Dur- iiam, and Back river, which comes from Dover, and at len;,'th meets with the main llream at Hilton's Point. Tiie tide lifes into all thefe bays, and branches as far as the lower falls in each river, and forms a moft rapid current, efpecially at the feafon of the frelliets, when the ebb continues about two hours longer than the Hood ; and were it not for the numerous eddies, form- ed by the indentings of the fliore, the ferries would then be impalfable. At the lower falls in the feveral branches of the river, are landing places, whence lum- ber and other country produce is tranfported, and velTels or boats from below difcharge their lading ; fo iliat in each river there is a convenient trading place, not more than 12 or 15 miles dillant from Portfniouth, with which there i'j conftant communication by every tide. Thus the river, Irom its form, and the fituation ol its branches, is extremely favourable to the purpofes of navigation and commerce. A lighthoufe, with a lingle light, Hands at the entrance of Pifcataqua har- bour, in lat. 43 4 N. and long. 70 41. — ii. PASPAYA, a jurifdiflion in the archbiflioprick of La Plata, about 40 leagues to the S. of the city of that name. It is mountainous but abounds in grain, pulfe, and fruits. — ii. PASQLTOTANK, a county of North Carolina, in Edenton dilhiil:, N. of Albemarle Sound. It contains 5,497 inhabitants, including 1623 flaves. — ii. Pasquot.\nk, a fmall river of North Carolina, which rifes in the Great Difmal Swamp, and, palling by Hertford, falls into Albemarle Sound. — ii. PASSAGE Fort, a fmall town of the illand of Ja- maica, fituated in the road between Port Royal and Spanilh Town, 7 miles S. E. of the latter, and at the mouth of Cobre river, where is a fort of 10 or 12 guns. It has a bride trade, and contains about 400 houfes, the greatell part of them houfes of entertainment, — ii. Passage /jhnJ lies acrofs the mouth of the river Cobeca, near the N. W. part of the iilind of Porto Rico. The harbour for ihips is at the E. end of this illanJ. — ii. Passage IJlands, Great and Little, two of the Virgin Iflands, in the Weft Indies, near the E. end of the idand of Porto Rico. N. lat. 18 20, W. long. 64 5. -r-ii. Passage Point, in the Straits of Magellan, lies at the W. end of Royal Reach, and 5 leagues W. N. W. of Fortefcue's Bay. S. lat. 53 45, W. long. 73 40. — ib. PASSAIK, or Pafaick, is a very crooked river. It rifes in a large fwamp in Morris county, New Jerfey, and its courfe is from W. N. W. to E. S. E. until it mingles with the Hackinfak at the head of Newark Bay. It is navigable about 10 miles, and is 230 yards wids at the fetry. The cataraa, or Great Falls, in PafTump- fick. this river, is one of the greateft natural curlofities PalTdma- in the (late. The river is about 40 yards wide, and l^oddy, moves in a flow, gentle current, until coming within a fliort diftance of a deep clcit in a rock, which crolfes the channel, it defcends and falls above 70 feet perpen- ' dicular, in one entire flieet, prefenting a moft beautiful and tremendous fcene. The new manufiduring town of Patterfon is ereiled on the Great Falls of this river ; and its banks are adorned with many elegant country feats. It abounds with fifli of various kinds. There is a bridge 500 feet long, over this river, on the poft- road from Philadelphia to New York. — ii. PASSAMAQUODDY, absy and river, near which is the divifion line between the Britilh province of New Brunfwick and the United States of America. The ifland of Campo Bello, in the N. Atlantic Ocean, is ac the middle or W. paffage of the bay, in lat. 44 50 N. and long. 66 46 W. The dittance from Crofs Ifle, Machias, to Weft Paffamaquoddy Head, is 9 leagues N. E. by E. ; and from the Head over the bar to Allen's Ifle, N. N. W. 2 leagues. When you come from the S. W. and are bound into Weft Paffama- quoddy, you muft give the Seal Rocks a birth of three quarters of a mile before you haul in from the harbour, as there is a whirlpool to the eaft cf them. The bay is about a league from this point. It is high water here at full and change of the moon, about the fame time as at Bofton. There are 3 rivers which fall into this bay ; the largeft is called by the modern Indians, the Scoodick ; but by De Mons and Champlain, Etche- mins. Its main fource is near Penobfcot river, and the carrying-place between the two rivers is but 5 miles. The mouth of Paffamaquoddy river has 25 fathoms water. — ii. Passamaquoddy Pojl Office, on the above defcribed b.iy, is kept at a little village at the mouth of Cobf- cook river, 17 miles this fide Brewer's, the eafternmolt poft-office in the United States, 20 N. E. of M:^chias, 378 N. E. of Bofton, and 728 in a like direflion from Philadelphia. — ii. PASSAMAQUODDIES, a tribe of Indians who. inhabit near the waters of Pafflimaquoddy Bay. — ib. PASSAO, a cape on the coaft of Peru, on the S. Pacific Ocean, under the equator. Long. 78 50 W. -—ii, PASSIGRAPHY, the art of writing on any fob- jed fo as to be underftood by all nations (See Univer- fal Characters in this Supplement). In France, where every thing is admired that is new, and every vagary of the imagination of a pretended philofopher thought pra<5licable, a propofal has lately been made to introduce one univerfal language into the world, conftruifled by a few metaphyficians on the laws of human thought. And to this language, in its written form, is to be given the name of pajfigraphy. Such readers as think this idle dream worthy their attention (which is far from being the cafe with us), will find fonie ingenious thoughts on the hiftory of a philofophic language, in the 2d vo- lume of Nidolfon's journal of Natural Philofophy, l^c. PASSO MAGNO, a river of Florida, in lat. 16 N.. — Morse. PASSUMPSICK, a fmall river of Ver.iiont, runs a, fouthern courfe and empties into Connefticut river, below the Fifteen Mile Falls, in the town of Barnet. —ii. PASSYUNIC. PAT [ 7<=9 ] PAT Pat.-iw- mack. Paflyunk, PASSYUNK, a townlhip in Philadelphia county, Pennlylvania. — ib. PASTO, or Si Junn de Pajlo, a town nf Popayan _• in S. America. N. lat. i 50, W. long. 76 55. — Ih. PATAGOA, a river on the coaft ot Brazil, which enters the ocean S. W. of Rio Janeira. — ib. PATAVIRCA, a town of Peru, in the juiifdiflion of Santa, or Guarmey, confining of about 60 houfes. It lies on the road leading from Paita to Lima, 67 miles north ci that city. About three quarters of a league from thi? town, and near the fea-coaft, are dill remaining fome huge walK of unburnt bricks, being tlie ruins of a palace of one <if the Indian princes. Its lituation correfponds with the tradition ; having on one fide, a mod fertile and delightful country, and on the other, the refrefhing profpeil of the fea. — ib. P.A.'l\-\Z, a jurifdidlion in the diocefe of Truxillo, in S. America. It is iltuated among the mountains, and has a variety of produ<5ls, of which gold is the chief. — ib. PATEHUCA, or Palioca, a town of Mexico, in N. America, having a filver mine in its vicinity. N. lat. 21, W. long. 99 58. — ib. PATH OF THE VERTEX, a term frequently ufed by Mr Flamlleed, in his docliine of tlie Sphere, denoting a circle, defcribed by any point of the earth's furface, as the earth turns round its axis. This point is conCi- dered as vertical to the earth's centre ; and is the fame with what is called the vertex or zenith in the Ptolo- maic prnj-(51ion. PATIENCE, an Ifland in Narraganfet Bay, Rhode Ifland, and lies fouth-eaft of Warwick Neck, three- fourths of a mile. It is about 2 miles long, and i broad. — Morse. PATOWMACK, or Potomack, a large and noble river which rifes by two branches, the northern and the fouthern, which originate in and near the Alleghany Mountains, and forms, through its whole courfe, part ot the boundary between the dates of Virginia and Maryland. Its courfe is N. E. to Fort Cumberland, thence turning to the E. it receives Conecocheague Creek from Pennfylvania ; then pnrfuing a f ,uth-ead courfe, it receives the Shenandoah from the S. W. after this it runs a S. E. and S. courfe, till it reaches Mary- land Point ; thence to its mouth it runs fouth-caderly. In its courfe it receives feveral confiJerable ftreams. The diftance from the Capes of Virginia to the termina- tion of the tide water in this river is above 300 miles ; and navigable for Ihips of the greated burden, nearly that diftance. From thence this river, obllruifled by 4 confiderable falls, extends tlirough a vail traft of inha- bited country towards its fmirce. Early in the year 1785, the legiflatures of Virginia and Maryland pafTed afts to encourage opening the navigation of this river. It was eftiraated that the expenfe of the works would amount to /"50, 000 fterling, and 10 years were allowed ior their completion. Great pan is already finifljed ; and the whole it '\% expeifled will be completed W'lthin a few yearc, according to the report of the engineers to the Patowmack Company. This noble river pafTes by many flourilliing towns ; the chief of which are, Shepherddown, Georgcd'iwn, \Va(hing. ton City, Alexandria, New Marlborough, and Charlef- town, or Port Tobacco. It is 7I miles wide at its mouth; 4I at Nomouy Bay; 3 at Aquiu ; it at Hallooing Point; and i^ at Alexandiia. Its found- Pairic?^, ings are 7 fathoms at the mouih ; 5 at St George's II Ifl.ind; 4t at Lower Matchodic ; 3 at Swan's Point, ^^X^ and thence up to Alexandria. "The tides in the river are not very llrong, excepting after great rains, when the ebb is pretty Urong ; then there is little or no flood, and there is never more than 4 or 5 hours flood, ex- cept with long and drong fouth winds. In order to form jud conceptions of this inland navigation, it would be requifite to notice the long rivers which empty into the Patowmack, and furvey the geographical pofuion of the wedern waters. The diftance of the waters cf the Ohio to Patowmack, will be from Jifuen to furty miles, according to the trouble which will be taken to approach the new navigations. The upper part of this river, until it palTes the Blue Ridge, is called, in Fiy and Jcfferfon's map, Cobongonnto. — ib. PATRICK'S, St, a fmall town, the chief of Camden county, Georgia, fituated on Great Satilla river, about 32 miles from its mouth, and die fame didance north- wederly of the town of St Mary's. — ib. PATTERSON, a town in Bergtn county, New Jerfey, called fo in honour of tl;e governor of the ;laie of that name, and now one of the judges of the fupreme federal court. It was edabliftied in confequence of aa a(5l of the legifljture of New Jerfey, in 1791, incorpo- rating a manufaciuring company with peculiar pri- vileges. Its fituation on the Great Falls cf Palfaic river, is healthy and sgreeaLle. It now conta'ns about 50 dwelling-houfes, independent of thofe appropriated tor the machinery ; and it is certainly one cf the molt convenient ficuations for a manufav-luring town of anv on the continent. This company was incorporated to encourage all kinds of manufacluies, and the fum of 500,oco dolls, was foon fubfcribed ; but for want of experience, and a proper knowledge of the bufinefs, much was expended to little purpofe ; and they were at lad reduced to the neceffity of having reci urfe to a lottery to alfid them in carrying their plan into execu. tion. It is faid that matters are now condu^'ted more judicioufly, and that the undertaking promifcs to be ufcful to the public, and beneficial to the proprietors. It is 19 miles N. E. of Morridown, 10 N. of Newark, and 100 N. E. by N. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 40 12, W. long. 7^4 57 — ib. PATUCKET, a fmall village about four miles N. E. of Providence, a bufy placeof confiderable trade, and where manufadures of feveral kinds are carried on with fpirit. Tlirough this village runs Patucket, or Pawtucket liver, which empties into Seekhonk river at this place. The river Patuckef, calhd more noitherly BUckdone's river, has a beautilul fall of water, dlre^ly- over which, a biidge has been built on the line which divides the commonwealth of M^ilfachufctis from the date of Rhode Idand ; didant about 40 miles S. by W. of Bodon. The confluent dream empties into Provi- dence river about a mile below Wcybolfetr, or the Great Bridge. The fall, in its whole length, is up- wards of tifty feet ; and the water palfes through feveral chafnis in a rock, which, eitcnding diametri- cally acrofs the bed of the itream, fenes a'^s a dam to the water. Several mills have been erected upon thefe falls ; and the fpouts and channels which have been condrufled to condua the dieams to their refpeaiva wheels, at;J the bridge, hav« taken very much from, the.- Paiilf- biirgli. r A u [ 71 *itiu(r.t, the beauty and grandeur of the fcene, which would ot!>erwirc have been indelcribably charming and ro- mantic. — /'/'. PATUXENT, or F.iiuxri, a navigable river of M.ir)Lind, whidi riles ncir the fonrce of Patapfco tivcr, an J empties into the W. fide of Chefapeak Bay, beiween Drum and Hog IHand Points, 15 or 20 miles N. of the mouth of the Patowmac. It admits veflels cf 2JO tons to Nottingham, nearly 40 miles Irnm its mcuth, and of boats to Qiieeu Anne, 12 miles higher. Patiixent is as remarkable a river as any in the bay, having very high land on its north fide, with red banks or cliffs. When you double Drum Point, you come to in 2i and three fathoms water, where you will be fecurs from all winds. — ii. PAUCAR-COLLA, a jurifdiaion in the bidiopriclv cf La Paz, in South America, bordering on Chucuito. It is fituated in the mountains, and abounds in cattle. The air is h:re very cold. The filver mine here called I>aycacota, was formerly fo rich, that the metal was olten cut out vvidi a chlfel ; but the waters having over- flowed, the works, it is abandoned. — 11/. PAUCARTAMBO, a jurifdiaion of the diocefe of Cufco, in S. America. It is very fruitful, and lies 80 leagues ealUvard of the city of Cufco. — it'. PAUKATUCK, a fmall river which empties into Stonington harbour, and forms a part of the divifion line between Conncfticut and Rhode Illand. — i!/. PAUL'S BAY, Si, on the N. W. (licre of the river S: Lawrence, in N. America, is about 6 leagues below Cape Torment, where a chain of mountains of 400 league;, in hngth terminate from the weftward. — ii. Paul's Bay, St, on the N. W. coaft of Newfound- land 1(1 ind. N.lat. 49 5c, W. long. 57 55. — ib. PAUL'S ISLAND, St, an ifland in the ftrait be- tween Ncwloundland and Cipe Breton Iflands. It is about 15 mUes north-eaft of North Cape, in Cape Bre- ton. N. lat. 47 13, W. long. 60 2. — 0). PAUL, Si, a town of Brazil, S. America, in the captainlhip of St Vincent. It is a kind of independent re;.'ublic, cr-mpofed of the banditti of feveral nations. However, they pay a tribute of gold to the king of Poitugal. It is furrounded by inacceffible mountains and thick forefts. S. lat. 23 25, W. long. 45 52. —a. Paul, St, a town of N. America, in New Mexico, fituated at the confluence of the two main head branches of the Rio Bravo. — :b. Paul, St, the mod foutherly of th'? Pearl Idands, in the Gulf of Panama, S. America. In the north fide is a f.ife channel ; where, if neceffary, there is a place for careening ftiips. — ib. Paul's, St, a paiilh in Charlefton diftri<51, S. Caro- lina, containing 3 433 inhabitants; of whom 276 are whites, and 3,202 (laves ib. PAULINGSTOWN, or PaiuUng, a townfiiip in Dutchefs cotmty. New York, lying on the wcfiern boun- dary of Conne5ticut, and has South and Eaft Town on the fouth. In 1790, it contained 4,330 inhabitants, of wlum 42 were llaves. In 1796, there were 560 of tiie inhabitants qualified electors. — il. PAULSBURGH, a townOiip in Grafton county, New Hampthire, on the head waters cf Amonoofuck river, and through which pafTes Aixirofcoggin liver. — ib. D 3 PAZ PAULUS Hook, in Bergen county,-NcW Jerfer, is on the weft bank of Hudfon tiver, oppofite New York city, where the river is 2,000 yards' wide. Here is the ferry, which is perhaps more ufed than any other in the United States. Tiiis was a fortiaed poft in the late war. In 1780 the froft was fo intenfe, that the pafTage acrofs the river here was pra^icable for the heavieft cannon. — ib. PAWLET, a towtifhip in Rutland county, Ver- mont, having 1,458 inh-ibitants. It (lands on the New York line, has Wells on the north, and Rupert, in Bennington county, on the fouth, and is watered by Pawlet river, which joins Wood creek and the conflu- ent dream, falls in South Bay at Fiddler's Elbow. Hayllack M'untain is in this towndiin. — ib. PAWTUCKET Falls, in Merrimack river, are in the townfhip of Dracut. — ib. PAWTUXEP, a village in the tov.'nfhip of Cran- fton. Providence county, Rhode Ifl.ind. — ib. PAXAROS, an ifl.ind on the coaft of California, in Pauluj, II Paz. i, W. long. 120 45. tv/o townfiiips in the N. Pacific Ocean. N. lat. 30 i i —ib. PAXTON, %Vr and Lo-m.',; Dauphin county, Pennfylvania. — ib. Paxton, a townlhip of Malfachufetts, fituated in Worcefter county, 8 miles weft of V/orcefter, and 55 fouth- wefterly of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1765, and contains 558 inhabitants. — ib. PAYJAN, a fmall town in the jurifdiaion of Trux- illo, in Peru, 8 leagues S. of St Pedro. — ib. PAYR AB A, a town and captainlhip in the northern divifion of Brazil. — ib. PAYTA, or Pjila, a fmall fea port of Quito, on the coaft of Peru, with an excellent hai hour, 1 1 leagues north of the ifland called Lobos de Payta. Ships from Acapulco, Sonfonnate, Realeijn, and Panama, to Col- lao, can only touch and refrelh here ; and the length of their voyages, by reafon of the winds being moft of the year againft them, occafions the port to be very much frequented. Yet fo parched is the fituation of Payta, that it affords little befides fi(h, a few goats and frelh water; their chief provilions being furnUhed by Colin and Piura, the one 3, and the other 14 leagues diftant. The bay is defended by a fort, and it is fo fituated that even mulkets alone can hinder boats from landing, being under a pretty high hill, on the fum- mit of which is another fort, that commands tlie town and lower fort. It had only a fort with S guns, when Commodore Anfon took it in 1741. He burnt the town, in which was merchandize to the value of a million and a half of dollars, becaufe the governor re- fufed to ranfom it. The plunder, in dollars and plate, amounted to ^30,000 fterling. It was plundered and burnt by Capt. Cavendilh, in 1587, and by George Spilbergin 1615. I'here is anchorage in io4 fathoms about a mile and a half from the tov.n. S. lat. 5 15, W. long. 80 ^^. — ib. PAZ, La, a fmall jurifdiaion of the audience of Charcas, in Peru, S. America. It is fituated in the mountains, one of which, calkJ Illimani, contains, in all human probability, irr.menfe riches, for a crag of it being broken off fome years fince by a fiafli of ligh"-- ning, fuch a quantity of gold was found among the fragments, that it was fold for fome time at La Pa/. for eight pieces of eight per ounce. But the fummic of PEA L 7" 1 PEA oi this ir.ountiiin being perpetually covered wiili ice and Ihow, no attempt has been made to open a mine. —.b. P.\z, Ltt, a city of Pern, and capital of the above jiirii"di.:tion, is fituated eaftwjrd of the lake Titicaca, on the fule of a valley, among llie breaches of the moun- tains, through which a pretty large ilver flows. In frelliets, the current of the river forces along huge maifes of rocks, witli fume grains of gold. In the year 1730, an Indian, while walliing his feet in the river, found a lump of gold of fuch a fize, that the Marquis de CalL'l Fuer;e gave 12,000 pieces of eight for it, and fent it to Spain as aprefent worthy the curiolUy of his fovereigu. This city contains, befides the caihedr.il, ni.4ny public edifices, and about 20,cco inhabitants. It is I So miles north of La Plata, and 350 fonth-eaft of Cufco. S. lilt. 15 59, W. long. 64 30. — 'w, PAZARO, a cape of N. America, on the W. fide of the peninfula of California, towards the fouth end of it, in about Lit. 24 N. and long. 1 13 W. — ib. PAZQIJA RO, a lake in Mexico, or New Spain.—;*. PEACHAM, a townlliip in Caledonia county, Ver- mont, lies W. of Barnet on Ccnneifticut river. It con- tains 365 inhabitants. — ib. PEACOCK, a lownth'p in Buc!;'s county, Penn- fylvania. — ib. PEAKS OF OTTER are thought to be the higheft part of the Blue Ridge, or perhaps ai.y ether in Noriji AmeiicH, meafiring IVom their bife. Tlie height is 4,000 leet ; which, liowever, io not cv.z fifth ot the height of the mountains of South America. — ib. Pearl Fish, is commonly confidered as an afcidia (fie My riLus, ii«yc-/.); but this is denied by a late author, who items to have paid great attention to the pearl-lilhery at Ceylon. It has never, he fays, been ac- curately del'cribed. It does not refenible the afcilta of Linnx-us; and as he thinks it may form a new genus, hegives the following account of it: " The (ilh is iaflened to the upper and lower (hells by two white fiat pieces of mulcular fubllancs, which have been ctilkd e '.rs, and extend about two inches from the thick part of the body, growing giadually thinner. The extremity of each ear lies looi'e, <tx\d is furrounded by a double bror.-n fringed line. Tlicfe lie almofl the third part of an inch from the outer put of tiie fhc-U, and are continually moved by the anin-.al. Next to thefe above, and below, are fltuated two other double fringed move- able fiibftances, like the bronchix tif a fifh. Thefe ears and fiingcs are joined to a cylindrical piece of flelh of the ilze of a man's thumb, which i-. harder and of a more muicular .nature than the rcfl of the body. It lies about the centre of the fhells, and is firmly attach- ed 10 the niiddlc of each. This, in faifl, is that part of the pearl litli which ferves to open and iliut the fhells. Where this column is failed, we find on the tleih deep imprefiicns, and on the flicU vai ious nodes of round or oblonz: forms, like impelled peails. Between this part .nnd the hinge (ciir.lo) lies the principal body of the animal, fjp.irated fioni the lell, and fhapcd like a bag. The muulh is near the hinge of the Ihell, enve- loped in a veil, and has a double flap or lip on each fide ; from thence we obfcrve the throat (afophn^us) defending like a thread to the ftomach. Clole to the moutii tliere is a curved brownilh tongue, halt an inch in length, w ith an obtufc poir.t ; on the couc.ive fide cf tliis dcfcenJs a furrow, which the anin;al opens and Ihuts, and probably ufes to convey food to its mculh. Near its middle are two bluifh fpots, which fecm to be the eyes. In a pretty deep hole, near the bale of the tongue, lies the beard {bjjlfui), faftened by two fleQiy roots, and confifling of almoll 100 fibres, each an inch long, of a dark green colour, with a metallic luihe ; tliey are undivided, parallel, and flattened. In ger.eral, the br/fus is m' re tlian three quarters of an inch witliout the cleft {rima); but if the animal is ditlurbed, it contrafls it confiderably. The top of each cf thefe threads tcr- m.inates in a circular gland or head, like llie Jri^i/ia of many plants. With thi> by/us they faflen themfelves to rocks, corals, and otlier I'olid bodies ; by it the young pearl iifli cling to the old ones, and with it the animal procures its toed, by extending and contrading it at pleafure. Small fliell filli, on which they partly live, are often found clinging to the former. Tlie ilcmach lies clofc to the root of the beard, and has, on its lower fide, a protraded obtufe point. Above the llomach are two fmall red bodies, like lungs ; and from the fto- mach goes along channel or gut, which takes a circuit round the muicular column above-mentioned, and endj in the anus, which lies oppofite to the mouth, and is covered with a fmall thin leaf, like a fi.ip. Though the natives pretend to dlftinguifh the fexes by the ap- pearance of the llicll, calhng tlie t^at ones male--, and thole which are thick, concave, and vaulted, females, our author, on a clcfj infj.eaicn, could not perceive any vifibie fcxual difTerence." The pearls are only in the fufier part cf the animal, . and never in the firm mufcular column above-mention- ed. They are found, in general, near the earth, and on both (ides of the mouth. From the appearance of the ihell a judgment may be formed, with greater or lefs probability, whether it contains pearls cr not. Thefe which have a thick calcareous crull upon them, to which ferpu!.e (iea tubes) 'Tubuli marini Irrc^ulariler in- toiti, Cr'yJa gali Ciamar la%uras, Lefas tiniinabulum, Madnpiorei, Milipore, Ccllipori, Gorgoauv, Spon^ia, and other Zoophytes, are faflened, have arrived at their full grouth, and commonly contain the bell pearls; but. thofe that appear fmooth, contain euher none, or Imall ones only. In the article {Encycl.) intitlcd, Mannir 0/ Fi/fiins fir Pe.irls in the Eaji Indies, we have moll unaccount- ably faid, that " the bell divers will keep under water, near half an hour, and the rell not !ef» than a quarter!" This is a very great miftake; iin M. I.c Bid alfures us, that the time duiing which a diver is able to re- main under water iclj..r: exceeds two minutes; and that, even after that fhoit period, he dilchargcs, on emerging from the fe.<, a quantity of water, and fome- tinics a httle bl )od, from his mouth and ni fe. We have mentioned the danger which the divers run of becoii.ing a prey to mcnrtrous tilhcs. Thefe fillies are (harks ; of which fuch a dre.id is julily tntertainej, that the mcll expert divers will not on any accoimt, dcfccnd, till the conjurer h.is performed his ceremonies of enciiantment. Theic confiil in a number ot prayeis, learned by heart, that nobody, piobably not even the conjuior liin)ielf, underllands, which he, (landing on the (liorc, continues nuutcrlng and gtiimbhng liom Inn lile until the boats return. During this period, he is obliged to abllaia from food aiiJ lleep, othcrwife his prayeis would have no Pearb. Pearl, II Tcilra. P E D [71 no avail : he is, however, allowed to drink ; wliich pri- vilege he indulges in a high degree, and is frequently , fo giddy, as to be rendered veiy unfit for devotion. Some of the conjurers accompany the divers in their boats ; which pleafes them very much, as they have their protei^ors near at hand. PiARL, a fniall ifle or Ihoal in the Weft-Indies, in lat. 14. 53 N. and long. 79 13 W. — Morse. Pearl, an iiland in the Gulf of Mexico, towards ihe mouth of the Mifliflippi, a few leagues from Dauphin liland ; about 6 or 7 miles in length, and 4 in breadth. —ih. Pearl IJlan(!s,\n the Bay of Panama, called alfo King Illands, fituated in the S. Pacific Ocean. They •are 12 leagues from the city of Panama. They are low, and produce wood, water, fruit, fowls and hogs ; ilicy alfo afford good harbours for fhips. The northern- moll is named Pachea; the fouthernmoft St Paul's. N. lat. 7 10, W. long. 81 45. — ib. Pearl, a river which rifes in the Chaflaw country, in the W. part of Georgia, has a foutherly courfe to the Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable upwards of 150 miles. Its principal mouths are near the entrance at the E. end of the Regolets, tlirough which is the paf- fage to Lake Ponchartrain. It has 7 feet at its entrance, and deep water afterwards. In 1769, there were fome iettlements on this river, where they raifed tobacco, in- digo, cotton, rice, Indian corn, and all forts of vegeta- bles. The land produces a variety of timber, fit for pipe and hogfliead (laves, niafts, yards, and all kinds of plank for fhip-buildirg. PE ARN'S Poinl, on the W. fide of the ifiand of Anti- gua, and the W. fide of Mufketo Cove. Off it are the Five Iflands. — ib. PEDEE, a river which rifes in N. Carolina, where it is called Yadkin river. In S. Carolina it takes the name of Pedee; and receiving the waters of Lyiiche's Cieek, Little Pedee, and Black river, it joins the Wak- kamaw river, near Genrgetown. Thefu united ftreams, with the acceffion of a fmall creek on which Georgetown flaiids, form Winyaw Bay, which about 12 miles below communicates with the ocean. — ib. PEDOMETER (fee EncycL), is the name given by Mr Lewin Thugwell to an inftrument, which is ra- ther au improved perambulator than the inftrument which we liave noticed by the name of Pedometer. The chief improvement made by bini on tlie perambulatoii (fee thjt article, EncycL) is in the fize of the wheel, of which the circumieience meafures 164 feet, or one pole, adapted to Gunter's concife method of arithmetic, and divided into 25 equal parts, correfponding to the links of his chain for land meafuring. There is like- wife a contrivance in Mr Thugwell's pedometer, for compelling the attention of the traveller to the inftru- ment at the end of every mile. It is very ingenious, and abundantly fimple ; but we hardly think it of fuffi- cient irr.pcTtance to fill the fpace which a complete de- fcription of it would occupy in this Work. It is lully del'cribed in the Letters and Papei s of the Bath and Wejl (f England Society, Jlr the Enccuragemeut of /Igricul- ture ; and likewife in the 6th volume of the Repertory of ylrii imd ManufaSures . PEDllA Shoals, in the Weft-Indies, extend from lat. 17 20 to 30 N. urid from long. 79 9 to 79 17 W. ■-^AJorse. 2 ] PEG PEDRAS Point, on the coaft of Brazil, is 7 leagues E. S. E. from the ftrait of St John's Ifland, and 75 from Cape North. Alfo a point on the fame coaft 10 leagues W. N. W. of Brandihi Bay. — ib. Pedras, a river on the N. W. fiJeof Punta des Pe- dras, at the fouthern extremity of Amazon river. — ib. PEDRO, ^/, a town in the jurifdidion of Lambey- que, in Peru, confifting of 130 houfes, moftly inhabited by Indian families. It is wafhed by the river Pacaf- mayo, which renders the country round very fertile. It is feated near the S. Sea, 20 leagues from Lambey- que. S. lat. 7 25 49, W. long. 78 20 15. — ib. Pedro, 5/, one of the Marquefas Iflands, in the S. Pacific Ocean, called by the natives Onateyo ; it is about 3 leagues in circuit, and lies S. 4i leagues from the E. end of La Dominica. S. lat. 9 58, W. long. 158 30. —ib. Pedro, St, a tov^n of New-Mexico, N. America, fituated on the S. fide of Coral river, near the conflu- ence of that river with the Colorado. The united ftream runs a fhort way fouthward, and falls into the north part of the Gulf of California. — ib. Pf.dro Point, Great, is on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Jamaica. From Portland Point to this point the courfe is W. by N. about 1 1 leagues. About S. i E. diftance 14 leagues from Point Pedro, lies the eaftern- moft Pedro Key. — ib. Pedro, Little Point, on the S. coaft of the fame ifland, lies E. of Great Pedro Point, within a flioal partly dry ; but has 5 fathoms within and 10 on the outer edge of it. — ib. Pedro Point, Si, on the coaft of Chili, is S leagues N. N. E. of Point C>udar, and 14 S. S. W. of Cape Galera. Port Si Pedro is contiguous to this point. — ib. Pedro, Port St, is fituated S. W. of the Ifland of St Catherine, and on the S. E. coaft of Brazil, at the entrance of the river La Plata. — ib. Pedro River, St, runs weftward to the Gulf of Mexi- co. Its mouth is in about lat. 21 N. and long. 98 W. —ib. PEEK'S-KiLL, a fmall poft-town in Weft-Chefter county, New-York, on the E. fide of Hudlon's river, and N. fide of the creek of its name, 5 miles from its mouth. It is 20 miles fouth of Fifli-Kill, and 50 norther- ly of New- York. In the winter of 17S0, Gen. Wafh- ington encamped on the ftrong grounds in this vicinity. -a. PEGUE, the ancient capital of the kingdom of the fame name (fee Pegu, EncycL), appears to have been a qu.idrangle,each fide meafuring about a mile and a half. It was furrounded by a ditch and wall ; which, before the latter tumbled down, and the former was filled up, muft have furniflied no contemptible defence. Tlie breadth of the ditch appears to be about 60 yards ; its depth, where not choked up, about ten or twelve feet ; and there is ftill in it water enough to impede an eallern fiege. The wall has been at leaft 25 feet high, and its breadth at the bafe not lefs tliim 40. It is corr'p.ifed fjf brick, badly cemented together with clay mortar, and has had on it fmall equidillant baftions, about 300 yards afunder. Nothing can exhibit a more ftriklng pliflure of de- folalion than the infide of this wall. We liaveeircv.-here given an account of the almoft inceffant wars between the kings of Pegue and Birma or Darma. In the year 1757 Pedra Pegue. PEG Pegue. 1757, the Birman fovereign carried the city of Pegue ^''^'"^^ by aiFault, razed every dwelling to the ground, and dif- perfed, or led into captivity, all the inhabitants. The pagodas, which are very numerous, were the only build- ings that efcaped the fury of the conqueror ; and of thefe the great pagoda of Shoemadoo has alone been attended to and repaired. This extraordinary edifice is built on a double ter- race one raifed upon another. The lower and greater terrace is about ten feet above the natural level of the ground. It is quadrangular. The upper and lefler ter- race is of a like fiiape, raifed about 20 feet above the lower terrace, or 30 above the level of the country. Thefe terraces are afcended by flights of flone fteps, broken and ncglefled. On each fide are dwellings of the Rahaans or priefts, raifed on timbers four or five feet from the ground. Their houfes confift only of a fingle hall. The wooden pillars that fupport them are turned with neatnefs. The roof is of tile, and the fides of fheathing-boards. There area number of bare benches in every houfe, on which the Rahaans fleep. They appear to have no furniture. Shoemadoo is a pyramid, compofed of brick and plaf- ter, with fine (hell mortar, without excavation or aper- ture of any fort ; odlagonal at the bafe, and fpiral at the top. Six feet from the ground there is a wide ledge, which furrounds the bafe of the building ; on the plane of which are 57 fmall fpires, of equal fize, and equidiftant. One of them meafured 27 feet in height, and 40 in circumference at the bottom. On a higher ledge there is another row, confilUng of 53 fpires, of fimilar (hape and meafurement. A great variety of mouldings encircles the building ; and ornaments, fome- what refembling the fleur a'e lys, furround what may be called the bafe of the fpire. Circular mouldings like- wife gird ihis part to a confiderable height ; above v.liich there are ornaments in ftucco, not unlike the leaves of a Corinthian capital ; and the whole is crown- ed by a lee, or umbrella of open iron-work, from which rifes an iron rod with a gilded penant. The extreme height of the building, from the level of the country, is 361 feet ; and above the interior ter- race, 331 feet. On the fouth-eaft angle of the upper terrace there are two handfome faloons, or ieouns, late- ly ereded. The roof is compofed of different ftages, fupported by pillars. Captain Symes, from whofe me- moir in the Y\.natic Refearches this account is taken, judged the length of each f.jloon to be about 60 feet, and the breadth 30. The ceiling of one of them was already embellilhed wiih gold leaf, and the pillars lac- quered; the other, when he (nvr it, was not comple- ted. They are made entirely of wood. The carving on the outfide is very curious. He faw feveral unfinlfh- ed figures intended to be fixed on different parts of the building ; fome of them not ill fhapen, and many ex- ceedingly grotefque. Splendid images of Gaudma (the Birman objefl of adoration) were preparing, which he underftood were defigned to occupy the infide of thefe ifouns. At each angle of the interior terrace is a pyramidi- cal pagoda, 67 feet in height, refembling, in miniature, the great pagoda. In front of the one in the foulh-wcll corner are four gigantic reprefent.i lions in mafonry of .Palloo, or the r/ian de/lroyer, half be;ill, half human, fcat- SuppL. Vol. IJ. s, each with a large club on the right Pv^ut: [ 713 ] P E G ed on their ham flioulder. Nearly in the centre of the eafl face of the arej are two human figures in ftucco beneath a gilded umbrella. One (landing, reprefents a man with a book before him, and a pen in his hand. He is called Tha^iamce, the recorder of mortal merits and moital n.irdeeds. The other, a female figure kneeling, is Maha Sutiiden, the proteftrefs of the univerfe, as long as the univerfe is doomed to lad : but when the time of general dKfolu- tion arrives, by her hand the world is to be overwhelm- ed, and deftroyed everlaftingly. On the north fide of the great pagoda are three large bells, of good workmandiip, fufpended near the ground between pillars. Several deers horns are ftrewed around. Thofe who come to pay their devotions firlt take up one of the horns, and ftrike the bell three times, giving an alternate ftroke to the ground. This aft is to an- nounce to the fpirit oi Gaudma the approach of a fup- pliant. There are feveial low benches near the bottom of the pagoda, on which the perfon who comes to pray places his offering; which generally confifts of boiled rice, a plate of fweetmeats, or cocoa nut fried in oil. When it is given, the devotee cares not what becomes of it. The crows and dogs commonly eat it up In the prefence of the donor, who never attempts to prevent or moleft the animals. There are many fmall pagodas on the areas of both terraces, which are neglected, and fuffcred to fall into de- cay. Numberlefs images of Gaudma lie indifcriminate- ly fcattered. A pious Birman who purchafes an idol, firft procures the ceremony of confecration to be per- formed by the Rahaans, then takes his purchafe to what- ever facred building is moft convenient, and there places it either in the fhelter of a keoun, or on the open ground before the temple : nor does he ever after feem to have any anxiety about its prefervation, but leaves the divi- nity to Ihift for itfelf. From the upper ledge that furrouni!s the bafe of Shoemadoo, the profpeft of the country is eitenfive and plflurefque ; but it is a profpefl of Nature in her rudeft ftate. There are few inhabitants, and fcarcely any cultivation. The hills of Martaban rife to the eaft- ward ; and the Sitang river, winding along the plains, gives here and there an interrupted view of its waters. To the north-north-weft, above 40 mile-, are the Gal- ladzet hills, whence the Pegue river lakes its rife ; hills remarkable only for the noifome effefts cf their atmcf- phere. In every other direflion the eye looks over a bouidlefs plain, chequered by a wild intermixture uf wood and water. The prefent king of the BIrmans has entirely alter- ed the fyftem of his preJeceffors. He his turned his attention to the population and Improvement, rather than the extenfion, of his dominions; and feem; more defirous to conciliate l)i» new fulijefls by raIlJnef<, than to rule them through terror. He has abrogated feve- rul fevere penal laws impofed upon the Talhns, or Pe- giiers : juliice is now diftrlbuted impartially ; and the only diltinftion at pcefent between a Birman and Ta- lien conlifts in the exclufion of the latter from all pub- lic offices of truft and power. No att of the Birman government is more likely to recoDcile the Taliens to the Birman yoke tlian the re- 4 X lloration PEL C 7H ] ]^ E L !lor.ilion of their ancient place ct abode, and the pre- fervation aud embelliniment of the pagodi of Shoema- doo. So ienlibls was the king of this, hs well as of the advantages that mull accrue to the Hate from an in- creafe of culture and populuion, that feme years ago he ilTued orders to rebuild Pegue, encouraged new fet- tlers by liberal gvantf, and invited the icaltered fami- lies of former inhabitants to return aud repeople their defcrted city. Pegue, in its renovated (late, feems to be built on the plan of the former city. It is a fquare, each fide mcafuring about half a mde. It is fenced round by a Itockade, from lo to 12 feet high. There is one main ftieet tunning eall and weft, which is interfered at right angles by two fmaller ftreets, not yet fini/hed. At each extremity of the principal ftreet there is a gate in the llockade, which is Ihut early in the evening. Alter that hour, entrance during the night is conhned to a wicket. Each of thefe gates is defended by a forry piece of ordnance, and a few mufqueteers, who never p.) ft centinels, and are ufually afleep. There are alfo two other gates on the north and fouth fides of the llockade. The houfes of the inhabitants of Pegue are far from commodious, agreeably to European notions ol accom- modation ; but they are at leaft as much fo as the houfes of other Indian towns. There are no brick buildings in Pegue, except fuch as belong to the king, or are de- dicated to Gaudma. The king has prohibited the ufe of brick or ftone in private buildings, from the appre- benfion, that if people got leave to build brick houfes, they might ereift brick fortifications, dangerous to the fecurity of the Hate. The houfes, therefore, are all made of mats or (heathing-boards, fupported on bam- boos or pofts. Being compofed of iuch combuftible materials, the inhabitants are under continual dread of fire, againft which they take every precaution. The roofs are lightly covered ; and at each door ftands a long bamboo, with a hook at the end, to pull down the ihalch : alfo another pole, with a grating ot fpllt bam- boo at the extremity, about three feet fquare, to fup- prefi dame by prelfure. Alraoft every houfe has earthen pots of water on the roof. And there is a particular clafs of people, whofe bufinefs it is to prevent and ex- t'nguilli fires. PEGUNNOCK, a north-weftern branch of Paffaik river, in New-Jerfey, which rifes in Sulfex county. The town ('f its name lies between it and Rockaway, another branch fouth of this river, N. W. of Mori iftown. — Morse. PEISHCAR, in Bengal, principal in office. PEISHCUSH, a fine, tribute, or prefent. PELHAM, a townlhip of Malfachufetts, in Hamp- ftiire county 12 miles northeafterly of Northampton, and 85 weft of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1742, and contains 1040 inhabitants. — Morse. Pklham, a townlhip of Rockingham county New- Hamplbire, fituated on the fouth State line, which fepa- rat^s it from Dracut in Maflachufetts. It lies on the E. fide of Beaver river, 30 miles fouthwefterly of Exeter, and 36 N. of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1 746, and contains 791 inhabitants. — tb. Pelham, a townlhip ofNew-York, fituated in Weft- Chsftcr county, bounded foutherly and eafterly by the Sound, northerly by the north bounds of the manor of Palham, including New-City, Plart, and Appleftjy's Illands. It contains 199 inhabitants ; of whom 27 are eleftors, and 38 flaves. — ib. PELICAN, Great, an ifland a mile long and very narrow, eaft cf the Bay of Mobile in the Gulf of Mexi- co. Its concave fide is towards the eaft end ol Dauphin Ifland. Hawk's Bay lies between thefe two iflands. Little Pelican I/land is a fmall fand key, fouth eall of Great Pelican. Its eallern curve meets a large Ihoal extending from Mobile Point. — ib. Pelicau I/ItiiiJs, on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Jamaica, are fituated off the point fo called, weftward of Port- Royal harbour. — ib. Pelican, a fmall illand at the fouthweft point of the ifland of Antigua. — ib. Pelican Rocks, lie in Runaway Bay, on the weft; fide of the ifland of Antigua, towards the north-weft. They lie under water, and are very dangerous ib. Pelican Shoals, fmall patches of land banks about half a mile from the fliorc of tlie fouih-weft coaft of the ■ ifland of Barbadoes. — ib. PELL (Dr John\ an eminent Englifh mathemati- cian, defcended from an ancient family in Llncolnlhire, was born at Southwick in Sulfex, March 1. 1610, where his father was minifter. He received his gram- mar education at the free fchool at Stennlng in that county. At the age of 13 he was lent to Trinity col- lege in Cambridge, being then as good a fcholar as moft mafters of arts in that univerfity; but though he was eminently fkilled in the Greek and Hebrew languages, he never offered himfelf a candidate at the eledlion of fcholars or fellows of his college. His perfon was hand- fome; and being of a ftrong conftitution, ufing little or no recreations, he profecuted his ftudies with the more application and intenlenefs. In 1629 he drew up the " Del'crlption and Ufe of the Quadrant, written for the Ufe of a friend," in two books; the original manufcript of which is ftill extant among his papers in the Royal Society. And the fame year he held a correfpondence with Mr Briggs on the lubjeifl of logarithms. In 1630, he wrote Modus fupputandi EphaneriJes AJlronomicas, ^c. ad an. 1630 accommodatus ; and, A Key to unlock the meaning of Johannes Trithemius, in his Dlfcourfe on Steganography : which Key he impart- ed to Mr Samuel Hanlib and Mr Jacob Homedae. The fame year he took the degree of Mafter of Arts at Cambridge. And the year following he was incorpo- rated in the univerfity of 0>;ford. June the 7th, he wrote A Letter to Mr Edmond Wingate on Loga- rithms: and, 0(fl. 5. 1631, Commentationes in Cojmo^- graphiam Alftcdil, In 1632 he married Ithamaria, fecond daughter of Mr Henry Reglnolles of London, by wliom he had four fons and four daughters. — M^.rch 6. 1634, he finifhed his " Aftronomical Hiftory ot Obfervations of Heavenly Motions and Appearances;" and April the loth, his Ecliptica Prognojlica, or Foreknower of the Edipfts, &c. In 1 634 he tranflated " The Everlafting Tables of Hea- venly motions," grounded upon the Obfervations of all Times, and agreeing with them all, by Philip Lanf- berg, of Ghent in Flanders. And June the 12th, the fame year, he committed to writing " The Manner of Deducing his Aftronomical Tables out of the Tables and Axioms of Philip Lanftierg." — March the 9th, 1625, he wrote " A Letter cf Remarks on Gellibrand's Mathematical PEL C 7^5 ] PEL PcU. Mathematical Difcourfe on the Variation of the Magne- '''■'"^'^^ tic Needle." And the 3J of June follovring, another on ilie fame fubjeft. His eminence in mathematical knowledge was now fo great, that he was thought worthy of a ProlelFir's chair in that Icience ; and, upon the vacancy of one at Amfterdnm in 1639, Sir Wilham Bofwell, the EnglKli Refident with the States General, nfed his incereft, tliat he might fuccsed in that Piotelfoilhiii. It was n>H fill- ed up, however, till 1642, when Pell uas cholen to it; and he read with great applaufe public Itflures upon Diophantus. — In 1644 he piinted at Anillerdani, in two pages 4to, " A Refutation of Longomontanui's Difcourfe," De Vera Circuit Menfura. In 1646, on the invitation of the Prince of Orange, be removed to the new college at Breda, as Profelfor of Mathematics, with a falary of 1000 guilders a year. His Idea Mathefeos, which he had addrelfed to Mr Hartlib, who in 1639 had fent it ti Des Cartes and Merfenne, was printed 1650 at London, in izmo, in Engl (h, with the title of jjn Idea of Malhematks, at the end of Mr John Durie's Ref rnied Library keeper. It is alfo printed by Mr Hook, in his Pliilofophical CoUeft ons, N" 5. p. 127.; and is efteemed our au- thor's principal work. In 1652 Pell returned to England ; and in 1654 ^^ was fent by the protedlor Cromwell agent to the Pro- teftant Cantons in Switzerland ; where he continued till June 23. 1658, when he let out for England, where he arrived about the time of Cromwell's death. His negociations abroad gave afterwards a general fatisfac- tion, as it appeared he had done no fniall fervice to the intereft of King Charles II. and oi the church of Eng- land ; fo that he was encouraged to enter into holy or- ders : and in the year 1661 he was inlUtuted to the re>.'l 'ry of Fobbing in Elfex, given him by tl;e king. In December that year, he biought into the upper houfe of convocation the calendar reformed by him, aflifted by S.incrolt, afterwards nrchbilliop of Canter- bury. In 1673 he was prefented by Sheldon, bilhop of London, to the reiflory of Laingdon in Eifex ; and, upon the promotion of that bifliop to the fee ol C.in- teibury foon after, became one ot his domeftic chap- lains. He was then dotlor of divinity, and expecfted to be mads a dean ; but his improvement in the philofo- pbical and mathematical fciences was fo mutli the bent of his genius, that he did not much puifue his private advantage. The truth is, he was a helplefs man, as to woildly affairs ; and his tenants and relations impofed upon him, cozened him of the profits of his parfonage, and kept him fo indigent, that he wanted necefTtties, even ink and paper, to his dying day. He was for fome time confined to the King's-bench prifon for debt ; but, in March 1682, was invited by Dr Whitler to live in the college of phyficians. Heie he continued till June following ; when he was obliged, by liis ill flate of health, to remove to the houfe ot a grandchild of his in St Margaret's chiirch-yard, Wellminllei. But he died at the houl'e ( f Mr Cothorne, reader of the church of St Giles's in the Fields, December the I2tli, 1685, in the 741!! year cf his age, and was mterrcd at the exjienfe of Dr Bufby, mailer of Weftniiuller fchool, and Mr Sharp, retflor of St Giles's, in the recloi's vault under that church. — Dr Pell publilbed fome other things not yet mentioned ; a lift of which is as foilovv;, I. An Exeic'tation concerning Eafter; 1C44, in 4to. 2. A Table of io,oco fquare numbers, 5cc. ; 1672, folio. 3. An Inaugiir,il Oration at his entering upon the ProtelForihip at BreJa. 4. He made great altera- tions and additions to Rhonius's Algebra, printed at London i668, 410, under the tiile of an Introdu<aion to Algebra, tranllated out of the High Dutch into Englilh by Thi-mas Branker, much altered and aug- mented by D. P. (Dr Pell;. Alfo a 'i'able of Odd Numbers, lefs than 100,000, (hewing thofc that are in- compi-ifite, Sec. fupputated by the fame Thomas Bran- ker. 5. His Controverfy with Longom'ntanus con- cerning the Quadrature of the Circle; Amllerdam, 1646, 4to. He hkewife wrote a Demonftration of the zd and loth books of Euclid ; which piece v/as in MS. in the library of Lord Brereton in Chelhire : as alfo Archi- medes's Arenarius, and the greateft part of Dio|)han- tus's fix books of Arithmetic ; of which author he was preparing, Aaguft 1644, a new edition, in which he intended to correifl the tranflation, and make new ilUiftrations. He defigned Hkewife to publilli an edi- tion of ApoUoniui; but laid it afide, in May 1645, at the defire of Golius, who was engaged in an edition of that author from an Arabic manufcript, given him at Aleppo 18 years before. Letters cf Dr Pell to Sir Charles Cavendidi, in the Royal Society. Some of his manufcripts he left at Brereton in Chefiiire, where he refided fome year.s, being the feat of William Lord Brereton, who had been his pupil at Bre- da. A great many others came into the hands of Dr Bulby ; which Mr Hook was defired to ufe his endea- vouis to obtain for the Society. But they continued buried under duft, and mixed with the papers and pam- phlets of Dr Bulby, in four large boies, till 1755; when Dr Birch, fecretaty to the Royal Society, pro- cured them for that body, from the trullees of Dr Bu(by. The ccllcdion contains, not only Ptll's mathe- matical papers, letters to him, and copies of thofe from him. Sec. but alfo feveral manulcripts of Walter War- ner, the matliematician and philofopher, who lived in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. Dr Pell invented the method of ranging the feveral fteps of an algebraical calculus, in a proper order, in fo many dillind lines, with the number affixed to each flep, and a (hurt defcription of the operation or pro- eel's in the line. He alfo invented the charafler -;- for divifion, ©,. for involution, "In lor evolution.* • Jiutton, PELLEriER (Bertrand), was born at Bayonne -l/wifj-Ki//- in 1761, and very foon began to difplay an infatiable "' ■^"^"^' third of icience. It frequently happens, however, that '"'^' y.'Uiig men, fincerely dcfiious of inliruftion, have no me.ins or place where tliey can be ailifted in the deve- lopcnient ot tlicir natural talents, no mailer who may point out tlie dirciff road to fcience, and that order and method, without wliich the efforts of the individual too often lead him from the objeifl of his purftiit, inftead cf bringing him nearer to it. This was not the cafe with young PtUeiier. He found every advantange in his fa- ther's houfe, wliere he received tlie firft elements oi the art of which he was afierwards the ornament ; and bis I'ubfcquent progrefs was made under Darcet, who ha- 4X1 viog pils attached to the chemical laboratory of the college of France. Five years of conllant application and ftu- dy under fuch a linafter, who was himfelf formed by r.atiire, perfected by experience, and affeaionately dif- pofed towards his pupil, afforded this young man a ftock ' ' ..-..1 ,.- u:., ^gg acid. Macquer, by mixing nitre with the oxyd of ar- fenic, had difcovered in the reiidue of this operation afaltfoluble in water, fufceptible of cryllallii.ition in titrahcdral pvifm-i, which he denominated the neutral urlenical fait. It is the arfeniat of potaft. He was of opinion that no acid could decompofe it ; but Pelletier Pemige- waffct. PEL [ 71^ ] r E M Wlcticr. yhfy remaikcd In him that fagacity which may be call- compofition of the fulphat, even though again combined Pelletier, ^-^-v-^w/ g^i ^he inltinft of fcience, admitted him among the pu- with another acid. " Chemifts have given the name of Jlrontian to a new- ly difcovered earth, from the name of the place where y, it was firft found. Pelletier analyfed it, and difcovered it in the fulphat of barytes. He likewife analyfed the verditer of England, of which painters and paper-hang- Iif knowledc^e very uiiufual at his age. He foon gave ers make fo much ufe. He difcovered a procefs for a convincing pioif of this, by pnblilhing, at the age of preparing it in the large way, by treating with lime the 21 a fet of very excellent onl'ervations on the arfenical precipitate obtained from the decompofuion of nitrat of copper by lime. By this procefs, verditer is afforded equal in beauty to that which comes from England. He was likewife one of the firft chemifts who ftiewed the portibility of refining bell metal, and feparating the tin. His firft experiments were made at Paris ; after which he repaired to the foundry at Romilly, to verify fhewed, that the fulphuric acid diftilled from it does them in the large way. The following year he was re- ceived a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and (hortly afterwards went to La Fere, witli Borda and General Daboville, to aflift in experiments upon a new gunpowder. Being obliged, in order to render his exr periments more decifive, to pafs great part of the day in the open air during a cold and humid feafon, his healtli, which was naturally delicate, became confider- ably impaired. He began to recover his health, when he again became the victim of his zeal for the fcience he fo fuccefsfully cultivated. He had nearly perifhed by re- . fpiring the oxygenated muriatic acid gas. A violent difengas^e the acid of arfenic. He fbewed the true caufe why the neutral arfenical fait is not decompofable in doled veiTcls ; and particularly the order of affinity by which the fait itfelf is formed in the diftlUation of the nitrate of pntafh, and the white oxyd of arfenic. H'.- expl lins in what refpects this fait differs from what Macquer called the liver of arfenic. Pelletier had been anticipated in tiiis work by Scheele, by Bergman, by the academici.ins of Dijon, and by Berthollet; but he polfelfed at leaft the merit, in the firft elTay of his powers, of having clearly developed all the phenomena of this operation, by retaining and even determining the attack of convuUive afthma, which returned during fe- quantity of gas it was capable of affording. After the vcral days, was the firft confequence of this unhappy lame principles it was that he decompofed the arfenico- accident. The diforder then feemed to abate ; but it ammoniac il fait, by Ihewing how, in the decompofition vvas incurable. The afliftance of art was infufficient to of this laft, the pure arfenical acid is obtained in the favehim; and he died in Paris, on the 21ft of July I797». form of a deliquefcent glafs. la this work we may ob- of a pulmonary confumption, in the flower of his age. ferve the fagacity with which he vvas enabled to deve lope all the phenomena of thefe compofitions and de- compofitions, by tracing thofe delicate threads of fcien- lific relation which council the feries of fads, and are imperceptible to ordinary minds. Encouraged by the fuccefs of thefe firft works, which PEMAQUID, a bay on the fea-coaft of Lincoln county, Dillrift of Maine. It lies eaft of Sheepfcot ri- ver, and contains a number of iflands, many of which are under cultivation. — Morse. PsMAciyiD Point, on the weft fide of the above bay, lies 2 miles eaft of Booth Bay, and about 4 leagues he prefented with the fenfibility of grateful attachment northweft of Menhegan llland. N. lat. 445, W. long to his inftrudlor, he communicated his obfervations on 69 — ii. the cryftallization of fulphur, cinnabar, and the deli- quefcent fahs ; the exammation of zeolites, particularly the falfe zeolite of Fribourg in Brifgaw, which he found to be merely an ore of zinc ; obfervations on the dephlogifticated or oxygenated muriatic acid, relative to the abforption of oxygen; on the formation of ethers, particularly the muriatic and the acetous ; and feveral memoirs on the operation of phofphorus made in the large way ; its converfion into phofphoric acid, and its PEIVIAGON, a fettlement of the Diftrifl of Maine, 7 miles from Denney's river, and 14 from Moofe Ifland. —il>. PEMBROKE, a townftip of Maffachufetts, in Ply. mouth county, 31 miles fouth by eaft of Bofton. It was incorporated in 171 2, and contains 1954 inhabitants. It lies 18 miles from the mouth of North river ; and veiFels of 300 tons have been built here. — it. Pembroke, the Suncookoi the Indians, a townfhip of combination with fulphur and moft metallic fubftances. New-Hamplhire, in Rockingham county, on the eaft fide It was by his operations on that moft aftonilhing pro- of Merrimack river, oppofite to Concord. It lies upon dudion of chemiftry, phofphorus, that he burned him- two fmall rivers, Bowcook and Suncook, which run a feiffo dangeroudy as nearly to have loft his life. After fouth-by- weft courfe into Mfrrimack river. In 1728,11 the cure of his wound, which confined him to his bed was fettled and called Loveivell's Toixin. It was incorpo- for fix montlis, he immediately began the analyfis of rated in 1759. and contains 956 inhabitants. — ib. the various plumbagos of France, England, Germany, PEMIGEWASSET, a river of New-Hamplhire, _ Spain, and Am.erica, and found means to give novelty which fprings from the eaftern part of the ridge called ■ and intereft to his work, even after the publication of Scheele on the fame ohjeft. The analyfis of the car- bonat of barytes led him to make experiments on ani- mals ; which prove that this earth is a true poifon, whether it be adminlftered in the form of the native car- bonat of barytes, or whether it be taken from the de- the Height of Land. Moofe-Hillock Mountain gives it one branch ; another comes from the S. W. extremi- ty of the White Mountains, and a third comes from the townfhip of Franconia. Its length is about 50 , miles ; its courfe generally S. and it receives from both fides a number of Ureams. Winipifeogee river, comes , fron^sj PEN [ 7^7 ] P E N Pendleton, from tlie lake of that nam?, and unites its waters with II . the PcmigewafTL-t at the lower end of Sanborntown. ^^^H^li^ From this jurnaion, the confluent ftream bears the name of Merrimack to the fea. — lb. PENDLE PON, a county of Virglnii, bounded north-well by Rand.ilph, and fouth by Rockingham counties ; watered by the fouth branch of the Patow- mack. It contilns 2,452 inhabitants, including 73 flives. Chief-town, Frankford. — ib. Pendleton, a cmnty of Wafliington diftridl, S. Ca- rolina, on Kc iwee and Savannah rivers. It contain- ed, in 1795, 9 568 inhabitants, of whom 834 are flaves ; and fends three reprefentatives and I fenator to the Stare l-;;'nattire. Tlie court-houfe in this county is 33 miles N. N. E. of Franklin court-houfe in Georgia, and 52 weRward of Cambridge. A pofl-office is kept at this coiirt-houfe. — ih. PENDULUM (See EncycL). Befides the effefls of heat and cold on the length of the pendulum rod, and of coiirl'e on its ifochronifm, it may certainly be worth while, in the conltruftion of clicks intended to meafure time with the utmofl pofEble exaclnefs to take into confidsration the refiftance of the air, which, by its unequal denfity, varying the weight of the penJtilum, mud in a fmall degree accelerate or retard its motion. The celebrated David Rittenhoufe, who paid particu. lar attention to this fuhjeifl, ellmiates the extreme dif- ference ot velocity, ariling tn>m this caufe, at half a fe- cond a day ; an J he obfervo, that a remedy dependent on the barometer will not be llrldtly accurate, as the weight of the entire column of air does not precifely correfpond with the denlity of its bafe. He propofes, therefore, as a very llmple and eafy remedy, that the pendulum (liall, as ufual, confift of an inflexible rod carrying the ball beneath, and continued above the cen- tre of fiifpenfion to an equal (or an unequal) diftance upw.irds. At this extremity is to be fixed another ball ot the fame dimenfions (or greater or lefs, according as the continuation is Ihorter or longer), but made as light as pofflble. The ofcillations of this upper ball will be accelerated by its buoyancy by the fame quanti- ty as thnfe of the lower would be retarded ; and thus, by a proper adjiiftment, the two eflFecSs might be mad? to balance and correfl each other. Our author made a compound pendulum on thefe principles, of about one foot in its whole length. This penduhmi, on many trials, made in the air 57 vibrations in a miiiu'e. On immerfing the whole in water, it made 59 vibrations in the fame time ; (hewing evidently, that its returns were quicker in fo denfe a medium as water than in the air. (This is contrary to what takes place with the common pendulum). When the lower bob or pendulum only was plunged in water, it made no more than 44 vibrations in a minute. PENGUIN, an illand in the Atlantic Ocean, about 10 miles N. E. of the coafl of Newfoundland. It has this name from the multitude of birds of tiiat name which frequent it. N. lat. ^o 5, W. long 50 30. There is alfo an ifland of the fam.c name, on the coafl of Pa- tagonia, in the S. Atlantic Ocean, 3 leagues fouth-call of Port Dsfire. It is an uninhibited rock, high at the ends and low in the middle, and is the largcft and outer- moft of a number of (mall ifles or rocks, and is about a mufket-fhot from the main land. It abounds in an extraordinary manner, with penguins and feals. It is thres-touiths oi a inlle in length, and iiulf a niile in IVnnaut. breadth from E. to W. — Morse. \.^/-^r->'.j PENNANT (Tiiomas, Efq.), fo well known in the republic of letters as a writer of travels, and of natural hiftory, was an ancient Briton by birth, having drawn his firll breath in Fllntdiire, in 1726. His family has been fettled in that county for many centuries ; we learn from himfelf that he received the rudiments of his edu- cation at Wrexham, whence he was removed to FuU ham. Soon after this he was fent to Oxford ; and ha- ving made a coiifiderable proficiency in the claffics, he applied himfelf within the walls of that uiiiverlity to at- tain a knowledge of jurifprudence ; but we di not find that he ever entered himfelf of .my of the inns of court, or followed the law as a profellion. The ruling paflions of mankind are excited, and the future current of their lives frequently direded, by tri- vial circumflances. One of the gre ite.1 p.tinters of our age was attracted with an inelillible impulfe towards his art by the perufal of a trcatife on it; and we have the authority of the fubjed of this memoir for alf.rt- ing, that a prefent of Willoughby's Ornithology, at an early period, firll gave him a turn for natur.ij hillory, wliich has never once abandoned him through the courfe of a very long life. Mr P..-nnant commenced his travels with great pro- priety at home, where be made himfelf acquainted with the manners, produclions, and curiofities, of his native country, before he fallied forth to infpeift thofe of other nations. He then repaired to the continent ; and not only acquired confiderable additional knowledge rela- tive to his favourite (ludies, but became acquainted, and ellablifhad a conefpondcnce, with fome of the greateft men of the age. On his return he married, and had two children, but did not come into the family fortune until he was thirty- feven years of age, at which time he was fettled a: Downing. Having loft his .wife, he appears to have fet out once more for the continent, and to have formed an acquain- ance with Voltaire, Butfon, Haller, Pallas, &c. He had by this time acquired confiderable reputation as a fcientific man, having commenced his career as an au- thor f) early as 1750. His BritKh Zoology* efla- 'Four vols, blifhed his reputation as a naturalill; and this received 4to. a frefh acceffion of celebrity in confequence of his ac- quaintance with Linna;us, and his intercourfe by letters with all the celebrated naturalills in Europe. Early in life he had undertaken a moll intereding tour to Cornwall ; and he now entertained an ardent de- fire to furvey the works of nature in the northern ex- tremities of the ifland. He accordingly fet out for Scotland, and in 1771 favoured the public with an en- tertaining account ol his Tourf, which was fo well t Three received as to p.ifs through fevcral editions. Not con- ""''■ 4to- lent with the main land of Great Drit.iin, he was am- bitious to furvey tlie ill.inds in the vicinity, and accord- ingly penetrated to the Hehildes, and vifucd Mm. It is not to be fuppofcd that he would leave his own country unexplored; en the contrary, lie minutely de- fcribed all its wonders. He did not fail on this occa- fion to prelent the world with ilie rcfult ot his enqui. lies, for in 1778 be commenced the publication of his AVelch T .ur.ji STwovoJh la four years after this (178 2 J appeared the account 4to. of. V E N [ 7^8 ] PEN ?pnnant. of tlie Journey rrom Chefter to London^, in which he refutes the vulgar opcnion that it ib unincerelling ; and in two years more his Aiilic Zoology, an admirable woik, prea;ly prized b 'th here and u\ oiher countries. In 1790 appeared a quarto volume, finiply entitled Ot' I^md'ui ; in which he obl'ervcs that this work is ci mp ifed from oblervations, originally made without any view of publication. " Let me requeft (fays he in the preface) the good inhal>itan[s oi London and Weft- minller not to be offended at my having Huffed their Ili.id into a nutlliell ; the account of the city of Lon- don and liberties <if Weftminrter into a quarto vo- lume. I have condenfed into it all 1 could; omitted nothing that fuggcfted itfelt ; nor amplified anything to make it a guinea book. In a word, it is done in my own manner, from which I am grown too old to depart. " I feel within myfclf a certain monitor that warns me (adds he) to hang up my pen in time, before its powers are weakened, and lendered vilibly impaired. I wait not for the admonition of I'riends. I have tiie Archbilh 'p of Grenada in my eye ; and fear the imbe- cility of human nature might produce in long-worn age the fame treatment of my kind advifers as poor Gil Bias had from his molt reverend patron. My li- terary bequells to future times, and more fenous con- cerns, mult occupy the remnant of my days. Thisclofes my public labours." Nouvithfianding his parting addtefs, the example of the Archbiliii p of Grenadi, and the concluding fen- tence of " ra/ete 'jf Plamt'ite," we find Mr Pennant adventuring once mfire in the ocean of literature, at a late period of his lite, and trying his fortune again with all the eagernefb of a young author. He accordingly pubhllied the Natural Hiftory rf the •One vol. parilhes cf H lywell and Downing,* within the pre- •t'O' cinfls of the latter of whi^h he had refided about half a century. He alfo prefented the public, a very fliort time be- fore his death, with a fplendid wnrk, confiding of 2 vols. 4to. entitled The View of Hindoollan ; in the preface to which he candidly (fates his motives f 'r this new attempt. " I had many folicita ions from piivate friends (fays he), and a few wilhes from perfons un- known, delivered in the public prints, to commit to the prefs a part, in the form in which the poffhumnus vo- lumes might hereafter make their appearance. I might have pleaded the imprudence of the attempt at my time of life, of beginning fo arduous an undertaking in my 7 iff year. «' I happily, till very lately, had fcarcely any admo- nition of the advanced feaf n. I plunged into the fea of trouble, and with my papers in one hand, made my way through the waves with the other, and brought them fecure toland. This, alas! is finite boafting. I mud fubmit to the judgment of the public, and learn from thence how far I am t" be cenfured for fo grievous an offence againft the maxim of Ariftotle, who fijtes the decline of human abilities to the 49th year. " I ought to fliudder, when I confider the wear and tear of 22 years ; and feel (hocked at the remark (f the elegant Delanty, who obferves, ' that it is generally agreed among wife men, th^t few attempts, at leaft in a learned way, have ever been wifely undertaken and happily executed after that period !' " I cannot defend the wifdom : yet from the good Pennant, fortune of my life I will attempt the execution." ^.^''■'^-^^ Thefe valuable volumes are drawn up by Mr Pennant in the manner of his introduflion to the Arfllc Zoology. The plates, 23 in nuniber, are admirably engraved, and one (the N ipaul pheafant) is beautifully coloured. Tn addition to the lill of literary 1 ibours already enu- mera'ed, is a letter en an eirthqtiake felt at Downii^g, in Fiintfhire, in 1753; another infeited in the fime publication,* in 1756, on cnralloid bodies (nofajijiDiveTin) • pi;h collefted by him: his Synopliv of Quidrupeds, pubhih- Tranf, ed in 1771 ; a pamphlet on the Militia ; a paper on the Turkey ; and a v 'lume of Mifcellanies. Mr Pennant attained academical h"ii urs of all kinds, having had the degree of LL. D. conferred tn him by the univerli'y in which he was ediic.ited, he was a Fel- low of the Royal Society, and -< member of the Society of Antiquaries, a Fellow of the R-yal Society of Upfal in Sweden, a member of the American P):ilofophical Society, an honorary member of the Anglo-Linnaean Society, &c. Tlie ample fortune left him by his father enabled Mr Pennant to keep an hofpitable table, and alfo to prefcnt the profits of feveral of his works to public inffitntions, particularly the WeKh charity-fchool in Gray's-inn-lane. He encouraged feveral engravers by his patronage, and was not a little ferviceable to the advancement of the fine arts. \\\ 'i-Tld he married a fecond time ; on which occa- fion he became united to Mifs Moffyn, filler of his neighbour, the late Sir Roger Moftyn, in Fiintfliire. The litter part of his life w<is cheartul, and he fcarcely felt the approaches of old age. He died at his feat at Downing in his 7 2d year. He has left feveral works behind him in MS. under the title of Outlines of the Globe; and as a proof that it w 11 be a very voluminous and interefting publication, it is only necelfary to obferve, that The View of Hiii- do ftan compofed the xivth and xvth volumes. Mr Pennant poffelfed a well-compaiffed frame of body, an open and intelligent afpeft, an aiffive and chearful dilpofitioii, and a vivacity which rendered him always entertaining, as well in converfation as in writing. Though not witiuiut a fhare of irrafcibility, his heart was kind and benevolent. He was exemplary in the relations of domeflic life, and fenfibly felt for the di- ftrelfes of his poor neighbours, whofe relief in feafons of hardfliip he promoted with great zeal and liberality. His cand'Ur and freedom from ordinary prejudices, are fufficiently difplayed in his writings; and Scotland was forward to confefs, that he was the firft traveller from the fouth fide the Tweed, who had vifited the country with no unfriendly fpirit, and had fairly prefented it under its favourable as well as its lefs pleafing afpe(5fs. As a writer, his flyle is lively and exprefTive, but not perfed- ly correft. His principles of arrangement in zoology are judicious, and his defcriptions charafleriftic. If in fome of his later works a little vanity appears, and a propenfity to think that important to the world which was fo to himiiilf, it may readily be pardoned to one who has afforded fuch copious and valuable entertain- ment to the public. His name will live with honour in the literary hiftory of his country, and his memory will be cherifhed with rcfpeft and affeftion by his fur- vivjng friends. PENNA. PEN [ 719 ] P li N A fpecies of this in Ciiinberl-ind county, Pennf/lvania. There Is alfo a townfliip ot' this name in Chcfter county, Pennfylvania. .Pennatula, PENNATULA (See Encycl.) ! II animal, hitherto undefcribed, was difcovered by La iPennlbo- ^J^rtiniere near Nootka. Its body is of a cartila;;in- ous fubftance, and a cylindrical lorm ; its he. id, arm- rough. _;i. Pcnniturv, II I'enolfcct. >late Xi.1. eJ with two little horns of the fame fiiblfance, pre- lents a fplierical figure flatted at its anterior extremi- PENNSBURY, a fmall tovi-n of Pennfylvania, in Buck's county on a fmall creek of Delaware river. It was a manor which the celebrated Mr Penn referved ty. This part is covered with fmal! papillae, fome of for himfelf. Here he built a houfe, and planted gar- which a're vifible at D, and which ferve the piirpofo of dens and orchards; which, with many additional build- ' fmall mouths, by means of which this animal fucks the ings and improvements, llill continue io. blood of fiflies, making its way as far as polTible into PENOJBSCO l\ a bay on the coafl of Hancock the Helh : the e.ttrcmity of its body, which always pro- county, Dilbi.^ ol' Maine, and called Non^mle^a by the jeds from the tilli, appears like the feathers of a pen ; firft difcoverer, is about 16 leagues wide from Naflica? thefe feather-like fubrtances ferve as excietory ve/fels ; Point and Burnt Co.u Illand, on the E. to the point for on making a flight prellute on the animal, from the on which Thomaftown flands, on the weft fide of the greater part of thefe cartilaginous barbs ilRied fmall bay. The chief iflands it enclofes are Fox, Haiit, Long drops of a very limpid liquor: at the bafe of thefe and Deer lOands ; befides a number of fmall iflei, barbs, and beneath the body, are placed two large car- rocks and ledges. Through this bay to the mouth of tilaginous thre ids, of which our author could not ima- the river of its name, the weftern channel gies up by a gine the ufe, for they are not univerfaliy met with in headknd on the W. called Oa'I's Head, and between each individual. The circulation of its bljod is readily Long Ifland on the \V. and Cape Roller on the E. to obferved, it forms a complete revolution about once in Bagaduce Point. Thee.iftern cliannel is between Hauc a minute. It is probable that this animal is only able Illand on the weft, and Burnt Coat Iflind on the ea(t, to make its way into the bodies of different filh when and through a reach, called Long Reach, formed by it is very young ; and when it has once buried itfelf the fhores of Nafl;;eag, or Sedgwick, on the E. or H. E. there, having abundance of nourithmenr, its head in- and Deer Iflands on the W. or S. W. till it unites with creafes confiderably, and the two horns with which it the other channel, between Point Roller and Lon'^ is furniftied necellarily form an obftacle to its regrefs, Ifland. On a fine peninfula on the eaft fide of the bay, which is a remarkable inftance of the forefight of Na- the Britifli built a fort and made a fettlemcnt, which it, ture, fince it is deftincd to be nouriHied at the expcnfe now the fhire-town of the county of Hmcock, and is a of anotiier. The pennatifla, of which we have given commodious place for the lumber trade. Haut [fl ind, from Martiniere a figure, was found by him at the or Ifle of Holt, lies in lat. 44 23 N. and long. 6S 10 depth of more than an inch and an half in the body of W. and is the fouihernmoft uf the large ifles. — ib. a dindon. ■ Penobscot, the noble river which empties its waters PENN, Fort, ftands at the mouth of a fmall creek, on into the above defcribed bay, is the moft confidcrable the weft fide of Del. 1 ware river, in Northampton county, in the Dillriift of Maine, and rifes by two branches in about 21 miles north of the town of Eafton, and near the high lands. Between the fource of the weft fork, 70 noiih of Philadelphi.i. N. lat. 40 59, W. long. 75 and its jundlion with the eaft, is Moofehead Lake, 30 13. The road from Philadelphia to Tioga Point, palfes or 40 miles long, and 15 wide. The cafterii brancli through the opening in the Blue Mountains, called Wmd palfes through feveral fmaller lakes. From the forks, Gajt, alout 9 m les fouth-weft of this fort — Morse. as they are called, the Penobfcot Indians pafs to Ca- Penn, Port, in New-Caftle county, Delaware, is fitu- nada, up either branch, principally the weft, the fource ated on the W. bank of Delaware river, oppcfite to of which, they fay, is not more than 20 mile? from Reedy Ifland — ih. the waters which empty into the St Lawrence. At PENNING ION, or /"^Tj/y/oTrw, a pleafant and fliur- the forks is a remarkable higli mountain. From thence iftiing village in Hu!iterdon county, New-Jerfev, 9 miles down to Indian Old Town, fituated on an ifland in W. of Piintcton, an J 36 N. E. by N. of Philadelphia, this river, is about C-.z> miles, 40 of which, the water It contains a cliurch for public worfhip, and about 40 flows in a ftill fmootJi ftream, and in the v.liolc diftance houfes. — //'. there are no falls to interrupt the p^tilage of boats. In PjENN'S Rocks, two clufters of iflands in the broad- eft and fouth-weft part of Hudfon's Bay, N. .America; diftingiiillied by the nimes of E. and VV. Penn's. — ib. PtNN's, a townlhip ot Pcnnlylvania, on Sufquehan- nah river. — ib. Penn's Keck, in Sal>:m county, New-Jerfey, lies on this diftance the river widens and embraces a great number of iflands. About 60 rods belnv Indian Old Town are the Great Falls, where Is a carrying-place of ab'iut 20 rods ; thence 12 miles to the head of the tide there are no falls to obftruift boats. Velfels of 30 tons come within a mile of the head of the tide. Old Man's Crctk, which is part of the boundary between Tiience ^^ miles to the head of the bay, to the (cite of Silem and Gloucefter counties. It is 12 miles N. E. Old Ft-rt Pownal, the river flows In a pretty ftraight by N. of Salem, 3-; miles troni the Delaware, and 5 be- courfc, and Is eafily navigated. P:'ffing by Majaba- low Swcdeft) irough. — ib. gadufe on the eaft 7 miles, and Owl'sHead 2Q miles Penn's Nuk, the name of a range of farms of excel- further, on the well, you enter the ocean. It is high lent foil, fituated about a mile and a h.ilf foiith eaft of water here, at full and change, 45 minutes paft 10. Princeton in New-Jerfey, on a point of land formed by At the entrance of the river is 10 fatli. ms water. Mill ftone river and Stony brook. It derived Its name The Indians have a communication from this liver to from the celebrated Icgiflator, William Pcnn, who Scooi.ick river by a pcrta.e of 3 miles. This river formerly owned tl^is ir.ift. — ib. was the weftern limits oi Nov.i-Scotia or Acadia, by PENNSDOROUGH, Eajl and H'tJ), two townnilps the treaty of Utrecht— /i. PENOB- Pt'pperL'l- PEP [ IX Ptnobf.oti, PEN'OBSCO rS, a fmall tribe of Indians who live in Indian Old Town, on an illand in Penobfcot river. They aver that they have pnirellvJ the ifiand, on which their town (lands, 500 yeais. It (lands juft above the Great Falls, and condfti of about 2co acres of land. In a former war, this tribe lod their lands ; bnt at the cnmmencement of the lafl war, the Provincial Congrefs forbade any perfon fettling on the lands from the head of the tide on Penobfcot liver, included in lines drawn iix miles from the river on each fide; that is, a tradl 12 miles wide, inti;rfei5>ed by the middle of the river. They, however, confider that they have a right to hunt and fifh as far as the mouth of the Bay of Penob- fcot extends. This was their original right, ih oppo- fition to any other tribe, and they now occupy it. — i'o. PENSACOLA Harbour and T<min. The harbour is on the N. (liore of the Gulf of Mexico, 1 1 leagues eaft of Port Lewis, and Mobile, and 158 W. of the iflands of Tortuga. It is large, fale from all winds, and has 4 fathoms water at its entrance, deepening gradually to 7 or 8. The bar lies in lat. 30 15 N. and long-. Sy 14 W. The town of Penfacola, the capital of Weft-Florida, lies along the beach of the bay, is of an oblong form ; about a mile in length, and a quar- ter of a mile in breadth. It contains feveral hundred liabitation? ; and many of the public buildings and houfes are fpacious and elegant. The governor's pa- lace is a large (lone buildirig, ornamented with a tower, buill bv the Spaniards. It is defended by a fmall fort called St Mary de Galve. The exports from this town, confiding of flcins, li)gwood, dying-ftuff and filver dol- lar?, amounted, while in the pofl'eftion of the Britifh, to j^63,oco annually. The avtrage value of imports, 'for 3 years, from Great Britain, was ^97,000. The town and fort of Penfacola furrendered to the arms of Spain, in the year 1781, and with them the whole province. Efcambia river, or Shambe, is the largeft (Iream which falls into Penfacola Bay. It admits fhal- lops fome miles up, and boats upwards of 50 miles. ^ib. PENTECOST, an ifland in the ArMpelago oftL- Great Cyclades. It was difcovered by Bouganville, May 22, 1768, and named from the day, being the day of Pentecoft. It is two leagues diftant from Au- rora lOand, which is in 15 8 S. lat. and 165 38 E. long, from Paris. — ib. PENUCO, a province of Mexico, feparated from that of Angelos, or Tlafcala, on the N. by Tufpa ri- ver. — ih. PEPCHIDIACHICH, a point or head land on the S. Ihore of the Great Bay of Chaleurs, near the N. E. extremity of the province of New-Brunfwick. It is al- fo called Pepchidichi, and lies W. S. W. of Port David. — ;•*. PEPIN, a lake, or rither a dilatation of the river M (Tidippi, where it receives the river Chippeway from the N. E. in lat. 44 5 N. and long. 93 42 W. below the Falls of St Anthony. — ib. PEPPERELL, a townlhip of MalTachufetts, on the E. branch of Nafliaway river, and on the N. line of Middlefex county. It joins Groton on the fouth-eall- ward, and is 40 miles N. by W. of B.ifton. It was in- corporated in 1753, a"'^ contains 1132 inhabitant?.— i3. PEPPERELBO ROUGH, a townlhip in York coun- ty, Diarift of Maine, on the N. E. fide of Saco river, o ] PEP near the moutb, and which feparates it from Biddeford Pcpufck, to the fouthward. It is about 12 miles S. W. of Port- ^■'""^'''^j land, and 109 N. of Boflon. It was incorporated in j 1772, and contains 1,352 inhabitants.^-;i. PEPUSCH (John Chriftopher), one of the greateft theoretic muficians of modern times, as we are told, w.is born at Berlin about 1667 ; and became fo early a proficient on the harpfichord, that at the age of 14 he was fent for to court, and appointed to teach the prince, father of tlie late King of Pruflia. About 1700, he came over to England, and was retained as a performer at Drury Lane : it is fuppofed that he adifted in com- pofing the operas which were performed there. While he was thus employed, he forebore not to profecute his private dudies ; and thefe led him to enquire into the mufic of the ancients, and the perufal of the Greek au- j] thors upon that fubje<5l. The abilities of Pepufch, as a praiflical compofer, were not likely to become a fource of wealth to him : his mufic was corredl, but it wanted variety of modulation, Befides, Handel had got pof- fedion of the public ear, in the opinion of whole fupe- rior merit he readily acquiefced ; and chofe a track for himfelf, in which he was almod fure to meet with no obdruflion. He became a teacher of mufic, not the praiSiice of any particular indrument, but mufic in the abfolute fenfe of the word, that is to fay, the principles of harmony and the fcience of praflical compofition ; and this, not to children or novices, bnt in very many itidances to profe(rors of mufic themfelves. In 17 13, he was admitted to the degree of Dodlor in Mufic at Oxford, and continued to profecute his dudies with great adlduity. In 1724, he accepted an o(Fer from Dr Berkeley to accompany him to the Ber- mudas, and to fettle as profelFor of mufic in his intend- ed college there; but the (hip in which they failed be- \ ing wrecked, he returned to London, and married li Francefca Margarita de I'Epine. This perfon was a | native of Tufcany, and a celebrated finger, who per- 9 formed in fome of the firft of the Italian operas that ■ were reprefented in England. She came hither with one Greber, a German, and from this connetlion be- came diftinguifhed by the invidious appellation of Grc- Icr't Peg. Afterwards fhe commenced a new connec- tion with Daniel Earl of Nottingham, who had defend- ed the orthodox notion of the Trinity againd the heretic Whidon ; and to this connexion Rowe, in imitation of Horace's, " Ne fit ancillse tibi amor pudori," thus aU ludes : Did not bafe Greber's Peg inflame The fober earl of Nottingham, Of fober fire defcended ? That, carelefsof his foul and fame, To play-houfes he nightly came And left church undefended. She continued to fing on the dage till about 1718) when having, at a moded computation, acquired above ten thoufand guineas, (he retired from the theatre, and afterwards married Dr Pepufch. She was remarkably tall, and remarkably fwarthy ; and, in general, fo delli- tute of perfonal charms, that Pepufch feldom called her by any other name than Hecate, to which (lie is faid to have anfwered very readily. The change in Pepufch's circumftances by Marga- rita's fortune was no interruption to his dudies : he loved Did. new edi-. PER [72 loved mufic, and he purfued the knowledge of it with ardour. At the inftance of Gay and Rich, he under- took to compofi, or rather to corredl, the niufic for the Beggar's Opera. His reputation was now at a great height. He Lad perufed with greit attention thofe Iciferal ancient treatifcs on Harmonics, publiflied by Meibomius and that of Ptolemy by Dr Waliis j and the difficultiei which occurred to him on the perufal, were in a great meafure removed by his friend De Moivrethe mathematician, who affiled him in malting calculationb lor demonftrating thofe principles on which the harmonic fcience is fuunded. In confequence of thefe ftadie?, he was elleemed, in matters of theory, one of the bed muficians of his time. In 1 737, he was chofen nrganill of the Charler-houfe, and retired, with his wife, to that venerable manfion. The wife died in 1 740, before which he loll a fon, his only child ; fo that he had no fourceof delight left, but the prufecu;ion of his lludies, and the teaching of a few favourite pupils, who attended him at his apartments. Here he drew up that account of the ancient genera which was read be- fore the Royal Society, and is publifhed in the Philo- fophical Tranfaftions for October, November, and De- cember, 1746; and, foon after the publication of that account, he was chofen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He died the 20'h of July, 1752, aged 85; and was buried in the chapel of the Chaiter-houfe, where a tablet with an Infcription is placed over him.* PEPY'S ijaaJs, the fame with Falkland Iflands. Pepy'i Ifland, deicribed in C >mmodore Anfon's Voy- age, lies in lat. 47 S 8 leagues E. ot Cape Blanco, on the coalt of Patagonia, and was difcovered by Capt. Cowley in 1680, who reprelents it to be commodious for taking in wood and water, and providtd with a har- bour cipable of holding 1000 fad of ihips ; abound- ing with fowls, and promihng great plenty of filh. — JlTorse. PEQUANACK, a townfliip of Morris county, Newjerfey ; perhaps tlie fame as in fome maps is call- ed PegunnocL, which is feparated from Bergen county, northward bv Pegumock river. — :b. PEQUANNOCK Point and River. The river is a fmail llream which runs fonthw.ird through the towns of Huntington anj Stratford in Fairfield county, Con- necticut, and empties into a bay in the Sound where velltls may anchor. Tiie point forms the weftern ex- tremity of the bay near which are I'ome rocks ; from thence the outer bar extends N. by N. E. The point is 5 miles S. W. ot Stratford river. — ib. PERAMUS, or P.rames, in Bergen county, New- jerfey, lies on the point of land formed by the branch- es of Saddle river, a north water of Piliaik ; about 18 miles n'^rthward of B.-rgcn, 10 weft of Tappan, and 21 N- W. by N. of New-Y rk city.— /i. PERCEE, rifle, a fmdl but remaikable ifland on the well fide of the Gulf of St Lawrence, being a perpen- dicular rock, pierced wirii twonttural arches, through which the fe* flows. One of thtfe arches is fuflkiently high to adnjit a large boat to pafs ireely tliroU',;h it. It is 15 miles f luth of Cape Gifpee. It !■; affertcd that it was formerly joined to M :unt Joli, which lies oppofite to i' ontheconti' ent. — :b. PERClPANY.a villasre in Moriii county, Nev^-Jor- fer, litna'cd on a branch of PalFaik river, and 6 miles N. of Moiiiflown. — ib. SuiTL. Vol.. II. I 1 PER PERCUSSION, Force of Percussion, is the Percu(r.nn. name by which mechanicians diflinguifh that faculty of ^^^'^"''-^ producing motion, or making other fenfible mccljanical imprcfllonson bodies, by means of the ftroke of a body in motion. It is neatly the fame with imji-ilfe; only, it would feem that the very fcrupulous and refined affeft to limit the attention to the immiJiatc caufe of the mo- tion, or other efftcl produced ; to the fomething that is different, both from the force fuppofed to be inherent in the moving body (a hammer for example), and the fubfequent motion and penetiation cf the nail which is driven by it. We may venture to fay th st it is need- lefs to attempt any inveftig uion cf th s object. It is hid, with all other caufes ot all other efTefls m the uni- verfe, in impenetrable darknefs. If we re Red en the con- flitution of our own mind, fj far as we can know it by experience and obfervation, and on the manner in which we draw conclufions, we mull fee tliat the knowledge of the efficient caufe of any elTecl is unattainable ; for were the intervening fomething pointed out to us, and clearly conceived by us, we fhould find it juft as necel"- fary to find out why and how this fomething is con- neefed with each of the events which we oblerve it in- variably to connefl. But a knowledge of the force of percuflion, in as far as it may or may not be diftinguilTiable fiom other forces, is not unattainable. We can learn as much, and no more, concerning this, as concerning any other force ; and we can contemplate that ciicuniltance which, in our opinion, is common to it with all other forces, and may perhaps difcover other circumftances in which ic differs from them. But in all this dilquifi.ion, it is plain that it is only events, which we conceive to be the cha- raifleriftic effcds of the caufe, that we contemplate. Percuflion, confidered as an cfFeifl, charafletiilic of a particular faculty of moving bodies, became an objeifl of anxious refearch, almoft as foon as philofophers began to think of motion and moving forces at all. The an- cients (as has been obl'erved in the article Impvlsion, Suppl.) contented themfelves with ve^-y vague I'pecula- lions on the fubjefl. Galileo was the lirll who con- fidered it as a meafurable thing, theobjcift of malh':ma- tical difcufljon ; being encouraged by his precious difco- very of the laws of accelerated motion, and the ve; y re- fined meafure which thefe gave him of the power cf giavity. It was a meafure of the heavinefs, nm of the weight, of the body; and this was me.ifuied by it> acce- leration, and not by its pieilure. Encouraged by this, he lioped to find fome fuch meafure of the lorce of percul- fion, which he law fu int mately coiintifled with motion; whereas its crnneiflion with preifure was far Irom bei:ig obvious. He therefore tried to convert the terms; and as he had found a meafure of tlie preifure ( f gra- vity in the acceleration of motion, he endeavoured £0 find in preffure a meafure of tlie force of percuflion ariling from this acceleration. He endeaviurcd to. find the num! cr of pounds, whi>fe pielfure is cqj il to the blow if a given body, moving with a gi^ei veljci^y. The velocity was known t>) h.m with grca" precifion, by means of the heiglit from which the bail mull fall in Older to acquire it. It fcenis pretty clear th.u per- cullion may be meafurcd in. this way: for <i bjdy fall- ing from a height will p'cice an un frmly leiiaci us body to a certain degree, and no fuither; and expeii- mcni lliews that this dcgite of penetiation is very pre- 4 Z cifr PER C 722 3 PER rerctinion. cife and condanc. The fame body, being merely laid ^•^"^''"'*^ on the tenacious body, will penetrate to a fmall depth by its weight. Laying more weight on it, will make it penetrate deeper; and a certain weight will malie it penetrate as deep as the fall did, and no deeper. Thus, pcrciillion feems very eafily meafurable by weight, or by any prelfure fimilar to that of weight. It appears that G.ilileo made experiments with this view, and that l:e was dif.ippointed, and obliged to acquiefce in the opinion of Arillotle, that percuffion and weight are in- comparable. He propofes, therefore, another experi- ment, namely, to drop a body into the fcale ct a ba- lance from greater and greater heightf, till at lad the blow on the fcale raifes a weight that lies in the other fcale. This ofters itfelf fo plaufibly, that we are per- fuaded that Galileo tried it : but as he makes no men- tion of the refults, we prefume that they were unfatis- faflory. Neither of thefe experiments could give us a meafure of the force of percullion, if this force be any thing different from the forces which are exci:ed or brought into aiftion by percuffion, in the manner defcribed in the article Impulsion, Stippl. When the ball comes into phyfical contact with the fcale, it begins to comprefs it. This comprefTion begins to llretch the ftrings by which the fcale is fupported. Thefe pull at the arm of the balance, and caufe it to prefs the centre-pin a little harder on its fupport, and to bend the balance a little, and caufe it to pull at the cords which fupport the other fcali. That fcale is pulled upwards, diminifhing a little its prelfure on the ground, and preffing it harder to the incumbent weight. Thefe forces are excited in fuccejjion from the one fcale to the other, and a fmall moment of time elapfes. The readlion of the fcale di- nilniflies, but does not inflantaneoufly ar.nihilate, the velocity of the falling ball. It therefore compreffes the fcale ftiU more, ftretches the threads, prefles the ful- crum, and bends the balance llill more (becaufe the weight in the other fcale keeps it down). The velo- city of the falling ball is rapidly diminilhtd ; the ba- lance is more bent, and pulls more llrongly upwards at tlie threads of the other fcale; and thus preffes that fcale more llrongly againfl the incumbent weight, gra- dually communicating more and more motion to it, re- moving it farther from the ground, till, at lad, the mo- tion bscomes fenfible, or fo confiderable as to difengage fome delicate catch as a fignal. The experiment is now finillied ; and the mechanician fondly thinks that, at this indant, the prelfure excited by the percuffion, between the oppofite fcale and the under fide of the incumbent ■weight, is juft equal, or but a very little fuperior, to the prelfure of the incumbent weight : and, fmce the arms of the balance are equal, and therefore the prelTures on the twofcales are equal, he imagines that that weight exerts a prelfure equal to the percuffion of the falling ball. But all this is mifconceptlon, and alfo falfe reafon- Ing. It is n( t percuffion that we are meafuring, but the prelfures, excited by percuffion, on the two fcales. And thefe prelfures are the forces of elafticity or expan- fivenei', belonging to, or inherent in, the particles of the balls and the Icales ; forces which are brought into aaion by the approach of thofe bodies to each other. This reafoning is ilfs erroneons; and we feould beinif- taken if we think that the preflTure ai^ually exerted is Percuflioii, equal to that of the weight in the oppofite fcale. It is '-^"^'''^^ greater than the mere prelfure of that weight. The re- adion of the oppofite fcale on its load was prccifely equal to that weight before the ball was dropped from the hand ; and, had the ball been equal to that weight, and fimply laid into the fcale on which it falls, it would have made no change on the mutual prelfures of the fcale and thexither weight ; it would only have relieved the ground from the prelfure of that weight, and would have brought it on the threads which fupport its fcale. The prelfure of this fcale upwards mull be increafed, before it can ftart the weight fenfibly fiom the ground. How much it muft be increafed depends on the ipringi- nefs of the fcales, cords, and beam. By a proper ad>- juftment of thefe particulars, the apparatus will give us almoll any meafure of percuffion that we choofe. For this reafon, the improvements made on it by Gravefande are of no value. The fame reafoning, nearly, may be applied to the meafurements of the force of percuffion by means of the penetration of folt bodies. Galileo mentions another very curious experiment, by which he thought that he had obtained a jull mea- fure of percuffion. A velfel, filled with water, was ful'pended on the arm of a balance, with another velfel hanging from it, a great way below. All was exadly balanced by a weight in the oppofite fcale. By means of a fuitable contrivance, a hole was opened in the bottom of the upper veffel, without difturbing the equilibrium. As foon as the water ilfued, and while it was falling through the air, that end of the balance rofe ; but when the water ftruck the lower velfel, the equili- brium was reftored, and continued during the whole time of the efflux. Hence Galileo concluded, that the force of the llroke was equal to the weight of the fall- ing water. But we apprehend that the obfervations made on this in the article Impulsion, Suppl. will con- vince the reader that this conclufion is far from being legitimate. Befides, the (Iroke, in any one inftant, is made by thofe particles only which ftiike in that in- ftant, while the whole vein of water between the veflels is neither ading by its v/eight on the upper velfel, nor by its llroke on the lower ; and we fliould conclude from the experiment, that the force of percuffion is in- finitely greater than the weight of the ftriking body. Indeed this is the inference made by Galileo. But if we have recourfe to the experiments and reafonings o£ Daniel Bernoulli, in the article Resistance of Fluids, Eucycl. we fhall find that the feeming impulfe on the lower velfel is really a moft complicated pure prelfure, and of moft uncertain determination. The experiment is valuable, and gives room for curious refleiflions. We have repeated it, in a great variety of forms, and with greatchangesof impulfe, and fomeiimes infuchamanner that no impulfe whatever can obtain, while at the fame ■ time a quantity of water was falling, unfupported by either velfel. In all the trials the equdibrium remained undifturbed. We were obliged to conclude, therefore,, that the expeiiment afforded no meafure of percuffion, . Indeed we were of this opinion before making the trial, , for the reafons juft now given. We cannot fay that the fubfequent labours of philo- fophers have added much to our knowledge of this mat- ter. Mr Leibnitz had contrived his whimQcal dodirae PER C 723 ] PER »w«<fi^ of living and aVarf forces. Theaftionnf gravity, or of the method of indivifibles. We look upon the firange PercuffioE. a fpriDg, is a T;/t>;'j'i7, when it aftualljr produced motion things which have been inculcated, with pertinacious *"'"''~*^ in ihe body on which it adls; but when a ftcne lies on zeal in tliis doflrine of percuffion and vir.-s viva, as the A table, and prefFcs on it, this preflure is a i<is mortua. moft remarkable example of tlje errors into which the Its exertion \s made, and in the fame inflant dellroyed, unguarded ufe of Calvaleriui's Indivifibles, and of the by an oppolite vii mortua. Each of thefe exertions Leibnitzian notion of the infinitefimal calculus, have would have produced a ^c^iiniwj of motion (fomething led eminent mathematicians. It is not true that the different from any the fm.illeft local motion); and the prefTure, and the ultimate force of percuffion, have this fum of all would, after a certain time, have amounted relation ; nor has the preffure and the refultin-T motion, to a fenfible motion and velocity. There feems no di- which is miftaken for the meafure of this ultiniate force, l>infl conception to accompany, or that can accompa- any mathematical relation whatever. The relation is ny, this language. And as a proof that Leibnitz had purely phyfical ; it is the relation of pure caufe and ef- no diftinft conceptions of the matter, he has recourfe feft ; and all that we know of it is their conftant to this very experiment of Galileo in fupportof his ge- conjunftion. The relation of fluxion and fluent is not nefis of a fenfible motion from the continual exertions of a mathematical or meafurable relation, but a connec- ihe vis mortua; and he concludes that the force of per- tion in thought; which is fufficient for making the cuflion is infinitely, or incomparably, greater than pref- one an indication oi the other, and the mealures of the fure, becaufe it is the fum total of an infinity of indivi- proportions of the one a mean for obtaining a meafure dual exertions of vis mortua. Nothing but the autho- of the proportions of the other. In this point of view, rity which Leibnitz has acquired on the continent, by the relation of prelfure to motion, as the meafure of the the zealous efforts of his partizans, could excufe our ta- force of percuffion, rcfembles that of fluxion and fluent, king up any time in confidering this unintelligible dif- but is not the fame. courfe. Surely, if there is fuch a thing as a vis viva, Much has been faid by the partizans of Mr Leib- it exifts in the moving water, and its impulfions are not nitz about the incomparablenefs of preffure and percuf- eontinual exertions of a vis mortua. Nor is it poffible fl >n, and many experimental proofs have been adJucid to conceive continual impulfe, nor a beginning of mo- of the incomparable fuperiority of the latter. Buliin- tion that is not motion, Sec. &c. It is paradoxical (and ger fays, that the preffure of many tons will not caufe Leibnitz loved to raife the wonder of his followers by a fpike to penetrate a block of hard oak half fj far as paradoxes) to fiy that percuffion is infinirely greater it may be driven by a weak man w^ one blow of a than preffure, when we fee that preffure can do every mallet ; and that a moderate blow ■^Bi a fmall hammer thing that can be done by percuffion. Nay, Euler, by will ftiiver to powder a diamond, winch would carry a far the moft able fupporter of the doftrines of Leibnitz mountain without being hurt by its preffure. Nay, eVen about the force of bodies in motion, adually compares Mr Camus, of the Academy of Paris, a ftaunch Garte- thefe two forces ; and, in his commentary on Robins's fian, and aneminent mechanician, fays that he beatalead- Artillery, demonftrates, in his way, that when a muf- en bullet quite flat with a hammer of one pouni^'cight, ket ball, m iving with the velocity of 1700 feet per fe- without much force ; and that he found that 200 pounds cond, penetrates five inches into a block of elm, the weii;ht would not have flattened it more than this blow : force of its percuffiin is 107,760 times its weight. John and he concludes from thence, that the force of the Bernoulli leftrids the inriiiite ma<;nitude of perculliun blow exceeded 200 pounds. Tnele, to be fure, are re- markable fadls, and juliify a more minute conlideration ol a power of producing certain effects, wliich is fo fre- quently and fo ufelully employed. But, at the fame time, thefe are all very vaijue expreilions, and they do not authorife any preclfe conclufions from ihcm. Mr Camus fa)ing " wihout much force," makes his pound weight, and his 200 pound weight, of no ufe for determining the force ci the blow. He would have gi- ven more precife and applicable data for his decifion, had he told us frcmi wliat height tiie hammer fli -uld to the cafe of perfeflly hard bodies ; and, fir this rea- fon alone, fays, that there can be none fuch in the uni- verfe. But, as ihi^ julUy celebrated mathematician fcouts with fciirn the nntion ot atiraflions and repul- fi'/ns, he mull allow, that an nhimate atom of matter is unchangeable in its form ; whi^-h we take to be fyno. rymoiis wicii faying that it is perfciflly hard. What mull be the reftilt of one atom in motion hitting ano- ther at reft? Here muH be an indanraiic^iis produc- tion of a finite velocity, and an infinite pcrcufli'-n. A doftrine which reduces its abettors to luch fuliterfuges, fall in order to flatten the bullet to this degree. But and engages the mind in fuch puz/ling contempl.itions, even then we Ihould not h ive obtained anr notion of cannot (to fay the hell of it) be (hied an kxplana- the tnrce in ai.1ual exertion during the flattening of the TION of the laws of Nature. The wlvle language un bullet; for the blow which could flatten the bullet in a the fubjedl is full of paradoxes and obfrnrities. In or- longer or a fhorter lime, would unqneftionably have been der to reconcile this infinite macnitude ot percuffion lefa or greater. with the obferved finite nngniiude of its effe(^ts, they ■fay that the preffure, or inllantaneous etlort. has the fame relation to the force of [lercnflion that an element has to its integral ; and in maintaining this aiferlion, they continually conlkler this integral uiijtr the erprels denomination of a fum total, robhin.; Leibi.iir.'s great difcovcry ol the infinitefimtl ra'culu- of every fuperinr- ity that it poffeffed over VValli^'s Ariliimc'ic <il Infi- All \hi par'doxes, obfcuriiics, and puzzling dilTicuI- ties, in this fubjt-ifl difappear, if we leave out of our conlideration that unintelligible foice, which is fuppo- fed to preferve a body in motion or at reft ; and if we confider both of thefe llates of body as conditions wliirh will continue, unlefs fom; adevjuaic caufe operate x charge ; and if we larther grant, that fuv;h caufes do really exift in the univerle, however unknown their na- aites, and really employing all the erroneous pi aifliccs of ture maybe by us; and, laftly, if we acknowledge, 4 '^ 2 <)m> PER C 724 ] PER Pcrcumon. that the phenomena of ebflicity, expnnfivenefs, cohe- ""^'"'''^'^ fion, gravity, magnstifni, ek-aricity, are indicatinns of the agency of fuch caul'es, and tlnit their aftual exer- tinns, and the motions and changes conlequent on thefe eicitidns, are fo invariably conne(fted whh particular bodies, that they always accompany their appearance in certain miitUrtl relatinns of dillance and pofition : — it we proceed thus, all the phenomena of collifion will be exp'aiiied by thtfe caufes alone, without (uppofuig the exiftuice and agency of a caufe dillini.'t from them all, and incomparaLile vsilh them, called the force of pf.r- CUSSiON. For it has been fufficiently demonltrated in the article Impulsion (SuJ^f'l.J, that that property of tangible co- herent matter, which we cMperfia f/a^.V/Vj', operates as a picll'ure during a certain fmall portion of time on both bodies, diminilhing more and more the motion of the one, and augmenting tliut of the other, as the compref- fion of one or both mcreafes, till at laft they feparate with fenfible velocities. In fome very fimple or per- fpicuous cafes, we know what this prelTure is in every inftaiit of the action. We can tell how many pounds weight, at rell, will exert the fame prelfure. We can tell the whole duration of tliis prelfure, and the fpace along which it is exeited ; and, in fuch a cafe, we can fay with precifion what moiion will be generated by this continued and varied prelfure on the body which was at reft, and what diminution will be made in the motion of the other. All this can be done in the cafe of a ball A (tig. i.), moving like a pendulum with a Plate XLI. fimll velocity, and ftriking a flender elaftic hoop B, alfo fufpended like a pendulum. We can afcertain by' experiment, before the collifion, what preffure is neced'ary for compreffing it one inch, one-half, one- tourih, &c. Knowing this, and the weight of the hoop, and the weight and velocity of the ball, we can tell every circunidance of the collifion — how long the comprellion continues — what is the greateft coni- preihon — how far the bodies have moved while they were aiSting on each other — and what will be the final motion of each : — in fliort, every thing that affords any mark or meafure of a force of percuffion. And we know that all this is produced by a force, familiarly known to us by the name of elaflicity. Which of all thefe circumRances Ihall be called the perculhon, or the force of percuQ'ion? Ij it tlie ul'imate or greateft pref- fure occafioned by the coniprcffion ? This cannot be, becaufe this a/one will not be proportional to the final change of motion, which is generally taken as a mea- fure of the percuffion when a change of motion is its onlv obferved efl'efl. We kiiOw that another petfeflly ehiRic body, of the fame weight, and.ftruck by the lame blow, and acqui- ring the fame final velocity by the firoke, may not have fullained (he tenth part of the prelfure, in .any one in- ilant of the collifion, if it has only been much more compielfible. The greateft mutual preffure in the col- lifion of a billiard ball is perhaps 1000 times greater than it is in a fimilar coUilion of a foot-ball of the lame weitrht. We alfo know what degree of comprefiion will break this hoop, and what prelfure will produce this com- prelfion. Thercfur.e, Ihould the fraflure of the body be confidered ^s the mark an^. meafure of the percuf. fion, we, kcow what blow will jull ptoduce it, and be exhaufttd by fo doing. In fhort, we know every Percuffion. mi<rk and meafure of percuffion which this hoop can ex- *>-'"^^^^-^ hibit. We can increafe the (Irength of this hoop till it be- comes a folid difk ; and we fee clearly, that in all thefe forms the mode of a<5ling is the fame. We fee clearly that it is the fame when, iiiftead of the folid dilTc, it is an elallic ball ; therefore every thing that can indicate or meafure tiie percuflion of an elaftic ball, is explained without the operation ot a peculiar force of percufiion, even when the ball is Ihivered to pieces by the blow. Nor is the cafe materially different when the bodies are foft, or imperfeiftly elallic. When the Rruck body is uniformly tenacious, it oppofes a uniform refiftance to penetration, and its motion will be uniformly acce- lerated by the adion of its own tenacity during the whole time of mutual aftion, except a trifling variation occafioned by the mere motion of the internal parts, independent of their tenacity. If we knew the weight necelfary for merely penetrating this mafs, and the weight and velocity of the penetrating body, we can tell how long it muit be relilteJ by this force before it.s initial velocity will be annihilated, and therefore how far it will penetrate. We have tried this with deal, birch, willow, and other foft woods of uniform texture, and with nails having the body fomewhat llenderer than the end, that there might not be an irre- gularity occafioned by a friiflion on the fides of the nail, continually increafing as the penetration advanced. We made the hammer fall from a confiderable height, and hit the nail with great accuracy in the diredtion of its length, by fixing it to the end of a long latli, move- able round an axis. The refults correfponded with the calculation with all the precifion that could be defired. Eut it does not refult from all this agreement, that the force, exertion, or effefl, of a blow with a hamm.er is equal to the prelfure of any number of pounds what- ever. They are things that cannot be compared ; and yet the force opeiating in the penetration by a blow is no way different from a prelfure It is a phyfical blunder to compare the area of the curve, whofe ab- fcilfa is the depth of penetration, and the ordinates are as the refifiances, with any prelfure whatever. This area exprefl'es the fquare of a velocity, and its flips, bounded by parallel ordinates indefinitely near each other, are as the decrements of this fquare of a velo- city, occrtfioned by a prelfure, aifling almoft uniformly along a very I'mall fpace, or during a very fmall time. It is an abfurdity therefore to fura up thefe flips as fo many preflures, and to confiJer the fum total as capa- ble of exprelfmg any weight whatever. Such a parallo- gifm is peculiar to Leibnitz's way of conceiving his infi- nitefinial method, and it could have no place in the ge- nuine method of fluxions. It is this mifconceplicn that has made Mr Leibnitz and his followers fuppofe that a body, accelerated by gravity, retains in it a lum total of aJl the preli'ures of gravity accumulated during its fall, and now forming a "vis i-iva. Suppofing that it requires a preffure of twenty pounds to prefs a fix pound Oiot flowly through a mafs of uniforntly refill- ing clay ; this preffure would carry it from the top to the bottom of a mountain ot fuch clay. Yet this ball, if difcharged horizontally from a cannon, would penetrate only a few yards, even though the clay (houKl refill by tenacity only, independent of the motion loll by giving PER C 725 ] PER rercufiiou. giving OT7/;'>« to its internal parts. In this experiment, the elude an almo.1 infinite power of percuffion, from ob- PercufTion, ^^"^^^^^ uinidlt preiluie exerted during the motion ot the ball did ferving, that a particle of fand, diopped into a thick II. not much exceed the prellure of twenty pounds. In this giafs bottle which has not been annealed, will Ihiver it to T'^'''^"^^. comparifon, therefore, percuflion, fofartroin appearing pieces. When Mr Bui finger fays that a modeiate blow inliiiiiely greater than prelfure, would appear much will brenk a diamond which could carry a mountain, lels. But there is peihapi no body that refills pt;ne- he not only fays a thing of which he cannot demon- tration with perfe<5> uniformity, even though uniformly Urate the truth, and which, in all probability, is net tenacious. When the ball has penetrated to feme tiue; but he omits noticing a circumllance which he depth, the panicles which are before it cannot be fo was mechanician enough to know would have a confi- eafily dlfplaccd, even although they had no tenacity, derable Ihare in the effe>5l. W^e mean the rapidity with becaufe the particles adjoining are more hemmed in by which the e.xcited prellure increafes to its maximum in thofe beyond them. W^e have always obferved, that a ball the cafe of a blow. In the experiment in quellion, tlilt impelled by gunpowder through water lifes toward the happens in lefs than the millionth part of a fecond, if the furface (havmg entered horizontally through the fide veloci'y of the hammer has been fuch as a man would of the veli'd at fome depth), and this fo much the more generate in it by a very moderate exertion. For the rapidly as it entered nearer 10 the furtace. The reafon blow which will drive a good lath nail to the head in a is plain. The particles which mull be difplaced before piece ot foft deal with an ordinary carpenter's hammer, the ball, efcape more ealily upwards than in any other murt be accounted moderate. This we have learned by diiedtion. It is for this reafon chiefly that a greater experiment to be above 25 feet per fecond. The con- weight laid on the head of a nail will caufe it to fink r.eif^ing forces exerted between the particles of the din- deeper into the wood ; and thus a great weight appears mond may not have time fufllcient for their excitation to be commenfurable with a great force of percullion.. in the remote parts, fo as to (hare the derangement ^\lfo, while a bullet is flattening more and more under among them all, in fuch a manner that it may be fo a hammer during the progrefs of a blow, it is fpread- moderate in each as not to amount to a difunion in any- ing under the hammer ; more particles are refilling at part of the diamond. We fee many initauces of this once, and they find more diihculty in effeding their in the abrupt handling of bodies of tender and friable efcape, being harder fqueezed between the hammer and texture. It is paitly owing to this that a ball difchar- tlje anvil. The fame increafed refiftance mull obtain ged from a piflol will go through a flieet of paper lland- vshile it is flattening more and more under the quiet ing on edge without throwing it down, v>hich it would prelfure of a weight ; and thus, too, a greater weight certainly do if thrown at it by the hand. The con- appears to be commenfurable with a greater blow. necting forces, having time to aift in this lad cafe, drag After all, however, a blow given by a falling body the other parts cf the paper along with them, and their mull excite a prelfure greater than its mere weight can union is preferved. Alio, when a great weight is laid do, and this in any degree. Thus, fuppofe AB (fig. on the diamond, it is gradually dimpled by it ; and thus 2.) to reprefent a fpiral fprliig in its natural uncon- inclollng many parts together in the dimple, it obliges Itrained dimenficns, (landing upright on a table. Let them to adl in conceit, and the derangement of each is . a b he the ablciifa of a line adhk, whofe ordinates thus diminilhed. c J, g />, a, S:c. are as tlie elafiic reatftion of the fpring We flatter ourfelves thst the preceding obfervations when it is comprclfed into the lengths cb, gb, i b. Sec. and refle>nions will contribute fomew hat towards remo- Suppofe that, when it is comprefled into the form CD, ving the paradoxes and myfleries which difcredit, in it will jull fupport the weight of a ball lying on C. fome de;.;ree, our mechanical fcience. If we will not Then cJ will be a reatSion equal to the weight of the peitinacioufly conjuie up ideal phantom?, which, per- ball, and the rcflangle ac ilfv!\\\ exprefs the fquare of haps, ciiimol exili, but content ourfelves with the ftudy the velocity which this ball would acquire by falling of that tangible matter which the Author of Nature freely through nc. It therefore the ball be gently laid has prefcnted to our view, we (hall have abundant em- on the top of the fpring at A, and then let go, it will plo)ment, and (hall perceive a beautiful h;trmony thro' defcend, comprefljng the fpring. It will not llop when the whole of natural operations ; and we (lull gradually the ipring has acquired the form CD, which enabled it dil"c(>ver more and more of thofe mutual adaptations to carry the weight of the ball gently laid on it. For which enable an atom of matter, although of the fiinie in this I'.iuation it has acquired a velocity, of which the precite natuie wherever it is found, to act fuch an uii- fquare is reprefented by the figure <j<// (See Dyn a- i'peakable v.iriety of parts, according to the diveifity of Mies, Sttppl. n" 95.)- It ^^''1 comprefs the fpring into its fituations and the fcene on which it is placed. If a the length g b, fuch that the area eg h d is equal to the mind be " not captivated by the harmony of fuch fwcet area a ^//. If the ball, indead of being gently laid on A, founds" we may pronounce it " dark as Erebus, and be dropped from M, it will comprels the fpiing into not to be trulled." fuch a length /i, that the aiea aih\i equal to the reft- PERDIDO, a river and bay on the coafl (.f Wefl- angle mcdn; and, if the fpiing cannot bear fo great Florida. The mouth <.f the river is about 10 leagues comprcfiion, it will be broken by this very moderate fall, eaftward of Mobile Point, and 4 weftward of tlie bar Thus we fee that a blow may do things which a of Penfacola. The entrance is narrow, with a bar of confidei able prelfure cannot accomplKh. The accounts fix feet, but afteiwaids it widens confiderably. This vhich are given of ihefe remaikable effeifls ot pcrcui- was tormcily the boundary between Florida and Loui- lion, with the view ot imprciTing notions of its great fiana, dividing the Frencii and Spanifli dominions. e(ricacy, are generally in very indefinite terms, and The river (lietclics in one place north-eall, where it often without mentioning circumftanccs which are ac- goes within a mile of the gieat lagoon weft cf the en- ctiLry to the cfTcft. It would be very ur.fair to con- trance ot" Penfaccla luibour. — £Urii, PERES . PER 1:72s] PER PERES IJl-.nil, or Conft.mtlne Pats, on the coaft of a tooth previous to extraaing it; and in the fame year PerkinUni. Ciiili, S. Ameiica. It is nppDiiie to Port C'iral. On he difcovered, that momentary t^k was given, in a few ^•^■^''^*^' this iflnnd is a f.rt called Mnnfera, and "n the back of inftances, by the accidental application of a metallic in- the illnnd there is an entrance for boats into the har- ftrument to inflamed and painful tumours previous to bour of D ildivia.— /^. any incifion. PERFECT Number, is one that is equal to the Thefe are the judicious reafonings and aflertions of fum of all its aliquot parts, when added together, a dutiful child, who, having probably heard of Leib- nitz's claims to fome of Newton's difcoveries, was de. lermined to put in a fimilar claim for his father, to a Eucl. lib. 7, I +2 + i def 22. As the number 6, which is = the fum of all its aliqnnt parts ; alfo 28, for 28 = I + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. the fum of all its ali- Jhare, at leaft, of the difcovery made by the celebrated quot parts. It is proved by Euclid, in the lall prop. prnfelFor at Bologna, fie has not, however, copied of book the c/h, th.it if the common geome'rical feries with fervility the condudl of the Lelbnitzianf. We do of numbers i, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. be continued to fuch not remember an inftance where any of them attempted a number of terms, as that the fum of the faid feries to elevate the fame or the merits of their matter abate of term> Ih.iU be a prime number, then the produft of the lame and merits of Newton ; but, according to our this fum by the lift term of the feries will be a perfefl author, the purfuits of Galvani and his European pu- number. pils fink into inlignificance, when compared with thofc PERGUNNA, in Bengal, the fubdivifion of a di» of^he tranfatlantic phyfician. This is evident; for when the phyfiologifls of Europe were engaged in experimenting on the denuded nerves and mufcles of the fmaller animals, with a view to af- certain the agency of this incomprehenfible property in flr.a PERICA, three idands in the bay of Panama, S. America ; which give fhelter to fhips out of the com- mand of the town of Panama — Mine. PERIPAS IJlands, on the Spanilh Main, coaft of them, Dr Perkins was profecuting a feries of experi- S. America, 3 leagues weftwaid nf Cumana Bay.—;'*, ments, which confilled in applying externally, to parts PERKINISM, the proper name of what we muft affe^ed with difeafe, metals, and compounds of metals think an inipofitinn attempted t > be put upon the world of every defcription which occurred to him, and con- by Dr Perkins ol North America. ftrufted into various forms and fizes. The refult pro- Though the phenomera of eleftticity had been long ved, that on drawing lightly over the parts affedled cer- familiar to tlie philofophers of Europe, it is well known tain inftruments, termed traaors, which he formed from that a philofophical theory of thele phenomena was metallic fubftances into pointed (hapes, he could re- firft formed by a tranfailantic pliilofopher. In like move moll of thofe topical difeafes of the human body, manner, though the difcovery of Galvani, under the where an extra degree of nervous energy or vital heat name of unh/iai ekaricity (fee Galvanism in this Sup' was prefent ; unlefs fuch difeafe was fituated in fome of figment J, had occupied tiie attention of many of tlie firll the imernal vifcera, too remote from the part where phyficians and philolophers of the old world, it was re- the inftruments could be applied. lerved for a phyfician of the new, to apply it to the The dileafes which have been found moft fufceptible cure of a number of difeafes. Every phih'fpher of of the influence of the traders are, rheumatifm, fome America, however, has not the fagaciiy of the Phila- gouty affeiflions, pleurify, ophthalmias, eryfipelas, vio- delphian fage; nor mull Dr Pei kins or his admirers be lent fpafmodic convulfions, as epileptic fits and the furprifed, it we treat not incomprehenfiiile myfticifm locked jiw, the pain and fvvelling attending contufions, with the refpefl due to a theory founded on faifls. inflanim itory tumors, the pains from a recent fprain. We are tcld by the fon (a) of this rival of Franklin, the painful efFeifls of a burn or fcald, pains in the head, 'that before the news of Galvain's difcovery had reach- teeth, and indeed moft kinds of painful topical aflFec- ed America, he had obferved fevcral phenomena point- ing out the influence of metals in cnfes of pain. The firU remarkable incident that prefented itfelf to his no- tice was the fudden contradion of a mufcle when he ■was performing a chiiurgical operation. This, he ob- ferved, regularly took place whenever the point of the metallic inllrument was put in contafl with the mufcle. tions, excepting where the organic ftrudture of the part is deftroyed, as in wounds, ulcers, &c. and excepting alfo where oils or fome other non-condufting fubftances are prefent. But we have other teftimonies than thofe of Dr Per- kins and his fon for the influence of the tr.idlirs. Mr Meigs, profelfor of natural philofophy at Newhaven, in Srruck with the novelty of the appearance (Is Mr Per- a letter on Dr Perkins's difcovery, conceives the prin- kinsfure that the appearance was new ?), he was iudu- ciples of metallic irri ability as fo little underftood, that ced to try the points of wood and other fubftances ; and no contraiflion taking place on thcfe experiments, he thence inferred that the phenomena could be alcribed only to the influence of the metal. About the fame time, he obferved that, in one or two cafes (and if his pradice had been great he might have obferved that in a he will not pretend to explain how the tradors produce their effeds ; but feems tatislied in finding that the ef- feds are produced. After ftating an experiment orv his own child, eigiit years of ai(e, very dangeroufly ill with a peripneumonic corriplaint, arid to which the tradors gave almoft inftantaneous relief, he (ays, " I thoufand cafes), a celfation of pain had enfued when have ufed the tradors with fuocels in feveral other cafe* a knife or lancet was applied to feparate the gum fio.-n in my own family ; and although, like Naaman the Sy-- rian, (a) See a pamphlet, entitled The Influence of Metallic Tradors on the Humin Body, &c. by B'njimia Douglas Perkins, A. M. fon to the difcovereri or a very good abridgement of it in the firft volume of the Phil(»- fophical Magazine. PER C 727 ] PER jPcrkinifci. rian, I cannot tell why the waters of Jordan flioald be ^^~^''^**^ better than Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Darnafcus ; yet, fince experience has proved them in, no reafoning can change the opinion. Indeed, the caufes of all common fafts are, nxie lliink, perfeftly wdl known to us; and it is very probable, fifty or an hundied years hence, we fliall as vi-ell know why the metallic traflors fhould in a few minutes remove violent pains, as we now know why cantharides and opium will produce op- pofite efFeifls : viz. we Ihall know but very liitle about either, exceptingyac7j-." Mr. Woodward, profeflbr of natural philofophy at Dartmouth, in a letter alfo on the fame fubjeift, has Ita- ted a number of fuccefsful experiments in pains of the head, face, teeth, and in one cafe of a fprain. Dr Vaiighan, a member of the Philadelphia medical fociety, has lately publilhed an ingenious trad on Cal- vanifm, the objcifl of which is to account for the in- fluence of the traftors in removing difeafes. After a citation of numerous experiments made on the nerves and mufcles of animals, he obferve?, " If we only take an impartial view of the operations of Nature herfelf, and attend diligently to the analytical inveftigations of the aforementioned experimentalills on this fublime lubjefl, I think the fceptic muft admit that the prin- ciple of nervous energy is a modification of eleiflri- city. As fenfation is dependant on this energy, a plea- furable fenfation, or what may be termed a natural or healthy degree thereof; then certainly pain, or fupeifen- I'ation, can only depend on an accumulation of the elec- tric fluid, or extra degree of energy in the part afFeft- ed. On this principle the problem admits of eafy fo- lution; namely, that the metals, being fufceptible of this fluid, conduifl the extra degree of energy to parts where it is diminithed, or out of the fyflem altogether, rtHoring the native lav? of eledlric equilibrium." We truft we are not fceptics ; and yet we feel not ourfelves inclined to admit any part of this theory. We have feen no proof that nervous energy is a modification of eleftricity ; and we think that we have ourfelves proved, that galvanifm and e/ednclty are in many refpecfts different ; but we Ihall not be much furprifed if we foon fee a demonjiration by fome American or German philofopher, that the foul of man is a compofition of filver and zinc. One of thefe fages has lately difcover- cd, that the fyroptoms oi piitrefadion do not conftitute an Infallible evidence of death, but that the application of metals will in all cafes afcertain ic beyond the poffi- bility of doubt! A proper application certainly will; for when the Perkinill is doubt! ul whether his patient be dead or alive, he has only to apply the muzzle ot a loaded piftol to his temple, iind blow out his brains ; af- ter which he may fafely fwear that the man is dead. . From the Philofopkical Magazine, we learn that Pro- felTor Schumacher at Copenhagen made experiments with tradors of biafs and iron on ten patients in Fre- derick's hofpltal at Copenliagen. He tried alfo trac- tors of ebony and ivory, vihlch are fald to have cured a pain in the knee ; with otlieis of filver and zinc ; and fomc of copper and lead. By the two laft, pains in the knee, arm, and face, are fald to have been mitiga- ted. According to M. KJingberg's experiments, this remedy was of ufcin malum ifchiatuum ; and according to thole of M. Stcffcns, in malum ijchuiticum and me- jjrira. According to M. Dang, tlie pains in fomc cafes were increafed, and in others alhyed. According to Pcrklnlfu). M. Blech, the tractors were of ufe in hemicrar,ia and ^-^"^^^^^ gouty pains in the head ; and, according to M. Hahn, in rheumatic pains in both ihoulders. The prmcipal document in the Danilh collection relating to Perkin- ifm, appears to be a letter of Profelfor Abilgaard, in whofe opinion Perkins's tradors will never acquire much value in medicine, and fcarcely even have the merit ot being a palliative ; but, in a phyfical point of view, he thinks they deferve the attention of pliyficians, and particularly of phyfiologiflis. Mankind (he fays) hitheito have paid too little attention to tlie influence which ekaricity has on the human body ; otherwlfe they would know that the efFeas produced on it by our beds is no matter of indifference. If the feather beds and hair matrelfes, &c. are perfeflly dry, the per- fon who fleeps on them is in an infulated flate ; but the contrary is the cafe If they are moift. He three times lemoved a pain in the knee, by Ricking the traflors, one on each fide of the knee, fo deep through tile- dockings that the points touched the Ikin. He remo- ved a rheumatic pain in the head from a lady by the lame means. M. Kafn, by the tradors, relieved, in others, gouty pains of the head and megrim ; and in lumfelf, a rheumatic pain of the back, which, accord- ing to his fenfation?, was like a conllriaion in the eel- lular tiliue. M. Herholdt, from his experiments, con- fidersthe elFea of the traflors as indefinite and relative as that of other remedies. He, however, faw relief given by them in the ftrangury in a cafe of fyphilis. M. Bang alfo, at Soroe, ireed a man iVom a violent gouty pain in the thigh, by drawing the traflors 2CO times over the afFefled part. M. Jacobfen likewife found benefit derived from thefe tradors feveral times in the common hofpltal at Copenhagen. M. Tode tried them alfo in rheumatic pains, tooth-ache, and m- flammation of the eyes ; and obferved that they neither did good nor harm. On fome of the attefted eures mentioned in Mr Per- kins's pamphlet, an able writer in the Monthly Review has made remarks fo very pertinent, that we cannot rc- fufe ourfelves the pleafure of tranfcribing them. " At page 54 of the pamphlet, we meet (fays the reviewer) with a ftrcng proof of the confidence placed in this remedy by feveral tranfatlantic philofophers. Dr Willard, it feems, applied a red-hot piece of iron to ?. wart on his finger, and burnt hlmfelt very feverely, in order that he might be relieved liy the traiflors ; which are faid to have given him eafe in two fucccflive expe- riments. The author adds, « many have fubmltted to fimilar meafiires, in order to e:<perience the effeds. I once formed one of five, who burned ourfelves fo that bllfters were ralfed, to make the experiment ; we all ob- tained relief in a lew minutes.' " This zeal for knowledge is truly edll"ying ; efpe- cially as the traitors are generoully prefcnl.d to the public at only five guineas a pair ; and it is clear that one pair would fuffice to cure all the burns and fcalds of a large parilh. Why are not fuch luculent experi- ments repeated heie? If Mr Peikins, cr any admirer of the dlfcovery, would fubmit to have a red hot poker run into fome part of his body not nccertary to life (into that part nvheri lunour^i lodged, according to But- ler, for example), in any public ccflVe-houle within the bills of mortality, and would afterward heal the wound . PER C 728 ] PER Peiklu'ifm. in predncs of the company, in ten minutes, or in half tlons urged by Dr Haygarth and others againfl the in- Pcrti; ^"""""""^ as injny hmirs, by means oi the traiflors, the moft flony- fluence of the metallic traitors. Had we not been ^-^~^ h;arted' iiifijcl could not refill fuch a demoiiftration. previoufly convinced of the falfity of Perkinifm, the Why tride with internal inflammations, when fuch an penifal of this pamphlet would have removed from our outw.ud and vifible (ign might be afforded f minds every doubt ; for we will venture to fay, that it " Mr I'erkins lias taken fomc pains, in the fird parr, is not in the power of Dr flaygarth, and the whole fa- cf his pamphlet, to fliL-w that the (ipcralion of his rods culty united, to bring more complete proof than Mr is not deiivcd from animal magnctifm. In our opinion, Perkins has here brought, that what he calls his fa- this is an unneceir.iry piece of trouble in England, ther's difcovery has no claim to rank otherwife than where there is a conllant fuccefflon of fimilar preten- with the difcoveiy of Mefmer. See Animal Magne- fions. The vir^ula i.'ivimitori,!, and the biiguette of the t;sm, Encycl. juggler, are the genuine prototypes of this myftery. lie gives indeed 250 cafes, wliich are attefted to We were, indeed, rejoice.!, on Dr Peikins's account, to have been fucccfsfully treated by the traftors ; but at find that the Connecticut Society had only denounced leall an equal number of cafes were atteRed to have him as a Mefmerift : we trembled left he Ihould have been been fuccefbfuUy treated by Mefmer and his partif ms ; put into the iiiquifi:oiial hands of the old women as a and fix times that number of cures were faid to hive white witch." been miraculoufly performed at the tomb of tlie Abbe This may be thought too ludicrous a treatment of a Paris (See Paris in this Suppl ) We would willingly difcovery which profelfes to benefit mankind ; but to allow, however, that thefe atteftations ought to draw have treated this difcovery with ferioufuefs, would have the attention of men of fcience to the fubjeift, did not degraded the prolefiion of a fcientific critic. As if the author himfelf betray a want of confidence in the the very cures pretended to have been performed did traiftor';, by his own arguments in their favour, and by rot of themftlves throw fufficient ridicule over the dif- his cauiion to the public againft counterfeits. He feems covery, Mr Peikins informs us, " that in feme inftan- indeed to confider their fanative influence as refulting ces the metallic influence, when excited by different per- entirely from his patsnt. Tons, produces different efieifls. Experiments made to Dr Hjygarth having faid that he performed cures of afcertain the point, proved that there were perfons who the fame kind with thofe of which ISIr Peikins boafts, might ufe the tractors for any length of time, in dif- by the proper application of tradors made of •wood ; eafes which were fuitable for the operation, and pro- and having added, that " if any perfon would repeat duce no perceptible eflcfl ; when by placing them in thefe experiments, it fhould be done with due folem- the hands of another perfon, who fliould peiforrn the nity," in order to work upon the imagination; our operation precifely in the fame manner as before, the author replies, by putting the following queUion : " Is pain or inllammalion would be removed dire^ly." there a fingle pofielfor of the paltnt rmtalWc traiftors in Hence he endeavours to prove that the influence of the England, who has frequently ufed them, and will fay tracliirs is Galvanic, by an argument as abfutd as the that this fraud is neceffary to make tkem perform pretended fjft on wh.ich it is founded. cures ?" Inftead of anfwering for the Englilh piireifors " On the application (fays he) of zinc and filver to of thefe valuable inflruments, we beg leave, in our turn, the toao;ue, the fenfation of talfe is very flight to fome, to afli, if there be a fingle expert chemifl in Great Bri- while wiili others it is very flrong : — when the experi- tain who can underftand this queflion in any other ment i> applied to the fenfe of fight, fome are hardly fenfe, than as implying that the virtue of the traiflors fenfib'e of ir, while others obferve a flrong flafli." But, refides in the ptitent P This, however, appears flill more not to mention that neidier ebony nor ivory can form palpable in the caution to the public. part of the excitatory arc in Calvai^ifm, though we " Among the various artifices (fays Mr Perkins) have feen them both employed yac<rif/>/a'/)i as traiftors which have been employed by certain interefled perfons, by a Danifh Perkinifl, it is enough to obferve, that the I have to mention the mean attempt to circulate/a^ different efFefts of the Galvanic metals on different per- trailors, and from the failure of thefe to throw dilcre- fons depend upon the difference of fliuiflure of the or- dit upon the difcovery. Three inflances of this kind gans ot fenfation in the /la/iiv;?^; whereas the different have occurred lately. Complaints having been made to effefls Cif the metallic tradlors relulr, according to this me that my tradlors would not cure the difeafes for account, from the diffiience of rtrucfure In the. organs vv-hich they are reconsmended, I was led to make in- ct fenfe of the various operators! N.iy, what is flill quiry refpedting the cafes alluded to; and conceiving more extraordinary, if any thing can be more extraor- ihem fit fubjedi for the tradlors, I called on the pa- dinary than this, is, that the value of the traflors de- tierits to apply them myfelf. In both inflances (it was psnds, not upon the rnater'ials of which they are made, juil now in three inflances) I found they had been ufing or \.\\ijiill of the manufafturcr, but upon fome incon- counlerfeit traflors. Had not this been difcovered, the celvable vi:tue conveyed by Mr Perkins to the perfon merit oi {.hi patent traitors mull have fuffered extreroe- of him by whom they zxe fold. This we learn froin a ly !" pamphlet publiflied by Charles Cunningham Long- This is very extraordinary. The cLaraHer or fame worthy, furgeon in Ba'.h ; who informs us, that he fells of any thing may indeed be injured by a counierf'eit ; Ti.- r.J/1- trailers by co>>w:iJfion from Mr Perkins the original ma- but we believe this is the firtl inflance of the tnerit or '"^^ °f ^""^^'^^^^'^^'^ IT London." d merit of one inanimate fubftance being increafed or <«i AW- ■^'^t^''. jhis article was fent to the pref«, and thus dim.iiiifhed by another at a dillance from it, of the Ik tree- "'^'^^ °' 't printed, we received, from a friend in L^n- hardnefs of fteel, for inflance, being diminifiied by the /orj, t^-j. Jon, a copy of Mr Perkins's lall publication on the foltnefs of lead! But we beg Mr Peikins's pndon. jSoo. fuhjed * ; in which he endeavours to repel the ohjec- The merit of his traclors confills in their putting mo- ney lifm. p E k L 729 ] PER Tcrkir.u'm, . II Peroufe. rcy into his pocl^et ; and that merit might certainly be injured by the ufe of counterfeits. Hence, with great propriety, he informs the pubhc, that evsxy genuine fet is Ramped wiih the words Perkins's patent trac- tors, accompanied wirh a receipt for the five guineas, numbered and figned in the handwriting of the paten- tee. From thefe faifls we infer (and he muft acknow- ledge the inference to bejuft), iliat the virtue of the traftors refides in the patent, rellriifling the making of them to Benjamin Douglas Perkins., and not to the me- tal oi which they are made. This is indeed mnft ob- vious ; for he cannot be fuch a ftranger to the ftate of chemical fcience in this country, as to iuppofe that his traflors may not be analyfed into their component prin- ciples, and, of courfe, that others may not be made pofleffing all their virtues except fuch as refult from the patent. We fhall conclude this article in the words of the re- viewer already quoted : " To trace the relations and dependencies of projeds fimilar to that of Dr Perkins, would now be a work of more labour than utility. The fund of public credulity is an inexliauftible refource for thofe who can refolve to levy contributions on it. In vain is the fpirit of quackery exorcifed in one form ; it rifes again immediately, * with twenty ghaftly murders on its head, to pufh us from our ftools.' We, who have contemplated the progrefs of real knowledge du- ring a long courfe of years, have feen many biibliles like this glitter for a moment, and then difappear tor ever. People may talk of Mefmerifm, or Perkinifm, but we con(ider all fucli varieties as belonging to the old and extenfive clafs of Charlatanifm." PERKINS, Port, lies on the S. W. of Wafhlng- ton's Ifle, on the N. W. coall of N. America. — Mone. PERKIOMIN, a townlhip of Pennfylvania, in Montgomery county. — ib. PERLICAN, Old, an indifferent (lilp road with rocky ground on the E. coall of Newfoundland Ifland, 2 leagues S. W. by S. of Break Heart Point. Sher- wick is the name of its N. point. — ib. Perlican, Neiu, a noted li.irbour on the E. coafl of Newfoundland Illand, 8 leagues W. S. W. of Old Perlican, and j leagues from Rdndom Head. It has a wide and fafe entrance, and Ih ps may ride in it land- locked from all winds in from 10 to 5 fathoms water. —ib. PERNAMBUCO, a captaindilp in the northern di- vifion of Brazil, whofe chief town ib Olinda. — ib. Pbrnambuco, or Phemamluco, (-therwife called Panambuco, a place of conliderable trade on the E. coaft ot Brazil, having a bay or h.iib'iiir of the fame name; fiiuated between P.iraiba on the N. and Cape St Augulline on the S. in hit. 8 S. and Ion;.;. 35 W. Provifiuns and other articles are bioujihi hitlicr from Para, and from hence gieat quaniiues of tobacco are fent oiF to Europe. — ib. Pernamuuco, a river on the coafl of Bra7.ii, S. Ame- rica, foiuhward of Tameiica Iflind. It is blocked up with fand ; and (hips enter it from the northward, at the entrance cf the Rcccif harbour, j leagues irom it. S. lat. 8 30, W. long. 35 7. — ib, PEROUSE (John Francis GJoiip de la), the cele- brated, though unfortunate, French u.ivigator, was botn at Albi in I74l. Of the rank or condition cf his fa- ther, M. Alilii-ATureau has given us no ialornuuion in SuppL. Vol. II. that meagre eulogy of Peroufe which he has inferted Peroufe. in the introdniftion to his Lift voyage. It appears, how- ^-^'^^'*— ' ever, that he intended to make his fon a leaman, and fent him, at a very early period of life, to the marine fchool, where the young man became enthuri.ifticaliy fond of his profefflon, and laudably ambitious to emu- late the fame of the moll celebrated navigators. Being appointed a midlhipman on the icjlh of No- vember 1756, he behaved, we are told, witli great bra- very in that llation, and was fevcrely wounded in the engagement between the admirals Haivke and Con- flans, on the joth of November, 1759. The Formida- ble, in which he ferved, was taken, after a vigorous re- fiftance ; and it is probable that Peroufe reaped feme advantage from his acquaintance with Britilh officers. On the ill of Oiflober 1764 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant ; and defpiling a life of enk and idk- nefs, he contrived to be employed in fix different fliips of war during the peace that fublifted between Great Br'- tain and France. In 1767 he was promoted to the rank ot what, in the Britdh navy, is called majler and comm.tnd- er. In 1779 he commanded the Amazone, belonging to the fquadron of Vice-admiral Count d'Eltairg ; and when that officer engaged Admiral Byron, the poft of La Peroufe was to carry his admiral's orders to tlie whole of the line. He afterwards took the (loop Arid, and contributed to the capture of the Experiment^-s%. ploits which his eulogift feems to confider as inflances of very uncommon heroifm ; but he foon after per- formed a greater. Being, on the 4th of April 1780, appointed captain of the trigaie AJlrea, and being on a cruife with the Hennione, thefe two frigates attacked fix Engli(h vclTels of war, of from 28 to 14 guns each, and took two of them. The French certainly reaped more laurels about that period than they have been accullomed to do in naval wars with Great Britain ; but as we have com- pletely forgotte.i the particulars of this fight, we fuf- peift that it was not altogether fo very brilliant a bufi- nefs as M. Milet-Mureau is pleafed to reprefent it. In the year 1782, La Peroufe was difpatched with the Sceptre of 74 guns, and two frigates of 36 guns each, Iiaving fome troops and field pieces on board, to dellroy the Englifh fettlements in Hudfon's Bay. This talk was eafily accomplilhed ; for when he had fur- mounted the difficulties of navigation in a frozen fea, he found nothing on fhore to oppofe the fmalleft force. Having dellroyed the lettlements, he learned that fome of the Englilh had fled at his approach into the woods; and his euh gill confiders it Ifuch are the difpofitinns of Freni:h republicans) as a molt wondeiful inltance ol hu- m.iuity, that he left to tliefe unfortunate men proviUons to pielerve them from periflviig by hunger, and arms to proteft them Irt m ihe fury of the lavages ! Pel mile, we dare anfwer for him, was confcious of nothing he- roic or extraord'iiary in this aift of beneficence, wliich lie ccrtauily could not have omitted, without incurring both intamy and guilt. In the year i 785, he was appointed to the command of a voyage round the world ; wliich was untoituuate- ly dcllined to be his laft. Of tliis voyage, as far as it was accomplilhed, there is a lull account in the hands of every Fiench and Englilh reader ; and from that ac- count it appears, that Ptriuife was admirably qual i^tdt. to dilcharge fuch a trull. He feeins to have been an * 4 Z cxpeiienccd PER [ 730 ] PET Perpendi- cular, experienced and (k\\M feainan; a man of confiderable matbtniuical and phylical fcience, uncnrruptad by that phllofonhifrn which dii'ijraced many of his attendants ; , and capable of the utrnoft perfeverance in every laud- able puifuit. To (hcfe qualities he united a proper combination of caution and courage, vviih a dilpofuion truly benevolent to thevaiious tribes of favages whom lie vifited. The difallers which occurred on the voy- age were all, except the laft, of which nothing is known, occafioned by the difobedience of his ofBcers, or their neglecling to fuUow his advice. The lall difpatches of this great and good man were incorporated in 1792. It is an excellent trafl of land, and fettling faft. In 1796, there were, of the inhabi- tants, 120 qualified eleftors. — ib. PERWANNAH, in the language of Bengal, an order of government, or a letter from a perfon in au- thority. PETAGUEL, a territory of S. America, in Brazil, bounded N. by Dele ; E. by the S. Atlantic Ocean ; S. by the captainfhip of Rio Grande ; and W. by Tu- puy. It contains mines of filver. — Morse. PETAPA, one of the pleafanteft towns of Guati- mala, in New Spain. It is fituated at the wellern ex- Alureau has indeed given us, at fome length, the child- ilh conjeiflures of the Society of Natural Hiftory re- fpeifting his fate, which, in language equally childifh, ■were delivered at the bar of the National Aliembly ; and he has added the ridiculous decree which that body of legiflative fciolifts pafTed in confequence of fo extra- ordinary a fpeech. We will not difgrace our pages, or infult the memory of Peroufe, by contributing to the contains 5,440 inhabitants, of whom 1878 are flaves. —ib. PERSIAN or PtRMC, in architefiure, a name com- mon to all ftatues of men, ferving inftead of columns to fuppnrt entablature?. PERSON, a new county in HllKborongh dlfirifl, N. Carolina. Tiie court houfe, where a poft-ofKce is kept, is 26 miles N. of HilKborough, and 34 E. of Cafwell New Court-lioufe. — Morse. PERTH-AMBOY, a city of New Jerfey, pleafantly fituated in Middlesex county, at the head ot Rariton Bay, and ftands on a neck of land included betv/een long 56 17. — ib. Rariton river and Arthur KuU Sound. Its fcite is high and healthy. It lies open to Sandy Hook, and has one of the bed harbours on the continent. Velfels irom fea may enter it In one tide, in almoft any weaiher. It is a port of entry and poft town ; but although it is admirably fituated for trade, and the legiflature has given every encouragement to induce merchants to lettle here, it is far from being in a flourilliing (late. It contains about 60 houfes, and carries on a fmall trade to the W. Indies. Its exports for a year, ending 30th Sept. 1794, were to the value of 58,159 dolls. It is 35 miles foiuh-weft of New York, and 74 north- eall of Philadelphia. N. lat. 40 35, W. long. 74 50. — ib. Pcrwan- rah, « Peter. dated from Botany Bay, February the 7th 1788; and tremity of the valley of Mexico, 25 miles S. E. of fince that period, no account of him has been received Guatimala. There is a rich fugar plantation in its which is intitled to the fmalleft confidence. M. Milet- vicinity.— /*. PETAWONTAKAS, an Indian nation formerly in alliance with the Hurons. — ib. PETER'S Bank, St, a large filLing ground off the 8. end of Newfoundland Ifland, and extends from Cape Race to St Peter's Ifland, oppofite Placentia, St Mary and TrepalTy Bays. It is i-^ degrees of latitude in breadth on the W. fide. From St Peter's Ifland it decreafes as it approaches Race Point. It lies W. of circulationofnonfenfe, which, we are perfuaded, would the Great B.ank, and has on the S. at a confiderable have made him blulh for his country. dillance. Green and Whale Banks, which are among PERPENDICULAR, in gunnery, is a fmall in- the fmallefl on the coaft. It has from 45 to 30 fathoms flrument, ufed for finding the centre line of a piece in water on it. — ib. the operation of pointing it to a given obje<ff. Peter's Bay, St, on the S. coaft of Cape Breton PERPETUA, Cape, on the north weft coaft of N. Ifland, having St Peter's Ifland at its mouth. — ib. America. N. lat. 44 6, W. long. 124 8. Variation Peter's Fort, St, on the ifland of Martinico, in the of the compafs in the year 1779, 17 50 E. — Morse. Weft Indies. N. lat. 14 44, W. long. 61 21. — ib. PERQUIMONS, a county of Edenton dlftrift, N. Peter's Harbour, St, on the N. coaft of the ifland of Carolina, houndtd W. by Cliowan county, and E. by St John's, in the Gulf cf St Lawrence, about 8 leagues Pafqufitank, from which laft it is feparated by the W. of Eaft Point. Weft of it are Anguille Bay and river Pafquotank, a water of Albemarle Sound. It Port Chimene. — ih: Peter's Haven, St,.on the E. coaft of Labrador, lies round the S. E. point of Sadel Bay. N. lat. 56 30, W. long. 60 42. — ib. Peter's IJland, a fmall ifle on the W. coaft of St John's Ifland, near to, and N. by W. of. Governor's (fland, in the narroweft part of the ftrait between New Brunfwick and St John's Ifland. — ib. Peter's IJland, St, or St Pierres, on the fcuthem coaft of Newf lundland Ifland, lies S. S. W. of the S. E. point of Fortune Bay, and near to, and S. E. of, the S. point of Miquelon Ifland. N. lat. 4646, W. Peter's, ^9/, one of the Virgin Ifles, in the Weft Indies, dependent on Virgin Gorda. — ib. Peter's, St, a harbour at the W. end of Sydney or Cape Breton Ifland, is a very commodious place for carrying on the filhery. — ib. Peter's, St, a town at the fouthern extremity of Cape Breton Ifland. It ftands on an ifthmiis about half a mile broad, which feparates the liarbour of St Peter from the great lake of that name, alfo called Lake Labrador. It is about 10 miles N. E. of Point Tou- loufe. To this harbour veflels of the greateft burden can come with fafety. Before the American revolu- tion, a great filhery was carried on liere. — ib. Peter, Lake St, a part of St Lawrence river, into PERU, a new townfliip of New York, in Clinton which empty from the S. and E. Sorel river from Lake county, on the weft fide of Lake Champlain. It was Champlain, the river St Francis, and fome fmaller taken from the towns of Plattfburg and WiUfljurg, and rivers, from the N. W. The Mafquinonge, Omachis, Sic.. PET [ 73' ] PET Peter's, &c. enter the lake. The centre of ihe lake is 68 miles fides the value of peach and apple brand/, wliilkcy. above Quebec, and 205 N. E. of Kingfton, at the S;c. not included. The Indian pi incefs, Pocahontas mouth of Lake Ontario. — ib. the daughter of king Powljatan, from whom dcfLei.deJ , Peter's Mou/iluin, in Pennfylvania, lies on Sufque- the Randolph and 13owhng families, fnrmeily relided hannah river, between Halifax and Harrifbjrg, in at this place. It is So miles W. by N. of Njtfolk, Dauphin county. — ii. 159 S. by W. of Alexandria, and 303 fouth-weil by Peti;r St and St Paul, a river at the bottom of the fouth of Philadelphia. N. lat. 37 14, W. Ion". 7^ 8, gulf of Campeachy. Its. branches form an ifland called — ib. Tabafco. The bar at the mouth of the eaftern branch Petersburg, a veiy flonrilhing pofl town of Geor- admits fmall velfeh. At flood there is from 2\ to 3 gia, in Elbert county, in a pleafant and healthful fitua- fathoms water, and very good anchorage within the tion, on the point of land formed by the confluence of bar. — ib. Broad with Savannah river. Several refpeiftable mer- Peter's, Sl,2i parifh of S. Carolina, in Beaufort dif- chants are fettled in this town. It is 15 miles from trift. — i'l). Elberton, 20 N. by E. of Walhington, 50 above Au- Peter's, St, one of the north-wedern branches of pufta, 73 N. of Louifville, and S36 from Philadelphia. Milliliippi river, which it joins in l.u. about 45 6 N. N. lat. 33 46, W. long. Si 32 ib. and long. 94 22 W.— ;i. PETERSBURGH (St), the capital of Ruffia, is Peters, a townlhip of Franklin county, Pennfyl- a city, of which a pretty full hiftorical detail has been vania — ib. given in the Encyclopedia. It is introduced here mere- PETERDOROUGH, a pod town In HilKborough ly on account of its police, which, according to the county. New Hamplhire. It was incorporated in 1760, anonymous author of tlie life of Catharine II. has a and contains 861 inhabitants. It is 73 miles W. by very limple and competent organization, and deferves to S. of Ponfmoulh, 18 wefterly of Amherll, 16 E. of be adopted in other great capitals. Excepting the go- Keene, and 366 from Philadelphia. N. lat. 42 51, W. vernor, whofe office naturally extends to all ol j.ds of long. 71 52. — ib. public welfare, the head police-mafter is the proper PETERSBURG, a townlhip of New York, in chief of the whole fyftem of police. His office takes in RenlTelaer county, E. of the village of Troy, incorpo- the great compafs of this department, but confined to rated in 1793. 1" '79^ ihz'ti were 512 of the inhabi- the general objedls of public fecurlty and order. He tants qualilied eleflors. — ib. is not here, as in fome large towns, the formidable co- Petersburg, a pofl town of Pennfylvania, in York partner of family fecrets, and the invifible witnefs of county, 2 miles north of the Maryland line. It con- the aftions of the private man. Under the head po- tains a Roman Catholic church, and about 80 houfes. lice-mafter is the police office, where fit a police-mafter. It is 25 miles fouth-weft of York Town, 59 northerly two prefidents, the one for criminal, the other for civil of the Federal City, and 113 weft by fouth of Phila- cafes, and two confulters,cholen from the burgher clafs. delphia. N. lat. 39 42 30, W. long. 77 4. — ib. To this is committed the care to maintain decorum, Petersburg, a fmall town ol Kentucky, fituated in good order, and morals; alfo it is its bufinefs to fee to Woodford county, on the E. fide ot Kentucky river, the obfeivance of the laws, that the orders iflued by gc- 19 miles W. S. W. of Lexington, and 15 fouth fuuth- vernmenf, and the decifions of the courts of julUce, eaft. of Frankfort. It has a tobacco warehoufe, and a are put in force. The attainment of thsfe purpofes is few dwelling houfes. — ib. efleeled by the following mechanifm : Petersburg, a pod town of Virginia, and a place The refidence is divided into ten departments. Each of confiderable trade; fiiuated in Dinwiddle county, of thefe has a prefident, appointed to watch over the on the fouth-eaft bank of Appamatox river, juft below laws, the fecurity, and the order of his dillrifl. The the falls, about 25 miles fouth of Richmond. It con- duties and rights of this office are not lefs eitenfive tains about 300 houfes, built irregularly. The Free than important. A prefident mull have exaift know- Mafon's Hall is a handlom ■ buildmg ; there are feveral ledge cl the inhabitants of his departnient, over which tobacco warehoufes, Itores of dry goods, and fome few a tort of parental authoiity is committed to him ; he is neat and commodi.'us dwelling houfes. This town is the cenfor morum of his department ; his houfe muft not a corporation, and comprehends the village of Bland- be bolted or barred by night or day, but muft be a place ford, in Prince George's county, and Pawhatan, in ol retuge, continually open to all that are in danger or Chellerfield county, on the oppofite fide ot the river, diltrels ; he himfell may not quit the town for the fpace It contains 2,828 inhabitants, including 1,265 Ih'ves. of two hours, without committing the difcharge of his The fituation of the town is low and rather unhealthy, office to fome other pcifon. The police commando From the infpedor's books it appears, that on an (conftables), and the vvarchmcn of his department, are average for the laft 10 years, the quantity ot to- under liis orders ; and he is attended on all affairs of hacco received here has conliderably exceeded 20,000 his office by two ferj^ants. Complaints againft unjuft hhds. per annum ; and for the laft thrie years the quan behaviour ia the prefident may be brought to the po- tity i>f flour made in this town and within an hundied lice office. yards of it, has exceeded 38,000 barrels; at other Each department is again divided into three, four, or mills within a few miles, 16,000 barrels per annum ; five fubdivilions, called qua- ter;-, of which, in the whole to this add the flour made at the feveral country mills refidence, are 42. Eacii of tliefe has a quaitcr-infpec- and bioughl to this place for fal^, the whole quantity tor, in fubordination to whom is a quarter-lieutenant, may fafely be dated to exceed 6c, coo barrels per The duty of thefe policc-othcers is in harmony with annum. The whole exports of this town, valued at that of the prefident, only that their aftivity is confin- the ufual peace prices, amount to 1,389,300 dolls, be- ed to a fmallcr circle. They fettle low alVaiis and llighc * 4 Z 2 altercations Pc.crf- burj, I Pet£rf- burgh. PET C 732 ] PET Peurf- altercations on the fpot, and keep a watchful eye on nations may be called, have always been attended with Lurgh. all that palfei. the fame bad fuccefs on this ftage. ""^ ^^^ Tlic number of the nigluly watch in the city amounts From this (ketch it will be readily imagined, that the to 500. Tliey have their llations affigned them in number of impoltors and dillurbets of the public peace watchhoufes at the corners of llreets : and, befides tlieir can be but fm.ill. Quarrels and affrays in the ftreet or proper dellination, are to aliift in the taking up of of- iu the cabaks but fcldom happen. The perfo.i attack- lenders, and in any fervice, by day or night, as their cj calls the neareft watchman ; and in a moment bo;h commanders Ihall require. Befides thefe, for the exe- the aggrcffor and the aggrieved are taken into cuftody, cution iif the police orders, and to aifl as patroles, there and led to tjie next fieja (police-watch-houle), where is alfo a commando of i 20 men, who, in caft;s of emer- the caufe of their quarrel is inquired into, and the ag- gcncy, are fupported by a company of kofaks, or a re- grelTor is punifhed. For matters of fome defcriptions, ijiment of huliars. there is a peculiar tribunal, under the denomination of This machine, confifling of fo many fubordinate the oral court, which, on account of its Angularity, de- parts, preferves in its oide.-ly courfe that fecurity and ferves to be briefly noticed. peace which excite the admiration of all foreigners. In each quarter of the town are one or more judges Theadivity of every individual member is unobferved in of the oral court, who are chofen from the clafs cf the operation of the whole; and by fuch a diftribution burghers, and with whom are allociated a few jurats, alone is the attainment of fo complicated an aim pradli- This court fits daily in the forenoon, and proceeds oral- cable. — All the quarter-infpedors of a department re- ly in all the differences that come before it. It, how- pair every morning, at feven o'clock, to their infpec- ever, keeps a day-book, in which are entered all the tor's houfe, to lay before him the report of all that has caufes and decifit ns of the court, and which muft be happened in their quarters during the laft 24 hours ; every week laid before the magiftrate. When a charge and at eight o'clock, all the infpeftors bring together is brought, the court declares it orally to the prefident, thefe feveral reports into the police-office, wheteuptjn of the quarter : whereupon the accufed muR not delay they firlt and immediately take into examination the his appearance before the police longer than one day cafes of perfons taken into cullody during the night, alter he has received the fununons. Every caufe mull On urgent cccafions, the police-office aiTembles at all be determined in one day, or, if the examinations require hours. more time in coUefling, in three days. Theoralcourt This organization, and the extraordinary vigilance of communicates the decidon to the prefident of the quar- the police, which is found competent to the bufinefsof ter by means of his day-book, in order to its ratifica- a numerous and refllcfs people, render all fecret inqui- tion. If either party is not iatisfied with the fentence, fitions unnecelTary. The police has knowledge of all he may appeal to the court as appointed in the regula- perfons in the refidence ; travellers who come and go tions. are lubjefl to certain formalities, which render it ex- This is a very favourable account of the police of Gt tiemely difficult to conceal their place of abode, or their Peterfburgh ; but it is differently reprefented in Beau- departure irom the city. To this end, every houfe- joiin's Travels of tiuo Frcmhmen through RuJJla, in liclder and innkeeper is obliged to declare to the police, 1790 — 1792, According to him, the police of the who lodges with him, or what fti angers have put up at capital of that empire is far from being on the moft re- his houfe. If a ftranger or lodger llays out all night, fpecftable fooling. There liappen, indeed, but few ac- the landlord mull inform the police of it at lateftonthe cideuts in the night; yet fometimes murders are com- third day of his abfence from his houfe. The cautiona- mitted, and efpecially thefts ; for which, according to ry rules, in regard to travellers quitting the town, are our author, it is exceedingly rare to obtain jnftice. iliU more flrift. Thefe muft publiili in the newfpapers When a perfon has been alfaffinated in fiime place of their name, their quality, and their place of abode, three bad repute, the police-officer is eiignged to iecrecy by feveial times, and produce thenewfpaj-.ers containing the means of a few rubles ; fo that the affair is fiion hufhed advenifement, as a credential in tiie government from up, unlefs the deceafed belonged to fome powerful fa- which they then receive their paffport ; without which, mily, whofe interelf makes it neceifary that inquiries it is next to impollible to get out of the empire. This fhould be inlliluted. When two perfons quarrel, either regulation not only fecures the creditor of the perfon in the flieet or in a public-houfe, he who pays the in- about to depart, but alio enables the police to keep a quirer is always in the right: the inferior police-officers clofer infpedion over all fufpecled inhabitants. are never proof againft money; and the/oj/- individual. It individuals may be fjrpe(5led by ihe government, whether he be in the right or wrong, is almoft fure of a becaufe their means of fupport, the company they keep, beating. and their whole courfe of aflion, ate clofely wrapped PETERSHAM, a flouriftiing and pleafant townfhip up in myllery ; fo likewife may whole focieties be lefs in Worcelter county, Maifachufetts, formerly called by indifferent to it, if they carefully conceal the obje(fl of the Indians Nichewaug ; fituated 28 miles N. W. of their conneiftion, or their very exiftence, from the eye Woicefter, and 66 W. of Bollon. Swift river, a of the public. The police watches here, with laudable branch of Chickopee river, pafTes through this town. attention, over fecret focieties of all kinds ; and fre- The foil is rich and fertile, and here arc large and ex- quently as. the fanatical fpirit of religious or political cellent orchards. — Morse. fedaries, or the enthufiafm of pretended myllagogues, PETIT ANSE, a village on the north fide of the have attempted to neftle here, they have never been ifland of St Domingo, 2| leagues fouth of Cape Fran- able to proceed, or only for a very fhort time. Ani- cois. — U>. Rial magnetifm, Martinifm, Rofycruiianifm, and by PETITCODIAK, a river which falls into an arm \vhatever other name th; conceits of diftempered imagi- of the Bay of Fundy, called Chegnefto Channel. The Indians Peterf- burgh, Petit-Gou- fre, II Petivcr. VET C 733 Indians have a communication from the head of it with St John's liver, by a poitage acrofs lo the head of Ken- nebecfius. — ii. PE ri r-GOUFRE, or the Little Whirlpoo!, in Mifllf- fippi river, is 3 1 miles from Fort Rcfalie, and 4 miles from liaycuk Pierre, or Siony river. — ib. PETIT GUAVES, or Coart-, a jurifdiaion, town, and bay, on the N. coaft of the S. peninfula of the ifland of St Domingo, and near the head of the Bay or Bite of Leogane. The jurifdlflion contains 5 parifhes, and is the unheahhiefl place in the colony, the inhabitants being conRantly fubjeft to fevers, occafioned by the badnefs of the waters. Its dependencies, however, are healthy, and are remarkable for the cuhure of ccfFee. Its exports from January i. 1789, to December 31, of the fame year, were 37,090 lb. white fogar — 655,187 lb. brown fugar — 807,865 lb. coffee — 50.053 lb. cotton, and 210 lb. indigo. 1'he value of duties on expcrta- ttoii of the above, was 4,127 dollars 97 cents, 'i'he town lies on the E. fide of the bay, 2-\ leagues weflward of Grand Gnave, and 14I W. by S. of Port-auPrince : N. lat. 18 27, W. long, from Paris, 75 14. Some writeiscall the great bay, which is commonly called the Bay, Bight, or Bite of Leogane, by the name of Petit Guave<. — ib. PETIT PORT, on the W. fide of Newfoundland ] P H A fiderable bufinefs, and after a time became apothecary Pctiver, to the charter houfe. After the Tradefcants, he ap- 1 pears to have been the only perfon, except Mr Courten ^^J^^^Jf!^ and Sir Hans Shane, who made any confiderable eel- leflion in natural hiftory, previous to thofe of the pre- fent day. He engaged the captains and furceons of lliips to bring him home fpecimens, and enabled them to icleift proper objecfls, by printed dire.aions which l.e diftributed among them. By thefe means his collec- tion became fo valual>le, that fome time before his death, Sir Hans Sloane offered him L. 4000 for it. After his death, it was purchafed by the fame coUeflor. His mufeum extended his fame both at home and abroad. He was eleifled into the Royal Society ; and becoming acquainted with Ray, affiled him in arranging the fe- cond volume ot his Hiffory of Plants. He died April 20. 1718 ; and much honour was fiiewn to him at his funeral, by the attendance of Sir Hans Sloane, and other eminent men, as pall bearers, &c. By future bo- tanifts, his name was given to a plant. See Pltivb- RiA, Encycl. He gave the world fcverol publications on various fubjects of natural hiftory: I. M:ffii Pdiveriam Centu- ria Jecnii, 1692 — 1703, 8vo. 2. Cazo/'tjlaci: AWutf, it y.'r/i!, DecaJts ihccm, folio, J 702, with 100 plates A Catalogue of Mr Ray's Englifh Herbal, illuftra- Ifland, towards llie S. end; is about 5-5 leagues N. of ted with figures, folio, 1713, and continued in 171 Cape Ray, and one S. of Anguille Cape. N. lat. 47 52 JO, W. long. 59 15. — ib. Petit Port, on the coaft of Peru, otherwife called Porlete, or Link Port, lies a flioit way noilhward of the equator, and about 5 leagues to the S. E. within the bay from Cape Francis to Cape Palfado on the S. by W. There is anchorage in 5 fathoms, and plenty of frefh water near the head land, which is high. It is neceffdry to found, on account of the fand-banks, call. ed the Porleics. — ib. PETIT TERRE IJIanJ, near Defeada, in the Weft- Indies. N. lat. 16 I.)., W. long. 61 1 1 . — ib. PETITE RIVIERE, a fmall lown in the French part of the ifland of St Domingo, clofe to the Spanilh divifion line 1^ leagues N. by N. W. of Varettes, and feparated Irom it by tlie river Artibonite ; 10 leigues E. by N. of St Marc, and as far N. W. of Mirebalais. N. lat. 19 8, W. long, from Paris, 74 48. — ii. PETIT TROU, is on the north fide of the fouth 4. Many fmall publications, which may be found enu- merated in Dr Pultney's book. 5. Many papers in the Philofophical Tranfaclions, and a material article in the third volume of Ray's work, entitled, P/anta Ra- rioret Chiiunfes Madrafpalancf, el Africans, a 'Jaali Pet:v:ro ad opus Confummandum Collatx, S:c. Many of his fmaller tra^s having become very fcarce, his works were collected and publifhed, exclufive of his pa- pers in the Tranfadtions, in 2 vols folio, and one iivo. in the year 1764. PETTQUOTTING, a tiver of the N. W. Territo- ry, which empties into Lake Erie, fiom the foulh, near Huron river. — Morse. PHASIANUS (See Encycl.). A fpecies of this genus of birds, foimerly not defciibed, was ft.nt from Batavia to England by Lord Macartney, or {ovaz of his attendant;, when they were on their voyage to Chi- na. The fpecies to wliich it feemed to be moft neatly allied, in point of general habit or appearance, was the peninfula of the ifland of St Donjingo, on the point of fhafianus curvirojlris, or Impeyan plieafant; an Ea If- land which forms the eaft fide of the entrance into the Bay of Baradaites; 44 leagues weftward of Anfe a Vcau, and igcallerly of Jereinie. — ib. Petit Troo, a fmall cove on the fouth fide of the ifland of St Domingo, S. by W. nf the mouth of Ney- be river, and about 5 leagues N. E. of Beate Ifland. Small balks come to this place irom St Domingo city, to fetch the meat, lard, and fowls derived from the chafe. — ib. PETIV'ER (James), a Hmf^us Englifn botaniff, was contemporary with Plukenet : but the exaft time of his birth is not known, nor is much intelligence con- cerning him at prcient to be obtained. His profeflion was that of an apothecary, to which he was ;<pprenticcd under Mr Filtham then apothecary to St Bartholo- ■ mew's hofpit.il*. When he entered into bufinefs for "liimfelf, lie fettled in Alderfgate-flreer, and there con- tinued for the remaiader of his life. He obtained con- Indian bird, defcribed and figured both in Mr Latham's Ornithology, and in the Mufeum Leverianum. From that bird, however, it differs very confiderably. The tail of the latter being in a mutilated llaie, it was fcarce pofllble to determine, with abfolute preclfion, whether it Ihould be referitd to that fubdivifion of pheafants, which contains thofe with hmg or cuneiform tails, or thofe with rounded ones, as in the Impeyan pheafant. The i;eneral colour of this moft elegant bird was black, with a glofs of blue, or wliat, in the l.inguige of natu- ral hiftory, may be termed chul) bean black, or black accompanied by a fteel blue luftrc. The loA'er part of the b.tck was of a peculiarly rich colour, which ac- cording to the different dire^ions tf the light, ap- peared cither of a deep ferruginous or oi the bright- eft fiery orange-red. This beautiful colour palled in the manner of a broad /.one round the whole body; but on the abdomen was of a much more obfcure appearance- P H I C 734 ] P H I appearance than on the back, as well as fomewhat broken or irregular, efpecially on the fides. The throat was furniflied with a large, and I'omewhat an- gular, pair of wattles uniting with the bare ("paces on the c'leeks. The feathers on the top of the head, which was of a lengthened form, ran a little backward, fo as to give the appearance of an indillinft occipital creft. The bealc was remarkable for a more lengthened and curved afpefl than in any other bird of this genus, ex- cept the Inipeyan pheafant. The feathers on the neck, back, and breall, were rounded, and of the fame (hell- like or fcaly habit as thofe of the turkey. The legs very llout, and were armed with a pair of extremely ftrong, large, and (harp fpurs. Both legs and beak were of a pale colour. Whether this bird be really new or not to the ornithologifts of Europe, it may at leall be affirmed with fafety, that it had never been properly defcrlbcd ; nor can the charafler of any fpecies, hither- to introduced into the books of any fyftematic natural- ift, be confidered as ajuft or competent fpecific charac- ter of the prefent bird. It may be called ihejire back- ed pheafant; and its eflential charafter may be delinea- ted in the following terms : Black pheafant with a (leel- blue glofs: the fides of the body rufous; the lower part of the back fiery ferruginous ; the tail rounded ; the two middle feathers pale yellow brown. — Sir George Staunton's Account of an Ettibajfy to China, i^c. PHILADELPHIA, a townftip in Rutland coun- ty, Vermont, about 15 miles E. of OrweU. It con- tains 39 inhabitants.— ilf(?r/f. PHILIP, a large ifland in Lake Superior, in the ter- ritory of the United States. It lies towards the fouth fide of the lake, and fouth-eaft of Ifle Royal. — ib. Philip's, St, a parilh of S. Carolina, fituated in Charlefton diftria.— /*. Philip, St, a fort which commands the entrance of Maranhao harbour, on the coall of Brazil. — ib. Philip, St, a point within the harbour of Port- Ri yal. S. Carolina. — ib. . PHILIPPE AU, an ifl.inJ on the north fide of Lake Superior ; N. of Ille Royal. — ib. Philippeau, a bay on the north (!iore of the gulf ut St Lawrence, near the Straits of Bellifle, and partly formed by illands which project fouthward on its eall part, and extend towards the weft. The eaft part of the bay lies in lat. 5 i 20 north, and long. 55 40 weft. — ib. PHILIPPINA, a fmall town of the province of Guatimala, in New-Spain, fituated on a bay of the N. Pacific Ocean. N. lat. 12 50, weft long. 91 30. — ib. PHILIPSBURG, a town of New-Jerfey, fituated in Sulfex county, on the eaft bank of Delaware river, op- pofite to Ealton in Pennfylvania. It is 41 miles north- weft of Trentfn. — ib. PHILIPSBURGH, or Philipp'wn, a townfliip of New- York, in Dutchefs county on the eaft fide of Hud- fon's river, 28 miles above New- York, near the fouth end of Tappan Bay. It contains 2,079 inhabitants, in- cluding 25 flaves. In 1796, there were 347 of the in- habitants electors. In this townfhip is a filver mine, which yields virgin filver. — ib, PHILOPOLIS, a fettlement in Luzerne county, Pennfylvania, 1 2 or 14 miles weflward of Mount Ara- rat, and at the head of the weftern branch of Tunk- hanock Creek, about 45 miles fouth-eaft of Athens, or Tioga Point. N. lat. 41 40, weft long. 75 33. — ib. PHILOSOPHIST, a lover of fophiftry orfalfe rea. foning, in contradiftinflion to philofopher, who is a lover of found reafoning, true fcience, and praftical wifdoin. Philip, II Pliilofo- philh END OF THE SECOND VOLUME- Directions for Pla,cing the Plates. Plate 27 to face page 2 28 » • • 48 29 . » • 242 3°7 31^ • « • 278 3O 33^ • • • 316 34? 35 5 • • 426 36? 375 • • • 546 38? 395 • » 670 i 4 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. UNIVERSITY o.. AT 'itNiA D 000 162 055 8