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FERRIS, CHANCELLOR OF TETE UlSnCVEESITT OP THE CITY OF NEW TOKK, AS A TRIBUTE OP PROFESSIONAL RESPECT »0B SOUKB SCHOLABSHTP AND UNWEARIED LABORS IN THE CAUSE OF EDUCATION, NO LESS THAN AS A MEMORIAL OP PRIVATE ESTEEM AND FRIENDSHIP, THIS VOLUME fi» aacs|)ectfull2 JieliicateJj BY THE AUTHOE. 924221 PEEFACE The favor with which the public have kindly received the au- thor's "First Lessons in Composition ", and the frequent calls made by Colleges and higher Academies for a more advanced work on tlie same plan, with which to follow it, have led to the prepara- tion of the present volume. The elementary book to which refer- ence has just been made, was intended to initiate the beginner by easy steps into the art of composition ; the work now offered to the public has a wider scope, embracing a variety of subjects worthy of the attention of advanced pupils, and presenting much important matter heretofore scattered through a number of different text- books. Claiming to give a comprehensive and practical view of our language in all its relations, this "Advanced Course " views it as a whole, no less than with reference to the individual words compos- ing it ; shows how it compares with other tongues, modern and ancient ; points out its beauties ; indicates how they may best be made available ; and, in a word, teaches the pupil the most phil- osophical method of digesting and arranging his thoughts, as well as the most correct and effective mode of expressing them. The volume commences with a condensed history of our tongue, prefaced by a consideration of the origin of language in general, both spoken and written. Attention is first paid to the successive steps, by which, with divine aid, man was enabled to develop a system of spoken language, to frame that elaborate and wonderful fabric without which civilization would be blotted from the globe. The invention of letters and the various systems of writing form the next subjects in order. The primitive language of Britain is then traced through successive modifications, produced by as marly political changes, until at last the German invaders banished it to wilds and fastnesses, and introduced the sturdy mother-tongue of our own English. The history of the latter is then traced, from 6 PEEFACE. • tlie days of Hengist and lEorsa, through lines of Saxon kings, Scan- dinavian usurpers, and Norman conquerors ; until, modified, en- riched, and improved, by the foreign elements with which it was brought in contact, it became a new tongue, that was soon em- bodied by poets in undying verse, and was destined to give birth to the noblest and most valuable literature of modem times. The formation of the English language having been thus con- sidered, its words are treated of, with reference both to their origin and the parts they respectively perform in a sentence. The memory of the pupil being then refreshed by a condensed review of the leading topics of grammar, a chapter on false syntax, and an ex- haustive view of the principles relating to the use of Capitals, tho too generally neglected subject of Punctuation is next taken up. As this art, when considered at all in educational text-books, is treated only in the most cursory manner, it was regarded as a desideratum to present in this volume a complete and thorough system, which should cover exceptions as well as rules, and pro- vide for every possible case, however rare or intricate. Such a system, it is claimed, is here set forth. Rhetoric proper constitutes the next division of the work. Here, by means of strict conciseness, space has been found to treat with due attention and minuteness every important subject connected with tho art. The student is led to consider successively Taste, its elements, characteristics, and standard ; the pleasures of the imagination ; their sources, — the novel, the wonderful, the pictu- resque, the sublime, and the beautiful ; sublimity and beauty of writing; wit, humor, and ridicule; figures, their use and abuse; stylo, its varieties and essential properties; and criticism. A thorough preliminary course on these important subjects was thought necessary before requiring the student to write original exercises. Thus prepared, the pupil enters on the subject of Prose Compo- sition. Tho process of Invention, which fiimishes the thoughts to bo clothed in a dress of words, and which constitutes the most dif- ficult if not tho chief branch of tho art, is first considered. Tlio young composer is shown how to analyze his subject, and to am- plify the thoughts successively suggested into a well-connected whole. Tho difl'erent parts of an exercise aro taken uj) in turn ; various forms and models of introductions aro presented ; descrip- tion, narration, argument, &o., aro treated, and the peculiarities of PREFACE. 7 each pointed out, as well as the styles which they respectively re- quire. The varieties of prose composition follow ; and, with care- fully selected models before him, the student is required to prepare original compositions on the same plan,— such previous instruction having been given, and such aids being presented, that the process of composing, no longer a dull, routine, performance, becomes a highly intelligent and improving mental discipline. Thus made acquainted successively with Letters, Narratives, Fiction, Essays, Argumentative Discourses, and Orations, and furnished with sub- jects in each department and suggestions as to their proper treat- ment, the student is next led to the consideration of Poetry, its feet, measures, rhymes, pauses, and different varieties. The subject last referred to is not treated with the view of mak- ing poets. A claim to this high title must be founded on something more than a mere ability to versify or rhyme correctly. But, while it is admitted that no rules can make a poet of one whom nature has not constituted such, it is sincerely believed that a knowledge of the principles here set forth will have a tendency to produce more correct and better poetry, as it certainly will enable the reader to have a higher appreciation of its merits. Not every one who goes through a course of syntax can write good prose ; yet this does not alter the fact that a thorough acquaintance with syntax is essential to the good prose-writer. If it be asked what constitute the distinguishing features and advantages of the volume here presented to the public, the author would reply: In the first place, clearness and simplicity. Though the work was prepared for pupils of an advanced grade, and has been written in a style adapted to their comprehension, yet it was deemed of primary importance to set forth every point perspic- uously and intelligibly. Secondly, it embraces in small compass a variety of important subjects, which have a common connection, and mutually illustrate each other; but which the pupil has here- tofore been obliged to leave unlearned, or to search for among a number of different volumes. In the third place, it is eminently practical. Exercises have been introduced throughout the work, wherever admissible, which will insure that what has been learned is properly understood, and impressed on the mind. It remains for the author to acknowledge his obligation to the various sources from which he has received assistance in the prepa- ration of the present work. His object throughout having been to 8 PREFACE. produce a useful book, he did not feel at liberty to reject aught that could be turned to practical use. lie has, therefore, as far as was consistent with his own plan, carefully gleaned whatever he has found of value in the works of those who have preceded hiin. Par- ticular reference is here made to the text-books which for years have been regarded as standards on the subjects of wliich they re- spectively treat ; to Blair's Lectures, Burke on the Sublime and Beautiful, Alison's Essay on Taste, and other books of a similar stamp, from which ideas, and occasionally language, have been freely drawn. Nor have more modern English publications been overlooked. In a word, it is believed that, while originality of plan and execution have been strictly maintained, whatever may have been elsewhere contributed to the elucidation of the subject, will not be wanting here ; at the same time it has been the au- thor's aim, in drawing from others, to improve upon their lan- guage, to adapt their style to the comprehension of all, and to avoid the errors of fact, grammar, or rhetoric, into which they may have fallen. The author is aware that an objection to the use of a text-book on Composition exists in the minds of some, who prefer that their pupils should prepare written exercises from given subjects without aid or instruction of any kind. Of such he would respectfully ask a careful consideration of the question whether something may not be gained by pursuing a regular, consistent, plan. As, in the vari- ous departments of industry, much more can be accomplished, in a limited time and with a given amount of labor, by those who work according to a definite enlightened system, than by men of equal energy, who, with an end alone in view, without regard to a choice of means, go blindly to their task, directed by no liigher principle than chance ; so, it is claimed, an equal advantage is gained by those students of composition who pursue a well-digested plan, matured by experience, and elaborated by careful thought. Those who have tried both courses must decide whether tliis position is not as consonant with fact, as it certainly is with reason. Repeating his thanks for the i)atronage extended to the little volume wliich preceded this, the author can only express tlie hope that the work now sent forth may meet with an equally kind reception. New York, Sept. 11, 1864. CONTENTS. PART I. HISTORY OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. LBSSOX rA«it I. Media of Communication, 13 II. Origin of Spoken Language, 17 III. Written Language, ........*.. 20 IV. Alphabetic Writing, n V. Formation of Language, 29 VI. Origin of tlie Englisli Language, * .34 VII. Origin of the English Language («m<«ftwe ositions, which indicate the relations subsisting between nouns (often called substantives) and other words. Though several important steps had by this time been taken towards the formation of a complete system of lan- guage, yet the means which it afforded of distinguishing ol>- cxample. Describe tho way In which NounB were formed. When were epeciti' nameB coined ? What dietlnct form was nftorwards adopted, and why ? Describe the necessity which called for the Adjective. Give an example. What other class of words had the name origin ? Give an example. Give an account of the origin of the Adjective rrououus Viis and that. What Article origiuatcd in the FOEMATION OF LANGUAGE. 31 jects were still imperfect ; for, when any substantive was used in discourse, as tree, river, horse, how was it to be known which of the many individuals embraced in the general class, which tree, river, or horse, was meant ? When the thing alluded to was within the range of sight, it could without difficulty be pointed out by a movement of the hand ; but, when this was not the case, it became necessary to invent words by which the particular object intended could be specified. Hence arose the Adjective Pronouns this and that, and the Article the. Verbs must necessarily have been coeval with the first attempts towards the formation of language, as no affirma- tion can be expressed without the assistance of this part of speech. We seldom speak except to express our opinion that something is or is not, that some act does or does not take place ; and the word which affirms the fact or state is always a Verb. Thus, then, we have seen Interjections, Nouns, Adjec- tives, Prepositions, Articles, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Verbs, successively called for by the wants of men, and consequently invented as component parts of language. Personal Pro- nouns were probably the creation of a later age. A young child, it has been observed, almost invariably repeats the noun instead of using the substitute. Speaking of himself, a child would be likely to say, "Give Johnny Johnny's whistle," and not " Give me my whistle." So great, indeed, seems to be the disinclination of youthful minds to multiply terms that it is often found quite difficult to teach them the use of the pronoun. Such was the case, in all probability, with man in tho infancy of his being; and it is not Hkely that he added this new species of words to his primitive and necessary stock, until sufficient advance had been made in same way ? What class of wor^s is required for the expression of aflarmations ? When did they coino iato use ? Of what class of words have we thus far traced the origin ? What part of speech was the creation of a later ag« ? Are children generally inclined to use the Personal Pronoun ? What do they employ in its place ? What is gained by 32 FORMATION OF LANGUAGE. the formative process to sliow their great advantage as re- gards brevity of expression and pleasantness of sound. Among the early races of men, it seems probable that there was much less said than at the present day. Their sen- tences were at once fewer, shorter, and simpler, than ours. As successive advances, however, were made, and it was found that natural intercourse was a source of pleasure, men did not confine themselves simply to what it was necessary to com- municate, but imparted freely to each other even such thoughts as had no practical bearing. The original brief mode of expression was gradually laid aside ; longer senten- ces were used ; and a new class of words was required, to con- nect clauses so closely related in construction and sense as not to admit a separation into distinct jDeriods. This was the origin of Conjunctions; and the same cause, when man's taste was still further improved and he began to think of beautifying language while he extended its jwwer of expres- sion, led to the invention of the Relative Pronoun. To tell how, when, and where the action expressed b}- the verb was performed, and also to indicate the degree in v.hich any object possessed a certain quahty, as for instance how tall a tree was, man's inventive faculties were not long in perceiving that a new species of words was required and in forming them accordingly. Adverbs were thus introduced ; and with them the elements of language, or Parts of Speech, as they are tei-med, were complete. Man now had the means of expressing fully and intelligibly all that came into his mind ; and his future efforts were to be chrected, not to the creation of new elements, but to improving and modifying those already devised, to harmonizing the whole and uniting them in a consistent system. Up to this iK)int necessity had the use of the Pereonal Prononn ? What was the character of the Bcntcnces used by the onrly races of men ? What chan^^e took place in the course of time ? What kind of Bcntcnccs came into nsc ? What new olasB of words was thns required ? What parts of cpeccli ori- jugated by the Romans about 50 b. c, and remained in pos- session of its conquerors for four centuries. It was an inva- riable point of policy with the Romans to introduce their own language into conquered states, as the most effective means of removing their prejudices and reconciling them to their bondage. Latin, consequently, supplanted a number of aboriginal tongues, just as English has superseded the ver- naculars of the native Indians of America. In some coun- tries, where a war of extermination was carried on, this change was immediate ; in others, it was more gradual. The Celtic of Britain, however, does not seem to have received much modification during the period of Roman supremacy. Our language has, it is true, many derivatives from the Latin ; but these came through the medium of the Norman French, and were not introduced in the days of Caesar or his immediate successors. Though numerous Roman garrisons wore stationed in the island, and though many of the Brit- ish youth were drafted into the annies of the Empire, while others were sent to Rome for their education, yet, either from their inaptness at learning or their aversion to those who had deprived them of liberty, the mass of the people continued firm in their attachment to their ancient language and in its exclusive use. Many, however, of the higher classes became accpiainted with Latin, and through their means some words were introduced fix)m it which arc still Is Celtic, the original laTifjiiajro of Britain, thq groundwork of onr present Enprlish ? Wliat connection is there between them ? §21. At what date (lid the lloinans 8uhjn?:nle Britain? How Ion? did it re- main in their poHscsslon ? What policy did the Iloniana pursue in the states they conquered? What was the consequence ? Does the Celtic of Britain appear to have received much modification during the period of Roman enpremacy? How, then, are wc to account for the Latin derivatives in our language ? What oppor- tunities did the British youth have of learning tho Romon tongue? "WTiydld ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 41 found in modem Welsh. English, also, contains a few terms introduced from the language of the Romans at this period ; such as the word street^ from the Latin strata / and names of places ending in coln^ a contraction oi colonia (a colony), and in cestei\ derived from castra (a camp). Hence the ori- gin of lAwcohi, heicester, Gloucester, &c. LESSON VII. ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (cONTINUEd). §22. The Saxon Conquest. — In this state of compara- tive purity the language of the British Celts remained until the beginning of the 5th century. About this time, the whole of Southern Europe began to be overrun by Goths, Huns, and other Northern barbarians ; who, allured by the advantages of a milder climate and more productive soil, emigrated from what was then called Scandinavia, answering to our modern Norway and Sweden, and wrested province after province from the Roman Empire. Tlieir conquest was so complete as to effect a radical change in the customs, laws, and of course dialects, of the districts they subjugated. The languages spoken by the Northern tribes were mostly of a common ori- gin, and belonged to the great Gothic stock ; yet, though resembling each other in their main features, they were dis- tinguished by many minor points of difference. The Huns and Lombards, overrunning Italy, soon corrupted the Latin lan- guage and originated the modern Italian. The Franks and Normans, grafting their vernacular on the Latin-Celtic of they not embrace these opportunities ? What class remained firmest In their at- tachment to their ancient language ? Through what class were a few Latin words introduced at this early period ? Give soma Latin derivatives of this date, with the words from which they were formed. §22. How long did the Celtic of Britain remain comparatively pure ? Aboiu this time, what incursions began to bo made in Southern Europe ? Whence did the Northern barbarians come ? What was the result of their conquests ? To what stock did their language belong ? Which of these tribes overran Italy ? What language originated in their corruptions of Latin ? What tribes grafted their vei" 4:2 OKIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Gaul, produced Norman French. Spanish and Portuguese arose from a similar combination of the language of the Visi- goths, with the half Celtic and half Roman patois of the Penin- sula, subsequently modified by the introduction of some Ara- bic elements during the supremacy of the Moors in Spain. Nor did Britain escape invasion. "While the attention of Scandinavian nations was directed principally towards South- ern Europe, several German tribes fixed their eyes on this isolated province of Rome ; and, either allured by the hope of plunder, or induced to send out colonies by the denseness of their population, despatched thither successive expeditions. Prior to this period, indeed, German colonies of greater or less size had been planted in Britain ; for we read that this was done by the Emperor Antoninus, at the close of the war with the Marcomanni. These early settlers, however, were too few to effect much change in the customs of the inhabitants. It may have been through these colonists that their kinsmen on the continent obtained a knowledge of the island, and were in- duced to emigrate thither in such numbers. Other accounts state that they went on the invitation of the British themselves, who solicited their assistance against the Picts, a fierce race occupying the northern part of the island ; and that, having succeeded in vanquishing the latter, they were tempted to re- main by the fertility of the soil and the pleasantness of the climate. However this may be, the first expedition of which we have any authentic account was led by Hengist and Horsa, and effected a landing on the shores of Kent, a. d. 449. It ^vas in this county, therefore, that the original British was first superseded by the mother-tongue of om* present English. nacular on the Latin-Celtic of Ganl ? What tongue was thus produced ? How did Spanish and Portuijxiesc arise ? "What elements were enbscqncntly introduced ? To what part of Europe was the attention of ScJindinavian nations principally (li reeled ? What tribes fixed tlieir eyes on Britain ? What induced them to send ex- peditions thither? By whom, and after what war, had German colonies been pre- viously planted in Britain ? Had thone early ecttlers elTected any change in the cudtcmis of the inhabitants ? How did the Germans come to send expeditions to Britain In the fifth century ? Why did they remain in Britain ? Who led the first expedition ? Where did they effect a landing, and when f What tradition is pre ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 43 Two traditions are handed down with respect to the stratagem by means of which Hengist procured sufficient land for his Jfirst settlement. Gcoifrey of Monmouth, a Welsh historian of the twelfth century, states that he purchased for a nominal sum as much land as could be enclosed with an ox-hide ; and that then, having cut it into narrow strips, he sur- rounded with it an extent of ground sufficient for the erection of a castle. This is a famiUar story, found in the traditions of various nations. The other version is given by the Saxons. They say that their great leader bought from the inhabitants a lapful of earth at what seemed to his companions an extravagant price ; but that he proceeded to sow this soil over a large tract, and then, since it could not be distinguished from the other ground, laid claim to the whole, and made good his pretensions by force of arms. A second expedition from the north of Germany followed in the year 477, under the command of Ella. This chieftain established himself in what is now called Sussex (that is, South Saxony). The kingdoms of Wessex (West Saxony), lying in what is now known as the County of Hants, and Essex (East Saxony), were next settled by successive expe- ditions, in the years 495 and 530 respectively. After this, large bodies of Germans were constantly arriving. It is un- necessary to trace any further the history of their emigrations. As soon as they found themselves possessed of sufficient strength, the new-comers formed the determination of seizing upon the whole island, or at least all those parts of it that were specially favored by Nature. In this they finally suc< ceeded ; and the original inhabitants, to avoid extermination, were obliged to flee to the mountains of Wales and Cornwall, where they maintained their independence for many centuries, and have preserved their language, with but little alteration, to the present day. In the rest of the island, however, a radi- cal change both in language and customs immediately took place. There was no engrafting of one tongue on another, served by Geoffrey of Monmouth, respecting Hengist's stratagem for procuring land ? Wliat is the Saxon account ? In what year did a second expedition follow ? Under whose command ? Where did this chieftain establish himself? What kingdoms were next settled, and in what years ? What determination did the new-comers soon form ? Did they suc- ceed in carrying it through ? Whither were the original inhabitants obliged to flee 1 44 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. as was the case in Southern Europe ; but an immediate su)> stitution of the language of the conquerors for that of the vanc[uished. The tongue spoken by these Gennan invaders is therefore the real groundwork of our language; a fact well established by history, as well as by the etj-mological analogies subsisting between English and the various dia- lects of Gothic origin. § 23. The Invaders. — By w^hich of the German trilx^s the expeditions alluded to were fitted out, was fonnerly a subject of doubt, but seems now to be satisfactorily established. The Saxons, Angles, and Frisians, appear to have been the prin- cipal ones concerned in them. Of these, the first occupied the valley of the River Weser, their territory, as far as we can now locate it, corresponding with the Kingdom of Hanover, the Duchy of Oldenburg, and part of Holstein. They were a powerful people, and constituted the chief body of the in- vaders. This is inferred from the fact that the ancient Brit- ons knew their German conquerors by no other name than that of Saxons ; and still further because this is the appella- tion which the Welsh, Armoricans, and Gffilic-Celts univer- sally apply to the English of the present day. Yet, though the Saxon element originally preponderated, the Angles were evidently strongly represented ; for they enjoy the distinction of having given their name permanently to the island, Eng- land being notliing more than a cori-uption of Angleland. Who these Angles were, is by no means certain. Tacitus and Ptolemy allude to them ; the former, indefinitely, in con- nection with other tribes, while the latter locates them in the central part of the valley of the Elbe. They seem at one time to have been a distinct and powerful tribe, and were jier- liaps allied by birth to their Saxon neighbors. Having be- What change took place In the rest of the ieland f What tongne is the real groaod- work of our lanj^nage ? How is this fact pstablished ? $ 23. What Gorman tribos seem to have taken tlic principal part in the invasion of Fritain ? Where did tlie Saxons live ? With what modem countries did their territories co'Tospond ? Whence do we infer that the Saxons constituted the chief body of the invaders T What other tribe wae strongly represented ? Wliat reason ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 45 come reduced in number by war or some other calamity, they were incorporated with the latter, and found their way to Britain along with them. While on the continent, they were far outnumbered by the Saxons, and played so unim- portant a part that little mention is made of them in his- tory : the influence of the two nations in Britain was more nearly equal; and the Angles may at length have j^repon- derated over their kinsmen and allies, and thus succeeded in givdng name to their new habitation and its language. The Frisians are not generally thought to have formed part of the German settlers of Britain ; but that they were concerned in one or more of the expeditions seems probable from the following considerations : — I. Occupying the whole coast from the Zuyder Zee to the mouth of the Elbe, they must have been situated be- tween the Saxons and the sea, and are therefore likely to have joined the latter tribe, to a greater or less ex- tent, in their maritime expeditions. IT. The historian Procopius, speaking of Britain, expressly mentions the Frisians as composing a part of its popu- lation.* Hengist himself is represented as a Frisian by some authorities. The Saxon Chronicle, also, al- ludes to Frisians in Britain. III. The Frisian language, as now spoken in Friesland, bears a closer resemblance to English tlian any other known tongue. * BpiTTiav 6e ti/v vf/aov Idvij rpia TrolvavdpuTtdraTa exovoi, (3a£aTJjKev, bvd/iara de Kdrai rdig edveac rovroig 'Ay. ylAot. re koI *^ puaaoveq koL ol ry vr/aa ojlccjvv/ioi BpcTTuvsg. — Piiocopius, D. G. IV. 20. have we for supposing this ? What early historians allude to the Angles ? Wliere does Ptolemy locate them 1 What seems to have been their early history? On the continent, how did they compare in power and influence with the Saxons ? How, in Britain ? What other tribe seems to have taken part in these incursions ? Explain how their poi^itiou renders this supposition probable. What historian and what work mention Frisians as forming part of the population of Britain ? What warrior is by some represented to have been a Frisian ? What additional 4:6 OEIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Dr. Latham, whose researches have thrown much light upon this sub. ject, and whose "Hand-book of the EngUsh Language" is replete with scholarship and learning, thus sums up the whole matter : " It was cer- tainly from the Anglo-Saxon, and probably from a part of the Frisian area, that Great Britain was first invaded." § 24. The Saxon Language. — The language whicli thus f>uddenly superseded the Celtic of the ancient British was, as has been remarked, an oiFshoot of the great Gothic stem, which itself dates as far back as the Celtic. The nations that spoke the various Gothic dialects lived in the northern part of Europe, having probably emigrated at an early date from Southwestern Asia, or been driven out by more power- ful tribes. Their bards, whose business it was to recite the exploits of their heroes, agree in assigning to their race an eastern origin ; and Herodotus mentions the Germans among other tribes of ancient Persians.* The Gothic stock is di- vided into two great branches : the Scandinavian, including the dialects of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland; and the Teutonic, or Germanic. To this latter division An- glo-Saxon belongs. § 25. Norse or Danish Element — The first introduction of a foreign element into the pure Saxon of England was oc- casioned by the invasion of the Scandinavian nations during the ninth and the tenth century. The pirates who effected the conquest of the island are generally called Danes ; but the Norwegians seem to have played the principal part in these expeditions. Their supremacy must have caused, to a * 'A2,Xoi 6^ Tlipacu elal oUe, TlavOia?Mlot^ Ar^povatacoi, Tepjuavio i. — Herodotus, C7io, 125. erldonce have we In the languacfo now spoken in Friesland ? What does Dr. La- tham say on the subject ? § 34. From what ^rent stock did tlic Saxon Innguaijo spring? Where did the Gothic dialects prevail at this time? From what part of the world did the na- tions using them originally migrate ? Wliat evidence have we of this ? Into how many branches is the Gothic stock divided ? What are they ? Wliat dialects are included in the Scandinavian branch ? To which division does Anglo-Saxon be- long? § 25. What occasioned tho first introduction of a foreign clement into the pure Saxon of England? Wiat nam» is generally giveu to tho i)irato-conqueronif OKIGm OF THE ENGLISn LAITGUAGE. 47 certain extent, a temporary admixture of foreign terms. To decide what words we owe to this era is extremely difficult, on account of the analogy subsisting between the Scandina- vian and German dialects, both of which, it will be remem- bered, were derived from the same Gothic parent. It is cer- tain, however, that very few Danish terms were ultimately incorporated ; as the island suffered a change of masters, rather than of peoj^le, customs, or laws. The Norsemen have left in our language but little trace of their invasion ; and this chiefly in the names of places on or near the coast. LESSON VIII. OEIGIir OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (cONTINFED). § 26. First Introduction of Norman Frencli Elemeiits, — Not perceptibly affected by the invasions of the Norsemen or even by their temporary usurpation of the throne, Saxon continued to be the language of the island until the Norman Conquest, 1066 A. d. During the six hundred years that elapsed between its introduction and this event, it underwent, indeed, some modifications of greater or less moment ; and these are particularly noticeable in the century immediately preceding the battle of Hastings. It was at this period that the first importation of Norman French words took place, under the auspices of Edward the Confessor. Educated in France and prejudiced in favor of all that belonged to that country, this prince, on returning to England, and assuming the thi'one, surrounded himself with Norman favorites, and sought to introduce French customs into his court and French idioms into his language ; much to the disgust of his subjects, Wliat nation had most to do with the invasion ? What effect did their suprem- acy produce on the language ? Were many new terms incorporated ? As regards tlio names of places, where have they left the principal traces of their invasion ? What renders it difficult to determine the words introduced by the Norsemen ? § 2«. How long did Saxon, in comparative purity, continue Xa)^%^^ language 48 OEIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. whose affections he estranged by this injudicious course. In- considerable as were the changes thus brought about, they served to pave the way for those fundamental modifications which the Norman Conquest was destined to produce. § 27. Norman Conquest and Us Effects. — William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England 1066 A. d., and, having won the battle of Hastings, seated himself without delay upon the throne. Resolved to wean the j^eople from their ancient institutions, he endeavored, as the most effective means of accomplishing this object, to make them forget their lan- guage. With this view, he ordered that in all schools throughout the kingdom the youth should be instructed in the French tongue ; and this ordinance was generally com- plied with, and remained in force till after the reign of Ed- w^ard IIL It was also required that the pupils of grammar- schools should translate their Latin into French, and that all conversation among them should be carried on in one of these two languages. Anglo-Saxon was banished from the tribunals of the land, and pleadings were required to be in French ; deeds were drawn and laws compiled in the same language ; no other tongue was used at court ; it was ex- clusively employed in fashionable society ; and the English nobles themselves, ashamed of their own country, affected to excel in this foreign dialect. The lower classes, however, at first vigorously resisted these attempts; and for fifty y«ars all that was done towards changing the language was effected by the hand of power. Yet in spite of this feeling on the part of the people, even during the very period in question, the intercourse necessarily carried on with the Nor- mans introduced not a few of their terms into common con- of England ¥ What was the principal modification it had previously undergone ? Who was the author of these chanijeH * For what did they pave the way ? § 37. By whom was En-jland invaded llKJO a. d. ? What battle decided the fato of the country » What was its n^sult ? How did the Conqueror endeavor to alien- ate the people from their ancient inntitutions? In what were tlie youth iu- Btructed ? What was made the language of the courts ? By wlmt class were tliese attempts rcBlsted ? Did they succeed iu keeping their veruacular uualloyed f OBIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 40 versation. Thus undermined, popular prejudice gradually became less violent. The superior versatility of the language of their conquerors and its peculiar adaptedness to poetry were soon acknowledged by the educated. The treasures of the early ballad and romantic literature of Normandy were eagerly sought for ; and, within a hundred years after the Conquest, we find the people as willing to learn the Norman tongue, and engraft its beauties on their own, as their fa- thers had been opposed to speaking or even hearing it. This willingness, however, extended only to a modifica- tion of their vernacular ; the determination was still as strong and imanimous as ever against allowing the introduction of Norman French at the expense and to the exclusion of the latter. To improve its constructions and enlarge its vocabu- lary would be to increase its usefulness ; and for these pur- poses they freely drew on the language of their conquerors. But the latter was rendered odious by too many unpleasant associations to allow of its substitution for a tongue which the use of centuries had rendered sacred in their eyes. Of effect- ing this, the power of William and his successors was totally incapable. The people carried their point ; and within two hundred years these very kings and nobles from across the channel were compelled to learn the Saxon, at first so much contemned, now converted into English by the important changes just alluded to, which commenced as early as the middle of the twelfth century. In 1362, the new language thus formed was introduced into the courts and allowed to be used in pleading ; all classes of society spoke it ; poets employed it as the vehicle of their choicest thoughts ; and English literature may be said to have had its origin. How were Norman words gradually introduced ? In what qualities did the edu- cated Saxons find that the Norman language surpassed their own ? What was the state of feeling among the Saxons a century after the Conquest ? How far did this willingness extend ? For what purposes did they draw on the language of their conquerors ? Did the kings or the people carry their point ? Two hun- dred years after the Conquest, what do we find ? Into what was Saxon by that time converted ? In 1362 what took place ? In what localities were thesQ changes soonest effected ? 3 50 OKIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. These changes, though covering in the kingdom at large a period of two hundred years, were in some parts much sooner effected. The greater the number and influence of the Norman inhabitants in any given locality, the sooner did Anglo-Saxon prejudices give way and the distinctive features of the French become blended with those of the ver- nacular. § 28. Conversion of A^iglo- Saxon into English. — Marks of the successive changes to which allusion has been made, are evident in the few extant writings of the twelfth and the succeeding century. In the case of some of the produc- tions of this transition period, critics have foimd it difficult to decide whether they should be classed among the latest specimens of Saxon, or the earliest of English, literature, bearing, as they d» ), the characteristics of each ; they have, therefore, introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which they ap- ply to all -^vritings between 1150 and 1250 a. d. Passing over a few works of minor importance, the Travels of Sir John Mandeville, \v^ritten in 1356, may be called the first English book. Wioliffe's Translation of the Bible followed twenty-seven years afterwards, and did much towards fixing the unsettled forms cf the new language. The English of these early times, however, differs much from that of the present day. Even the poetry of Chaucer, who wrote in the latter part of the fourteenth centu'-y, can not be understood without the aid of a glossary. Our language has not, to be sure, since the Norman invasion suffered any shock from the intermixture of conquerors, and their dia- lects ; but its appearance is much changed, in consequence, not only of manifold simplifications in tlic spelling, but also of the disuse of many Saxon terms (one fifth of those current in Alfred's time being now obso- lete), and the continual introduction of new words from the dead lan- guages, as -well as from the French, Italian, and Spanish. For scientific terms resort has generally been had to the Greek ; and, as new discov- eries have been constantly making since the Middle Ages, the additions from this source have been consj ierable. Commerce has also widely ex- § 28. In what writings havo wo marks of tlicse snccesslvc changes ? What writings arc classed as Scmi-Saxon ? What may be called the first Enj^lish book ? When was it written ? What work followed twenty-seven years afterwards * How docs this early Engllsli comparr.^vith that of the present day ? What is said of Chaucer's poetry ? Whence arises this difference ? What part of the SJlxon wor-'- OEIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 51 tended ; and commodities formerly unknown have been introduced into common use, retaining in most cases their foreign names. Thus we have obtained the words camphor^ arsenic^ and many others. The changes and additions just mentioned, as well as a variety of modifications which are found to have affected, not only our own, but also every other modern tongue, have so altered the appearance of the later English that a close examination is necessary to convince the reader of its identity with the language of Chaucer. § 29. Changes hy wMch Anglo-Saxon was converted into English. — ^The principal changes by which Anglo-Saxon was converted into English, were, I. Modifications and contractions in the spelling of words. II. The introduction of French terms, phrases, and idioms. III. The use of less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry. IV. The omission of inflections or changes in the termination of the noun, and substitution of prepositions to express its relations to other words. This last-mentioned change is the only one of sufficient importance to authorize us in considering the new derivative as an independent tongue. It is an alteration which time very often brings about ; and is, perhaps, to be attributed rather to the natural efforts of the people to simplify their grammar, than to the effects of the Norman Conquest or the new dialect it introduced. Observation shows that this ten- dency has by no means been confined to English. It seems to be a universal principle, that, the further we go back in the history of a given language, the more terminational changes we find in its nouns and verbs, and the fewer prepositions and auxiliaries. current hi Alfred's time are now obsolete ? Whence have we obtained most of our scientific terms ? How have we received the words camphor^ arsenic^ and many others ? What is said of the effect of these alterations and additions ? § 29. Mention the four principal changes by which Anglo-Saxon was converted into English. Which of these is the most important? How is it often brought about ? To what is it attributable ? Is this tendency confined to the English lan- guage ? The further we go back in the history of a tongue, what do we find ? 52 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. LESSON IX. ANALYSIS OF THE ENGUSH LANGUAGE. § 30. To recapitulate and enlarge on what has been said in the preceding lesson, it appears that our language, as it now stands, is composed of the following elements : — 1. Saxon. — Of over one hundred thousand words, con- tained in our fullest dictionaries, nearly half are from this source ; as are, also, our chief peculiarities of construction and idiom. Some of these it may be interesting to particu- larize. The inflection of our pronouns ; the terminations of the possessive case and plural number, as well as of the second and third person singular of verbs ; the syllables er and est^ and the words more and raost^ by which we form the com- parative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs ; the suf- fix ly (derived from lilce)^ which enters into the formation of a large proportion of our adverbs, — all these are derived from the Saxon. As to the words we have received from it, they are those which occur most frequently and are individu- ally of the greatest importance : such as the articles «, aiiy the / all our pronouns ; the adjectives oftenest used, espe- cially such as are irregularly compared ; the commonest ad- verbs of one syllable, how^ noic, then^ and the like ; nearly all of the numerous in-egular verbs, as well as the auxiliaries, have, he, shall, loill, &c. ; and the prepositions and conjunc- tions, almost without exception. Irregular nouns, adjectives, and verbs, are in every language among rtic oldest words, and are very likely to be those most used in common <;onversation ; to which fact their deviation from regularity may often be xi'aced. These, as we have seen, our Saxon ancestors gave us ; to them, § 80. How many wonU are containccl in our ftillest dictionaries ? Of tbesie. how muiy are Saxon ? What tomiiniitions have wc received from tliis ponrce ? Which of our words are Saxon ? Mention Pome of them. What is said of the Irrcj^ular nocns, adjectives, and verbs in every lanould we expect to find English distinguished ? Is this the case ? What words> 60 CllAEACTERISTlCS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. adapted to the expression of the strongest emotions, and presents ftupc rior facilities for forming compounds, and thereby briefly representing complex ideas, our language is admitted by all nations to be eminently nervous and energetic. Flexibility, or susceptibility of accommodation to diflPerent styles and tastes, so as to be either grave or gay, forcible or tender, simple or imposing, as occasion may require, is one of the most important qualities that a language can possess, as regards both writing and speaking. To insure flexibility, three characteristics are essential ; copiousness, capacity for changes of construction and arrangement, and strength and beauty as regards individual words. The first two of these (jualities we have seen that English possesses in a high de- gree ; in the last it is not deficient. While, therefore, it is inferior in flexibility to Latin and Greek, and of modem lan- guages perhaps to Italian, it is still capable of being used with success in any style ; as must be apparent to all who examine the mastei'pieces which our literature has produced in the various departments of prose and jjoetry. It has been said above that our tongue is not deficient in harmony ; and this is proved by the fact that it is capable of being formed into poetry without the aid of rhjmie. Vowel sounds abound, and jolease the ear with their variety. The frequent recurrence of the liissing consonant s, however, has an unpleasant effect, which we have only partially removed by assigning to that letter, in certain ]wsitions, tlie sound of 2?, as in is, these, ears, loves, resolves, &c The melody of our periods is also materially affected by our tendency to throw the accent of polysyllables back towards the beginning ; to which tendency we are indebted for such awkward words as tern- however, have a decidedly weakening effect ? What Is eald of onr constnictlons f How are our thoughls diluted ? Notwithstanding this, what is the general char- actor of our lanjj:ua!j:c ? To wlmt features docs it owe thie cliaracter ? What is one of tlic mopt important qualities a language can posseps ? Enunicp ate the characteristics essential to noxibillty? IIow does English rank as re- gards these three essentials? IIow does it compare In flexibility with Latui, Greek, and Italian ? What proves its adaptation to aU styles f PARTS OF SPEECH. 61 porarily, mischievously^ mercenariness^ mlserahleness, and many others similarly discordant. Whatever may be said of the English language in other respects, in simplicity it undoubtedly surpasses the rest of European tongues. It is free from intricacies of case, de- clension, mood, and tense. Its words are subject to but few terminational changes. Its substantives have no distinctions of gender except what nature has made. Its adjectives ad- mit of such changes only as are necessary to denote the de- grees of comparison. Its verbs, instead of running through all the varieties of ancient conjugation, suffer few changes. With the help of prepositions and auxiliaries, all possible relations are expressed, while the words for the most part retain their forms unchanged. We lose from this, no doubt, in brevity and strength ; but we gain vastly in simplicity. The arrangement of our words is, in consequence, less diffi- cult, and our sentences are more readily understood. The rules of our syntax are exceedingly simple, and the acquisi- tion of our language is easy in proportion. LESSON XI. PARTS OF SPEECH. § 34. Having traced the history of our language, con- sidered the sources from which it is derived, and noted it? chief characteristics, we shall now proceed to treat of its words, viewed with reference to the respective parts they What proves that En£;lish is uot deficient in harmony ? Wliat consonant has an unpleasant sonnd? How haVc we attempted to remove the difiiciilty ? What tendency in accentuation interferes with the melody of periods? Mention some inharmonious words thus accfentcd. In what does English surpass all other European totigues ? What features aro mentioned, which conduce to its simplicity? How are the diflforcnt relations of nouns and verbs expressed ? In what respects do we lose In consequence of this I In what do we gain ? 62 PARTS OF SrEECH. perform in a sentence. A knowledge of grammar being l^resupposed in the pupil, we shall here, by a brief sunmiaiy, merely recall to his mind its leading principles, with such definitions and illustrations only as are absolutely essential to the proper imderstanding of the succeeding lessons. The classes into which words are divided with reference to their use and mutual relations, are called Parts of Speech. They are nine in number. I. NOUNS, or names of things. They are divided into two classes : Coivimon Nouns, or names that distinguish one class of objects from another, — as, man^ city^ river; and Proper Nouns, or names that distinguish one^individual of a class from another, — as, Moses, BrooJclyii, Rhine. The term Substantive is frequently used as synonymous with noun. Besides nouns, it embraces whatever may be used as such ; that is, pro- nouns, verbs in the infinitive, and clauses. n. PRONOUNS, or words that may be used instead of nouns. They arc comprised in the following classes : — 1. Personal, or such as show by their form what person they are ; that is, whether they represent the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the object spoken of. The personals are, /, ersonal pronoi(n. Mention the personals. What are relative pronoinis ? Enumerate them. What are inter- ropatives ? Mention them. What is meant by adjective pronouns ? Mention tbt principal ones. PAETS OF SPEECH. 63 4. Adjectite Pkonouns, or such as ou some occasions, take the place of substantives, and on others are used with them, like adjectives. Un- der this head fall the words, ihis, that, each, every, either, neither, no, none, any, all, such, some, both, other, another. III. ARTICLES, or words placced before other words (usually nouns) to show whether they are used in a particular or general sense. We have two articles : the, called Defi- nite, because it defines or points out a particular object ; and an or «, called Indefinite. IV. ADJECTIVES, or words which describe or limit substantives ; as, " TliQjive good emperors ". V. VERBS, or words that affirm an action or state ; as, " He is sure to succeed.'''* That respecting which the action or state is primarily affirmed is called the Subject of the verb ; thus, in the preceding example, he is the subject of the verb is. Verbs are divided into two classes : Transitive, or such as affirm an act done to an object ; and Intransitive, or such as affirm a state, or an act not done to an object. " James rmcfe Latin", "James canread^\ " James is asleep " : in the first sentence the verb is transitive ; in the last two, intransitive. To show the relation which the subject bears to the action affirmed, transitive verbs have two distinct forms, called Voices. The Active Voice represents the subject of the verb as acting ; as, " Caesar con- quered Pompey." The Passive Voice represents the subject of the verb as acted upon ; as, " Pompey was conquered by Caesar." A verb is said to be Finite when it is limited by person and number. This is the case in every part except the infinitive mood and the parti- ciples. By the Regimen of a verb or preposition is meant the substantive it What is the third part of speech ? What are articles ? Mention them, and give their names. What is the fourth part of speech ? What are adjectives ? Give an example. What is the fifth part of speech ? What are verbs ? What is meant by the eubject of a verb ? Into how many classes are verbs divided ? What are they ? What are transitive verbs ? What, intransitive ? Give examples. How many voices are there ? What are they called ? How does the active voice represent the subject of the verb ? How does the passive represent it ? When is a verb said to be finite ? What is meant by the regimen of a verb or preposition ? Give ex- amples. G4 PARTS OF SPEECH. governs with all the limiting words belonging thereto ; as, " A good citi- zen obeys Jm country's lawsy " The age of miracles is past." " A com- pany of mcked and prof iffcUe men.'''' To verbs belong Participles, or words which, partaking of the nature of adjectives and verbs, describe a substantive by assigning to it an action or a state. Transitive verbs have six participles, three in the active, and three in the passive, voice ; as, lomnrj^ lovedy having loved, and being loved, loved, having been loved. Intransitive verbs, admitting of no passive voice, have but three participles ; as, %calkmg, walked, having walked. VI. ADVERBS, or words added to verbs, participles, ad- jectives, and other adverbs, to express time, place, degree comparison, manner, &c. ; as, now, here, very, so, gracefully, Adverbs of manner for the most part end with the letters ly, This class of words must be carefully distinguished from ad jectives, which also express manner or quality, but are al ways joined to substantives. VII. CONJUNCTIONS, used to connect words, senten- ces, and parts of sentences. The most common ones are, And, or, either, because, except, as, nor, neither, since, whether, for, yet, than, though, lest, if, but, that, although, unless. VIII. PREPOSITIONS, which show the relations be- tween substantives and other w ords in a sentence. The fol lowing list contains the principal : — About, behind, during, out of, touching, above, below, except, past, towards, across, beneath, for, regarding, under, What arc participles ? IIow many participles have transitive Verbs ? How many have intrant*itivcs ? Give cxamjjlcs of eaclK What arc adverbs ? With what syllnblc do nclverbs of manner pcnerally end ? From what must adverbs bo carefully diRtino;uiehctl ? What is the difference be- tween them ? What arc conjunctions ? Mention the most common ones. What arc prepositions ? Enumerate the principal onc». PAKTS OF SPEECH. 65 after, besides. against, between, along, betwixt. amid, beyond, among, but. around, by, at. concerning. before, down, from, respecting, underneath, in, round, until, into, save, unto, notwithstanding, since, up, of, through, upon, off, throughout, with, on, till, within, over, to, without. IX. INTERJECTIONS, or words used to denote a sud-. deu emotion of the mind; as, ah! alas! O! oh! fie! hist! &c. Example. — The following sentence contains all the parts of speech, the words falhng respectively under one of the above classes, as denoted by the numbers placed over them : — 7920683 4 1 " But alas ! he soon fell before the malignant tempter." § 35. Of these parts of speech, the noun, pronoun, and verb, alone are inflected ; that is, undergo changes in termi- nation to denote different cases, numbers, persons, &c. § 36. That we may determine to which of the above classes a Avord belongs, we must examine the relations it sustains to the rest of the sentence; and, as in different con- nections the same word often performs very different offices, it follows that in one sentence it may be one part of speech, and in another another, according to its application. The same word often appears, as I. Noun and verb. Example, heat. "The heat is great ; " here, being the name of something, it is a noun. " Heat the plate ; " in this case it expresses an action, and is therefore a verb. II. Adjective and noun. Example, damp. "A damp What are interjections ? Give examples. Give a sentence containing all the parts of speech, and mention the class to which tiie words respectively belong. § 35. Which of tliese parts of speech are inflected ? What is the meaning of the term to be inflected? § 36. How are we to determine to which of these classes a word belongs ? How may the same word be used in diflferent sentences ? As what, for instance, does the word heat appear ? Give examples, and state what part of speech it is in each. As what two parts of speech does the word c?am;j appear ? Give exam- (jQ PABTS OP SPEECU. cellar ; " in this expression it describes cellar, and is conse- quently an adjective. " Misfortune casts a damp over the spirits ; " here, l^eing the name of something, it is a noun. IIL Adjective and veri^. Example, dry. " A dry cli- mate." " Dry your cloak." IV. Adverb and conjunction. Example, as. " As bright as the sun." The first as, being joined to the adjective bright, to express comparison, is an adverb ; the second as, connecting parts of the sentence, is a conjunction. V. Adverb and preposition. Example, up. " Look up." " Up the hill." When followed by a noun or pronoun as its object, it is a preposition ; when not, an adverb. § 37. Difficulty is often experienced in parsing the words that and bnt. That, according to its use, may be a relative pronoun, an adjective pronoun, or a conjunction. When who or which can be used in its place, it is a relative ; " He that {who) has a guilty conscience is not to be envied." When it points out a particular object, it is an adjective pronoun ; " That fact can not be doubted." When it connects parts of a sentence, it is a conjunction ; " I hope that you may succeed." But is employed as an adverb, a preposition, and a con- junction. When only can be used in its stead, it is an ad- verb; ^^ J8ut (only) three were there." When equivalent to except, it is a preposition ; " No one but (except) Napo- leon could have conceived such an idea." In otlier cases it is a conjunction ; " Caesar was great intellectually, hut not morally." pies. To what classes does 'cd with respect to ? What, respecting oh f § 09. Repeat Rule XI. What is pained by followiDg this rule ? Illustrate its application in the sentence, " Then cometh the Judgment." § 70. Wlicn none of those rules apply, what must be used ? § 71. In printed matter, what style of cbaractor is used for miming titles, &c f EXEECISE ON CAPITALS. 7d LESSON XIV. EXEECISE ON CAPITALS.* In the following sentences, apply the rules given in the preceding lesson. Where a capital is improperly used, sub- stitute a small letter. Under § 48. act well thy Part, avoid the appearance of Evil, watch and Pray, labor Conquers all Things, what a heart-rending Scene ! has honor left the world ? thou art mortal, truth is mighty, whither can I fly ? what a disappointment ! Under § 49. charles martel defeated the saracens. what has become of the mohegans, the pequots, the iroquois, the mohawks, and the hun- dred other powerful tribes that lived east {see § 53) of the mississippi when our fathers landed at plymouth and Jamestown ? iceland belongs to denmark. sir william herschel was born in 1V38, at hanover, in ger- many. Under § 50. edward the elder succeeded his father, alfred the great, on the throne of england. John lackland usurped the crown of his Brother, richard The lion-hearted, during the absence of the latter in the holy land. Under § 51, 52. great king, forgive me. the king hastily took horse and fled to london. An emperor, after all, is but a man. dukes, carls, counts, and Knights, flocked to the crusades {see § 69). The amazon is the largest River in the World, mountains and oceans shall waste away. The Pyrenees form the Boundary between france and Spain. These Mountains are infested by daring Banditti. Under § 53, 54, 55. as far as the east is from the west, as far as heaven is from Earth, so far is Vice from Virtue, Truth from Falsehood, our winter consists of three months, december, January, and february. The senator has spoken for the west ; lot him understand that the west is capable of speaking for itself, an east wind often brings a Storm. Last tuesday the wind was north-west. Under § 56, 57. most of the french peasants belong to the roman cath- olic church. The reign of queen anne is generally admitted to have been the augustan age of english literature, in civilization and Refine- ment, christian lands far surpass mohammedan and pagan countries. Under § 58. The north american Indians endure the tortures of their Enemies with Stoical fortitude, beau brummell's tastes were decidedly * Note to the Teacher.— The portions of this book headed Exercise may be either recited orally or written out, as the teacher prefers. The latter method, however, in the author's opinion, is attended with great advantages over the former, which will more than make up for the additional time it may consmne. When required to write these tasks, the student is not only likely to receive a much more durable impression of the principles illustrated, but is at the same time ex- ercised in orthography and penmanship, and forms, from the close observation of words thus required, an invaluable habit of precision. 80 EXEECISE ON CA1»ITALS. epicurean, a Platonic attachment subsisted between petrarch and laura, A long face and puritanical demeanor are no proofs of a man's piety, dicsbach discovered the process of making Prussian blue. Under § 59, 60. Fiercely grim war unfolds his flag. The moon can infuse no warmth into her rays. honor, thou blood-stained god (§ 63) ! at whose red iiltar sit war and homicide, oh (§ 68) to what madness will insult drive thy votaries ! humility herself, divinely mild, subUme religion's meek and modest child. peace, thy olive wand extend, and bid wild war his ravage end, man with brother man to meet, and as a brother kindly Greet Under § 61. ^r Her cheeks were ros- y, and so was her nose ; And her hat Was of sat- in, and dirty at that. Under § 62, 63. how comprehensive is the providence of god ; he orders all things for his Creatures' Good, those who trust in providence, He will not desert, omnipotent creator, all-wife, eternal being, thou keepest us from day to day ! In the latter days the comforter shall come. Under § 64. What sound advice is conveyed in Bion's Maxim : " know Thyself." If " a tree is- known by its Fruit ", as our saviour said, what must we think of uncharitable christians ? Under § 65. Burke's " philosophical inquiry into the origin of our ideas of the subhme and beatiful ", and alison's " essays on the nature and principles of taste ", are standard text-books on the subjects of which they respectively treat, sisraondi's " historical view of the literature of the south of europe " is a work well worthy of careful study. Under § 67, 68. i banished — i, a roman senator ! beware, o treacher- ous people ! i have reasoned, i have threatened, i have prayed ; and yi-t thou art not moved, o hard-hearted man. oh lor a lodge in some vast wilderness ! whither, oh whither can i go V Under § 69. the wars of the roses desolated england between the years 1455 and 1485. the invincible armada, fitted out by the Spaniards against england, was the largest naval armament that europe ever saw. the flight of mohammcd from mecca, known in history as the hegira, took place 622 A. D., and is the era from which the arabians and persians still tompute their time, the norman conquest was the means of introducing chivalry and the feudal system into England. PART II. PUNCTUATION. LESSSON XV. PRINCIPLES OF THE ART. § 72. Punctuation is the art of dividing written lan- guage by points, in order that the relations of words and clauses may be plainly seen, and their meaning be readily understood. In spoken language, these relations are sufficiently indicated by the pauses and inflections of the voice ; but, as written language has no such aids, it is necessary to supply the deficiency with arbitrary marks. § 73. Tlie ancients originally wrote their manuscripts without marks or divisions of any kind. Points are said to have been first used about 200 b. c, by Aristophanes, a gram- marian of Alexandria, but did not come into general use for several centuries. The modern system of punctuation was invented by Manutius, a learned printer who flourished in Venice at the commencement of the sixteenth century. To him we are indebted for developing the leading principles § 72. What is punctuation ? How are the relations of words and clauses in- dicated ia spoken language ? § 73. How did the ancients write their manuscripts ? When and by whom were points invented ? How long before they came into general use ? By whom was the modem system devised ? When and where did the inventor live ? 82 TRINCirLES OP THE ART. of the art, though in some of their details they have since that time undergone considerable modification. § 74. Punctuation does not generally receive in educa- tional institutions the attention its importance demands ; and hence in the case of otherwise well-informed persons, there is too often a lack of accurate and practical information on this subject. Even those who have made literary pursuits a profession, have regarded this important art as altogether beneath their notice, and leave their manuscripts to be sup- plied with points entirely at the discretion of the printer. As there is no man at whose liands business or friendship does not require- an occasional letter, so there is none that ought not to be able, by a proper use of points, to make his meaning intelligible ; particularly since the art is simple in itself, is founded on the principles of grammar, and often admirably illustrates the latter science. § 75. Punctuation not only serves to make an author's meaning plain, but often saves it from being entirely miscon- ceived. There are many cases in which a change of ix)inta completely alters the sentiment. An English statesman once took advantage of this fact to free him- self from an embarrassing position. Having charged an oflScer of gov- ernment with dishonesty, he was required by Parliament, mider a heavy penalty^ publicly to retract the accusation in the House of Commons. At the appointed time he appeared with a written recantation, which he read aloud as follows : " I said he was dishonest, it is true ; and I am sorry for it." This was satisfactory ; but what was the surprise of Par- liament, the following day, to see the retraction printed in the papers thus : " I said he was dishonest ; it is true, and I am sorry for it ! " By a simple transposition of the comma and semicolon, the ingenious slan- derer represented himself to the country, not only as having made no recantation, but even as having reiterated the charge in the very face of Parliament. § 76, It is frequently objected to the study of Punctua- § 74. What is said of the general ncslcct of punctuation ? Why ought a knowlcdpfo of the art to bo possessed by all ? § 75. What does punctuation often prevent ? How may a complete change of Bontimeut frequently be made ? Bcpcat an anecdote illustrative of this foot. PEESrCIPLES OF THE AET. 83 tion that good usage differs widely in tliis respect, and it is therefore impossible to lay down any fixed rules on the sub- ject. To a certain extent it is true thafusage differs. Punc- tuation is an art in which there is great room for the exercise of taste ; and tastes will be found to vary in this, as well as in every thing else. Yet it is equally true that, as an art, it is founded on certain great and definite principles ; and that, while considerable latitude is allowed in the application of these, whatever directly violates them is wrong and inadmis- sible. As well might it be argued that the study of rhetoric is unnecessary, because different authors use different styles of expression ; or, that there are no grammatical principles from which to deduce rules, because even in celebrated au- thors we have frequent instances of false sjmtax. The faults, of others, whether in grammar or Punctuation, should not be seized on by any one as an excuse for his own ignorance ; but should rather lead him to redoubled diligence, that he may avoid the rock on which they have split. § 77. Old grammarians taught that points were used merely as aids to reading ; and that, when the pupil came to a comma, he should stop till he could count o?^e, when to a semicolon, till he could say one^ two^ &g. ; and some writers, in accordance with this principle, use points, without refer- ence to sentential structure, wherever they wish the reader to pause, determining what mark is to be employed solely by the length of the pause required. From such a system grave errors necessarily result. However convenient it may be to give such instructions to a child when beginning to read, it vrill soon be found that, if he remembers them and carries them out, he will not only constantly violate the prin- ciples of elocution, but will for the most part fail to under- stand the meaning of the sentences he enunciates. Punctu- § 76. What objection is frequently made to the study of punctuation ? Does usage differ ? For what iS there great room ? On what, nevertheless, is the art founded ? Is there any ground for the objection ? § T7. What did old grammarians teach with regard to points ? What will re- cult from carrying out such > system ? What connection is there between punc* 84 PRINCIPLES OF THE AET. ation is entirely independent of elocution. Its primary ob- ject is to bring out the writer's meaning, and so far only is it an aid to the reader. Rhetorical pauses occur as freciucntly where points are not found as where they are ; and for a learner to depend for these on commas and semicolons would effectually prevent his becoming a good reader, just as the use of such marks wherever a cessation of the voice is re- quired would completely obscure a writer's meaning. This may be seen by comparing a passage properiy punctuated with the same passage pointed as its delivery would reqmre. Properly PuNCTtiATED, Tlic people of the United States have justly supposed that the policy of protecting their industry against foreign legislation and foreign industry was fully settled, not by a single act, but by repeated and deliberate acts of government, performed at distant and frequent intervals. Pdnctuatep for Delivery. The people of the United States, have justly supposed, that the policy, of protecting their industry, against for- eign legislation and foreign industry, was fully settled ; not, by a single act ; but, by repeated and deliberate acts of government, performed, at distant and frequent intervals. From a paragraph punctuated like the last, little mean- ing can be gathered. § 78. Let the following principles with regard to Punc- tuation be constantly borne in mind : — I. Points must be placed without reference to rhetorical pauses. In the expression yes^ air, if we consulted delivery we would place no point after yes ; grammar, however, re- quires a comma there. II. The principal use of ix)ints is to separate words and clauses, and indicate the dcgivc of connection between them. Thus, clauses between which the connection is close must be separated by commas ; those in which it is more remote, by semicolons. III. Points are also used to indicate what part of speech tnatlon and elocntlon ? How does a passage properly punctuated compare with the same passage pointed for delivery ? § T8. What must not bo consulted in the use of points ? What is the principal use of points ? What else arc they employed to indicate ? lUustrato tliis with th» PEINCIPLt:S OF THE ART. S6 a word is. Tims, shame is in most sentences a noun or verb ; if used as an interjection, it has an exclamation-point after it, to denote the fact — shame! IV. Another office they perform by showing to what class a sentence belongs. Thus, " George is well," followed by a period, is a declarative sentence, asserting that George is in good health : followed by an interrogation-point, it is an in- terrogative sentence, and implies belief that he is well, to- gether with an inquiry whether it is not so ; in other words, it is equivalent to " George is well ; is he not ? " This im- portant difference of meaning can be conveyed in no other way than by the use respectively of the period and interro- gation-point. V. Points are also employed to indicate a sudden transi- tion or break in the construction or meaning. Thus, w^here a sentence is suddenly interrupted or broken off, a dash is placed ; as, " "Woe to the destroyer ! woe to the ." VI. Finally, they are used to denote the omission of words. Such is the office of the commas in the following sentence : " Reading maketh a full man ; conference, a ready man ; writing, an exact man." The verb maketh being left out in the last two clauses, commas are inserted to denote the omissions. VII. Never introduce a point unless you have some posi- tive rule for so doing. Whenever there is any reasonable doubt as to the propriety of employing the comma, do not use it. The tendency of punctuators at the present day is to introduce too many points. VIII. Be guided by rules and principles, no matter how many or how few points they may require. Sentences may be so constructed as to need points after almost every word ; while others, even of some length, require no division at all. word sJiame. What other office do they perform ? Show this with the sentence, " George is well." What do they frequently indicate in the construction or mean- ing ? What else are they used to denote ? When there is doubt as to the pro- priety of employing a comma, what is the safest course ? What is the tendency of punctuators at the present day ? What is stated under the eighth head respect" 86 THE PEBIOD. , IX, Remember that "circumstances alter cases"; and that, therefore, a mode of pointing which is accurate in a short sentence may not, in a long one, be either tasteful or even strictly correct. We shall revert to this subject from time to time hereafter. § 79. The characters used in Punctuation are as fol- lows : — Pebiod, Intekeogahon-point, Exclamation-point, Colon, Bra Wc shall proceed to take these up in turn. Careful iattention to the rules, and particularly to the examples that illustrate them, will, it is believed, enable the writer to punctuate with propriety every sentence that can occur. If, after diligent trial, he finds himself unable to do this in the case of any sentence of his own composition, he is advised to look over it carefully, to see if he has not violated some principle of rhetoric or grammar. Punctuating often leads to the detection of such errors. • Semicolon, • • ■, p Comma, 9 1 Dash, • • Parentheses, () IKETS, [] LESSON XVI. the period. § 80. The word Period is derived from the Greek lan- guage, and means a circuit. Tliis name is given to the full stop (.), because it is placed after a complete circuit of words. The period is found in manuscripts of a compara- tively early date, and was in use before any other point. ing the frequency and paucity of points in a sentence ? According to the ninth head, what is to be regarded in punctuating a sentence ? § 71). Name tlic characters used in punctnation. What advice i8 given to ibo writer, when he finds difficulty in punctuating a sentence of Ids own composition ? § 80. Give the derivation and meaning of the word peiiod. Why is the full etop so called ? When did the period como into use T THE PEEIOD. 8T § 81. Rule L — ^A period must be placed after every de- clarative and imperative sentence ; as, " Honesty is the best policy."— "Fear God." These sentences having been defined in § 45, it is presumed no diffi- culty will be experienced in recognizing them, or in determining how much of a paragraph must be taken to compose them. As soon as a passage makes complete sense, if it is at the same time independent of what follows in construction and not closely connected with it in mean- ing, the sentence is complete ; and, if it be declarative or imperative, must close with a period. § 82. The degree of closeness in the connection is a matter which must be left somewhat to individual judgment ; and this degree, it may be remarked, is often the only criterion which a writer has to guide him in deciding between periods and colons, colons and semicolons, semico- lons and commas. No rule can be laid down that will cover every case ; but one or two principles may be stated, as applicable to most of the cases that occur in practice. I. Words, clauses, and members, united by a conjunction, are re- garded as more closely connected than those between which the conjunc- tion is omitted. Thus : " Truth is the basis of every virtue. Its pre- cepts should be religiously obeyed." It is not improper to divide this passage into two distinct sentences, and to separate them with a period. If, however, we introduce a conjunction between them, we make the con- nection closer, and should not use a higher point than a semicolon. " Truth is the basis of every virtue ; and its precepts should be re- ligiously obeyed." II. A clause containing a relative pronoun is more closely connected with the one containing the antecedent, than the same clause would be if a personal or demonstrative pronoun were substituted for the relative. " At this critical moment, Murat was ordered to charge with his indom- itable cavalry ; which movement having been performed with his usual gallantry, the issue of the battle was no longer doubtful." By changing which to thky we diminish the connection between the two parts, and may punctuate differently. " At this critical moment, Murat was ordered to charge with his indomitable cavalry. This movement, &c." § 81. Eepeat Rule I. How is it determined when a sentence is complete ? § 82. What is said of the degree of closeness in the connection ? What effect does the omission of a conjunction hetween words, clauses, and members, have on the closeness of the connection ? Does a relative or a demonstrative pronoun institute a closer connection hetween the parts of a sentence ? Illustrate this. How does a portion of a sentence containing a distinct subject of its own com- 88 THE PERIOD. III. A portion of a sentence that has a distinct subject of its own is less closely connected with the rest, than such a part as depends for its subject on some preceding clause. Thus, in the sentence, " Truth is the basis of every virtue ; and its precepts should be religiously obeyed," a semicolon is placed after virtue^ because a new nominative, }yrccejA^^ is introduced into the final member. If we keep truth as the subject, the connection will be closer, and we must substitute a comma for the semi- colon after virtue ; as, " Truth is the basis of every virtue, and should be cherished by all." It follows from the above remarks that it is not proper to place a period immediately before a conjunction which closely connects what follows with what precedes. This is frequently done in the translation of the Scriptures, where we have verse after verse commencing with and ; but it is not authorized by good modern usage. In such cases, cither the passage so introduced ought to form part of the preceding sen- tence, and be separated from it only by a colon or semicolon ; or else, if this is impracticable on account of the great length or intricacy it would involve, the following sentence should be remodelled in such a way as to commence with some other word. These remarks apply to all conjunc- tions that form a decided connection between the parts ; such as merely signify to continue tJie narrative, and imply no connection with what pre- cedes, may without impropriety introduce a new sentence. As the substance of the preceding paragraph, we may lay down the following general rule, remembering that there are occasional excep- tions : — A sentence should not commence with the conjunctions and, for^ or however ; but may do so with but, now, and moreover. EXAMPLES. ** Friendship is not a source of pleasure only ; it is also a source of duty : and of the responsibilities it imposes we should never be unmindful." Here and intimately connects the two members, and a period must not precede it. " There is only one species of misery which friendship can not comfort, the misery of atrocious guilt ; for there are no pangs but those of conscience that sympathy does not alleviate." Here for implies so close a connection that a period is inadmissible before it. pare in cloeeness of connection with one that depends for its subject on some preceding clause ? Oive an example. Where is it improper to place n period ? In what book do we ft^nently find pentenccs commcncincj with awrf,? What two rcmcdicgi are Bnjrgcsted for puch cases ? To what conjunctions do these rcmarlvs apply ? What conjunctions may with propriety commence a new sentence 1 Is it ever proper to begin a eootcnce with anolf In what case ? THE PERIOD. 89 " Then cried they all again, saying, Not this man, but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber." In this passage it is right to precede now with a period, because this word does not imply connection, but means simply to continue the narrative, to go on. •' Domitian was a low, cruel, and sensual wretch, whose highest pleasure consisted in maiming helpless flies, whose mind was paralyzed by sloth, whose soul was surfeited with disgusting gluttony, whose heart was dead to every generous impulse, and whose conscience was seared by crime. And this was the emperor of Rome, the controller of the world's destinies." Here a period may be placed before and. Sen- tences in which, as in this, and does not closely connect, but is simply equivalent to noio, as used in the preceding example, constitute an ex- ception to the general rule, and admit a period before and. § 83. From Remark II. it follows that a period must not separate a relative clause from its antecedent. It would, therefore, be wrong to substitute periods for semicolons in the following sentence : " There are men whose powers operate in leisure and in retirement, and whose intel- lectual vigor deserts them in conversation ; whom merriment confuses, and objection disconcerts ; whose bashfulncss restrains their exertion, and suffers them not to speak till the time of speaking is past." § 84. Rule II. — A period must be placed after every abbreviated word ; as, Dr. Geo. F. Johnson^ F. JR. 8. § 85. The period in this case merely indicates the abbreviation, and does not take the place of other stops. The punctuation must be the same as if no such period were employed ; as, " My clerk put the letter in the P. 0. ; there can be no mistake about it." " Horace Jones, jr., M. D., LL. D." § 86. When, however, an abbreviated word ends a sentence, only one period must be used ; for an example, see the close of the preceding par- agraph. § 87. Under this head fall Roman capitals and small letters, when used for figures ; as, " Charles I. was the son of James I." § 88. An important exception to this rule must be noted. When an abbreviated word is of such constant occurrence that, without reference to the word from which it comes, it is itself considered as a component part of our language, no period is placed after it. Thus, it would be wrong to put a period after eve abbreviated from evening, or hack from hackney. § 83. What must a period in no case separate ? § 84 Repeat Rule II. § 85. In this case what does the period indicate ? Must it take the place of other stops ? § 86. In what case, however, is there an exception ? § 87. When must the Roman capitals and small letters be followed by periods, under this rule ? S 88. What large class of abbreviated words constiltite an exception to this rule ? 90 THE PEElOD. § 89. So, when the first syllable of a Christian or given name is used, not as an abbreviation of the latter, but as a familiar substitute for it, no period must be employed ; as, " Ben Jonson ". For a comprehensive list of abbreviations, see Table at the close of the volume. EXERCISE I. Insert periods in the following sentences, wherever re- quired by the above rules : — A graphic description of this scene may be found in Gibbon's Hist of the Dec and Fall of the Rom Em, vol ii, chap 5 Mrs Felicia Hemans was born in Liverpool, Eng, and died at Dublin, 1835, A D Messrs G Longman and Co have received a note from the Cor Sec of the Nat Shipwreck Soc, informing them of the loss of one of their ves- sels off the N E coast of S A, at 8 p m, on the 20th of Jan James VI of Scotland became Jas I of England EXERCISE II. In the following extract all the stops are inserted except periods. The pupil is required to introduce these points wherever they are needed, and to begin each new sentence with a capital. THE GKOTTO OF ADELSBUEG. " This great natural curiosity lies about thirty miles from the Adri. atic, back in the Friuli Mountains, near the province of Cariola we arrived at the nearest tavern at three in the afternoon ; and, subscribing our names upon the magistrate's books, took four guides and the re- quisite number of torches, and started on foot a half hour's walk brought us to a large rushing stream, which, after turning a mill, disappeared with violence into the mouth of a broad cavern sunk in the base of a moun- tain an iron gate opened on the nearest side ; and, lighting our torches, we received an addition of half a dozen men to our party of guides, anci entered we descended for ten or fifteen minutes through a capacious gal- lery of rock, up to the ankles in mud, and feeling continually the drippings exuding from the roof, till by the echoing murmurs of dashing water wo found ourselves approaching the bed of a subterraneous river we soon emerged in a vast cavern, whose height, though we had twenty torches, was lost in the darkness the river rushed dimly below us, at the depth of perhaps fifty feet, partially illuminated by a row of lamps, hung on a slight wooden bridge by which v/e were to cross to the opposite side " We came after a while to a deeper descent, which opened into a magnificent and spacious hall it is called " the ball-room ", and is used as § 89. What exception refers to certain Christian or given names ? mTERKOaATION-POIKT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. 1 Buch once a year, on the occasion of a certain lUyrian feast the floor has been cleared of stalagmites, the roof and sides are ornamented beyond all art with glittering spars, a natural gallery with a balustrade of sta- lactites contains the orchestra, and side-rooms are all around where sup- per might be laid and dressing-rooms offered in the style of a palace I can imagme nothing more magnificent than such a scene a literal descrip- tion of it even would read like a fairy tale " A little farther on, we came to a perfect representation of a water- fall the impregnated water had fallen on a declivity, and, with a slightly ferruginous tinge of yellow, poured over in the most natural resemblance to a cascade after a rain we proceeded for ten or fifteen minutes, and found a small room like a chapel, with a pulpit in which stood one of the guides, who gave us, as we stood beneath, an Illyrian exhortation there was a sounding-board above, and I have seen pulpits in old Gothic churches that seemed, at a first glance, to have less method in their ar- chitecture the last thing we reached was the most beautiful from the cornice of a long gallery hung a thin, translucent sheet of spar, in the graceful and waving folds of a curtain ; with a lamp behind, the hand could be seen through any part of it it was perhaps twenty feet in length, and hung five or six feet down from the roof of the cavern the most singular part of it was the fringe a ferruginous stain ran through it from one end to the other, with the exactness of a drawn line ; and thence to the curving edge a most delicate rose-teint faded gradually doAvn, like the last flush of sunset through a silken curtain had it been a work of art, done in alabaster and stained with the pencil, it would have been thought admirable " The guide wished us to proceed, but our feet were wet, and the air of the cavern was too chill we were at least /ow?* miles, they told us, from the entrance, having walked briskly for upwards of two hours the grotto is said to extend ten miles under the mountains, and has never been thoroughly explored parties have started with provisions, and passed forty-eight hours in it without finding the extremity it seems to me that any city I ever saw might be concealed in its caverns I have often tried to conceive of the grottos of Antiparos, and the celebrated caverns of our own country ; but I received here an entirely new idea of the possibility of space under ground there is no conceiving it unseen the river emerges on the other side of the mountain, seven or eight miles from its first entrance " LESSON XVII. INTEEROGATION-POINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. § 90. Rule I. — An interrogation-point must be placed after every interrogative sentence, member, and clause. § 90. Bepeat Rule I., relating to the use of the interrogation-point. 92 INTERROGATION-rOINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. EXAMPLES. I. — After an mterrogaltve sentence. — " Arc wc not mortal ? " II. — After an interroffative member. — " Our earthly pilgrimage is nearly finished ; shall wc not, then, think of eternity ? " III. — After an inien-ogative clause. — " As we must soon die (who knows but this very night?), we should fix our thoughts on eternity." § 91. Some sentences which arc declarative in fonn are really inter- rogative (see § 78, Remark IV.), and must of course be closed with inter- rogation-points. Thus the sentence, " You will remain all night," is de- clarative in form, and, followed by a period, indicates a positive announce- ment of the fact. If intended as an indirect question, however, (" You will remain all night, will you not ? ") it must be followed by an interrc- gation-point. § 92. After sentences which merely assert that a question has been asked, a period must be placed, unless the exact words of the question are given ; in this case, an interrogation-point takes the place of a period, and must stand before the quotation-points enclosing the question. As, " They asked me whether I would return." — " They asked me, ' Will you return ? ' " So, if a question is introduced into the middle of a sentence, in the exact words in which it was asked, an interrogation-point must be placed before the last quotation-points, the following word must commence with a small letter, and the remainder of the sentence must be punctuated as it would be if no quoted clause were introduced ; as, '* These frequent and lamentable catastrophes ask the question, ' Are you prepared to die ? ' with startling emphasis." The clauses of such sentences, how- ever, are capable of a decidedly better arrangement ; as will be seen by the following alteration : " These frequent and lamentable catastrophes ask, with startling emphasis, the question, 'Are you prepared to die ? ' " § 93. Rule II. — An exclamation-point must be placed after every exclamatory sentence, member, clause, and ex- pression. 1 01. What form have some interrogative sentences f How must they h% tloBcd? inuetratc this. § 03. State the principle relating to sentences which merely declare that a qiicpt ion has been asked. How must we punctuate questions introduced into the middle of a sentence ? How is the rest of the sentence to be pohitcd ? What is ■aid respecting the arrangement of such sentences ? i 98. Repeat Rule II., rclatmg to the use of the exclamation-point. INTERKOGATION-POINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. 93 EXAMPLES. L After an exclamatory sentence. — " How slow yon tiny vessel ploughs the main ! " II. After an exclamatory member. — " The clock is striking midnight ; how suggestive and solemn is the sound ! " III. After an exclamatory clause. — " We buried him (with what intense and heart-rending sorrow !) on the field which his Ufe-blood had con- secrated." IV. After exclamatory expressions. — " Consummate horror ! guilt withoui a name ! " § 94. From the above examples it will be seen that the interroga- tion-point and exclamation-point do not always denote the same degree of separation, but are used when the connection is close as well as when it is remote. Thus, in Examples I. and II. they are placed after propo- sitions making complete sense, and indicate as entire separation from what follows as would be denoted by a period. In the last example, on the contrary, the exclamation-points are by no means equivalent, in this respect, to periods. The two points under consideration, therefore, not only separate complete and independent sentences with the force of periods ; but are also placed between members, like colons and semi- colons, and even between clauses, like commas. In the first case, the words following these points must commence with capitals ; in the last three cases, with small letters, as may be seen above. The sole crite- rion is the degree of connection subsisting between the parts thus sepa- rated. § 95. Sometimes the connection is so close that the different parts are dependent on each other in construction, or do not make sense when taken separately. In this case, if each division is of itself distinctly interroga- tive, varying the question each time by applying it to some new object ; or, in other words, if it contains a repetition of the auxiliary that asks the question, or an interrogative adverb, or adverbial clause, — use an in- terrogation-point after each, and let the following word commence with a small letter ; as, " How shall a man obtain the kingdom of God ? by im- piety ? by murder ? by falsehood ? by theft ? " If, however, such divisions do not apply the question to any new object, but merely state additional circumstances respecting that which § 94. What is said respecting the degree of separation denoted by the interro- gation-point and exclamation-point? When they separate complete and inde- pendent Bentences, how must the next word commence ? When they stand be- tween members and clauses, how must the following word commence ? § 95. State the mode of punctuating, when the parts are dependent on each other in construction, and each varies the question by applying it to some new object. How are these parts separated, if they do not thus vary the question ? 94 INTERKOGATION-POINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. formed the original subject of the inquiry, they must not be separated by interrogation-points, but by commas, semicolons, or colons, as here- after directed ; as, " Where are now the great cities of antiquity, those vast and mighty cities, the pride of kings, the ornament of empires ? " Here but one question is asked, and but one interrogation-point must be employed. § 96. Observe, moreover, that, when a succession of interrogative ad- Terbs or adverbial clauses commence a sentence, the incompleteness of the sense prevents us from placing an interrogation-point after each of them, as we would do if they stood at its close. The two following sen- tences illustrate this difference : — " Under what circumstances, for what purpose, at whose instigation, did he come ? " — " Under what circum- stances did he come ? for what purpose ? at whose instigation ? " § 97. The principles laid down in § 95, 96, apply to the exclamation- point with the same force as to the interrogation-point. The following examples will illustrate their application : — Under § 95. What cold-blooded cruelty did Nero manifest ! what disgusting sensuality! what black ingratitude! what concentrated self- ishness 1 what utter disregard of his duties, as a monarch and as a man ! — How quickly fled that happy season ; those days of dreamy love, those nights of innocent festivity ! Under § 96. IIow extensive, how varied, how beautiful, how sublime, is the landscape ! — How extensive is the landscape ! how varied ! how beautiful I how sublime ! § 98. Rule HE. — An exclamation-point must be placed after every interjection except 0/ as, ah! alas! hold! For an explanation of the diflference between and oh ! see § 68. § 99. In some cases, when an interjection is very closely connected with other words, the exclamation-point is not placed between them, but reserved for the close of the expression ; as, " Fie upon thee ! " § 100. Two interrogative interjections, eh and hey^ are usually fol- lowed by the interrogation-point; as, "You think it suits my. com- plexion, hey ? " § 101. Rule IV. — An exdamation-point may be placed § 96. In what case Is an Interrogation-point inadmissible after interrogative adverbs or adverbial clauses, following each other in a series ? § 97. To what besides the interrogation-point do the principles Just stated apply? § 98. Repeat Rule m. What is the diflference In Bigniflcation and punctuation between O and oh f § 90. When an interjection is very closely connected with other words, whero is tlic exclamation-point placed ? \ 100. What interjcctlonB are usually followed by the interrogatlon-pohit ? IKTEKKOGATION-rOINT. — EXCLAMATION-POINT. 9 5 after a vocative clause, containing an earnest or solemn in- vocation; as, "O Father Supreme! protect us from the dangers of this night." The comma may, without impropriety, be substituted, in such a case, for the exclamation-point ; as, " Father Supreme, protect us from the dangers of this night." § 102. Rule V. — More than one exclamation-point may he placed after a sentence or expression denoting an extraor- dinary degree of emotion ; as, " Political honesty ! ! "Where can such a thing be found?" As a general thing, this repetition of the exclamation-point is con- fined to humorous and satirical compositions. EXERCISE. Insert, in the following sentences, periods, interrogation- points, and exclamation-points, wherever required by the rules that have been given : — Under § 90. There is no precedent applicable to the question ; for when has such a case been presented in our past history When may we look for another such in the future Who hath heard such a thing Who hath seen such a thing Shall the earth be made to bring forth in one day Shall a nation be born at once Under § 91. I have not seen him in a year He has grown I sup- pose — You intend starting in Saturday's steamer — " You have quite re- covered from your injury " " Quite recovered Oh no ; I am still unable to walk " Under § 92. They asked me why I wept — They asked me, " Why do you weep " — This is the question : whether it is expedient to purchase temporal pleasure at the expense of eternal happiness — This is the question : " Is it expedient to purchase temporal pleasure at the expense of eternal happiness " — The question for debate was whether virtue is always a source of happiness — Pilate's question, " What is truth ", has been asked by many a candid inquirer — " Who is there " demanded the sentinel Under § 93. How heavily we drag the load of life — How sweetly the bee winds her small but mellow horn — thoughts ineffable virions blest —0 the times the morals of the day —Such is the uncertainty of life ; yet oh how seldom do we realize it — While in this part of the coun- try, I once more revisited (and alas with what melstncholy presentiments ) the home of my youth S 101. Repeat Rule IV. In such cases, what may be substituted for the excla- mation-point ? S 102. Repeat Rule V. To what kinds of composition is this repetition of tb« exclamation-point confined ? 96 INTERROGATION-POINT. — EXCLAilATION-POINT. Under § 95, 96. Who shall separate us from the love of Christ shall tribulation shall distress shall persecution shall famine shall peril shall sword — I am charged with being an emissary of France An emissary of France And for what end It is alleged that I wished to sell the independence of my country And for what end Was this the object of my ambition and is this the mode by which a tribunal of justice reconciles contradictions — When, where, under what circumstances, did it happen — When did it happen where under what circumstances Under § 91. How calm was the ocean how gentle its swell — IIow wide was the sweep of the rainbow's wings how boundless its circle how radiant its rings — virtue, how disinterested, how noble, how lovely, thou art — virtue, how disinterested thou art how noble how lovely — the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God how unsearchable are Ilis judgments, and His ways past finding out Under § 98. Hark daughter of Almon — Hist he comes — Hail sacred day — Lo I am with you alway — Zounds the man's in earnest — Indeed then I am wrong — dear what can the matter be — Humph this looks suspicious — Pshaw what can we do Under § 99. Woe to the tempter — Woe is me — Shame upon thy in- solence — Ah me — Away with him — Hurrah for the right — Henceforth, adieu to happiness Under § 101. King of kings and Lord of lords in humility we ap- proach Thy altar Rome my country city of the soul The orphans of the heart must turn to thee. Lone mother of dead empires Men of Athens listen to my defence — Ye shades of the mighty dead listen to my invocation Under § 102. An honest lawyer An anomaly in nature. Cage him when you find him, and let the world gaze upon the wonder — A discerning lover that is a new animal, just born into the universe — And this miserable performance, in which it is debatable whether there is more ignorance or pretension, comes before the world with the high- sounding title, " Dictionary of Dictionaries " Miscellaneous. — Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook, or his tongue with a cord which thou Icttest down — When saw we thee an hungered, or athirst, or a stranger, or naked, or sick, or in prison, and did not minister unto thee — When saw we thee an hungered, and did not minister unto thee or athirst or a stranger or naked or sick or in prison — The question, " What is man ", has occupied the attention of the wisest philosophers; yet how few have given a satisfiictory an- swer — An ancient safje, being asked what was the greatest good in the smallest compass, replied, " The human mind in the human body " — " Am I dying " he eagerly asked " Dying Oh no not dying " was the fiiint but hopeful response — It rains still, hey — Where have you been, oh — Aroynt thee, witch — "Ha, ha, ha" roared the squire, who en- joyed the story amazingly " Ha, ha, ha " echoed the whole company THE COLON. 97 LESSON XVIII. THE COLON. § 103. The word Colon comes from the Greek language, and means limh or member. Its use appears to have origi- nated with the early printers of Latin books. Formerly it was much used, and seems to have been preferred to the semicolon, which, with writers of the present day, too gener- ally usurps its place. The colon, however, has a distinct office of its own to perform ; and there are many cases in which no point can with propriety be substituted for it. It indicates the next greatest degree of separation to that de- noted by the period. § 104. Rule I. — A colon must be placed between the great divisions of sentences, when minor subdivisions occur that are separated by semicolons; as, "We perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not see it moving ; we obsen^e that the grass has growTi, though it was impossible to see it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, consisting of minute and gradual steps, are per- ceivable only after intervals of time." The example just given is composed of three members, of which it is evident that the first two are more closely connected with each other than with the last. The former requiring a semicolon between them, a3 will appear hereafter, the latter must be cut off by a point indicating a greater degree of separation, — that is, a colon. § 105. Rule II. — A colon must be placed before a formal enumeration of particulars, and a direct quotation, when re- ferred to by the words thus ^ following^ asfoUoios, this^ these^ &c. ; as, " Man consists of three parts : first, the body, with § 103. From what language is the word cdUm derived ? What does it mean ? With whom did this point originate ? What is said of its use formerly and at the present day ? What degree of separation does it denote ? § 104. Repeat Rule I. § 105. Repeat Rule II. What is meant by a formal enumeration of particulars 7 5 i&S THE COLOX. its sensual appetites; second, the mind, with its thirst for knowledge and other noble aspirations ; third, the soul, with its undjdng principle." — " Mohammed died with these words on his lips : ' O God, pardon my sins ! Yes, I come among my fellow-citizens on high.' " By " a formal enumeration " is meant one in which the particulars are introduced by the words /r«<, secondly, &c., or similar terms. In this case, the objects enumerated are separated from each other by semicolons ; and before the first a colon must be placed, as in the example given above. If the names of the particulars merely are given, without any formal in- troductory words or accompanying description, commas are placed be- tween them, and a semicolon, instead of a colon, is used before the first ; as, " Grammar is divided into four parts ; Orthography, Etymology, Syn- tax, and Prosody." § 106. If the quoted passage consists of several sentences or begins a new paragraph, it is usual to place a colon followed by a dash (: — ) at the end of the preceding sentence ; as, " The cloth having been removed, the president rose and said : — * Ladies and gentlemen, we have assembled,' " &c. § 107. If the quoted passage is introduced by that, or if it is short and incorporated in the middle of a sentence, a colon is not admissible before it ; as, " Remember that ' one to-day is worth two to-morrows.' " " Bion's favorite maxim, ' Know thyself,' is worth whole pages of good advice." § 108. When the quoted passage is brought in without any introduc- tory word, if short, it is generally preceded by a comma ; if long, by a colon ; as, " A simpleton, meeting a philosopher, asked him, * What af- fords wise men the greatest pleasure ? ' Turning on his heel, the sago promptly replied, ' To get rid of fools.' " The use of the colon in this case is illustrated in § 105. § 109. Rule III. — A colon was formerh", and may now be, placed between the members of a compound sentence, When thus formally enumerated, how are the particulars separated from each other ? Wliat marks must precede the first ? When the names merely are given, how arc they separated, and by what preceded ? § 106. If the quoted passage coneists of several sentences or a paragraph, how is the prcccdiuf; sentence generally closed? § 107. In what case Is a colon inadmissihlo hefore a quoted passage ? § 108. State the principle that applies to a quoted passage brought In without any introductory word. § 109. Repeat Rule III. What is said of usage in those cases ? What Is tho highest point that cnw ho used between mcmljcrs connected by a conjunction ? THE COLON. 99 when there is no conjunction between them and the connec- tion is slight ; as, " Never flatter the people : leave that to such as mean to betray them." With regard to the cases falling under this rule, usage is divided. Many good authorities prefer a semicolon; while others substitute a period, and commence a new sentence with what follows. It appears to be settled, however, that, if the members are connected by a conjunction, a semicolon is the highest point that can be placed between them ; as, " Never flatter the people ; but leave that to such as mean to betray them." EXERCISE. Insert, wherever required in the following sentences, pe- riods, interrogation-points, exclamation-points, and colons : — Under § 104. No monumental marble emblazons the deeds and fame of Marco Bozarris ; a few round stones piled over his head are all that marks his grave yet his name is conspicuous among the greatest heroes and purest patriots of history — " Most fashionable ladies," says a plain- spoken writer, " have two faces ; one face to sleep in and another to show in company the first is generally reserved for the husband and family at home ; the other is put on to please strangers abroad the family face is often indiflerent enough, but the out-door one looks something better " — You have called yourself an atom in the universe ; you have said that you were but an insect in the solar blaze is your present pride consistent with these professions Under § 105. The object of this book is twofold first, to teach the inexperienced how to express their thoughts correctly and elegantly ; secondly, to enable them to appreciate the productions of others — The human family is composed of five races, diflfering from each other in fea- ture and color first, the Caucasian or white ; second, &c — Lord Bacon has summed up the whole matter in the following words " A little phi- losophy inclineth men's minds to atheism ; but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion " — Where can you find anything simpler yet more sublime than this sentiment of Richter's " I love God and little children " — He answered my argument thus " The man who lives by hope Avill die by despair " Under § 106. Cato, being next called on by the consul for his opinion, delivered the following forcible speech Conscript fathers, I perceive that those who have spoken before me, &c Under § lOY. Socrates used to say that other men lived in order that they might eat, but that he ate in order that he might live — The proposition that " whatever is, is right ", admits of question — It is a fact on which we may congratulate ourselves, that " honor and shame from no condition rise " — The Spanish proverb, " he is my friend that grinds at my mill," exposes the false pretensions of persons who will not go out of their way to serve those for whom they profess friendship 100 THE SEmCOLON. Under § 108. Solomon says " Go to the ant, thou sluggard " — Diogenes, the eccentric Cynic philosopher, was constantly finding fault with his pupils and acquaintances To excuse himself, he was accus- tomed to say " Other dogs bite their enemies; but I bite my friends, that I may save them " — A Spanish proverb says " Four persons are indis- pensable to the production of a good salad first, a spendthrift for oil ; second, a miser for vinegar ; third, a counsellor lor salt ; fourth, a mad- man, to stir it all up " Under § 109. Love hath wings beware lest he fly — I entered at the first window that I could reach a cloud of smoke filled the apartment — Life in Sweden is, for the most part, patriarchal almost primeval sim- plicity reigns over this northern land, almost primeval solitude and still- ness — Discretion is the perfection of reason, and a guide in all the duties of life cunning is a kind of instinct, that looks out only after its own im- mediate interests and welfare Miscellaneous. — What a truthful lesson is taught in these words of Sterne " So quickly, sometimes, has the wheel turned round that many a man has lived to enjoy the benefit of that charity which his own piety projected" — Colton has truly said that " kings and their subjects, mas- ters and servants, find a common level in two places ; at the foot of the cross, and in the grave" — We have in use two kinds of language, the spoken and the written the one, the gift of God ; the other, the invention of man — How fa'r silence is prudence, depends upon circumstances I waive that question — You have friends to cheer you on ; you have books and teachers to aid you but after all the proper education of your mind must be your own work — Death is like thunder in two particulars we are alarmed at the sound of it ; and it is formidable only from what ha* preceded it LESSON XIX. THE SEMICOLON. § 110. The word Semicolon means half a limb or mem- ber ; and the point is used to indicate the next greatest de- gree of separation to that denoted by the colon. It was first employed in Italy, and seems to have found its way into Eng- land about the commencement of the seventeenth century. § 111. RuxE I. — A semicolon must be placed between the § 110. What docs the woi-d mnicoion mean ? What degree of separation does it indicate ? Where was it first employed ? Whwi did it find its way into England f THE SEMICOLON. 101 members of compomid sentences (see § 41), miless the con- nection is exceedingly close ; as, " Lying lips are an abomina- tion to the Lord ; but they that deal truly are His delight." We have already seen, in § 109, that, when there is no conjunction between the members, a colon may be used, if the connection is slight ; a semicolon, however, is generally preferred. On the other hand, when the members are very short and the connection is intimate, a comma may without impropriety be employed ; as, " Simple men admire the learned, ignorant men despise them." Usage on this point is much divided, \he choice between semicolon and comma depending entirely on the degree of connection between the members, respecting which different minds can not be expected to agree. In the example last given, either a semi- colon or a comma may be placed after learned. § 112. Rule II. — A semicolon must be placed between the great divisions of sentences, when minor- subdivisions oc-' cur that are separated by commas ; as " Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web ; and wit the orna- ment of the mind, not the furniture." § 113. Rule III. — When a colon is j)laced before an enu- meration of particulars, the objects enumerated must be sepa- rated by semicolons ; as, " The value of a maxim depends on four things : the correctness of the principle it embodies ; the subject to which it relates ; the extent of its application ; and the ease with which it may be practically carried out." § 114. Rule IV. — A semicolon must be placed before an enumeration of particulars, when the names of the objects merely are given, without any formal introductory words or accompanying description ; as, " There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter." § 115. Rule V. — A semicolon must be placed before the conjunction as, when it introduces an example. For an illus- tration, see the preceding Rule. § 111. Repeat Rule I. What other point may be;u8pc\, \^hf n, thpre is n«) con^ junction ? When the connection is very close, wh4t floJo^inJvy 'hj! employe^? 1 ' § 112. Repeat Rule n. .. . . » • > ■ § lis. Repeat Rale III. .' ' ' • ' ■•",,",>,'' § 114. Repeat Rule IV. '- . • ' ' . >' 1 '• 'i ''\ * > § 115. Repeat Rule V. 102 THE SEMICOLON. § lie. Rule VI. — When several long clauses occur in succession, all having common dependence on some other clause or word, they must be separated by semicolons ; as, " K we neglected no opportunity of doing good ; if we fed the hungry and ministered to the sick ; if we gave up our own luxuries, to secm-e necessary comforts for the destitute; though no man might be aware of our generosity, yet in the applause of our own conscience we would have an ample reward." § 11*7. If the clauses are short, they may be separated by commas; as, " If I succeed, if I reach the pinnacle of my ambition, you shall share my triumph." EXERCISE. Insert in the following sentences, wherever required by the rules, all the points thus far considered : — Under § 111. Air was regarded as a simple substance by ancient philosophers but the experiments of Cavendish prove it to be composed of oxygen and nitrogen — The gem has lost its sparkle scarce a vestige of its former brilliancy remains — The porcupine is fond of cUmbing trees and for this purpose he is furnished with very long claws — The Lap- landers have little idea of rehgion or a Supreme Being the greater part of them are idolaters, and their superstition is as profound as their wor- ship is contemptible Under § 112. The Jews ruin themselves at their Passover the Moors, at their marriages and the Christians, in their law-suits — The poisoned valley of Java is twenty miles in extent, and of considerable width it pre- sents a most desolate appearance, being entirely destitute of vegetation — The poet uses words, indeed but they are merely the instruments of his art, not its objects — Weeds and thistles, ever enemies of the husbandman, must be rooted out from the garden of the mind good seed must be sown and the growing crop must be carefully attended to, if we would have a plenteous harvest Under § 113. The true order of learning should be as follows first, what is necessary second, what is useful and third, what is ornamental — (iod hath set some in the church first, apostles secondarily, prophets thirdly, teachers after that, miracles then, gifts of healings, helps, govern- ments, diversities of tongues — The duties of man are twofold first, those that he owes to his Creator secondly, those due to his fellow-men — Two paths open before every youth on the one hand, that of vice, with its uui'cal and short-jiiiCi ulcijsures on the other, that of virtue, with the gc/iuine and peftnifnimti hi»f)J)iness it ensures Sli6..j^ei^eatRQieVi; ■}':. In. If the dependent claubcii 'are short, bow may they be separated ? THE SEMICOLON. 103 Under § 114. We have three great bulwarks of liberty viz., schools, colleges, and universities — There are three cases the nominative, the possessive, and the objective — According to a late writer, London sur- passes all other great cities in four particulars size, commerce, fogs, and pickpockets Under § 115. After interjections, pronouns of the first person are generally used in the objective case as, " Ah me " Those of the second person, on the other hand, follow interjections in the nominative as, "Othou" Under § 116. The greatest man is he who chooses the right with in- vincible resolution who resists the sorest temptations from within and without who bears the heaviest burdens cheerfully who is calmest in storms, and most fearless under menace and frowns and whose reliance on truth, on virtue, and on God, is most unfaltering — The dehghtful freedom of Cowper's manner, so acceptable to those long accustomed to a poetical school of which the radical fault was constraint his noble and tender morality his fervent piety his glowing and well-expressed patriot- ism his descriptions, unparalleled in vividness and accuracy his playful humor and powerful satire, — all conspired to render him one of the most popular poets of his day Under §117. Kead not for the purpose of contradicting and con- futing nor of believing and taking for granted nor of finding material for argument and conversation but in order to weigh and consider the thoughts of others — When I have gone from earth when my place is vacant when my pilgrimage is over will thy faithful heart still keep my memory green JliscELLANEOus. This widc-sprcad republic is the future monument to Washington Maintain its independence uphold its constitution pre- serve its union defend its Uberty — The ancients feared death we, thanks to Christianity, fear only dying — The study of mathematics cultivates the reason that of the languages, at the same time, the reason and the taste The former gives power to the mind the latter, both power and flexibility The former, by itself, would prepare us for a state of certainties which nowhere exists the latter, for a state of probabilities, which is that of common life — Woman in Italy is trained to shrink from the open air and the public gaze she is no rider is never in at the death in a fox-hunt is no hand at a whip, if her life depended on it she never keeps a stall at a fancy fair never takes the lead at a debating club she never addresses a stranger, except, perhaps, behind a mask in carnival-season her pohtics are lunited to wearing tri-color ribbons and refusing an Austrian as a partner for the waltz she is a dunce, and makes no mystery of it a coward, and glories in it — Lord Chatham made an administration so checkered and speckled he put together a piece of joinery so crossly in- dented and whimsically dovetailed he constructed a cabinet so variously inlaid with whigs and tories, patriots and courtiers, — that it was utterly unsafe to touch and unsure to stand on — Helmets are cleft on high blood bursts and smokes around 104 THE COMMA. LESSON XX. THE COMMA. § 118. The word Comma means tJmt which is cut off\ and the mark so called denotes the least degree of separa- tion that requires a point. In its present form, the comma is not found in manuscripts anterior to the ninth century ; a straight line drawn vertically between the words was for- merly used in its place. § 119. General Rule. — ^The comma is used to sepa- rate words, phrases, clauses, and short members, closely connected with the rest of the sentence, but requiring sei> aration by some pomt in consequence of the construction or arrangement. PAEENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. § 120. Words, phrases, adjuncts, and clauses, arc said to be PARENTHETICAL when they are not essential to the mean- ing of a sentence and are introduced in such a icay as to break the connection between its component parts. They are generally introduced near the commencement of a sen- tence, between a subject and its verb ; but they may occupy other positions. Every such parenthetical expression must be separated from the leading proposition by a conmia be- fore and after it. As these expressions are of constant occurrence, and are always punctuated in the same manner, with a comma on each side of them, it is important that the pupil should be able to recognize them without difficulty. The following examples contain respectively a parenthetical word, phrase, adjunct, and clause, printed in italics ; which, it will be § 118. What does the word comma menn ? What decree of separation docs the mark so called denote ? In its present form, when was the comma first used f Before that time, what was employed iu its stead ? § 119. Rci)eut the General Rule. % 120. Wlien are words, phrases, adjuncts, and clauses, said to be parcnrticti- cal ? Where are they generally introduced? How must every parenthetical ex- Tlafc COMMA. l05 eeen, may be omitted without injury to the sense, and stand, iu every case, between the subject and its verb : — EXAMPLES OF PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. 1. Napoleon, unquestionably^ was a man of genius. 2. There is, as it were, an atmospheric maelstrom all about us. 3. History, in a xoord, is replete with moral lessons. 4. Thomson, wlio was blessed with a strong and copious fancy^ drew hi& images from nature itself. RESTRICTIVE EXPRESSIONS. § 121. The mere introduction of adjuncts and clauses between a subject and its verb, does not make them paren- thetical. Sometimes they form an essential part of the logi- cal subject, and can not be omitted without rendering the sense incomplete. In that case, they are not parenthetical, but RESTRICTIVE ; and there must be no comma between them and that which they restrict. Whether a comma is to be placed after such restrictive expressions, depends on prin- ciples hereafter explained. Examples of restrictive adjuncts and clauses are furnished below. The pupil is requested to compare them carefully with the examples of parenthetical expressions just given, and to* make himself so familiar with their distinguishing features that he can at once determine to which of the two classes any given adjunct or clause belongs. Few sentences occur without expressions of this kind ; and, as they must have a comma on each side of them if parenthetical, but none before them if restrictive, constant mistakes will be made unless the distinction is thoroughly understood. The criterion is, will the meaning of the tfientence be preserved if the expression is omitted ? If so, it is paren- thetical ; if not, restrictive. EXAMPLES OF RESTRICTIVE EXPRESSIONS. 1. The love of money is the root of all evil. A bird in the Jiand is worth two in the bush. 2. A man tormented by a guilty conscience can not be happy. Those who sleep late lose the best part of the day. pression be cut off from the rest of the sentence ? Give examples, and show in each case how you know the expression to be parenthetical. § 121. Besides its position, what is necessary to make an expression paren- thetical ? When are afljuncts and clauses called restrictive ? From what must re- strictive adjuncts and clauses not be cut off by the comma ? What is the criterion for determining whether a sentence is ])arenthetical or restrictive ? Give ex- umples, and show in each case how you know the expression to b'c restrictive. 106 THE COMMA. RULE L — PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS. § 122. A comma must be placed before and after every parenthetical word, phrase, adjunct, clause, and expression ; see the examples in § 120. The words referred to in this rule are chiefly conjunctions and ad- verbs. Those of most frequent occurrence are as follows : — Too, moreover, apparently, also, likewise, meanwhile, ^ then, however, consequently, surely, finally, unquestionably, indeed, namely, accordingly, perhaps, therefore, notwithstanding. The phrases most frequently used parenthetically are as follows : — In truth, in reality, as a matter of course, in fact, no doubt, at all events, in fine, of course, to be brief, in short, above all, to be sure, in general, generally speaking, on the contrary, in particular, as it were, now and thou. The most common parenthetical adjuncts arc these : — Without doubt, in the first place, by chance, without question, in the mean time, in that case, beyond a doubt, in a word, for the most part, beyond question, in a measure, on the other hand. Any of the clauses enumerated in § 43 may be used parenthetically. §123. A comma must be placed before and after parenthetical sub- jects introduced by as well as ; as, " Industry, as well as genius, is es- sential to the production of great works." — " Printing, as well as every other important invention, has wrought great changes in the world." § 124. A comma must bo placed on each side of negative adjuncts and clauses, when introduced parenthetically by way of contrast or op- position ; as, " Prosperity is secured to a state, not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry and the dis- semination of virtuous principles." § 122. Repeat Rule I. What parts of speech, for tbo most part, arc the words hero referred to ? Enumerate some of the principal. Mention the phrases most frequently introduced parenthetically. Give some of the commonest parcutheti- eal adjuncts. What clauses may bo used parenthetically ? § 123. Wliat subjects arc introduced parenthetically, and fall under this role ? S 124. Btate«tbs principle that applies to negative adjuncts aud clauses. What THE co:m]via. 107 If, however, the word expressing negation is removed from the ad- junct or clause in question and joined to the leading verb, one comma only must be used, and that before the conjunction which introduces the last of the contrasted expressions ; as, " Prosperity is not secured to a state by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry and the dissemination of virtuous principles." If the parts of the sentence are inverted, so that the clauses or ad- juncts are brought before the leading verb with the introductory words U is, then the clause or adjunct introduced by the conjunction receives the commas, one on each side ; as, " It is not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry and the dissemination of virtuous principles, that prosperity is secured to a state." § 125. Some are in the habit of omitting the comma before a paren- thetical expression when it follows a conjunction. This is wrong ; there, as in every other position, it must be cut off by a comma on each side : as, " Your manners are affable, and, for the most part, pleasing." § 126. Observe, with regard to the words referred to in Rule I., that it is only when they belong to the whole proposition, and not to individ- ual words, that they are thus cut off by commas. A few examples, which the pupil is requested to compare, will illustrate this difference. Examples. — The passions of mankind, however, frequently blind them. However fairly a bad man may appear to act, we distrust him. — Is it, then, to be supposed that vice will ultimately triumph ? — We then pro- ceeded on our way. — I would, too, present the subject in another point of view. — It rains too hard to venture out. EXERCISE. Supply the commas omitted in the following sentences, remembering that none must be introduced unless required by a positive rule : — Under § 122. Nothing on earth I tell you can persuade me to such a step. — There is it must be admitted something attractive in such dreamy speculations. — Nothing in my opinion is more prejudicial to the interests of a nation than unsettled and varying policy. — The fundamental principles of science at least those that were abstract rather than practi- cal were deposited during the Middle Ages in the dead languages. — A change in the punctoation must be made, if the word expressing negation is re- moved from the adjunct or clause and joined to the leading verb ? What is the proper mode of pointing, when the parts of the sentence are inverted, and the introductory words it is are employed ? § 125. In what case are some in the habit of omitting the comma before a par- enthetical expression ? Is this right ? § 136. In what case only are the words referred to in Rule I. cut off by commas ? 108 THE COMltA. whifF of tobacco smoke strange as it may appear gives among these bar- barous tribes not merely a binding force but an inviolable sanctity to treaties. — This added to other considerations will prevent me from coming. Under § 123. Nations as well as men fail in nothing which they boldly attempt. — The unprincipled politician like the chameleon is con- stantly changing his color. — Marie Antoinette unlike most regal person- ages was extremely affable in her manners, — The insect aa well as the man that treads upon it has an office to perform. — Dangerous as well as degrading are the promptings of pride. — Printing like every other impor- tant invention has wrought great changes in the world. Under § 124. This principle has been fully settled not by any single act but by the repeated and deliberate declarations of government. — Songs not of merriment and revelry but of praise and thanksgiving were heard ascending. — A great political crisis is the time not for tardy consultation but for prompt and vigorous action. — A great political crisis is not the time for tardy consultation but for prompt and vigorous action. — It is not tardy consultation but prompt and vigorous action that a great political crisis requires. — Juries not judges are responsible for these evils. — Not for his own glory but for his country's preservation did Washington take the field. — It was not in the hope of personal aggrandizement that our fore- fathers embarked in the revolutionary struggle but to secure for them- selves and their posterity that without which they felt life was valueless. Under § 125. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover; and like Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in love. — We may ])erhai)S find it difficult to admire Queen Elizabeth as a woman; but without doubt as a sovereign she deserves our highest respect. She soon if we may believe contemporaneous historians gained incredible influence with her people ; and while she merited all their esteem by her real vir- tues she also engaged their affections by her pretended ones. Under § 126. There were besides several other considerations which led Columbus to believe that the earth was round. — There are others be- sides its soldiers to whom a state should show its gratitude. — Now from this I would argue that all violent measures are at the present time inv politic. — Who now believes in the divine right of kings ?— Morning will come at last however dark the night may be. — (^alileo however was con- vinced of the truth of his theory, and therefore persisted in maintaining it even at the risk of imprisonment and death, fin the last sentence^ therefore does not break the connection suQicicntly to be set off by commas.] LESSON XXI. THE COMMA (continued). RULE II. — CLAUSES, WORDS, PHRASES, AND ADJUNCTS. § 127. When clauses, and when words, phrases, and ad luncts, that may be used parenthetically, are introduced in THE COMMA. 109 Such a way as not to break the connection between depend- ent parts, they are cut off by but one comma, which comes after them if they commence the sentence, but before them if they end it ; as, " Unquestionably, Napoleon was a man of genius." — " Generally spealdng, an indolent person is un- happy." — " This is the case, beyond a doubt." — " See the hollowness of thy pretensions, O worshipper of reason." Observe, however, that such expressions as are restrictive do not fall under this rule. § 128. A comma must also be placed after the following and similar words, which are rarely, and some of them never, used parenthetically, when they stand at the commencement of sentences, and refer, not to any particular word, but to the proposition as a whole : — _ Again, yes, now, first, further, no, why, secondly, howbeit, nay, well, thirdly, &c. As, " Yes, the appointed time has come." — " Why, this is rank in. justice." — " Well, follow the dictates of your inclination." § 129. A comma must be placed after here and therc^ now and tJien^ when they introduce contrasted clauses or members ; as, " Here, every citizen enjoys the blessings of personal freedom ; there, despotism forges fetters for thought, word, and action." § 130. The comma may be omitted in the case of too^ also, therefore, and perhaps, when introduced so as not to interfere with the harmonious flow of the period, and, particularly, when the sentence is short ; as, " Industry gains respect and riches too." — " He delivered a lecture on Monday evening also." — " Perhaps they are safe." § 131. In the case of adjuncts immediately following a verb, the con- nection is often so close that a comma is inadmissible ; as, " I did it with my own hand." § 132. Adverbial, adjective, and hypothetical clauses, if very short, § 127. Repeat Rule II. What expressions do not fall under this rule ? § 128. What other words, rarely used parenthetically, take a comma after them when they stand at the commencement of sentences ? § 129. State the rule relating to here and tJiere^ now and tlien. § 180. In the case of what words may the comma be^ omitted ? § 131. What is said of the connection in the case of adjuncts Immediately following a verb ? % 132. When may adverbial, adjective, and hypothetical clauses be used with* out the comma ? 110 THE COMMA. closely connected, and introdaccd so as not to interfere with the harmo- nious flow of the sentence, need not be cut off by the comma; as, "I began this work two years ago at Rome." § 133. A participial clause that relates to, and immediately follows, the object of a verb, must not be separated from it ; as, " We see our companions borne daily to the grave." § 134. Clauses that would otherwise be set off by the comma, if subdi- vided into parts which require the use of this point, must be separated by the semicolon, according to the rule in § 112, where an example is given. RULE m. — KESTEICnVE ADJUNCTS AND CLAUSES. § 135. No comma must be placed between restrictive ad- juncts or clauses (see § 121) and that which they restrict ; as, " The eye of Providence is constantly upon us." — " Who can respect a man that is not governed by virtuous principles ? " Vocative and causal clauses (see § 43) are never restrictive, and must therefore be set off by the comma. § 136. Relative clauses introduced by the pronoun iliat, as well as those in which the relative is not expressed, are restrictive, and must have no comma before them ; as, " Suspect the man that can not look you in the eye." — " The day we celebrate is one of the proudest in our national history." § 137. A restrictive clause, however, must be set off by a comma, when it refers to several antecedents which are themselves separated by that point ; as, " There are many painters, poets, and statesmen, whom chance has rendered famous rather than merit." § 138. A rule of syntax requires that a restrictive clause should stand immediately after its logical antecedent ; if, however, a sentence is so loosely constructed as to have other words intervene between the an teccdent and the restrictive clause, a comma should be placed before tli. § 183. In what case may the comma bo omitted before a participial claugo? § 134. In what case does the Bcmicolon take the place of the comma between clauses ? § 185. Repeat Rnlo III., rcspectlnp: restrictive adjuncts and clauses. What clauses are never restrictive ? How must they, therefore, be set off? § 136. What relative clauses are restrictive, and must therefore have no comma before them ? § 137. In what case must a restrictive clanso be set off by a comma ? § 138. What is the i^ropcr position for a restrictive clause ? If other wonlt» are introduced between the clause and its antecedent, what change mast be made in the punctuation ? THE COMMA. Ill latter ; as, " He can have no genuine sympathy for the unfortunate, that has never been unfortunate himself." With its parts correctly ar- ranged, this sentence requires no point ; as, " He that has never been unfortunate himself can have no genuine sympathy for the unfortunate." § 139. When there is a succession of restrictive clauses relating to the same antecedent, they are separated from each other by commas, and the first must be set off from the antecedent by the same point ; as, " Countries, whose rules are prompt and decisive, whose people arc united, and whose course is just, have little to fear, even from more powerful nations." § 140. A comma is also generally placed before a restrictive clause containing of which, to which, or for which, preceded by a noun ; as, " We have no sense or faculty, the use of which is not obvious to the re- flecting mind." § 141. A participial clause is restrictive when the participle it con- tains can be exchanged for the relative that and a finite verb without in- jury to the sense. " A man discharging his duty under trying circum- stances is worthy of our confidence ; " here, discharging is equivalent to that discharges, and the clause is restrictive. In such a case, no comma must separate the clause from the antecedent, unless the principle em- bodied in § 137 applies. EXERCISE. In the following sentences, insert commas wherever re- quired by rule : — Under § 127. But for this event the future liberator of Rome might have been a dreamer. — Thou sayest right barbarian. — Great poet as Petrarch is he has often mistaken pedantry for passion. — ^When a peo- ple suffer in vain it is their own fault. — Happier had it been for many had they never looked out from their own heart upon the world. — What are good laws if we have not good men to execute them ? — Low though the voice the boast was heard by all around. — Amazed at what had taken place the barons mechanically bent the knee. — Im- patient to finish what he had begun Cassar allowing his army no rest pushed forward to the capital. — Though neither honest nor elo- quent the demagogue often controls the people. — To say the truth it was a goodly company. — From this time forth no sound of merriment § 139. State the principle that applies to a succession of restrictive relative clauses relating to the same antecedent. § 140. What is said of restrictive clauses containing of which, «&c., preceded by d noun ? § 141. When is a participial clause restrictive ? In such a case, must it ba eeparated from its antecedent ? 112 THE COMMA. was ever heard in those lordly halls ; on the contrary silence and gtoort hung over them like a pall. — Xovertheless though you have wronged me thus I inflict no vengeance. — When I became a man I laid aside childish things. — Are ye bewildered still Romans ? Under § 128. Well honor is the sulyect of my story. — Yes it often happens that when we get out of the reach of want we are just within the reach of avarice. — Again one man's loss is sometimes another man's gain. — Verily this is a troublous world. — Furthermore we are always suspicious of a deceitful man's motives. — Xay though the whole world should do wrong this is no excuse for our offences. — First let us look at the facts. Under § 129. Then the world listened with pleasure to the rude strains of the troubadour ; now the divine thoughts of the most gifted geniuses can hardly command its attention. — Here we have troubles, pains, and partings ; there we are allowed to look for an unbroken rest the elevated pleasures of which (see § 140) no heart can conceive. Under § 130. Perhaps there is no man so utterly unhappy as the useless drone. — I have seen this, and can therefore describe it with ac- curacy. — Pythagoras made many discoveries in geometry and astrono- my also. — I can give you some information on the subject being a farmer and a practical one too. — I was also there ; you are therefore mistaken. Under § 131. The love of life is deeply implanted in the human heart. — To sum the matter up in a few words his hand is against every man's. — A tree is known by its fruits. — Banished from his native country ^schines retired to Rhodes where he opened a school of oratory that be- came famous throughout all Greece. The golden wain rolls round the silent North, And earth is slumbering 'neath the smiles of heaven. Under § 132. You may go if you wish. — We frequently meet ene- mies where we expect friends. — Columbus maintained his theory with a confidence which went far towards convincing his hearers. — All these things will have passed away a hundred years hence. — Satan goes about like a roaring lion seeking whom he may devour. Under § 1 33. How many have seen their affection slighted and even betrayed by the ungrateful ! — We hear the good slandered every day. — Alexander the Great had a large city built in honor of his favorite horse. Under § 134. During the fourteenth century Italy was the India of A vast numl)er of well-born but penniless adventurers who had inflamed their imaginations by the ballads and legends of chivalry who from youth had trained themselves to manage the barb, and boar alike through sum- mer's heat and winter's cold the weight of arms and who passing into an effeminate and distracted land had only to exhibit bravery in order to command wealth. Under § 135. The (juality of mercy is not strained. — How soft the music of those village bells ! — Good nature is a sun which sheds light on all around. — He who is a traitor to his country is a serpent which turns to bite the bosom that warms it. — Mahomet always observed the forms of that gravo and ceremonious politeness so common in bis couutr/. THE COMirA. 113 Under § 136. Is there a heart that music can not melt ? — Anger is a fire that consumes the heart. — The evil that men do, lives after them. — The land we live in is on many accounts bound to our hearts by the strongest ties. — Men are willing for the most part to overlook the faults of those they love. Under § 137. There was no man, woman, or child that the tyrant Nero did not heartily hate. — The profligate man is a stranger to the in- nocent social enjoj-ments, the gushing affections, and sacred domestic pleasures which to the virtuous constitute a never-failing source of satis- laction and contentment. — The Lydians, the Persians, and the Arabians that wish to leave the army, are at liberty to do so. Under § 138. An author can not be readily understood who is unac- quainted with the art of punctuation. — All is not gold that glitters. — Clauses must be set off by commas which are introduced parenthetically. — That man is not fit to be the head of a nation who prides himself on being the head of a party. {Punctuate the sentences in this paragraph C5 they stand ; then arrange them in their proper order, and point thcra accordingly.) UxVDER § 139. We should have respect for the theories of a philoso- pher whose judgment is clear, whose learning is extensive, and whose reasonings are founded on facts even though his deductions may conflict with generally received opinions. Under § 140. Have no desire for a reputation the acquisition of which involves dishonesty or deceit. — The barometer is an instrument the usefulness of Avhich to the navigator can hardly be overestimated. — All physicians tell us that dyspepsia is a disease the remedy for which it is hard to find. — Napoleon had from youth fixed his eyes on a pinnacle of greatness the path to which he knew was filled with tremendous obstacles. Under § 141. Those distinguished for honesty and activity rarely if ever in this land of business energy lack employment. — This M'as to be expected in a country overrun with disbanded soldiers whose only means of subsistence were theft and violence. — No person found guilty of felony is allowed to hold office. — We can not too much pity the lot of a child thrown at a tender age on the charities of the world. LESSON XXII.. THE COMMA ( C N T I N TJ E D ) . RULE IV. — APPOSITION. § 142. Single words in apposition and appositional clauses must be set off by the comma ; as, " The fate of Rienzi, the S 143. Repeat Rule IV., rcepecting words in apposition and appositional clauses. 114 THE COMMA. last of the Roman tribunes, shows the fickleness of an igno- rant populace." — "Darius, the king of the Persians." § 143. To this rule there are four exceptions. The comma must bo omitted, I. Between a proper name and a common noun placed immediately before or after it without an adjunct ; as, " Darius the king" ; " tha Altai Mountams " ; " the River Rhine ". II. When a pronoun other than / is in apposition with a substantive which it immediately precedes or follows; as, "Cicero himself"; " Ye mighty men of war ". III. When the word in apposition or the clause in question is necessary to the idea predicated, so that it can not be left out without render- ing the sense incomplete ; as, " The people elected him presidciiV^ — " Ue was chosen umpire." — " I regard him as a traiior." — " Whom his friends considered an honest man." In these examples, italics arc used to indicate the words and clauses in question ; and, as they can not be omitted without injury to the sense, they are necessary to the idea predicated, and must not be set off by the comma. IV. The comma is omitted between the parts of a compound proper name, when in their proper order ; as, " the Rev. Samuel T. Wol- laston " ; " Marcus Tullius Cicero ". When, however, the order is inverted, as in alphabetical lists of names, directories, &c., a comma must be inserted ; as, " Home, James G. " ; " Lyle, Rev. S. Phillips ". When a title, either abbreviated or written in full, is annexed to a proper name, it must be set off by a comma ; as, " Robert Horton, M. D., F. R. S."; "W. C. Doubleday, Esqiure". RULE V. — TKANSPOSED ADJUNCTS AND CLAUSES. § 144. When a transposition occurs, so that an adjunct or a clause which would naturally follow a verb is introduced before it, a comma is generally required to develop the sense. § 143. now many cxccptione arc there to this nilo ? Wliat is the first, relating to a proper name and common noun ? What is the second, relating to pronouns ? What Is the third, rolatinfj to words and clauses necessary to the idea predicated ? What is the fourth, relating to compound proper names? If the parts of the name are transposed, what stop must be inserted ? When a title is annexed to a proper name, how must it be set off? § 141. Repeat Rule V., relating to transposed adjuncts and clauses. When tii« natural order is restored, what change is noceisary in the punctuation f THE COMMA. 115 EXAMPLES. 1. To those who laboi', sleep is doubly pleasant. 2. Of the five races, the Caucasian is the most enlightened. 3. To all such, objections may be made. 4. Whom he loveth, he chasteneth. In the above examples, we have a rhetorical arrangement ; the com- mon order would be as follows : — " Sleep is doubly pleasant to those who labor." — " The Caucasian is the most enlightened of the five races," &c. As just written, it will be seen that these sentences require no comma. § 145, The comma must be omitted in the following cases : — I. When the transposed adjunct is short and closely connected with the verb ; as, " With this I am satisfied." If, however, there is danger of a reader's mistaking the sense, as in the third example under § 144, a comma must be placed after the adjunct. II. When the transposed adjunct or clause is introduced by It is ; as, " It is chiefly through books that we hold intercourse with supe- rior minds." III. When a verb preceding its nominative comes immediately after the transposed adjunct or clause ; as, " Down from this towering peak poured a roaring torrent." IV. When the transposition consists in placing an objective case with or without limiting words immediately before the verb that governs it ; as, " Silver and gold have I none." RULE VI. — LOGICAL SUBJECT. § 146. A comma must be placed after the logical subject of a sentence (see § 40) when it ends with a verb, or when it consists of several parts which are themselves separated by commas ; as, " Those wJio persevere^ succeed." — " The world of Qf^y^iy^ of temptation^ and of pleasure, allures thee." The object of this rule is to enable the eye readily to perceive what the logical subject is. In the last example, if the comma after pleasure were omitted, a false impression would be conveyed, as it would seem that the words and of pleasure were more closely connected with the verb allures than the rest of the subject, — which is not the case. § 145. Li what four cases may the comiaa be omitted in the case of transposed adjuncts and clauses ? § 146. What is meant by the logical subject of a sentence ? Repeat Rule VI., relating to logical subjects. What is the object of this rule ? 116 THE COMMA. § 147. A comma riftcr the logical subject is, also, sometimes neces- sary to prevent ambiguity. Thus, in the sentence, " He who pursues pleasure only defeats the object of his creation," it is impossible to tell whether only modifies pleasure or defcais. If the meaning is that " he >vho pursues nothing but pleasure defeats, &c.," a comma should be in- serted after only ; if not, we should have one after pleasure. The reader should not be left in doubt. § 148. A comma, followed by a dash, is generally placed after a logi- cal subject when it consists of several particulars separated by semico- lons, or by commas, when, for the sake of greater definiteness, the words all, these, all these, such, or the like, referring to the particulars before enumerated, are introduced as the immediate subject of the verb ; as, " To be overlooked, slighted, and neglected ; to be misunderstood, mis- represented, and slandered ; to be trampled under foot by the envious, the ignorant, and the vile ; to be crushed by foes, and to be distrusted and betrayed even by friends, — such is too often the fate of genius." RULE VII. — ABSOLUTE WORDS AND CLAUSES. § 149. Absolute participial clauses, and substantives in the nominative absolute with their adjuncts and limiting words, must be set off by the comma; as, " J?om6 having fallen, the world relapsed into barbarism." — " Ills conduct 071 this occasio9i, how disgraceful it was ! " — " Yes, 5jV." — " And thou too, Brutus ! " Some absolute participial clauses have the participle understood, but must, notwithstanding, be punctuated according to the above rule. Thus, in the following lines, though being is left out after steeds and /or, the clauses must be set oflf by the comma : — " Winged with his fears, on foot he strove to fly, His steeds too distant, and the foe too nigh." § 150. The second example under Rule VII. illustrates a construc- tion admissible in poetry, but not to be imitated in prose. It should read, " How disgraceful was his conduct on this occasion ! " As originally given, it may be punctuated with cither a comma or a dash after occasion. % 147. On what other account is a comma sometimeei necessary after the logi- cal subject ? Illuetrate this, and show how a comma prevents ambijxuity. 8 148. In what case ie a comma followed by a dush placed after a lojrical subject ? 5 149. Repent Rule VII., relating? to absolute words and clauses. What Is some- times omitted from a participial clause ? Docs thi." chnnjre the mode of pnnctuatin;^? S 150. What ift tUo second example in $ 149 ? What is said respecting eucli constructions ? THE COMMA. 117 EXERCISE. Insert in the following sentences whatever points are re- quired by the rules that have been gixim : — Under § 142. Mahomet left Mecca a wretched fugitive he returned a merciless conqueror — A professed Catholic he imprisoned the Pope a pretended patriot he impoverished the country — The Scriptures those lively oracles of God contain the only authentic records of primeval ages — I Nebuchadnezzar king of the Jews make this decree — Aristides the just Athenian is one of the noblest characters in Grecian history — Richard I the Lion-hearted — Charles the Bald king of France — We saw him tyrant of the East Under § 143. The River Volga and the Ural Mountains form accord- ing to some geographers the boundary between Asia and Europe — We humble men may admire the great if .ve can not equal them — John Howard Payne the author of " Home, sweet home " and Samuel Wood- worth who composed "The old oaken bucket" occupy a prominent place among American poets — It has been said that if all the learned and scientific men of every age could meet in a deliberative assemTaly they Tvould choose Sir Isaac Newton for their president — With modesty your guide, reason your adviser, and truth your controlling principle, you will rarely have reason to be ashamed of your conduct — Herodotus is called the father of profane history — These grumblers would not have considered Ca3sar himself a good general — Henry F. Witherspoon junior LL D Under § 144. At the talents and virtues of all who hold diiferent views from their own certain partisan writers are accustomed to sneer — Of all the passions vanity is the most unsocial — To love many a soldier on the point of realizing his dreams of glory sacrifices the opportunity of so doing — Whether such a person as Homer ever existed we can not say — How the old magicians performed their miracles it is difficult to explain — That riches are to be preferred to wisdom no one will openly assert Under § 145. With a crash fell the severed gates — On me devolves the unpleasant task — In memory's twilight bowers the mind loves to dwell — It is only by constant effort that men succeed in great under- takings — To the poor we should be charitable — To the poor men should be charitable — History we read daily — At the bottom of the hill ran a little stream — In Plato's garden congregated a crowd of admiring pupils — Respecting the early history of Egypt little is known — Equivocation I despise truth and honor I respect — It is chiefly by constant practice and close attention to correct models that one learns to compose with ease and elegance — This he denied Under § 146. The miracles that Moses performed may have con- vinced Pharaoh but at first they humbled not his pride — Every impure, angry, revengeful, and envious thought is a violation of duty— The evil that men do lives after them — Whatever breathes lives — The boldness of these predictions, the apparent proximity of their fulfilment, and the imposing oratory of the preacher struck awe into the hearts of his 118 THE COMJtfA. audience — Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter have each Its office to perform Under § 14Y. He who stands on etiquette merely shows his own littleness — To become conversant with a single department of literature only has a tendency to make our views narrow and our impressions in- correct — To remain in one spot always prevents the mind from taking comprehensive views of things Under § 148. The solemn circle round the death-bed the stifled grief of heart-broken friends their watchful assiduities and touching ten. derness the last testimonies of expiring love the feeble, fluttering, pres. Bure of the hand the last fond look of the glazing eye tummg upon us even from the threshold of existence the faltering accents struggling in death to give one more assurance of affection all these recollections rush into our mind as we stand by the grave of those we loved Under § 149. Whose gray top shall tremble he descending — The baptism of John was it from Heaven or of men — This point afinitted we proceed to the next division of our subject — The boy oh where was he — This said He formed thee Adam thee man — Man to man steel to steel they met their enemy — Shame being lost all virtue is lost — Their countenances expressive of deep humiliation they entered the palace — O wretched we devoid of hope and comfort — That man of sorrow oh how changed he was to those who now beheld him — The conquest of Spain their object they left no means untried for effecting a landing on the Peninsula — Honor once lost life is worthless — I whither can I go— The summing up having been completed on both sides the judge next pro- ceeded to charge the jury Under § 150. Our time how swiftly it passes away — Her dimples and pleasant smile how beautiful they are — My banks they are covered with bees — The companion of my infancy and friend of my riper years she has gone to her rest and left me to deplore my bereavement — Earthly happiness what is it where can it be found — The bride she smiled ; and the bride she blushed {After punctuating tJie sentences in this paragraph, as ilwj stand, give them tlw tmtat prose construction andpunctttate accordingly.) LESSON XXIII. THE COMMA (CONTINUED). RULE Vm. — snoET members. § 151. A COMMA must be placed between short members of compound sentences, connected by and, but, or, nor, for, because, whereas, that expressing purpose, so that, in order that, and other conjimctions. § 151. Repeat Rule VITI., relating to short members. If the members are loug, or contn.ti eubdivlelons set off by comraas, how must they bo soparated ? THE COMMA. 119 EXAMPLES. 1. Educate men, and you keep them from crime. 2. Man proposes, but God disposes. 3. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 4. Be virtuous, that you may bo respected. 5. Travelling is beneficial, because it enlarges our ideas. 6. The ship of state is soon wrecked, unless honesty is at the helm, v. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 8. The record is lost, so that we can not now decide the point. If the members are long, or contain subdivisions set off by commas, they must be separated, according to principles already laid down, by the semicolon. § 152. Observe that a comma must not be placed before that^ when not equivalent to in order that ; nor before than or whether : as, " He said that he would come." — " Honest poverty is better than fraudulent wealth." § 153. No comma must be placed before lest when it immediately follows a word with which it is closely connected ; as, " Let those who stand, take heed lest they fall." RULE IX. — COMPOUND PEEDICATES. § 154. A comma must be placed before and, but, or, and 7ior, when they connect parts of a compound predicate, un- less these parts are very short and so closely connected that no point is admissible ; as, " I love not the woman that is vain of her beauty, or the man that prides himself on his wisdom." — " We can neither esteem a mean man, nor honor a deceitful one." § 156. If the parts of a predicate consist of but two or three words each, construed alike, a comma is not necessary ; as, " Pleasure beckons us and tempts us to crime." § 150. A comma must not be placed before and and or, when they connect two words that are the same part of speech, either unlimited, or both limited by adjuncts of similar construction; as, "Here I § 152. Before what conjunctions is it improper to place a comma ? § 153. Before what conjunction is the comma generally omitted ? § 154. Repeat Eule IX., relating to compound predicates. § 155. In what case is a comma necessaiy between the parts of a predicate ? § 156. State the principle that applies to and and or connecting two words that are tlie same part of speecli. 120 THE COMMA. and Sorrow sit." — "Trust not an ungrateful son or a disobedient daughter." § 15Y. The words, however, referred to in the preceding paragraph must be separated by the comma, if one is limited by a word or words which might be erroneously applied to both ; as, " I have seven brave sons, and daughters." § 158. A comma must be used before conjunctions, when they con- nect two words contrasted, or emphatically distinguished from each other ; also, before the adverb not^ used without a conjunction between contrasted terms ; as, " Charity both gives, and forgives." — " Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." RULE X. — EQUIVALENTS. § 159. A comma must be placed before or, when it in- troduces an equivalent, an explanatory word, or a clause de- fining the writer's meaning ; as, " Autography, or the art of determining a person's character from his handwriting, is coming into vogue." — " Herodotus was the father of history, or rather of profane history." § 160. In double titles of books, a semicolon is generally placed before or, and a comma after it; as, " Fascination; or. The Art of Charming." RULE XI. — OMISSION or words. § 161. When, to avoid repetition, and, or, nor, or a verb previously used, is omitted, a comma takes its place. EXAMPLES. 1. In what school did the Washingtons, Henrys, Hancocks, Frank- lins, and Rutledges, of America, learn the principles of civil liberty? (And is here omitted after the first three proper names respectively.) 2. The merciful man will not maim an insect, trample on a worm, or cause an unnecessary pang to the humblest of created things. (Oa is omitted after insect.) 8. In the well-trained heart, neither envy, jealousy, hatred, nor re- venge, finds a resting-place. (Nor is omitted after enin/ and jealoiuti/.) § 157. In what case must the words Just referred to have a comma between them? § 158. State the principle that applies to conjunctions connecting contrasted words. § 159. Repent Rule X., relating to equivalents. $ 160. Uow are double titles of books to be punctuated ? § 161. Repeat Rule XI., relating to the omission of words. Give examples, show the omissions, and state what point mut^l be Inserted. THE COMMA. 121 4. Conversation makes a ready man ; writing, an exact man. (In the last member makes is omitted, and a comma takes its place.) § 162. When this rule is followed, the clauses or members in which the omission occurs must be separated by semicolons. When, however, the clauses are very short, the style is lively, and the connection close, the comma may be employed to set off the clauses or members, and no point need be used in the place of the omitted comma ; as, " When the 60t sings the praises of sobriety, the miser of generosity, the coward of Valor, and the atheist of religion, we may easily judge what is the sin- cerity of their professions." RULE XII. — LAST OF A SERIES. § 163. A comma must be placed before and^ or, and nor, wlien they connect the last of a series of clauses, or of a suc- cession of words that are the same part of speech and in the same construction. See Examples 1, 2, 3, under Rule XI, EXERCISE. Insert in the following sentences whatever points are re- quired : — Under § 151. Anger glances into the breast of a wise man but it rests only in the bosom of fools — The island on which the city of New York stands was originally bought from the Indians for twenty-four dollars whereas it is now valued at three hundred million — Week fol- lowed week until at last Columbus and his followers were thousands of miles from their native shore — Bad men are constantly in search of some new excitement that their minds may be diverted from the reproaches of conscience — Science is constantly making new discoveries while igno- rance and prejudice refuse to receive those already made — Love flies out at the window when poverty comes in at the door — The lives of men .should be filled with beauty just as the earth and heavens are clothed with it Under § 152. Honorable peace is better than uncertain war — It is easier to excite the passions of a mob than to calm them — What injus- tice that the new world was not called after Columbus — We know not whether to-morrow's sun will find us alive — Shall we forget that truth is mighty — It is a strange fact that man alone of living things delights in causing pain to his species Under § 153. Take care lest the spoiler come — The falling leaves bid us beware lest we fix our affections too firmly on the things of earth 8 162. When this rule is followed, by what point must the clauses be separated ? What exception is there ? § 163. Repeat Rule XII., relating to the last of a series of clauses. 6 123 THE COMMA. — "We should have a care lest sinful pleasures seduce us with their mani- fold temptations — Beware lest they suddenly fall upon thee Under § 154. The great astronomical clock of Strasburg is twenty- four feet higher than the tallest of the Egyptian pyramids and one hun- dred and forty feet higher than St. Paul's in London — Cicero was supe- rior to Demosthenes in the finish of his periods but inferior to him in energy and fire — The fool neither knows whether he is right nor cares whether he is wrong — The world has gained wisdom from its years and is quick to penetrate disguises — The brave man will conquer or perish iu the attempt Under § 155. Study disciplines the mind and matures the judgment — Virtue should be the aim of our youth and the solace of our declining years — Years come and go — Galileo read or wrote the greater part of the night — Here sit we down and rest — How sweetly and solemnly sound the evening chimes Under § 156. The bold man does not hesitate to take a position and maintain it. — Adams and Jeiferson died by a singular coincidence July 4th 1826 — The magnitude of the heavenly bodies and their almost infinite distance from us fill our minds with views at once magnificent and sub- lime Under § 157. I woke and thought upon my dream — With the aid of the telescope we discern in the moon vast yawning pits and huge vol- canoes sending forth their awful fires — In the bazaar may be seen tons of ice and vast quantities of ivory from Africa — The relative pronoun who is applied to persons and things personified Under § 158. Bear and forbear — Brave not rash is the true hero — He is not a fool but only foolish — Remember the favors you receive not those you confer — The credulous may believe this wonderful story not 1 — It is as great a sin to murder one's self as to murder another Under § 159 The period or full stop denotes the end of a complete sentence — Republics show little gratitude to their great men or rather none at all — Hence originated philosophy or the love of wisdom — At this point the lake is ten fathoms or sixty feet deep — The Marquis of Anglesea or as he was then called Lord Paget lost a leg at the battle of Waterloo Under § 160. {Besides punctuating ike following sentences, tise capitals trJuerever required by § 65.) We have just finished reading " six months in the gold-diggings or a miner's experience in eldorado " — A new book of travels has just made its appearance entitled " The city of the doges or Venice and the Venetians in the nineteenth century " Under § 161. Study makes a learned man experience a wise one — Rapid exhaustless deep his numbers flowed — Let your pleasure be moderate seasonable innocent, and becoming {comma after innocent according to § 163) — Mahomet's Paradise consisted of pure waters shady groves luscious fruits and exquisite houris — The author dreads the critic the miser the thief the criminal the magistrate and every body public opinion: — My liead is filled with dew my locks with the drops of the night— Benevolence is allied to few vices selfishness to fewer virtues THE COMMA. 123 IJndeb ^ 162. Without books justice is dormant philosophy lame literature ^umb and all things are involved in darkness — Without modesty beauty is ungraceful learning unattractive and wit disgusting — Pride goeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall — Talent is surrounded with dangers and beauty with temptations Under § 163. Mahomet the founder of Islamism did not hesitate to work with his own hands he kindled the fire swept his room made his bed milked his ewes and camels mended his stockings and scoured his sT^uord — So eagerly the Fiend o'er bog or steep through strait rough densie or rare with head hands wings or feet pursues his way Suns moons and stars and clouds his sisters were Rocks mountains meteors seas -and winds and storms His brothers LESSON XXIV. THE COMMA (CONTINUED). RULE XIII. — COMMON CONNECTION. § 164. When two or more antecedent portions of a sen- tence have a common connection with some succeeding clause or word, a comma must be placed after each; as, " She is as tall, though not so handsome, as her sister." Commas are frequently required, under this rule, after diflferent prep- ositions governing the same substantive ; as, " They are fitted for, and accustomed to, very different modes of life." In the case of a series of adjectives preceding their noun, a oomma is placed after each but the last ; and there general usage, by an un- philosophical anomaly, requires us to omit the point; as, "A quick, brilliant, studious, learned man ". This usage violates one of the funda- mental principles of punctuation ; it indicates, very improperly, that the noun man is more closely connected with learned than with the other adjectives. Analogy and perspicuity require a comma after learned. % 164. Bepeat Rule XHI., relating to common connection. After what part of speech are commas frequently required under this rule ? What usage prevails in the case of a series of adjectives preceding their noun ? What i» said of this usage ? 124: THE COIVIMA. RULE XIV. — WOKDS IN PAIRS. § 165. Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair ; as, " The dying man cares not for pomp or luxury, palace or estate, silver or gold." — " Ignorant and superstitious, cun- ning and vicious, deceitful and treacherous, the natives of this island are among the most degraded of raanldnd." RULE XV. — WORDS REPEATED. § 1G6. "Words repeated for the sake of emphasis must be set off, w^ith their adjuncts if they have any, by the comma ; as, " Very, verily, I say unto you." § 167. If, however, the repetition is abrupt, proceeds from hesitation, or is accompanied with a break in the sentiment, a dash may be used ; as, " He has gone to his rest — gone, to return no more." RULE XVI. — THE INFINITIVE MOOD. § 168. A comma must be placed before to, the sign of the infinitive mood, when equivalent to in order to ; as, " Cicero sent his son to Athens, to complete his education." RULE XVII. — QUOTATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS. § 169. The comma must set off quotations, passages re- sembling them in form, and observations in general, when short and not formally introduced ; as, " It was Bion that first said, * Know thyself.' " — " I would here call attention to the fact, that nature has endowed the body with recuperative faculties, which often enable it; to rally and recover from pros- tration when science has exhausted all its remedies in vain." When formally introduced by the words tlmc^ foUoxoing^ or as/oUows, a colon must precede the quotation. § 170. When a quotation is divided, a comma must be placed on § 1(55. Repent Rule XTV., rolatiujc to words used in pairs. § 100. Repeat Rule XV., relating to words repeated. § 107. In what case may a dash bo used instead of a comma? § 108. Repeat Rule XVI., rolatinj; to the iuanitive mood. § 101>. Repeat Rule XVII., relafitij; to quotations. Whon formally introduced, by what point is the quota tiou preceded ? THE CO^IMA. 125 each side of the words introduced between its parts ; as, " One to-day," gays Franklin, " is worth two to-morrows." RULE XVIII. — CORRELATIVE TERMS. § 171. Members of sentences containing correlative ad- verbs and conjunctions, are separated by the comma ; as, " The harder we study, the better we Hke to study." — " As a cloud darkens the sky, so sorrow casts a gloom over the soul." § 172. The comma, however, is generally omitted in the case of so — that, so — as, rather — than, and more — tha7i, especially Avhen the parts they connect are clauses and not members ; unless the related parts contain subdivisions separated by the comma, in v/hich case the same point must be placed before the last correlative term. FXAMPLES. 1. He is so exhausted that he can not work. 2. So act as to gain the respect of men. 3. The Laplander would rather live in his own land than any other. 4. Marie Antoinette was more amiable in her life than fortunate in her death. 1. He is so unwell, weak, and exhausted, that he can not work. 2. So think, speak, and act, as to gain the respect of men, 3. The Laplander, however, would rather live in his own land, than any other. 4. Marie Antoinette, queen of France, was more amiable in her life, than fortunate in her death. RULE XIX. — AMBIGUOUS CONSTRUCTIONS. § 173. A comma must be used, even when not required by the grammatical construction, wherever it serves to de- velop the sense or prevent ambiguity. Thus, after a long logical subject, a comma is of service ; as, " That a man thoroughly educated in youth and who has ever since been in the habit of composing could make so gross a mistake through ignorance, is almost incredible." Cases in which the comma prevents ambiguity have been noticed under several of the foregoing rules. § 170. What is the mode of punctnatingr, when a quotation is divided ? § 171. Repeat Rule XVIII., relating to correlative terms. § 172. In the case of what correlatives is the comma generally omitted ? Wlien, however, do they take it? § 173. Repeat Rule XIX., relating to ambiguous constructions. According to this rule, where is a comma of service ? 126 THE COMMA. RULE XX. — NUMBERS EXPRESSED BY FIGURES. § 174. Except in the case of dates, numbers written in Arabic characters take a comma after each period of three figures, beginning at "the right; as, "In 1846, the planet Neptune was discovered, and found to be at a distance of 2,746,271,000 miles from the sun." Dates must always be expressed by figures. So must large numbers, when many words would be required to denote them. Otherwise, as in the case of round numbers, and always for small ones, words are to be employed. Thus : " Venus is, in round numbers, sixty-nine million miles from the sun ; its exact distance is 68,932,000 miles." — " We leave the ninety-nine sheep that are safe, to look after the one that is lost." EXERCISE. Supply the points omitted in the following sentences : — Under § 164. The spirit of liberty must change it is fast changing the face of the earth — The world at this moment is regarding us with a willing but something of a fearful admiration — The literature of a nation is one of its highest and certainly one of its most refined elements of greatness — He who lacks decision of character may win the love but he certainly can not gain the respect of his fellow men — This doctrine is founded upon and consistent with the truth Under § 165. These shores rough and cold barbarous and barren devoid of comforts and even necessaries peopled with fierce beasts and fiercer savages became their home — Sink or swim survive or perish I am for the Declaration — Vicissitudes of good and evil of trials and consola- tions of joy and sorrow of cloud and sunshine fill up the Ufe of man — I M take thee N to my wedded wife to have and to hold from this day for- ward for better for worse for richer for poorer in sickness and in health to love and to cherish till death us do part Under § 166. Lend lend your wings I mount I fly — Quit oh quit this mortal frame — Speak not harshly speak not harshly to the orphan's tender heart — Charge charge on the cravens — Some shriek shriek madly in the whirling gulf — He swam the Tiber unhurt unhurt alike by his fall and the weapons of the enemy Under § 167. Dust dust thou art vile and dishonored dust — The tyrant slept slept but rested not — We have promised we have promised but recollect under certain restrictions — I fear I fear that he will play you false — You think him happily situated happily situated with aeon- science that allows him no rest a conscience which keeps his evil deed- constantly before his eyes § 174. Repeat Rule XX., relating to numbers expressed by figures. How must dates always be expressed? How, large numbers? Boond numbers? Small numbers ? ^ THE COMMA, 127 Under § 168. The people of Mayence to show their gratitude to Gut- tenberg the inventor of printing have erected in his honor a magnificent statue wrought by the sculptor Thorwaldsen — Tyrants when reason and argument make against them have recourse to violence to silence their opponents — He comes to heal the sick and set the captive free — Oh that I had the wings of the morning to flee to the uttermost parts of the earth Under § 169. A poet aptly asks "What will not men attempt for sacred praise " — Let the thought be deeply engraved upon your heart that every moment which flies is irrecoverably lost — The schoolmen of the Middle Ages occupied themselves with discussing the important question whether spirits can move from one place to another without passing through the intervening space — Let our fixed resolve be liberty or death — The truth of Swift's assertion that no man ever wished him- self younger may well be questioned Under § 170. " Liars " says Aristotle " are not believed even when they speak the truth " — " An angel's arm " says the poet Young " can't snatch me from the grave ; legions of angels " he adds with equal truth *' can't confine me there" — With what motive it may be asked did Chat- terton commence his course of imposture For pecuniary profit I answer or perhaps for the pleasure of deceiving the world Under § 171. Neither can wealth make a bad man respectable nor can poverty sink a worthy person below the station his virtues deserve — As thy day is so shall thy strength be — Whether Jansen is entitled to the undivided honor of inventing the telescope or Metius had pre- viously discovered the principle involved in that instrument is a subject of discussion among the learned — Though he slay me yet will I trust in him Under § 172. They now live more happily than ever — They now live more respectably comfortably and happily than ever — Catiline was so overcome with shame that he could not speak — Catiline was so overcome with shame disappointment and anger that he could not speak — The his- tory of the United States shows a more rapid advance in power and im- portance than has ever been made by any other nation — Cicero was as vain as he was eloquent Under § 173. To assume that a person is guilty of an offence because appearances happen to be against him is manifestly unjust — The author of these profound and philosophical essays on the abstract questions of Moral Philosophy was a poor blacksmith — Men who have no desire to participate in the factious quarrels and personal animosities which now unhappily distract the land are rudely dragged into the arena of politics — Books and study only teach the proper use of books Under § 174. In 1800 the population of the city of New York was 60489 in 1850 it was 515597 showing an increase during this lapse of fifty years of 455108 souls— In 4850 the debt of the state of New York amounted to $22859053 we may call it in round numbers twenty-three millions of dollars — The comet of 1811 had a diameter of at least 560000 geographical miles and a tail eighty-eight millions of miles in length 128 THE COMHA. LESSON XXV. THE COMMA (cONTINUBD). § 175. As the rules for the comma are numerous anc more difficult of application than those relating to the other points, it has been thought best to illustrate them with a miscellaneous exercise, which will bring before the student's mind, in connection, all the cases in which this point is re- quired. Cautions are first presented, for the purpose of warning the student against errors which the author has found that the inexperienced are most likely to make. Caution I. Do not suppose that a sentence, simply be- cause it is long, must contain a comma. Unbroken connec- tion between the parts of a sentence, no matter how long it may be, precludes the use of this jioint. Thus : " It is hard for those who pride themselves on the greatness of man to believe that those mighty cities which Avcrc once the wonder and admiration of the ancient world could so entirely have disappeared that their position is now a subject of discus- sion among scholars and antiquaries." Caution II. Do not insert a comma between a grammat- ical subject and its verb, when the one immediately follows the other. A rhetorical pause is, in this case, sometimes re- quired before the verb ; but a comma, never. Caution III. There must be no comma before and^ when it connects two words only ; as, " A prosperous and happy country ". Caution IV. Observe the difference of punctuation in sentences like the following : — The Romiins, having conquered the world, wore unable to conqutr themselves. The Romans having conquered the world, freedom of thought and action became extinct 1 175. What is said of the mies for the comma ? WTiat i3 the embstancc of Caution I. ? of Caution II. ? of Caution III. ? of Caution IV. ? of Caution V. ? THE COMMA. 1^9 In the first sentence, Romans is the grammatical subject of were, and the parenthetical participial clause between these words must be set oif by a comma on each side. In the second, Romans, being used absolute- ly with the participle having conquered, must not be separated from it by a comma, but this point must be reserved for the termination of the en- tire absolute clause. Cautioi?^ V. When you are in doubt as to the propriety of inserting commas, omit them ; it is better to have too few than too many. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE. Supply such points as are necessary in the following sentences : — UxDEii Rule I, Education if it can not accomplish every thing can nevertheless accomplish much — Achilles unquestionably was a puissant warrior but had not the poetry of Homer immortalized his name ho would now in all likelihood have been as little known as the meanest soldier in the Grecian host Under Rule II. By all that you hold dear on earth listen to my prayer — To accomplish these ends he left no means however insignifi- cant untried — If I were not Alexander I would be Diogenes — If fortune has played thee false to-day do thou play true for thyself to-morrow — Never be discouraged however gloomy the prospect Under Rule III. In every line of Dante's " Divine Comedy " we discern the asperity which is produced by pride struggling with misery — AVe designate as the mind that part of us which feels knows and thinks — A man renowned for repartee often sacrifices the feelings of his friends to his attempts at wit — The means by which men acquire glory are various Under Rule IV. Hail Patience blest source of peace blest cure for every pain — Sisters and brothers how many may you be — Were I even declared king or elected president of such a nation I should esteem it no honor — The genealogy of princes the field-book of conquerors history is well worthy of our attention Under Rule V. Among the noblest attributes of a virtuous man is justice — Over the matchless talents of Washington probity threw her brightest lustre — Of infancy childhood boyhood and youth we have been discoursing — Than pleasure's exaggerated promises nothing can be more alluring to youth Under Rule VI. All that live must die — Apostles prophets and martyrs have proved the truth of the Christian faith — All tlie rules of eloquence the precepts of philosophy a^,! the refined conversation of Athens to which place he was sent by his father for the completion of his education failed to make Cicero's son an orator or a man of talent — Worlds above around beneath and on all sides arch thee about aa a centre 130 THE COMMA. Under Rule VII. The ship having left her wharf a salute was fired from the shore — A habit of indolence once formed it is extremely diffi- cult to shake it off— The campaign thus fairly opened both parties pros- ecuted the war with unprecedented vigor — Ye men of Rome shake off your sloth Under Rule VIII. The sun sets but he will rise again — We obey the laws of society because it is expedient to do so— Art is long but time is fleeting — Great poets are rare while empty rhymesters can be counted by thousands — Must we submit to such indignities in order that we may have enough to eat Under Rule IX. Man wants but little here below nor .wants that little long — Sincerity is as valuable as knowledge and on some accounts more so — Cunning and avarice may gain an estate but can not gain friends — We are naturally inclined to praise those who praise us and to flatter those who flatter us Under Rule X. English Grammar or the art of speaking and writ- ing the English language correctly can not in this country be too much studded — The Persians or rather the survivors of them retreated from the field of battle with all possible despatch — Young ladies' seminaries or as they were formerly called girls' schools abound in this part of the country Under Rule XL, XII. Modem times with all their boasted progress have never produced as strong a man as Samson as meek a man as Moses or as wise a man as Solomon — Life is short unsatisfactory and uncertain — Men women and children stare cry out and run — Caesar came saw and conquered Under Rule XIII. Deeds not words are the proper tests by which to try a man's character — Who is so beautiful who so graceful as the maid of Lodore — I beg of you beware of and avoid the evil-doer — How sweet the voice how blessed the words of him who oifers consolation to the mourner Under Rule XIV. Poverty and distress desolation and ruin are the consequences of civil war — Virtue without industry and idleness without vice are impossibilities — Generous but not prodigal frugal but not par- simonious brave but not rash learned but not pedantic this prince main- tained a happy medium between all objectionable extremes Under Rule XV. Onward onward strong and steady — Blessed thrice blessed is the peace-maker — There we hope to enjoy rest never- ending rest rest in which are concentrated all conceivable pleasures — Suddenly there came a tapping as of some one gently rapping rapping at my chamber door — Lochiel Lochicl beware of the day Under Rule XVI. We must respect ourselves to have others respect us — A man must be a genius indeed to say any thing new about Niag- ara — Eat to live do not live to eat — lie is going to Europe to see whether travelling will benefit his health Under Rule XVII. It was a principle of O'Connell's that no politi- cal advantage is worth a crime — When Xerxes sent a haughty message to Leonidas that ho should deliver up his arms the Spartan warrior answered in true Laconic style " Let him come and take them " — *' Language " says Talleyrand " was given us to conceal our thoughts " THE DASH. 131 Under Rule XVIII. Though Tycho de Brahe Who lived near the close of the sixteenth century certainly recognized the correctness of the Copernican system at an early period yet his ambitious vanity and rehgious prejudices urged him to oppose it — Either you must confess your crime or I shall have to suffer unjustly Ukder Rule XIX. To contemplate abstract subjects only disciplines the mind rarely if ever interesting it — A long course of conduct so en- tirely opposed to what honest men consider required by the great prin- ciples of truth and justice can not be passed over without the strongest reprobation Under Rule XX. The loftiest mountain in the moon is said by as- tronomers to be lYlSS feet high — The surface of the sun contains 1865312000000 square miles that of the moon 10350400 that of the earth 148512000 LESSON XXVI. THE DASH. § 176. The dash, a character of comparatively recent in- troduction, has of late, both by writers and printers, been very wrongly endowed with the functions of parentheses, comma, semicolon, colon, and even period; and is now ex- tensively used by many, who find it a convenient substitute when ignorance prevents them from employing the proper point. Against this prevailing abuse the student can not be too impressively warned. The dash has its legitimate uses, and performs a part in which no other point can properly take its place ; but it must not be allowed to over- step its proper limits. Use this point, therefore, only where it is strictly required by the following Rules : — ■ RULE I. — BREAKS, SUSPENSIONS, TRANSITIONS, &C. § 177. The dash is used to denote a break in the con- struction, a suspension of the sense, an unexpected transition § 170. WTien was the dash first Introduced ? What is said of its use at th« present day? § 177. Repeat Rule I.4 relating to breaks, siispenflions, &c. 132 THE DASir. in the sentiment, a sudden interruption, and hesitation in the speaker. EXAMPLES. 1. Nero, Domitian, Caligula, Heliogabalus — one and the same character belongs to them all. 2. Politicians are brilliant, versatile, profound, far-seeing — everything but honest. He had no malice in his mind — No ruffles on his shirt. 4. "No one is aware of your imprisonment but Sir William, and he is " " Here ! " interrupted a deep voice, as the door flew open. 6. " I would do it, but — but — to say the truth — I " " To say the truth, you are afraid," broke in the earl. RULE II. — AFTER OTHER POINTS. § 178. A dash may be used after other points, when a greater pause than they usually denote is required. Hence it appears that the dash is a rhetorical as well as a grammatical point. Under this rule, a dash is used in the following cases : — 1. After a period, interrogation-point, and exclamation-point. 1. When a writer passes to a new branch of his subject without commencing a new paragraph ; as, " From this it is evident that friendship had its origin in the social feelings which nature has implanted in the breast of man. — Let us now look at its eflects." 2. In dialogues, when in the same paragraph one person ceases speaking and another begins ; as, " ' Art thou not — ' — * What ? ' — ' A traitor ! '— * Yes.'—* A villain ! '— ' Granted.' " 3. A dash is generally placed after the three points above men- tioned, between a passage quoted and the name of the author or book it is taken from ; also, between a side-head and the subject- matter to which it belongs ; also, between sentences that have no connection, when brought together in the same paragraph. § 178. Repeat Rule II., relating to the use of the dash after other points. What kind of a point does this phow the dash pometlmcs to be ? After what points ip a dash pometimep required by a change of Pubjcct ? In what case ? When is a dash required after the period, interrojfatiou-polnt, and exclamation-point. In dia- logues ? State the principle that applies to the use of the dash after these three points, in th« cage of quoted passages, eide-heads, and unconnected sentences. THE DASH. 183 EXAMPLES. «. Men of humor are always, in some degree, men of genius. — Cole- ridge's Tahle-Talk. b. Form op the Earth. — Heraclitus supposed that the earth had the form of a canoe ; Aristotle, that it was shaped like a timbrel ; Anaximander, that it was a vast cylinder. c. For dashes between unconnected sentences, see Exercise on p. 130. II. After a colon, when reference is made by this, these, following , or as follows, to several succeeding sentences or a new paragraph ; as, " The cloth having been removed, the president rose and made the following address : — ' Ladies and gentlemen, we have assembled, &c.' " III. After a semicolon a dash is sometimes used, though not absolutely necessary, when the last member is placed in Hvely contrast with the first, or implies strong opposition to it ; as, " He chastens ; — but he chastens to save." IV. After a comma, 1. When it follows a logical subject consisting of several particulars separated by semicolons, or by commas, when, for the sake of greater definitene'ss, the words all, these, all these, such, or the like, referring to the particulars before enumerated, are intro- duced as the immediate subject of a verb ; as, " To be overlooked, slighted, and neglected ; to be misunderstood, misrepresented, and slandered ; to be trampled under foot by the envious, the igno- rant, and the vile ; to be crushed by foes, and to be distrusted and betrayed even by friends, — such is too often the fate of genius." 2. "When, in consequence of the omission of namely, or a similar word, a longer pause is required than that usually denoted by the comma, though the connection is so close as not to admit a higher point ; as, " There is one feeling, and only one, that seems to pervade the breasts of all men ahke, — the love of Ufe." RULE III. — REPETITIONS. § 179. The dash is used before a repeated word or "ex- pression, when the repetition is abrupt or exclamatory, pro- When must a dash follow a colon ? When is this point Bometimes oeed alter % Bemicolon ? In what two cases is a dash required after a comma ? % 179. Repeat Rule III., relating to repetitions. 134 THE DASH. ceeds from hesitation, or is accompanied with a change in the sentiment. EXAMPLES. 1. Here sleeps the dust of Cicero — Cicero ! who once thrilled a world with his eloquence. 2. He is a — a — a — excuse me, but I must say it — a cold-blooded villain. 3. Such is your affected, sentimental lover — a lover of nothing but himself. RULE IV. — oi^nssiONS. § 180. Tlie dash is used to denote an omissioiT of letters, figures, and words ; as, " On a bright summer day in the year 18 — , the stirring little village of was thrown into unusual excitement by the arrival of the E- family from London." EXERCISE. In the following sentences supply the omitted points :— Under § 1*77. I am your lordship's most obsequious zounds what a peer of the realm — And bid her you mark me on Wednesday next but soft what day is this — Rich honesty often dwells in a poor house like your pearl in a spoiled oyster — If it should rain I request the poor thing may have a a what's this coat coat no coach — I'm off Sir Charles I'll do your errands A double-barrelled gun two scruples of jalap my lady's poodle your lordship's wig a sticking-plaster they shall be here within the hour — " My friend the counsellor " " Say learned friend if you please sir" — "There is a business Mr. Alderman fallen out which you may oblige me infinitely by I am very sorry that I am forced to be trouble- some but necessity Mr. Alderman " " Ay sir as you say necessity But upon my word dear sir I am very short of money at present still " " That's not the matter sir " — They poisoned my very soul hot burning poisons — Away ungrateful wretch A. father's curse rest Alas what am I doing I can not curse my son — It was a sight that child in the agony of death that would have moved a heart of stone A crimson handkerchief adorned his head His face was cheerful and his nose was red Under § lYS. They were about laying violent hands upon me in the senate-house What must this empire then be unavoidably over- turi^ed — "Inform me friend is Alonzo the Peruvian confined in tliis dungeon " " He is " " I must speak with him " " You must not " " He is my friend " " Not if he were your brother " " What is to be his late " " He dies at sunrise " " Ha then I am come in time " — I find it profita- ble sometimes to indulge in such rellections as these All men arc mor- tal Since the Creation only two men have escaped death Therefore § 180. Repeat Eule IV., relating to cmleslona. THE DASH. 135 however likely it may appear that I shall hold a perpetual lease of life the time comes when like my fathers I must close my eyes on this pleasant world — ^I go but when I come 'twill be the burst of ocean in the earthquake I go but not to leap the gulf alone — The ambition of man constantly making him dissatisfied with what he has and inspiring him with desires for what is beyond his reach his envy which renders a neighbor's prosperity odious in his eyes his selfishness which robs him of the purest enjoyment God has ever vouchsafe^ that of doing good to his species these ignoble passions entail on him a succession of mis- eries and make life one scene of trial — I pause for a reply None Then none have I offended — The bounding of Satan over the walls of Para- dise his sitting in the shape of a cormorant on the tree of life his alighting among the herd of animals which are so beautifully represent- ed as playing about Adam and Eve his transforming himself_^ into dif- ferent shapes in order to hear their conversation all these circumstances give an agreeable surprise to the reader — Copernicus was instructed in that school where it is fortunate when one can be well taught the family circle Anger. As the whirlwind in its fury teareth up trees and deformeth the face of nature or as an earthquake in its convulsions overturneth cities so the rage of an angry man throweth mischief around him danger and destruction wait on his hand Dodsley Under § 1V9. Merciful yes merciful as the hawk is to the dove — Prominent among the philosophers of antiquity is Socrates Socrates who looked beyond the absurd fables of his country's mythology Socrates who lifted his voice in behalf of truth and died a martyr in its cause Socrates who advanced as far in moral enlightenment as it was possible for the human intellect to do unaided by a revelation from on high — " I would not return if if" " If you thought I would allow you to remain " inter- rupted the earl harshly — Shall I who have spent my life in the camp I who have shed my blood in defence of my country \ who am a soldier by experience as well as profession shall I compare myself with this flaunting captain — He has a weakness a weakness of the head as well as the stomach — "I will inquire into the matter and if if" " Well if" broke in my father impatient of delay — He is full of love love for him- self — Our friend is afflicted with a grievous consumption a consumption of victuals Under § 180. A series of observations made in 18 showed that of one hundred shooting stars four had an elevation from the earth of 1 — 3 miles fifteen of 3 6 miles twenty-two of 6 10 miles thirty-five of 10 15 miles thirteen of 15 20 miles three of about 30 miles one of 45 46 miles one of about 60 miles and one of over 100 miles — In the year I visited L— In the winter of 1849 50 I studied this subject attentively and obtained much useful information respecting it from Goldsmith's ^ History of the Earth and Animated Nature " chapa 4 9 136 PAEENTIIESES. LESSON XXVII. PARENTHESES. — BRACKETS. § 181. The word Parenthesis means a putting in he- side, and the term is applied to a word or words introduced into a sentence for the purpose of explaining, modifying, or adding to, the leading proposition, but inserted abruptly, in such a way as to break the connection between dependent parts and interfere with their harmonious flow. Such an expression is placed between curves, known as parentheses or marks of parenthesis. It is indicated in reading by using a lower tone of voice and more rapid delivery than are em- ployed for the rest of the passage. An example is pre- sented in the following sentence : " Shall we continue (alas that I should be constrained to ask the question ! ) in a coui-se so dangerous to health, so enfeebling to mind, so destructive to character ? " § 182. Old writers, with whom intricate constructions and violations of unity were common, made frequent use of parentheses. The obvious disadvantage, however, of intro- ducing propositions witliin propositions, a practice which draws off the reader's attention from the main point, and too often involves the sacrifice of perspicuity, harmony, and strength, has led late critics to advise the use of less in- tricate sentences, and to proscribe parentheses as incom- patible with nervousness of style. " On some occasions," says Blair, " these [parentheses] may have a spirited appearance ; as prompted by a certain vivacity of thought, wliich can ghince happily aside as it is going along. But, for the most part, their cficct is extremely bad; being a sort of" wheels within wheels ; sentences in the midst of sentences ; the perplexed method of disposing § 181. What docs the word parenthesis mean ? To what Is the term appUcd f What marks are used to enclose such cxpreesions ? How are they Indicated in rending? §182. By whom were pnrentheBes often employed? What ia the advice of later critics, and on wliat is it based ? Wliat is the eubstancc of Blair's rcmarlt PARENTUESES. 137 of some thought, which a writer wants art to introduce in its proper place." Watts, also, remarks on this subject, " Do not suffer every oc- casional thought to carry you aAvay into a long parenthesis," The pro- priety of such observations is so evident that good writers at the present day avoid formal parentheses as much as possible. The marks by which they are denoted have now, therefore, become comparatively rare ; but in the cases covered by the following rule they can not well be dispensed with. § 183. Rule I. — Marks of parenthesis are used to en- close words which explain, modify, or add to, the leading proposition of a sentence, when introduced in such a way as to break the connection between dependent parts and inter- fere with their harmonious flow. EXAMPLES. 1. Matilda (such was the lady's name) smiled sweetly at this address. 2. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul and a system of future re- wards and punishments was taught explicitly (at least as explicitly as could be expected of an ancient philosopher) by Socrates. 3. Are you still (I fear from the tone of your letter you must be) trou- bled with these apprehensions ? § 184. Doubts may sometimes arise as to whether it is better to use parentheses, or commas, as prescribed in § 122 for parenthetical clauses. The latter point is preferable when the words in question coalesce readily with the rest of the sentence, but is inadmissible when a complete or in- dependent member is inserted ; particularly if it is brought in abruptly or its construction differs from that of the parts between which it stands. The following examples will illustrate these cases. 1. Every star, as we infer from indisputable facts, is the centre of a planetary system. 2. Every star (and this great truth is inferred from indisputable facts) is the centre of a planetary system. § 185. The proper place for parentheses is the middle of a sentence ; yet loose writers sometimes place them at the end; as, "Such is the wonderful account given by travellei-s of the natives of Patagonia (trav- ellers, you know, are sometimes fond of the marvellous)." on the subject ? What does Watts advise ? What is said of the use of parentheses at the present day ? § 1&3. Repeat Rule T,, relating to the purpose for which marks of parentheses are used. § 184. What is BometimeF a matter of question ? When is the comma prefer- able ? When is it inadmissible ? § 185. What is the proper place for parentheses ? Where do loose writere lometimes place them ? 138 PAEENTHESES. § 186. Expressions of approbation or disapprobation introduced into reports of speeches as having been made by the audience, as well as re- marks by the person reporting or publishing them, must be enclosed iu parentheses; as, This doctrine, as long as. I have breath, I shall oppose. (Hear ! hear ! ) I shall oppose it in this hall ; I shall oppose it on the hustings. (Cheers, mingled with hisses.) Nor shall I hesitate to publish to tho world on whom rests the responsibility of advocating so arbitrary, un- just, and in all respects infamous, a measure. (Cries of *' Order ! " " Order ! " from all parts of the hall.) § 187. In dramatic compositions, directions to the performers and all other parts not strictly belonging to the dialogue are enclosed in paren- theses ; except the names of the speakers, as they successively take up the discourse, which, constituting side-heads, are set off by a period and dash, or by a period alone ; thus : — Cicero. — Expel him, lictors. Clear the senate-house. ( TJiey surround him.) Catiline {sU'uggUng through them). — I go, — but not to leap the gulf alone. You build my funeral-pile, but your best blood Shall quench its flame.— -(7b the lictors) Back, slaves! — I will return. {lie rushes out. TJie scene closes.) § 188. Rule IT. — Matter within parentheses must be punctuated just as it would be in any other position, except before the last parenthetical mark. There, if the matter introduced is complete in itself as regards both construction and se)ise, an interrogation-point, an exclamation-point, or (in the case of the remarks and directions alluded to in § 186, 187) a period may be used, according to the character of the sentence. If the parenthesis is incomplete in sense, however, there must be no point before the last mark. Sec the examples under § 186, 187, as well as the following :— 1. Men are born equal (here T see you frowning, biting your lip, and shaking your head) ; it is circumstances only that cast their lota in different stations. § 186. In reports of specchcf", what arc parentheses nsecl for enclosing ? § 187. In dramatic compoHitions, wliat an; cncloscfl within pareuthesea ? What points follow tiie names of the spealicrs, used as side-heads ? S 188. Repeat Rule II., relating to matter within pareutheses. PARENTHESES.— BEACKETS. 139 2. Robert is wasting his time (was it for this his family made such sacri- fices ?) in idle amusements. 3. The poets (tender-hearted swains !) have portrayed love as no prose- writer has ever been able to paint it. § 189. Rule III. — Marks of parenthesis are not neces- sarily accompanied mtli other points ; neither, on the other hand, do they supersede the latter. Wliatever point would be needed between the parts if the parenthesis were left out, must be retained. If a colon or semicolon is required, it must stand after the last parenthetical mark ; if a comma, it must occupy the same position unless a parenthetical clause immediately precedes, in which case it must stand before the first mark of parenthesis. " Matilda (such was the lady's name) smiled sweetly at this address." Here we have no comma, because none would be needed if the paren- thesis were left out ; — " Matilda smiled sweetly at this address." " If a tree is known by its fruits (and who that beheves Scripture can doubt it ?), what must we think of these men ? " Here the comma required after the hypothetical clause is inserted after the last mark of parenthesis. " Are you still, my friend, (I fear from the tone of your letter you must be) troubled with these apprehensions ? " Here the required comma is placed before the parenthesis, because the parenthetical clause, immediately precedes. § 190. Rule IV. — An interrogation-point within paren- theses is often placed after an assertion or supposition, to throw doubt on it ; and an exclamation-point similarly en- closed is used to denote wonder, irony, or contempt; as, "When I get the office (?), I shall spend my leisure time in reading." — "This accurate scholar (!), who went to Eton and graduated at Cambridge, has actually made a dozen gram- matical mistakes within the compass of one short paragraph." BRACKETS. § 191. Brackets are used principally in quoted pas- § 189. What does Rule ITI. say respecting the use of other marks when parcn- theses are employed ? Where must a colon or semicolon, if required, stand ? Where, a comma ? Give the examples, and show why they are so punctuated. § 190. Repeat Rule IV., relating to the enclosing of interrogation-points and •xclamation-pointa within parentheses. 140 BRACKETS. sages, to enclose words improperly omitted by the author or introduced to correct a mistake. Sometimes, like parentheses, they enclose an observation, an explanatory word, or a crit- ical remark, that does not belong to the quotation. Tliey are also employed in dictionaries and similar works to en- close the figured pronunciation of a word, the primitive from which it is derived, or a reference to some other term. EXAMPLES. 1. He might have been happy, and now [he] is convinced of it. 2. A variety of pleasing objects meet [meets] the eye. 3. Mrs. Hemans was born to bo a great poet. [She may have been bom to be a great poet ; but, if so, we can not help thinking that she woefully missed her mark.] 4. Petit-maitre [pet'te-mu'tr] n. A coxcomb. As regards the points to be used in connection with brackets, and the proper method of punctuating the matter contained within them, the same principles apply as those laid down for parentheses in § 188, 189. When an independent sentence is enclosed, as in Example 3 given above, a period, an interrogation-point, or an exclamation-point must be used before the last bracket, according to the character of the sentence. EXERCISE. In the following sentences, supply the points requut?d : — Under § 183, 185. Is it I must take the liberty of asking because iio law touches the case that you thus violate justice — For I know that in me that is in my flesh dwcUcth no good thing — He had not been there so I was informed by those who lived in the neighborhood since the year 1840 — Ho Mr. Brown had never before found himself in so embarrass- ing a position He was overcome and he begged the company wouUl not think he was exaggerating his feelings with this unexpected mark of esteem — I expected to find every thing that great wealth for my friend is a man of property and taste for his taste is admitted to be unex- ceptionable could bestow— Here we took dinner though conscience will hardly allow me to dignify sour bread and nmsty eggs by so high- sounding a name Under § 186, 187. I agree with the honorable gentleman Mr. Allen that it is pleasing to every generous mind to obey the dictates of sym- pathv but sir truth and justice impose on us higher obligations Length- ened' applause and confusion in the galleries during which several t^en- §191. For what are brackets used? What use is made of them in diction- nrics? What points may be used in connection with brackctt» ? How must the matter they enclose be punctuated? When an Independent sentence is enclosed, what point must precede the last bracket t APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. QUOTATION-POINTS. 141 tences were lost Mr Chairman I can not vote for this resolution Cheers I owe it not only to my country but to the rights of man of which so much is said to preserve the wise and long-established policy of the former and to stand by the principle of non-intervention as a high moral defence and security for the latter The speaker took his seat amid loud applause Sentinel Go in Exit Sentinel RoLLA calls Alonzo Alonzo Enter Alonzo speaking os he comes in Alonzo How Is my hour elapsed Well I am ready Under § 188. The honorable gentleman on the right Mr Doublcday of Louisiana has overlooked one important point — I wish and why should I deny it that this compliment had been paid to any one rather than my- self—She had managed this matter so well oh she was the most artful of women that my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was in danger — Consider and oh may the consideration sink deep into your heart that one crime inevitably leads the way to others Under § 189. While we earnestly desire the approbation of our fel- low-men and this desire the better feelings of our nature can not fail to awaken we should shrink from gaining it by dishonorable means — Such was the creed of the Stoics see Tennemann's Manual Vol II p 230 and their principles were for the most part strictly carried out in life — The baron left to himself malice itself could not wish him a worse ad- viser resolved on a desperate course — Could he possibly have committed this crime I am sure he could not which as all will acknowledge is at variance with the whole tenor of his life Under § 190. This would-be scholar once declared that the Iliad was the noblest poem in the Latin language — Her intellectual beauty is certainly surpassed only by her physical charms — Entering into conver- sation with his most Christian Majesty I was shocked to hear views ad- vanced which would almost have disgraced a heathen Under § 191. A man had four sons and he divided his property be- tween among them — Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than about showing to show it — He has little more of the scholar besides than the name — Some alas too few for the well-being of society place their bliss in action some in ease — Elude Latin eludo v. t. to escape — Ennui oug- we weariness dulness of spirit — Peter-wort u. A plant. See Saint Peter's Wort LESSON XXVIII. APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. — QUOTATION-POINTS. Besides the grammatical points, various other marks are employed in written and printed matter; the princi- pal of these are the Apostrophe ('), the Hyphen (-), and Quotation-points (" "). Besides the grammatical points, wliat otUer marks are employed ? 142 THE APOSTEOPHE. THE APOSTROPHE. § 192. The word apostkophe means a turning from or away. The mark so called has the same form as the comma, and differs from it only in being placed above the line. RULE I.— 7OMISSION OP LETTEES. § 193. Tlie apostrophe is used to denote the omission of a letter or letters ; as, His, IHl, o'er, ihd'. The period and the dash are also employed, as we have already seen, for this purpose. The following distinction, however, is to be ob- served : — 1. The period is employed mainly in abbreviations of titles, proper nanies, technical and tabular terms, and foreign words ; as, P. M. (?., for Postmaster General ;^-Jas. K. Polk, for James Knox Polk ; — D. F., for Deo volenie, God willing ; — Jw., for bushel. 2. The dash is used when it is desired to allude to an object without making known what it is; as, "In the year 18 — , the usually quiet village of L was thrown into a state of excitement," &c. 3. In most other cases, that is, when the object is merely to abbreviate common English words which do not fall under the above classes, or to contract two words into one, the apostrophe is employed. RULE n. — ^POSSESSIVE CASE. § 194. The apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case of nouns ; as, Indians treasures ; — Icings' daughters. To form the possessive case, singular nouns take '«/ as, fanafi flight; Thomases unbelief. Plural nouns ending in s take the apos- trophe alone ; as, the cities^ gates : other plural nouns take '« / as, men^s sorrows. But if, by reason of a succession of s sounds, or ft'om any other cause, euphony would be violated by the introduction of an «, the apos- trophe alone is used in forming the possessive ; as, Moses* staff ;— for conscience' sake ; — Feli£ speech. § 192. What does tho word apostrophe mean ? How does the mark so called differ from the comma ? § 193. Eepeat Eule I., relating to the omission of letters. What other points are employed for this purpose ? In what case Is the period used ? In what, tho dash ? In what, the apostrophe ? § 194. For what other purpose Is the apostrophe used, according to Eole n. ? How do singular nouns form their possessive case ? How, plural nouns ? When is the apostrophe alouo used in forming the possessive ? THE HYPHEN, 143 § 195. Observe that this rule applies only to nouns. The possessive case of the personal pronouns, whether ending in s or not, must have no apostrophe ; as, mine, her, hers, ours, yours, theirs. § 196. The apostrophe followed by s is also used to form the plural of the names of letters, figures, and signs ; as, " Dot your Ps, cross your fs, make your 6's better, and insert two + '«." THE HYPHEN. § 197. The word hyphen is derived from two Greek words meaning under one ; and the mark so caUed is used to denote that the parts between which it stands belong to one and the same word. RULE I. — COMPOUND EPITHETS AND SUBSTANTIVES. § 198. The hyphen must be placed between words that unite to form a single epithet, and also between the parts of a compound substantive when each receives the stress of the voice ; as, laughter-loving^ good-natured, twenty-one, never- to-be-forgotten, glass-house, self-conceit, one^s-self § 199. Compound words, however, whose parts have so completely coalesced that they have but one accent, are written without the hyphen; as, watchman, lapdog, broadsword, himself. RULE II. — DISTINCTION OP WOEDS. § 200. The hyphen is used to distinguish words of similar spelling, but different prommciation and meaning ; also, to form one compound term of words which, if not thus united, would have a different signification. Thus, re-creation means tlie act of creating again ; and, when the word is so written, the first e is long, as in me. If we omit the hyphen, we § 195. What is said of the possessive case of pronouns ? § 196. How is the plural of the names of letters, figures, and signs, formed ? § 197. What is the meaning of the word hypJien f What does the mark so tailed denote ? § 198. Repeat Eule I., relating to compound epithets and substantives. 1 199. What compounds are written without the hyphen ? S 200. For what other purposes is the hyphen used, according to Rule IT. ? 144 THE HYPHEN. have recreation, — quite a different word, equivalent to relaxation, amuM' ment ; and we must give the first vowel the sound of e in met. The words monk's-hood and dogh-ear will serve as examples of the second case mentioned in the rule. Leave out the hyphen, and we no longer have the familiar plant known as monk's-hood, but a monk's hood, that is, the head-covering of a monk. Dog's-ear means the comer of a leaf turned or twisted over ; but remove the connecting mark, and we have the ear of a dog. § 201. The hyphen may also be used instead of the diseresis, to de- note that two adjacent vowels do not unite to form a diphthong, when these vowels respectively terminate a prefix and commence the radical with which it is joined ; as, pre-exislent, co-operate. RULE III. — BETWEEN SYLLABLES. § 202. When, from want of space, a portion of a word has to be carried to a new line, the division must be made after a complete syllable, and the hyphen is used at the end of the line, to connect the separated parts ; as, " Vir- tue can not be bought." § 203. With regard to Syllabicatiok, or the division of words into syllables, it is proper to remark that two systems prevail. The English method divides on the vowels, that is, without reference to pronuncia- tion, throws consonants as much as possible into the beginning of syllables ; as, me-lon, wi-doio, di-li-gent, a-stro-no-my. This method, as Webster justly remarks, contradicts the very definition of a syllable. " A syllabic in pronunciation," says this author, " is an indivisible thing ; and, strange as it may appear, what is indivisible in utterance is divided in writing ; when the very purpose of dividing words into syllables in writing, is to lead the learner to a just pronunciation." Some English writers, however, and among them Lowth, advocate the method gener- ally adopted in this country, of making such divisions as most nearly exhibit the true pronunciation. According to this system, the examples IlluHtrato the flr^t case with tho word recreation. Illustrate the second with tlio words monJc's-hood and dog's-ear. § 201. For what purpose is tho hyphen, like tho direresls, sometimes used ? In what case ? § 202. Repeat Rule IH., relntinE: to the use of the hyphen at the end of a line. §203. What is syllabication? How many systems prevail? Describe tho En^'llah system. What does Webster say of it ? Describe the system pursued in this country. QUOTATION-POINTS. 145 given above would be divided tlius : mel-on, wid-ow^ dil-i-gent^ as4ron-o. my. A few rules covering most cases may be of service. Rule I. — Join consonants to the vowels whose sounds they modify ; as, ep-i-dem-ic, an-i-mos-i-iy. Rule II. — Let prefixes and suffixes form distinct syllables when this can be done without the pronunciation's being misrepresented : as, re- jrrmi, out-run ; rc-jed-ed, not re-jec-icd ; form-er, not for-mer^ when the meaning is one that forms. Rule III. — In the case of compounds, syllabic divisions should fall between the simple words that compose them ; as, horse-man^ more-over, ge7iile-woman. Rule IY. — The terminations ««/, tiaJ., sion, Hon, clous, iions, and others that are pronounced as one syllable, must not be divided. § 204. After the numerous instances in which it has just been so em- ployed, it is hardly necessary to add that the hj^phen is used by lexicog- raphers and others, not only at the end of a line, but wherever they de- sire to show the syllables of which a word is composed. QUOTATIOiS'-POINTS. § 205. Quotation-points, called in French and some- times in English, from the name of the person who first used them, Guillemets, consist of two inverted commas and two apostrophes [" "]. They are used to enclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or represented in narra- tives as employed in dialogue; as, "By doing nothing," says an old writer, " men learn to do evil." — " Quick ! quick ! or I perish," shrieked the exhausted hunter. " One moment longer ! The rope has come ! " shouted a hundred voices from the top of the crag. When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, quo- tation-points are unnecessary ; as, Diogenes used to say that other dogs In dividing into syllables, with what must consonants be joined ? What is eaid about prefixes and suffixes' forming distinct syllables? IIow are com- pounds divided ? What terminations must not be divided ? § 204. Wliat use is made of the hyphen by lexicographers ? § 205. What are quotation-points called in French ? Why are they so called ? Of what do they consist ? What are they used to enclose ? When the eubstauce 1 146 QUOTATION-POINTS. hit their enemies^ hut that lie hit his friends that lie migid save them. Had the exact words used by the philosopher been given, quotation- points would have been required. Thus : Diogenes used to say, " Other dogs bite their enemies ; but I bite my friends, that I may save them." In the case of passages cited in a foreign language, titles of books, names of newspapers, &c., some writers prefer italics to quotation-points ; as, " Virgil's Lahor omnia vincit has passed into a proverb." — " The Atlwnomm has a well-written review of Pearson's History of the Puri- tans:' § 206. Matter within quotation-points is to be punctuated just as if it stood in any other position. If at the close of a quoted passage any grammatical point is required, it may be placed before the two apostrophes if it is applicable to the extract alone, but after them if it belongs to the sentence or member as a whole; as. He answered briefly, ^^Am la knave that yoit should suspect me of this ? " — Are our lots indeed cast " in the brazen age " ? § 207. Single Points [* '] are used to enclose a quotation within a passage which is- itself quoted ; as, " The great rule," says Lavater, " of moral conduct, or ^ ethics ', as it is styled by philosophers, is to make the best use of one's time." If within a passage thus enclosed between single quotation-point-, there is occasion to introduce another extract, double points are useil for the sake of distinction; as, "King Louis asked Joinville, 'Would you rather be a leper, or commit what the church calls " a deadly sin"?'" § 208. When an extract consists of several successive paragraphs, inverted commas must stand at the commence- ment of each, but the apostrophes are not used till the quotation ends ; as, merely Is given, are quotation-points necessary? For what do some writers prefer italics to quotation-points ? § 20G. How is matter within quotation-points punctuated ? If a grammatical point is required at the close of a passage, how must it be placed as regards the two apostrophes ? § 207. What arc single quotation-points used to enclose ? If within a pasMge thus enclosed another extract is introduced, how must it be denoted ? § 308. How are the inverted commas and apostrophes used in an extract con' ilsting of several paragraphs ? APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. — QUOTATIOIT-POINTS. 147 " No man can be happy, if self is the sole object of his thoughts and Afishes. " No man can be happy, if conscience tells him that he has left a single duty unperformed. " No man can be happy who is destitute of good principles and gen- erous feelings." LESSON XXIX. EXERCISE ON THE APOSTROPHE, THE HYPHEN, AND QUOTA- TION-POINTS. In the following sentences, supply the omitted points and marks : — Under § 193. He whos virtuous and pious in this life will be happy i the next — Tis one who 11 neer forget you — Tho the heavens and the earth pass away truth shall live forever — Oer hill through vale mid snow een tho gainst his own will he steadily pursues his way — 1 11 take a milder medcine than revenge for Ive lovd her as few have lovd Under § 194, 195. Swans down; — a ladys fan; — ladies dresses; — childrens hats ; — Misses shoes ; — eagles wings ; — All Saints Church. — Peters wifes mother lay sick of a fever — Much depends on this princi- ples being understood and these rules being strictly observed — Racines and Comeilles tragedies hold the same rank in French literature as Shakspeares enjoy in English. — " Mens virtues " says a splenetic writer " like angels visits are few and far between " — This volume of Grays poems is neither his hers yours nor theirs it is either mine or my brothers — A few moments conversation convinced me of my friends sin- cerity — Xerxes soldiers; — for goodness sake; — Croesus son; — Musaeus songs ; — Hercules sword Under § 196. Make your/] is used to connect several terms or expressions with one to which all have a common relation; as, Bagatelle, ) ( trifle ; Cortege, r may be translated •< escort ; Ennui, ) ( weariness. • The brace is, also, sometimes employed to connect a triplet, or three lines of poetry rhyming together, when introduced into a poem, most of whose lines rhyme in pairs or couplets ; as. So slowly, by degrees, unwilling fame Did matchless Eleonora's fate proclaim :f Till public as the loss the news became. Vni. The Di-erfection in the art of expressing, arranging, and beautifying, is valueless, unless the thoughts to be so treated are judi- cious and appropriate. But the same objection here applies. Rhetoric, properly speaking, has no reference to the creation of thoughts, but merely to the manner of expressing Ihcm. The rules and principles of Invention, however, though independent of the art under consideration, must be carefully studied in connection with it, by all who would give effect to their compositions. This subject will hereafter receive atten- tion ; we shall first proceed to consider Rhetoric proper. § 232. Rhetoric may be regarded as either a science § 231. What (lid the ancients regard as essential to the mastery of tlds art? Wlint (lid pomc rhetoricians introduce into their systems ? What does Qnintilinn consider csecnlinl to the perfect orator? Is this just? IlUistmte the case hy n comparison with the art of architecture. What haTC some modem writers In- troduced a» a division of rlictoric? What ohjoctiou is tlicre to this? What is raid of the rules ait^ priuclplcs of invention ? PEOVINCE AND OBJECTS OF RHETOEIC. 165 or an art. As a science, it investigates, analyzes, and de- fines, the principles of good writing ; as an art, it enables us to apply these principles, or in otlier words teaches us the best method of communicating our thoughts. All art is founded on science. The relation between the two is that of offspring and parent. Valuable knowledge always leads to some practical result ; and practical skill is rarely of general utility or extend- ed application, unless it originates in knowledge. On the most sublime of sciences, for instance, theology and ethics, is founded the most im- portant of arts, the art of Uving. So, from abstract mathematical science are derived the arts of the surveyor, the architect, the navigator, and the civil engineer. Nor can it be denied that their practical application in these arts constitutes the chief value of mathematical studies ; and that, were they not so applied, they would be as much neglected as they are now cultivated. In like manner, it is on account of its practical utility that Rhetoric is deemed worthy of a prominent place among the branches of a polite education. § 233. As an art. Rhetoric has been classed by some among the useful arts, the object of which is to aid or benefit mankind; by others, among the elegant arts, which aim simply to please. It seems, however, to partake of the nature of both ; and may therefore with propriety be de- nominated a mixed art. Both the elegant and the useful arts are founded on experience, but differ in their origin and grov/th. The latter, being the offspring of ne- cessity, are cultivated even in the ruder stages of society ; whereas the former have their origin in leisure, and are disregarded until provision has been made for the bodily wants. The useful arts, however, although first to originate in a community, are slower than the fine arts in their progress towards perfection. Thus, modern workmen immeasurably excel the ancients in the art of ship-building ; and how far this supo- § 232. How may rhetoric be regarded ? As a science, what is its province ? What, as an art ? What is the relation of art to science ? On what sciences ia the art of living founded ? From abstract mathematical science what arts are de- rWed ? What constitutes the chief value of mathematics ? In like manner, wliy is rhetoric deemed an important branch of education ? § 238. What is the object of the useful arts ? What, of the elegant arts ? To which does rhetoric belong? On what are both the useful and the elegant arts founded ? In what do they difier ? At what period of a nation's history do they resp-ictively originate? Show the dificrenco in their development and progress towards perfection. 166 PROVINCE AND OBJECTS OF EHETOEIC. riority may be carried by means of future discoveries and improvements, no one can say. In literature, however, we find the reverse to be the case ; while naval architecture was yet comparatively in its infancy, the art of composition reached so high a degree of perfection among the Greeks, that modem times, with all their genius and learning, have pro- duced nothing superior to the master-pieces of antiquity. In the rapid- ity of its development, as well as the zeal with which it endeavors to please by elaborate embellishment. Rhetoric partakes of the nature of the elegant arts ; it resembles the useful arts in its utility, we may al- most say its absolute necessity to mankind, as facilitating the means of communication. § 234. From the study of Rhetoric, two great advantages result : first, it enables us to discern faults and beauties in the compositions of others ; and, secondly, it teaches us how to express and embellish our own thoughts, so as to produce the most forcible impression. The first of these results, were there no other, would be sufficient recompense for the labor involved in pursuing a rhetorical course. Nor, it must be remembered, is this labor great. The questions that arise exercise our reason without fatiguing it. They lead to inquiries, acute but not painful ; profound, but neither dry nor difficult. They keep the mind active, but do not require from it the effort necessary for the inves- tigation of purely abstract truth. By a trifling expenditure of time and attention, we are thus enabled to judge of literary productions for ourselves, to weigh in the balance of taste and criticism, and form our opinions independently of others. We are not obliged to give or withhold our admiration as the world or the critic may decide. Nor is this independence the only advantage gained. The study of belles-lettres * furnishes a never-failing means of entertainment for our * Belles-lettres, the general term used in the French language to denote the art of which we are treating and kindred subjects, is exceed- ingly indefinite in its signification, being by some writers limited to ilietoric and poetry, and by others made to embrace natural philosophy Illustrate this by a comparison of naval architecture with literature. In what respect does rhetoric resemble the elegaut arts ? In what, the useful arts ? § 2S4. What advantages result from the study of rhetoric ? What Is said of the flrat of these ? Is much labor involved in pursuing a rhetorical course ? What docs a trifling expenditure of time enable us to do ? What other advantage is gained ? How is the pleasure received from the creations of art greatly increased ? What term do the French apply to rhetoric and kindred branches f What PROVINCE AND OBJECTS OF RHETOEIC. 167 leisure hours. Thorough acquaintance with the principles of an art doubles the pleasure we receive from it ; and one whose taste has been cultivated by assiduous study of the philosophy of criticism will find, on almost every page, beauties which the common reader overlooks, is in- capable of appreciating, and consequently entirely loses. A love for the standard master-pieces of literature is thus awakened ; and he who has once acquired such a relish is in no danger of being a burden to himself, or of yielding to the seductions of false and destructive pleasures. These studies, however, do more than entertain and please ; they improve the understanding. To apply the principles of sound criticism to composition, to examine what is beautiful and why it is so, to dis- tinguish between affected and real ornaments, can hardly fail to improve us in the most valuable department of philosophy, the philosophy of human nature. Such examinations teach us self-knowledge. They necessarily lead us to reflect on the operations of the judgment, the imagination, and the heart; and famiUarize us with the most refined feelings that ennoble our race. Beauty, harmony, grandeur, and ele- gance ; all that can soothe the mind, gratify the fancy, or move the affections, — belong to the province of these studies. Th^y bring to light various springs of action, which, without their aid, might have passed unobserved ; and which, though delicate, often exercise an important influence in life. Lastly, the cultivation of taste by the study of belles-lettres has in all ages been regarded as an important aid in the enforcement of moral- ity. Let the records of the world be canvassed, and we shall find that trespasses, robberies, and murders, are not the work of refined men ; that though, in some instances, the latter have proved unequal to temptation, and are betrayed into gross crimes, yet they constitute the exception and not the rule. Nor does the study of rhetoric operate as a preventive to and geometry ; one author even goes so far as to introduce in a treatise on the subject a discourse on the seven sacraments of the Koman Catho- lic Church. At the Lyceum of Arts in Paris, the department of belles- lettres comprehends general grammar, languages, rhetoric, geography, liistory, antiquities, and numismatics. In this country, the term is gen- erally used in a more limited sense, to denote polite literature, including criticism, taste, the pleasures of the imagination, &c. Fubjects are by some embraced under this bead ? At the Lyceum of Arts in Paris, what docB the department of belles-lettres comprehend ? As used in this country, what does the term signify ? Besides entertainment, what may we gain from the study of belles-lettres ? Wliat do critical examinations teach us ? What else results from the cultivation of taste by the study of belles-lettres ? 1G8 PROVINCE AND OBJECTS OF- RHETORIC. the more heinous offences only; it elevates the tone of the mind, in- creases its sensibility, enlarges the sphere of its sympathies, and thus enables it to repress its selfishness and restrain its more violent emo- tions. To a man of acute and cultivated taste, every wrong action, wlicther committed by himself or another, is a source of pain; and, if he is the transgressor, his lively sensibility brings lum back to duty, with renewed resolutions for the future. Even the highest degree of cul- tivation may, to be sure, prove insufficient to eradicate the evil passions ; yet its tendency will certainly be to mitigate their violence. The poet has truly said : — " Thepe polished arts have humanized mankind ; Softened the rude, and calmed the boisterous mind." Noble sentiments and high examples, constantly brought before the mind, can not fail to beget in it a love of glory,' and an admiration of what is truly great. Though these impressions may not always be durable, they are at least to be ranked among the means of disposing the heart to virtue. § 235. As an aid in enabling us to communicate our thoughts in the best manner, it would seem as if the value of Rhetoric would be obvious to all ; yet there are some who venture to call it in question. Rules, they say, hamper the mind, fetter genius, and make stiff and artificial composers. They prefer lea\dng the writer, untrammelled, to chance or the inspiration of the moment ; ridiculing the idea of his in- quiring, while in the act of giving utterance to a thought, what is required, or what prohibited, by rule. This princi- ple, if true of Rhetoric, obviously applies to logic, grammar, and oven the elementary branches of education ; and it fol- lows that, through fear of cramping the natural powei-s, we should do away with training of all kinds. The absurdity of this conclusion is manifest. Such reasoning can come only from a shallow mind, which wouM thus excuse its own ignorance. A writer can not hope to attain perfec- tion in his art, without paying due attention to its rules and principle-!, ileu arc not born great composers, any more than they are born skilful Wlmt feeling does a wrong action generally awaken in a man of cnltlvated taste? What do noble eentimentB and high examples produce iu the mind » § 2.T). What objection is made by some to the study of rhetoric? To what do thoy prefer leaving the writer? Expose the fallacy of this ol^jection. What id TASTE. — ITS UNIVERSALITY AND CULTIVATION. 1G9 carpenters or expert shoemakers. Proficiency in either vocation is the result of study and practice. It is not necessary that, while composing, the writer should keep rules constantly before him, and thus make his style mechanical and lifeless. But the principles of his art should be so familiar to his mind, as, without consciousness on his part, to control its action. He thus intuitively avoids what is wrong, while there is nothing to prevent his sentences from being as easy, natural, and unconstrained, ajs those of the loosest and most ignorant scribbler. LESSON XXXIV. TASTE. — ITS UNIVERSALITY AND CULTIVATION. § 236. The rules of Rhetoric and Criticism are not arbi- trary, but have been deduced from examinations and com- parisons of those great productions which in all ages have elicited the admiration of men. Striking passages have been analyzed ; the peculiarities which render them pathetic, sub- lime, or beautiful, have been investigated ; and thus rules have been formed, by which the critic is enabled to judge of other literary performances, and the writer is shown how to express his thoughts in such a way as to reproduce simi- lar impressions. Thus, Aristotle, who was the first to lay down rules for unity of action in dramatic and epic poetry, did not arrive at them by a train of inductive reasoning, but by close observation of Sophocles and Homer. Perceiving that these writers, by confining themselves in each of their respective works to one action complete in itself, awakened deeper in- terest in their readers than those who combined unconnected facts, he generalized the important principle that in the drama and the epic poem the advantage of studying principles and rules ? Is a constrained style likely to be the result ? § 23G. What is said of the rules of rhetoric and criticism ? Whence have they been deduced ? Describe the process. How did Aristotle arrive at his rules for unity of action ? 8 170 TASTE. — ITS UNIVEBSALITY AND CULTIVATION. unity of design is essential to success. All the rules of the rhetorician have been deduced in a similar manner, and are thus based at once on experience and nature. § 237. The works from which the principles of Rhetoric are deduced, have, as already remarked, elicited the universal admiration of men. This implies the existence in the human mind of a faculty capable of forming opinions respecting them. Such a faculty does, indeed, exist ; nor is its action limited to the works of literature. It extends alike to all the creations of nature and art ; and is known by the name of Taste. § 238. Taste may be defined as that faculty of the mind which enables it to perceive, with the aid of reason to judge of, and with the help of imagination to enjoy, whatever is beautiful or sublime in the works of nature and art. The word taste is thus used metaphorically. It literally signifies the sense residing in the tongue by which we distinguish different flavors, and is hence appropriately applied to the analogous faculty of the mind which recognizes alike the most delicate beauties and the most minute imperfections. So contradictory are the definitions of Taste given by different au- thors, so obscure is their language, and so inconsistent are many of them with themselves, that it is difficult to ascertain their real views on the subject. Hume calls Taste " a natural sensibility ". Hutcheson makes it a distinct faculty, perfect in itself: he maintains that it is entirely in- dependent of both judgment and imagination, not only receiving impres- sions, but also passing judgment on them, and producing the pleasures arising therefrom ; or, in other words, that it perceives and at the same time judges and enjoys. With this view Blair for the most part agrees ; nor are Addison's views, as set forth in No. 409 of the Spectator, materi- ally different. An opposite theory is advocated by Burke and Akensido. The former unhesitatingly attributes the perception and the enjoyment arising therefrom to entirely different faculties, confining Taste to the perception. Akenside distinctly teaches that all the pleasures connected with the sublime and beautiful have their source in the imagination. § 237. What does the general admiration of thcmaeter-pieces of litoiaiure imply in the human mind ? To what does this faculty extend ? What is it called ? § 238. What is Taste ? What does this term literally signify ? What is said of tlic definitions of Taste given by different authors ? Wliat docs Hume call Taste ? State Hutcheson'B view. What writers agree with him in the main * Wluu Is Burke's theory ? . Akcnslde'e ? Alison's ? Consip's f TASTE. — ITS UNIVEESALITY AND CULTIVATION. 171 Alison, also, in parts of his Essay ably advocates this theory ; yet, with strange inconsistency, in his very definition makes Taste " to be that faculty of the human mind by which we perceive and enjoy whatever is beautiful or sublime in the works of nature or art ". The French phi- losopher Cousin says, " Three faculties enter into that complex faculty that is called Taste, — imagination, sentiment, reason." Sentiment, ac- cording to this author, receives the impression ; reason passes judgment on it ; while imagination produces the sensation of pleasure experienced by the mind. Amid these conflicting theories, the author has adopted that which seems to him least liable to objection. § 239. Taste is common, in some degree, to all men. Even in children it manifests itself at an early age, in a fond- ness for regular bodies, an admiration of statues and pictures, and a love of whatever is new or marvellous. In like man- ner, the most ignorant are delighted with ballads and tales ; the simplest intellects are struck with the beauties of earth and sky ; and savages, by their ornaments, their songs, and the rude eloquence of their harangues, show that along with reason and speech they have received the faculty of appre- ciating beauty. We may therefore conclude that the prin- ciples of Taste are deeply and universally implanted in the minds of men. § 240. Though Taste is common to all men, yet they by no means possess it in the same degree. There are some endowed with feelings so blunt, and tempers so cold and phlegmatic, "that they hardly receive any sensible impressions even from the most striking objects ; others are capable of appreciating only the coarsest kind of beauties, and for these have no strong or decided relish; while in a third class pleasurable emotions are excited by the most delicate graces. There seems, indeed, to be a greater difference between men as respects Taste, than in point of common sense, reason, or judgment. In this nature discovers her beneficence. In § 239. What is said of the universality of Taste ? How does it manifest itself in children ? How, in the ignorant ? How, in savages ? What is the natural inference ? § 340. Is Taste possessed by all men in the same degree ? What is said of the difference between individuals in this respect ? How does nature show her bcnefi- 172 TASTE. — ITS UNH^EKSALITY AND CULTIVATION. faculties necessary to man's well-being, she makes little dis- tinction between her children; whereas those that have reference rather to the ornamental part of life she bestows sparingly and capriciously, and requires a higher culture for bringing them to perfection. This difference in the degrees of Taste possessed by men is owing in a great measui'e, as we have seen, to nature ; which has endowed some with more sensitive organs than others, and thus made them capable of greater intellectual enjoyment. Yet education has even more to do than nature with the formation of Taste; a fact which becomes obvious when we compare barbarous with enlightened nations in this respect, or contrast such individuals of the latter as have paid attention to liberal studies with the uncultivated and vulgar. We shall at once perceive an almost incredible difference in the degrees of Taste which they respec- tively possess, — a difference attributable to nothing but the education of the faculty in the one case and its neglect in the other. Hence it follows that Taste is eminently an improvable faculty ; and in the case of this, as well as all the mental and bodily powers, exercise is to be regarded as the great source of health and strength. Even the senses are rendered peculiarly acute by constant use. The blind, for instance, who can make themselves acquainted with the forms of bodies only by their touch, and are therefore constantly employing it, acquire exquisite sensibihty; so that they can even read fluently by passing their fingers over raised letters. In like manner, watchmakers, engravers, proof-readers, and all who are accustomed to use the eye on minute objects, acquire surprising accuracy of sight in discerning with ease what to others is almost invisible. Every one, moreover, has seen the result of cultivating an ear for music. He who at first relishes only the simplest compositions gradually appreciates finer meldtiies, and is at last enabled to enjoy all the intricate combinations of harmony. So, an eye for painting can not be acquired at once, but is formed by close study of the works of the best masters. It is thus that diligent study, and close attention to models of style, are necessary to a full appreciation of the great works of literature. One slightly acquainted with the productions of genius sees no more in them than in commonplace compositions ; their merits are lost upon him ; he cence in the distrlbntion of Taste and common sense ? What besldee nature oper- atcfi in the formation of Taste ? How is this Phown ? How may Taste be improved ? What effect has exercisie on the nenpos ? Give examples. Wlrnt is the result of cultivating; an ear for music ? How is an eye for painting acquired ? Wliat is necesBary to an appreciation of the great works of literature ? ELEMENTS And CilARACTEEISTICS OF TASTE. IIS is equally blind to their excellences and defects. His Taste, however, becomes cultivated in proportion as his acquaintance with works of this character is extended. He is gradually enabled, not only to form judg- ments, but to give satisfactory reasons for them. His Taste is developed and improved by exercise ; just as the musician's ear and the painter's eye are cultivated by a similar process. LESSON XXXV. ELEMENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TASTE. § 241. Taste, we have seen, is founded on sensibility ; not, however, the sensibility of mere instinct, but that of reason. The judgment has so much to do with the opera- tions and decisions of this faculty, that we must regard it as one of the essential elements of the latter. The mind may or may not be conscious of the train of reasoning by which it arrives at its conclusions ; but in most cases there must be such reasoning before Taste can perform its functions. We are pleased through our natural sensibility to impres- sions of the beautiful, aided, as we shall presently see, by the imagination ; but an exertion of reason is first required, to inform us whether the objects successively presented to the eye are beautiful or not. Thus, in reading such a poem as the -^neid, much of our gratifica- tion arises from the story's being well conducted, and having a proper connection between its parts ; from the fidelity of the characters to na- ture, the spirit with which they are maintained, and the appropriateness of the style to the sentiments expressed. A poem thus conducted is enjoyed by the mind, through the joint operation of the Taste and the imagination ; but the former faculty, without the guidance of reason, could form no opinion of the story, would be at a loss to know whether it was properly conducted, and would therefore fail to receive pleasure § S41. On what is Taste founded ? What faculty, neverthelcBs, has much to do with its decisions ? Before Taste can perform its functions, what must take place ? In reading such a poem as the .^neid, from what does much of our plca«- 174 ELEMENTS AND CHABACTERISTICS OF TASTE. from its perusal. In like manner, whenever in works of Taste an imita> tion of nature is attempted, whenever it becomes necessary to consider the adaptation of means to an end, or the connection and consistency ol parts uniting to form a whole, the judgment must always play an impor- tant part. In the operations of Taste, then, two different elements seem to have a share : first, a natural susceptibility or sensi- tiveness to pleasurable emotions arising from the contempla- tion of beauty and sublimity ; and, secondly, a sound judg- ment, to enable this faculty, with or without consciousness of such assistance, to appreciate what is beautiful and sub- lime, and admire it intelligently. To the exercise of this faculty, however, in its perfection, a good heart is no less essential than a sound head. Not only are the moral beauties superior to all others, but their influence is exerted, in a greater or less degree, on many objects of Taste with which they are connected. The affections, characters, and actions of men, certainly afford genius the noblest subjects ; and of these there can be no due appreciation by minds whose motives and principles conflict with those which they respec- tively contemplate or describe. On the selfish and hard-heart- ed man the highest beauties of poetry are necessarily lost. § 242. The characteristics of Taste, in its most improved state, are reducible to two. Delicacy and Correctness. Delicacy of Taste implies the possession of those finer organs and powers which enable us to discover beauties that lie hid from the vulgar eye. It may be tested by the same process that enables us to estimate the delicacy of an external sense. As the acuteness of the palate is tried, not by strong flavors, but by a mixture of different ones, each of which, notwithstanding it is blended with othert*, is detected and recog- nized ; 80 the Delicacy of internal Taste appears by a lively sensibility to the finest, minutest, and most latent objects, even when most inti- nre arise? Show where the exercise of judgment is necoasary. Inwbatcasca docs this faculty always play an important part ? What two elements have a share in the operations of Taste ? To the excrciso of Taste In its perfection, what is essential ? Show how this is the case. What effect have the highest beauties of poetry on sclflnh men ? § 242. What are the cliaracterlstics of an improved Taste ? What does delicacy of Taste imply ? How may it be tested ? Show some of the peculiarities of a deli- ELEMENTS AND CHAJRACTEEISTICS OF TASTE. 175 mately blended and compounded together. Many have strong sensi- bility, yet are deficient in Delicacy. They may be deeply impressed by such beauties as they perceive, but can perceive only what is coarse, bold, or palpable ; chaster and simpler graces escape their notice. The man of delicate Taste, on the other hand, has not only strength, but also nicety, of feeling. He sees distinctions and differences which are lost on others ; neither the most concealed beauties nor the minutest blemishes escape him. Addison, in his Spectator, No. 409, gives a striking illustration of Delicacy of Taste. " We find," says he, " there are as many degrees of refinement in the intellectual faculty as in the sense which is marked out by this common denomination. I knew a person who possessed the one in so great a perfection, that, after having tasted ten different kinds of tea, he would distinguish, without seeing the color of it, the particular sort which was offered him ; and not only so, but any two sorts of them that were mixed together in an equal proportion ; nay, he has carried the experiment so far as, upon tasting the composition of three different sorts, to name the parcels from whence the three several ingredients were taken. A man of fine taste in writing will discern, after the same man- ner, not only the general beauties and imperfections of an author, but discover the several ways of thinking and expressing himself which di- versify him from all other authors, with the several foreign infusions of thought and language, and the particular authors from whom they were borrowed." Correctness of Taste implies soundness of understanding. It judges of every tiling by the standard of good sense ; is never imposed on by counterfeit ornaments ; duly estimates the several beauties it meets with in works of genius ; refers them to their proper classes ; analyzes the principles from which their power of pleasing proceeds ; and enjoys them according to their respective merits. These two qualities. Delicacy and Correctness, though quite distinct, to a certain extent imply each other. No Taste can be exquisitely deli- cate without being correct, or thoroughly correct without being delicate. Still one or the other characteristic predominates. Among ancient crit- cate Taste. What striking illustration does Addison give of delicacy of Taste ? What does correctness of Taste imply? By what standard does it judge of things ? Show how a correct Taste deals with works of genius. What relation Bubsists between delicacy and correctness ? What critics among the ancients aro respectively distinguished for delicacy and correctness of Taste ? Who, among modem critics ? 170 ELEMENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TASTE. ics, Longinus possessed most Delicacy; Aristotle, most Correctness. Ot moderns, none exceed Addison in Delicacy; and few in Correctness equal Johnson and Karnes. § 243. We have thus far contemplated Taste in its sound or healthy state ; we find, however, from our own experience, as well as from the history of the past, that it is liable to change, and may in both individuals and nations become weakened and even vitiated. There is, indeed, nothing more fluctuating or capricious. The inconsistencies of this faculty', and the wrong conclusions at which it often arrives, have even created in some a suspicion that it is merely arbitrary ; that it is not grounded on invariable principles, is ascertainable by no standard, and is dependent exclusively on the changing fancy of the hour ; and that therefore all labored inquiries concerning its operations are useless. One or two examples of the opposite Tastes which have prevailed in different parts of the world, and the revolutions that have taken place from time to time in the same country, may here be cited with propriety. In eloquence and poetry, nothing has ever pleased the Asiatics except the tumid, the ornamental, the artificial, and the gaudy ; whereas the ancient Greeks, despising Oriental ostentation, admired only what was chaste and simple. In architecture, the models of Greece for centuries met with general preference ; subsequently, however, the Gothic style prevailed to the exclusion of all others ; and this in turn was afterwards laid aside, while the Grecian was again received into popular favor. Again, in literature, how completely opposite is the taste of the present day to that which prevailed during the reign of Charles II. ! Nothing •was then in vogue but an affected brilliancy of wit ; the simple majesty of Milton was overlooked ; labored and unnatural conclusions were mis- taken for scintillations of genius, sprightliness for tenderness, and bom- bast for eloquence. Examples of vitiated Taste, whether we apply this term, literally, to the external sense, or, figuratively, to the internal faculty, meet us on all sides. The Hottentot smears his body with pu- trid oil ;' the Greenlander delights in rancid fat ; the Alpme hunter takes § 213. ITow bnvc we thus far contemplated Tasto ? To what do wc And it liable? What cliarncter does it Homctlmes ass^ume in both IndiTidnnl!* and na- tions? What suspicion bavo the inconsistencies of this faculty produced in Bome? What example is cited of opposite Tastes in eloquence and poetry? In architecture ? Compare the literary tasto of Charles Second's era with that of the present day. Give examples of vitiated Taste. ELEMENTS AND CIlAKACTEEtSTiCS OF TASTE. 177 pride in the swollen neck peculiar to his people ; the woman of fashion prefers rouge to the roses which nature has planted in her cheeks ; and some intellects admire Jack the Giant-killer more than the sublimest strains of the Epic Muse. § 244. In view of sucli facts as these, it is natural to fall back on the trite proverb de gustihiis non disputandum^ " there is no disputing about tastes " ; and to conclude that, as long as there is so great a diversity, all standards and tests must be arbitrary, and consequently worthless. But let us see to what this doctrine leads. If the proverb is true of Taste in its literal signification, it must be equally true of the other senses. If the pleasures of the palate are su- perior to criticism, those of sight, smell, sound, and touch, must be equally privileged. Kl this rate, we have no right to condemn one who prefers the rude head on a sign to Raphael's glorious creations, the odor of a decaying carcass to that of the most fragrant flower, or hideous discord to exquisite harmony. This principle, applied to Taste in its figurative acceptation, is equivalent to the general proposition that, as regards the perceptions of sense, by w^hich some things appear agreeable and others disagreeable, there is no such thing as good or had^ right or wrong ; that every man's Taste is to him a standard without appeal ; and that we can not, therefore, properly censure even those who prefer the empty rhymester to Milton. The absurdity of such a position, when applied to extremes, is manifest. No one will venture to maintain that the Taste of a Hottentot or an Esquimaux is as delicate as that of a Longinus or an Ad- dison ; and, as long as this is the case, it must be admitted that there is some foundation for the preference of one man's Taste to another's, some standard by which all may be judged. § ^4, What conclusion may naturally be drawn from this variety in Tastes ? Where does this doctrine lead us ? Applied to the faculty of Taste, to what is this principle equivalent ? Show the absurdity of such a position. If one man's Taste is to be preferred to another's, what must exist ? In what case is diversity of Tastes not only admissible but to be expected ? Show iu what Tasteu may differ and yet be correct. 178 STANDABD OF TASTE. It must be observed that the diversity of men's Tastes does not ne- cessarily imply incorrectness in any. Where the objects considered are different, such diversity is not only admissible but to be expected. One man relishes poetry most ; another takes pleasure in history alone. One prefers comedy ; another, tragedy. One admires the simple ; another, the ornamental. Gay and sprightly compositions please the young; those of a graver cast afford more entertainment to the old. Some na- tions delight in bold delineations of character and strong representations of passion ; others find superior charms in delicacy of thought and ele- gance of description. Though all differ, yet all select some one beauty which suits their peculiar tone of mind ; and therefore no one has a right to condemn the rest. It is not in matters of Taste as in questions of mere reason, that but one conclusion is true, and all the rest are erro- neous. Truth, which is the object of reason, is one ; beauty, which is the leading object of Taste, is manifold. LESSON XXXVI. STANDARD OP TASTE. § 245. Tastes, we have seen, admit of variety ; but only when exercised on different things. Wlien on the same ob- ject men disagree, when one condemns as ugly what an- ther admires as beautiful, then we have no longer diversity, but direct opposition ; and one must be right and the other wrong, unless we allow the absurd position that all Tastes are equally good. Suppose a certain critic prefers Virgil to Homer ; I, on the contrary, give the preference to the latter. The other party is struck with the elegance and tenderness which characterize the Koraan bard ; I, with the simplicity, sublimity, and fire, of the Greek. As long as neither of us denies that both these poets have great beauties, our difference merely exemplifies that diversity which, as we have seen, is natural and allow- able. But, if the other party asserts that Homer lias no beauties what- ever, that he is dull and spiritless, that his Iliad is in no respect superior I SMB. In what case may Tastes differ without being directly opposite ? Illus' trato this point by a comparison of Virgil with Homer. In case of an opposition STANDARD OF TASTE. 179 to any old legend of knight-errantry, — then I have a right to charge my antagonist with having either no Taste at all, or one in a high degree corrupted ; and I appeal to whatever I regard as the standard of Taste, to show him his error. It remains to inquire what this standard is, to which, in such oppo- sition of Tastes, we must have recourse. The term properly denotes something established as a rule or model, of such undoubted authority as to be the test of other things of the same kind. Thus, when we say a standard weight or measure, we mean one appointed by law to regulate all other weights and measures. § 246. Whenever an imitation of any natural object is aimed at, as for instance wlien a description of a landscape or a portraiture of human character is attempted, fidelity to nature is the proper criterion of the truly beautiful, and we may lay down the proposition that Nature is our standard. In such cases, reason can readily compare the copy with the original ; and approve or condemn, as it finds the peculiari- ties of the object imitated more or less truthfully represented. § 247. In many cases, however, this principle is inap- plicable ; and for these we are obhged to seek some other standard. Were any person possessed of all the mental powers in full perfection, of senses always exquisite and true, and particularly of sound and unerring judgment, his opinions in matters of Taste would beyond doubt constitute an unex- ceptionable standard for all others. But as long as human nature is liable to imperfection and error, there can be no such living criterion ; no one individual who will be acknowl- edged by his fellow-men to possess a judgment superior to that of all the rest. Where, then, can we find the required standard ? Manifestly, in the concurrent tastes of the major- of Tastes, to what does it hecome necessary to appeal? What does the term standard denote ? What do we mean by a standard weight or measure ? § 246. When an imitation of any natural object is aimed at, what is the crite- rion of the beautiful ? What faculty is called on to approve .or condemn ? On what is its decision based ? § 247. In what cases is this principle inapplicable ? Why can not the Taste of a person of sound judgment be taken as a standard ? What is the only safe standard that can be adopted ? Show how we appeal to this standard in cases 6f literal taste. 180 STANDAIJD OF TASTE. ity of mmiklnd. What most men agree in admiring must be considered beautiful ; and his Taste alone can be esteemed true who coincides with the general sentiment of his sj^ecies. If any one should maintain that sugar is bitter and tobacco sweet, no reasoning could avail to prove it, because it contradicts the general voice of mankind. The taste of such a person would inevitably be re- garded as diseased. In like manner, with regard to the objects of inter- nal Taste, the common opinion of mankind carries the same authority, and constitutes the only test by which the impressions of individuals can be tried. § 248. When we speak of the concurrent Tastes of men as the universal standard, it must be understood that we mean men placed in situations favorable to the proper de- velopment of this faculty. Such loose notions as may be entertained during ages of ignorance and darkness, or among rude and uncivilized nations, carry with them no authority. In such states of society, Taste is either totally suppressed or appears in its worst form. By the common sentiments of men, therefore, we mean the concuiTent opinions of re- fined men in civilized nations, by whom the arts are culti- vated, works of genius are freely discussed, and Taste is improved by science and philosophy. Even among such nations, accidental causes occasionally pervert the Taste ; superstition, bigotry, or despotism, may bias its decisions ; or habits of gayety and licentiousness of morals may bring false ornaments and dissolute writings into vogue. Admiration of a great genius may protect his faults from criticism, and even render them fashionable. Sometimes envy obscures for a season productions of great merit; whilo personal influence or party-spirit may, on the contrary, exalt to a high though short-lived reputation what is totally undeserving. Such incon- sistencies may lead us to doubt the correctness of our standard ; but it will be found that these vagaries in the course of time invariably correct themselves; that the genuine Taste of mankind in general ultimately triumphs over the fantastic notions which may have attained temporary currency with superficial judges. The latter soon pass away ; whereas § 2'18. Wliat do wc mean by the concnrrcnt Taetcs of men, which wc make tho universal etandarcl? Even amoiij? cultivated nations, what may pervert the Taetc ? Show how its decisions arc sometime!* influenced. What feelina: is likely to be produced by these inconsistencies ? Ultimately, however, what will wc flud ? STANDARD OF TASTE. l81 the principles of true philosophic Taste are unchangeable, being th« game now that they were five thousand years ago. The universality of Taste and the consistency of its decisions, except when temporarily perverted by external causes, prove that it is far from being arbitrary, is independent of individual fancies, and employs a prac- tical criterion for determining their truth or falsehood. In every com- position, what captivates the imagination, convinces the reason, or ^touches the heart, pleases all ages • and all nations. Hence the unani- mous testimony which successive generations have borne to the merit of some few works of genius. Hence the authority which such works have acquired as standards of composition ; since from them we learn what beauties give the highest pleasure, and elicit the general admira- tion of mankind. § 249. Tlie terms Taste and Genius being frequently confounded, though signifying quite different things, it is of importance clearly to define the distinction subsisting be- tween them. Taste consists in the power of judging; Genius, in that of creating. Genius includes Taste ; whereas the latter not only may, but generally does, exist without the former. Many are capable of appreciating poetry, elo- quence, and the productions of art, who have themselves no abilities for composing or executing. Delicate and correct Taste forms a good critic ; but Genius is further necessary to form a poet, an orator, or an artist. Genius, therefore, is a liigher power than Taste. It implies a creative or inventive faculty, which not only perceives beauties already existing, but calls new ones into being, and so exhibits them as strongly to impress the minds of others. The term genius, as commonly used, extends further than to the objects of Taste. Thus we speak of a genius for mathematics, for war, for politics, and even for mechan- ical employments. In this acceptation, it signifies a natural talent or aptitude for excelling in any particular vocation. How is it proved that the principles of Taste are not arbitrary ? How have the great works of genius been regarded in all ages ? § 249. What terms are often confounded ? Show the difference between Taste and Genius, Which forms the critic, and which the poet ? Which is the higher power ? What is the common acceptation of the term genius f As possessed by individual minds, which extends to the wider range of objects, Genius or Taste ? 182 STAl^DARD OF TASTE. Genius, the creative faculty, as possessed by individual minds, does not extend to so wide a range of objects as Taste. It is not uncommon to meet persons possessed of good Taste in several of the elegant arts, in painting, sculpture, music, and poetry; but to find one who is an excellent performer in all these is much more rare, or rather not to be expected at all. A universal genius is not likely to excel in any thing ; only when the creative powers of the mind are directed ex- clusively to one object, is there a prospect of attaining eminence. With Taste the reverse is the case ; exercising it on one class of objects is likely to improve it as regards all. § 250. Genius, as remarked above, implies the existence of Taste ; and the more the latter is cultivated and improved, the nobler will be the achievements of the former. Genius, however, may exist in a higher degree than Taste; that is, a person's Genius may be bold and strong, while liis Taste is remarkable for neither deUcacy nor correctness. This is often the case in the infancy of a literature or an art: for Genius, which is the gift of nature, attains its growth at once ; while Taste, being in a great degree the result of as- siduous study and cultivation, requires long and careful train- ing to attain perfection. Shakspeare is a case in point. Full of vigor and fire, and remarkable for the originality of his thoughts, he still lacks much of that delicacy, both of con- ception and expression, which has been attained by later writers of far inferior Genius. Indeed, those who dazzle the mmds of their readers with great and brilliant thoughts are too apt to disregard the lesser graces of composition. What is said of a universal genius? What is the result of exercising Taste on any particular clans of objects ? § 250. What is implied in Genius? May it exist without a high degree of Taste ? When is tliis often the case ? What author is a ca«c in point ? PLEASURES OF THE IMAGINATION. 183 LESSON XXXVII. PLEASURES OF THE IMAGINATION. • § 251. The pleasures of Taste, since they arise from impressions made on the imagination, are generally known as the Pleasures of the Imagination. § 252. The Imagination is that faculty of the mind by which it conceives ideas of things communicated to it by the -organs of sense, and, selecting parts of different concep- tions, combines them into new wholes of its own creation. Imagination, like every other faculty of mind, is of course confined to man. Opening to him, as it does, an enlarged sphere of manifold and multiform pleasures, it affords a striking proof of divine benevolence. The necessary purposes of hfe might have been answered, though our senses had served only to distinguish external objects, without conveying to us any of those delightful emotions of which they are now the source. The Creator, however, has seen fit to vouchsafe to man these pure and innocent enjoyments for the purpose of elevating his aspirations, enno- bling his emotions, banishing unworthy thoughts from his breast, freeing him from the control of passion and sense, and leading him to look be- yond the earth, and " Before the transient and minute To prize the vast, the stable, the sublime ". ' The mind that has once feasted on the pleasures which imagination affords, will never be satisfied to leave them for meaner enjoyments ; any more than one who from some height views a majestic river rolling its waves through spa(!ious plains and past splendid cities, will withdraw his gaze from the inviting prospect, to contemplate the stagnant pool at his feet. § 253. The process by which the emotions alluded to af- fect the imagmation next requires attention. Whenever an § ^1. From what do the pleasures of Taste arise ? What are they generally called ? § 252. What is meant by the imagination ? To whom is it confined ? Show how its bestowal is a proof of divine beneficence. How do the pleasures of the imagination compare with other enjoyments ? § 253. Describe the process by which the sensations in question affect the im- agination. What, besides the sensation, is essential to the production of a ideas- 184 TLEASUllES OF THE mAGlKATION. object calculated to produce them is presented to the mind, unless its attention is previously engrossed, a train of thought is immediately awakened, analogous in character to the object exciting it. It must be observed, however, that the simple perception of the object is insufficient of itself to ex- cite the emotion. No pleasurable impression will be pro- duced, unless the mind operates in connection with the sensation ; unless the imagination busies itself with the pur- suit of such trains of thought as are awakened. We find that the same thing is true of the creations of art. A fine landscape, a beautiful poem, a thrilling strain of harmony, excite feeble emotions in our minds, as long as our attention is confined to the quali- ties they present to our senses. We fully appreciate them only when our imaginations are kindled by their power, when we lose ourselves amid the images summoned before us, and wake at last from the play of fancy as from the charm of a romantic dream. § 254. That pleasurable emotions are not produced by mere impressions on the external senses, but remain unfelt unless these impressions are transferred to the imagination, is susceptible of conclusive proof. If, for instance, the mind is in such a state as to prevent the play of imagination, the sensation of pleasure is entirely lost, although of course tlu^ effect on the outward sense is the same. A man in pain or affliction will contemplate without the slightest admiration scenes and objects, which, were his imagination at libert}-, would afford him the liveliest pleasure. The sublimity and beauty of external nature are almost constantly before us, and not a day passes without presenting us objects calcu- lated to charm and elevate the mind ; yet it is in general with a heedless eye that we regard them, and only at \x\V' ticular moments that we arc sensible of their power. There are few that have not contemplated with delight the beauties of a glowing sunset ; yet every one knows that, at times, all urahle emotion in the mind ? What is said of the emotions produced by the crc at ions of art? § 2&i. Prove that ploapiirablc emotions are not prodnced by more impressions on the external ecuecs. To what la the diffcrcuco in the Imprcasions produced PLEASUKES OF THE IMAGINATION. l85 the gorgeous magnificence with which nature paints the heavens at the close of day falls powerless on the eye. This difference of effect is clearly not attributable to the objects themselves, nor to the external senses on which the impression is prima- rily produced : it arises from a difference in the state of our imagina- tions ; from our disposition at one time to follow out the train of thought awakened, and our incapacity to do this, at another, in consequence of the preoccupation of our minds by some engrossing idea. The pleasures of Taste are enjoyed in their perfection only when the imagination is free, and the attention is so little occupied as to leave us open to all the impressions created by the objects before us. It is, therefore, always in leisure hours that we turn to music and poetry for anmscment. The seasons of care, of grief, of business, have other occupations ; and de- stroy, for the time at least, our sensibility to the beautiful or the sub- lime, in proportion as the state of mind produced by them is unfavor- able to the exercise of the imagination. Another proof that imagination is the source of the pleas- ures of Taste ma}^ be derived from what is observed in the l)rocess of criticising. When, in considering a poem or paint- ing, we attend minutely to the language and structure of the one, or the coloring and design of the other, we cease to feel the delight which they otherwise produce. The reason of this is that by so doing we restrain our imagination, and, instead of yielding to its suggestions, resist them by fixing our attention on minute and unconnected parts. On the contrary, if the imagination is ardent and is left to its free exercise, the mind receives pleasure from the performance as a whole, and takes no note of the minor details of criticism. It is this chiefly that makes it difficult for young persons with lively imaginations to form correct judgments of the productions of literature and art, and which so often induces them to approve of mediocre per- formances. It is not that they are incapable of learning in what merit of composition consists ; for the principles which direct us in the forma- l)y the same object at different times attributable ? When are the pleasures of Ta^te enjoyed in their perfection ? When do we turn to music or poetry for amusement ? What do facts observable in the process of criticising prove with reg^ard to ihe pleasures of Taste ? State the arguments thus derived. What kind of critics are persons with ardent imaginations likely to become? What renders it diffi- cult for the young to form correct judgments of literary pei-formances? Wliat 186 PLEASURES OF THE BIAGINATION. tion of critical opinions are neither numerous nor abstruse. It is not that sensibility increases with age ; for this all experience contradicts. But it is because at this period of life the imagination is fresh, and is excited by the slightest causes ; because the young decide on the merits of a composition according to the impression it makes on this faculty ; because their estimate of its value is formed, not by comparing it with other works or with any abstract or ideal standard, but from the facility with which it leads them into those enchanting regions of fancy where youth loves to wander. It is their own imagination that in reality pos- sesses the charms which they attribute to the work that excites it ; and the simplest tale is as capable of exciting this faculty in the young, and is therefore advanced to as high a rank in their estimation as the most meritorious performances would be at a later period. All this flow of imagination, however, in which youth and men of sensibility are apt to indulge, and which so often yields them pleasure while it involves them in incorrect judgments, the labor of criticism de- stroys. Thus employed, the mind, instead of being free to follow the trains of imagery successively awakened, is either fettered to the con- sideration of minute and isolated parts, or pauses to weigh the various ideas received. Thus distracted, it loses the emotion, whether of beauty or sublimity ; and, since the impression on the outward sense is evident- ly the same as before, it must be the restraint of imagination alone that makes the difference, and consequently this faculty is the sole source whence the pleasures of Taste flow. Accordingly, the mathematician who investigates the demonstrations of the Newtonian philosophy, the painter who studies the designs of Raphael, the poet who reasons on the measure of Milton, — all in such occupations lose the delight which these several productions give ; and, when they wish to recover the emotion of pleasure, must withdraw their attention from minute considerations, and leave their fancy to revel amid the great and pleasing conceptions with which it is inspired. § 255. The pleasures received from objects of Taste de- }3ending, as we have seen, on the action of the imagination, it follows that whatever facilitates the lively exercise of this faculty heightens the pleasurable emotions experienced. Tliis is obviously the effect of those interesting associations with effect has the labor of critlclem on the flow of imagination ? What is said of the mathematician, the painter, and the poet, wlieu etudyiug the great masters of their respective arts? §2.55. On what do tlic pleasures received from objects of Taste depetld? What, tlicrefore, heijjhtens the pleasurable emotions experienced T Of what i* PLEASURES OF THE IMAGINATION. 187 particular objects wWch exist in every mind. These asso- ciations are comprised in three classes : — I. Personal. No man is indifferent to a view of the house where he was born, the school where he was educated, or the scenes amid which his infancy was spent. So many images of past affections and past happi- ness do they recall, that, commonplace as they may seem to others, to him they are a source of indescribable rapture. There are melodies, also, that were learned in infancy, or were sung perhaps by beloved voices now silent, which awake strong feeling within us whenever they are heard, and are through life preferred to all others. II. National. Next to personal t^sociations, those connected with our country are most calculated to heighten our emotions of pleasure. What American can visit the localities consecrated by the blood of his struggling ancestors, can behold Bunker Hill, Bennington, Valley Forge, Cowpens, or Yorktown, and not feel his heart touched with a far higher and stronger enthusiasm than would be kindled by the mere beauty of the respective scenes ? To others, they may be objects of indifference ; to us, they are hallowed by their connection with our country's history. In like manner, the fine lines which Virgil, in his Georgics, has dedicated to the praises of his native land, beautiful as they are to us, were un- doubtedly read with far greater pleasure by the ancient Roman. The influence of such associations in increasing the beauty or sub- limity of musical compositions must have been generally observed. Swiss soldiers in foreign lands have been so overwhelmed with melan- choly on hearing their celebrated national air, that it has been found necessary to forbid its performance in the armies in which they serve. This effect is not attributable to the composition itself, but to the recol- lections with which it is accompanied ; to the images it awakens of peace and domestic pleasures, from which they have been torn, and to which they may never return. So the tune called Bellisle March is said to have owed its popularity in England to the supposition that it was the air played when the British army marched into Bellisle, and to its conse- quent association with images of conquest and military glory. III. Historical. Powerful, though in a less degree than the associa' this obviously the effect? In how many classes are associations comprised? What is the first class ? Describe personal associations. Show how they impart additional intensity to the pleasure received from certain melodies. What asso- siations, next to personal ones, are most calculated to heighten our pleasurable emotions ? What scenes are likely to kindle enthusiasm in an American's heart? Why? In whom is it likely that the lines dedicated by Virgil to his country awakened the liveliest pleasure? What compositions have their effect greatly increased by such associations ? What illustration is cited, touching the Swiss eoldiers ? To what is the effect of this national air attributable ? In Hko manner, 188 SOURCES OF THE PLEASURES OF THE IMAGINATION. tions connected with our own land, are those founded on general history or the lives of distinguished persons. The valley of Vaucluse is cele- brated for its beauty ; yet how little would it have been esteemed, had it not been the residence of Petrarch ! In like manner, there are many landscapes, no doubt, more beautiful than Runnymcde ; yet those who remember that this place witnessed the granting of the great charter which has guaranteed the rights and liberties of millions, will find few scenes affect their imaginations so strongly. LESSON- XXXVIII. SOURCES OP THE PLEASURES OF THE IMAGINATIOK. THE NOVEL. — THE WONDERFUL. — THE PICTURESQUE. § 256. Of the five senses that have been given to man, three, — taste, smell, and touch, — are incapable by themselves of awakening the imagination to pleasure. Co()perating with the other two, tliey may contribute to the effect pro- duced on this faculty; or, by the associations connected with their sensations, they may occasionally produce pleas- ing trains of thought : but, independently exercised, they can not be regarded as sources of the pleasures of Taste. Hence the intensity of the affliction with which the blind and deaf man is visited. Cut off from the manifold enjoy- ments insured by sight and hearing, and by these alone, he finds but little solace in the possession of the three inferior senses. Taste (in its literal signification) has to do with the body ; it flatters and serves the grossest of all masters, the stomach. No sense has less to what does the air called Bclllslo March owe its popularity ? Wliat is the Uiird class of associations ? How do they rank as regards effect? What illustrations are given, to prove their power ? § 25<). Which of the five senses arc incapable of affcctin? the imagination ? When do they contribute to the effect produced on this faculty ? How are they Bometimcs instrumental in producing pleasing trains of thought ? Independently exercised, are they sources of the pleasures of Taete? What follows with respect to the blind and doaf man ? To what does the Bcnsc of taste appeal ? What kind of pleasnros is It Incapa- SOURCES OF THE PLEASURES OF THE IMAGINATION. 189 connection with the mind, or is so utterly incapable of yielding it pleasure. Smell may sometimes seem to yield perceptions of the beautiful ; but it is because the odor is exhaled from an object that we already know to be beautiful, and that is so independently of its fragrance. Thus, tho rose charms us with its symmetrical proportions and the richness and variety of its shades ; its odor is agreeable, not beautiful, and suggests the idea of beauty only because we know it to proceed from a beautiful object. Touch may in a measure judge of smoothness, regularity, and sym- metry ; but not with sufficient promptness and accuracy to make it a source of pleasure to the imagination, unless sight comes to its aid. Agreeable trains of thought may, indeed, occasionally be awakened by the taste, smell, and perhaps touch, of particular objects with which striking recollections of the past are connected ; yet we can not on that account say that the sensations produced through these media are a source of mental pleasure. § 257. The only senses capable of kindling the imagina- tion and exciting its pleasures are sight and hearing. The impressions of the former are the more striking, and the enjoyment they yield is both more lasting and more intense. The blind, therefore, apart from the greater helplessness to which they are reduced, lose incomparably more of the pleas- ures of the imagination, whether awakened by nature or art, than the deaf. These senses seem to be particularly in the service of the soul. The sensations they produce are pure, not gross ; intellectual, not corporeal. They contribute to the refining rather than the sustaining of life. Thoy procure us pleasures which are not selfish and sensual, but noble and elevating. § 258. To these two senses, then^ through the operation of which natural objects excite a flow of imagination and ble of producing ? Of what may smell sometimes seem to yield perceptions ? Explain how this is, and illustrate it in the cai?e of the rose. Of what qualities may touch, in a measure, judge ? Why is it not, then, a source of pleasure to the imagination ? To what are the agreeable trains of thought sometimes awakened by these senses attributable ? § 257. What senses alone are capable of kindling the imagination ? Which produces the more striking impressions ? How, then, does the affliction of the blind compare with that of the deaf? What is said of the sensations and pleas- ures produced by sight and hearing ? 190 SOURCES OF THE PLEASURES OF THE IMAGINATION. consequent pleasure, art must be addressed, in order to make an impression on the mind. The eye being, as we have seen, the medium of the most vivid and abundant sensa- tions, to it most of the fine arts, — painting, sculpture, architecture, and landscape-gardening, — are exclusively ad- dressed. Music, jioetry, and rhetoric (which we have seen is a mixed art), address themselves to the ear. §' 259. We may divide those objects of sight and hear- ing which constitute the source of pleasure to the imagina- tion, into two great classes, the productions of nature and those of art. Strictly speaking, our subject leads us to treat only of the latter, or rather of that class of the latter which pertains exclusively to the art of composition. Yet, as the relation subsisting between the two is intimate and they often afford striking illustrations of each other, we shall briefly extend our notice to both. § 260. The different characteristics wliich an object must possess to excite the imagination are known as the novel, the wonderful, the picturesque, the sublime, and the beau- tiful. Of these the last two. are by far the most fruitful sources of pleasure. These five qualities belong alike to natural and artificial objects. Two others must here be mentioned, more limited in extent, because ap- plicable only to the creations of art. I. Fidelity of imitation. Art in many cases aims at nothing more than a reproduction of nature. In these cases, the closer the resemblance the copy bears to the original, the greater pleasure does it afford. Nor is this less true, though the object copied be destitute of beauty, or even repulsive. In a picture we dlin endure the filthy lazzaroni and disgusting dwarf, from whom in life we would turn away with uncontrollable aver- sion. The mind is pleased with the fidelity of the representation, be- § 258. To what must art bo addressed ? Wliich arts are addressed to the eye f Which, to the ear? § 259. Into what two great classes are the objects of sight and hearing divided ? What is said of the relation subsisting between them ? § 2(50. Enumerate the characteristics which nn object mnst possess, to excito the imagination. Which of these are the most frnitful sources of pleasure ? To wliat objects do these qualities belong t What two others are more limited in cKteut t In what cases is firlclity of imitation a sonrce of pleasure ? Illustrate THE NOVEL. 191 cause in the triumphs of art the whole species may be said to have a common concern and pride. II. Wit, humor, and ridicule, in literary compositions, are the source of various pleasures. These are of such importance as to require future consideration at some length. § 261. The Novel is an important source of the pleas- ures of Taste, producing, as it does, a lively and instanta- neous effect on the imagination. An object which has no merit to recommend it, except its being uncommon or new, by means of this quality gives a quick and pleasing impulse to the mind. A degree of novelty, indeed, though not es- sential to the production of impressions by the beautiful or the sublime, considerably heightens them ; for objects long familiar, however attractive, are apt to be passed over with indifference. Tlie emotion produced by novelty is of a livelier and more pungent nature than that excited by beauty ; but is proportionately shorter in its continuance. If there is no other charm to rivet our attention, the shining gloss thus communicated soon wears off. The desire to see and hear what is new is universal, and is known as curiosity. Xo emotion of the mind is stronger or more general. Con- versation is never more interesting than when it turns on strange ob- jects and extraordinary events. Men tear themselves from their fami- lies in search of things rare and new, and novelty converts into pleasures the fatigues and even the perils of travelling. By children, also, this feeling is constantly manifested. We see them perpetually running from place to place, to hunt out something new ; they catch, with eagerness and often with very little choice, at whatever comes before them. Now, by reason of its nature, novelty can not for any length of time engross our attention ; and hence curiosity is the most versatile of all our affec- the fact that a faithful representation pleases, though the object copied may be absolutely repulsive. Explain the reason. What source of pleasure to the im- agination belongs exclusively to litei*ary compositions ? § 261. What is the effect of the novel on the imagination f -What, on the im- pressions produced by the beautiful and the sublime ? How does the emotion produced by novelty compare with that excited by beauty ? What is the desire to see and hear new things called ? How do men show that they are under its con- trol ? How is it manifested by children ? What is the leading characteristic of curiosity ? 192 THE NOVEL. tious. It is constantly changing its object, and always presents an ap- pearance of anxiety and restlessness. § 262. Novelty is possessed by objects in diflferent de- grees, to which its effects are proportioned. I. The lowest degree is found in objects surveyed a second time after a long interval. Experience teaches us that, without any decay of remembrance, ab- sence always gives an air of novelty to a once familiar object. Thus, a person with whom we have been intimate, returning from abroad after a long interval, appears almost like a new acquaintance. Distance of place contributes to this effect no less than lapse of time ; a friend, for example, after a short absence in a remote country, has the same air of novelty as if he had returned after a longer interval from a place nearer home. The mind unconsciously institutes a connection between him and the distant region he has visited, and invests him with the singu- larity of the objects he has seen. II. The next degree of novelty belongs to objects re- specting which we have had some previous information. Description, though it contributes to familiarity, can not altogether remove the appearance of novelty when the object itself is presented. The first sight of a lion, for instance, is novel, and therefore a source of pleasure, although the beholder may have previously obtained from pic- tures, statues, and natural history, a thorough acquaintance with all his peculiarities of appearance. III. A new object that bears some distant resemblance to one already known is an instance of the third degree of novelty. We are familiar, for example, with the features of the Caucasian race of men, having seen them from infancy ; the first siglit of a Chinese, however, is novel and pleasing, because, although he bears a resemblance to those we already know, the points of difference are sufficient to excite our curiosity. IV. The highest degree of novelty is that which char- §262. To what arc the effects of novelty proportioned? In what objects is novelty found in the lowest degree ? What is always the effect of abpenco ? What besides lapee of time contributes to this effoct? Illustrate this. Wliat connection Is unconsciously instituted by the mind? What objects are charac- terized by novelty in the second defrree? What is the effect of description? Illustrate this. What is the next blithest degree of novelty ? Give an illustra- tion. To what objects does the highest degree of novelty belong ? THE WONDEKFUL. — THE PICTURESQUE. 193 acterizes objects entirely unknown and bearing no analogy to any with which we are acquainted. § 263. The Wonderful is analogous in character to the novel, and is by some confounded with it. It is equally a source of pleasure, its charm consisting principally in the production of unexpected trains of thought. The difference between the novel and the wonderful is readily illus- trated. A traveller who has never seen an elephant, goes to a jungle in India for the purpose of meeting with one ; if he succeeds, the sight is novel and pleasing, but not wonderful, for it was fully expected. A Hindoo, wandering in America, suddenly sees an elephant feeding at large in a field : the sight is not novel, for he is accustomed to the ani- mal ; it is wonderful, however, because totally unexpected, — and is pleasing in proportion. The Chinese appreciate the fact that the wonderful pleasurably ex- cites the imagination in a high degree, and take advantage of it in the embellishment of their gardens, which, we may add, are among the finest in the world. A torrent, for example, is conveyed under the ground, that the visitor may be at a loss to divine whence the unusual sound pro- ceeds ; and, to multiply still stranger noises, subterranean cavities are devised in every variety. Sometimes one is unexpectedly led into a dark cave, which still more unexpectedly terminates in a landscape enriched with all the beauties that nature can afford. In another quarter, en- chanting paths lead to a rough field, where bushes, briers, and stones, interrupt the passage ; and, while means of egress are being sought, a magnificent vista opens on the view. § 264. The Picturesque is by some regarded simply as a variation of the beautiful, and treated under that head. The term seems, however, to be applied to objects which have a rugged appearance, in contradistinction to such as are sublime or beautiful, particularly when introduced among the latter by way of contrast. Affecting the mind at first with an emotion of surprise, such objects soon give birth to § 263. To what is the wonderful analogous ? In what does its charm consist ? Illustrate the difference between the novel and the wonderful. What use do the Chinese make of the fact that the wonderful pleasurahly excites the imagination ? Show how they apply this principle in their gardens, § 264. To what do some regard the picturesque as belonging? To what objecta does this term seem rather to be applied ? With what emotion do picturesque objects first affect the mind ? To what do they soon give birth ? Mention some 9 194 THE SUBLIME. an additional train of images which the scene itself would not have suggested. A ruined tower in the midst of a deep wood, an old bridge flung across a chasm between rocks, a moss-covered cottage on a precipice, are instances of the picturesque. We have other examples in a stream with a broken surface and an irregular motion ; and, among trees, not in the smooth young beech or the fresh and tender ash, but in the gnarled oak and knotty elm. It is not necessary that picturesque objects should be of great size ; it is enough if they are rough and scraggy, if they indicate age by their appearance and have forms characterized by sudden variations. Among animals, the ass is generally regarded as more picturesque than the horse ; and, among horses, it is to the wild and rough forester or the worn- out cart-horse, that this epithet is applied. In our own species, objects merely picturesque are to be found among the wandering tribes of gip- sies and beggars ; who, in all their characteristics, bear a close analogy to the wild forester and worn-out cart-horse, as well as to old mills, hovels, and similar inanimate objects. LESSON XXXIX. THE SUBLIME. < § 265. The term Sublimity, for which Grandeue is by some used as an equivalent, is applied to great and noble ol> jects which produce a sort of internal elevation and expan- sion. The emotion, though pleasing, is of a serious character, and, when awakened in the liighest degree, may be designated even as severe, solemn, and awful ; being thus readily distin- guishable from the liveher feelings produced by the beautiful. picturesque obJectB. What is the leading characteristic of such objocts ? Is the ass or the horse the more pictarcsquo ? To what kind of horses is this epithet applicable ? What members of our own species present a picturesque appear- ance ? To what arc they analogous in character ? § 2G5. What word is used as an equivalent for stiblimify? To what arc these tonus appliod ? Describe the emotion produced by sublimity. THE SUBLIME. 195 The principal source of the sublime is might, or power, in a state cf active exertion. Hence the grandeur of earth- quakes and volcanoes ; of great conflagrations ; of the stormy ocean and mighty torrent; of lightning, tempests, and all violent commotions of the elements. A streaifi that confines itself to its banks is a beautiful object ; but, when it rushes with the impetuosity of a torrent, it becomes sublime. " The sight of a small fire," says Longinus, " produces no emotion ; but we are struck with the boiling furnace of Etna, pouring out whole rivers of liquid flame." The engagement of two great armies, being the high- est exertion of human might, constitutes one of the noblest and most magnificent spectacles that can be presented to the eye, or exhibited to the imagination in description. Lions and other anunals of strength are subjects of some of the grandest passages. In what sublime terms is the war-horse described in Job ! "Hast thou given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper ? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength ; he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha ! and he smelleth the battle afar ofif." The description of the leviathan is worked up in the same book with fine effect :— • " Canst thou draw out leviathan with an hook ? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down ? Canst thou put an hook into his nose ? or bore his jaw through with a thorn ? Wilt thou play with him as with a bird ? or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens ? By his neesings a light doth shine, and his eyes are like the eyelids of the morning. Out of his mouth go burning lamps, and sparks of fire leap out. Out of his nostrils goeth smoke, as out of a seething pot or caldron. His breath kindleth coals, and a flame goeth out of his mouth. In his neck remameth strength, and sorrow is turned into joy before him." § 266. The simplest form in which sublimity develops What is the principal source of the sublime ? From this source what derive their grandeur ? How is a stream that confines itself to its banks characterized ? When does the same stream become sublime ? Repeat the remark of Longinus. What is the highest exertion of human might ? What kmd of a spectacle does a battle, therefore, constitute? What animals form the subject of some of the grandest passages? Where are the war-horse and the leviathan described in sublime terms ? Repeat these descriptions. § 266. WTiat is the simplest form in which sublunity develops itself? Give 196 THE SUBLIME. itself is vastness. Wide-extended plains, to which the eye discerns no limit ; the firmament of heaven ; the boimdless expanse of ocean, — furnish us with familiar examples. To connect greatness of size with greatness of character is natural, particularly with unenlightened minds. The Scythians, for example, were so impressed with the fame of Alexander the Great that they thought he must be a giant, and were astonished when they found him to be rather under than above their own size. The mind is inadequate to the conception of infinity, and intuitively invests whatever approaches it with a character of grandeur. Hence, infinite space, endless numbers, and eternal duration, possess this qual- ity in an eminent degree. It must be observed, however, that where there is such variety in the parts of any object that one can not be inferred from another, unless they are of such size that all can bo taken in at one view, a portion of the sublimity is lost. "When there id such immensity that the whole can not be comprehended at once, the mind is distracted rather than satisfied, and is excited only to an infe- rior degree of pleasure. With the sky and the ocean this is not the case ; because what is invisible is the counterpart of what we see, and from such portions as meet the eye imagination can readily draw the picture of such as are concealed from it. When, however, every part must be seen that an idea of the whole may be formed, any degree of magnitude inconsistent with distinctness diminishes the effect. Addi- son's observation is therefore just, that there would have been more true sublimity in one of Lysippus' ^utues of Alexander, though no larger than life, than in the vast Mount Athos, had it been cut into the figure of the hero, according to the proposition of Phidias, with a river in one hand, and a city in the other. § 267. All vastness produces the impression of sublimity. This impression, however, is less vivid in objects extended in length or breadth than in such as are vast by reason of their lieight or depth. Though a boundless plain is a gnind object, yet a high mountain to which we look up, or an awful some familiar examples. With what in it natural to connect {rreatneps of charac- ter ? What did the Scythians think rcnpectins; Alexander the Great ? To what is the mind inadequate ? What ohjects, therefore, are eminently prand ? When there is variety in tlie parts of an object, what docfroe of mntrnitnde is inconsistent with the highest eublimity ? Why does not this principle operate In the caeeof tho pky and the ocean ? ^Vhat remark docs Addison make in illustration of this point ? § 207. With the same eize, in what directions must bodies be extended, to bo most Bublime ? IIovv does v boimdless plain compare with a high mountain or TtlE SUBLIME. l9Y precipice or tower from which we contelnplate objects be- neath, is still grander. The sublimity of the firmament arises as w^ell from its height as from its vast extent. Our every-day actions show that we are aware of the effect produced on the mind by elevation. We raise lofty monuments, and on their tops place the statues of our heroes, at as great a height as is compatible with distinctness of view. So, thrones are erected for kings, and ele- vated seats for judges and magistrates. Among all nations, Heaven is placed far above, Hell far below. "Why are these directions preferred to all others, if the mind does not instinctively connect an idea of gran- deur with great height and depth ? § 268. The solemn and the terrible are important ele- ments of the sublime ; hence, darkness, solitude, and silence, which have a tendency to fill the mind with awe, contribute much to sublimity. It is not the gay landscape, the flowery field, or the flourishing city, that produces the em.otion of grandeur ; but the hoary mountain, and the solitary lake ; the aged forest, and the torrent falling down the precipice. Hence, too, night scenes are generally the most sublime. The firma- ment, when filled with stars in magnificent profusion, strikes the imagi- nation with a more awful grandeur than when we view it enlightened by the brightest noonday sun. The sound of a bell and the striking of a large clock are at any time grand ; but they become doubly so, when heard amid the stillness of night. In descriptions of the Deity, darkness is often introduced, and with great effect, as a means of imparting addi- tional sublimity to the subject. " He maketh darkness his pavilion," saith the inspired writer ; " He dwelleth in the thick cloud." So, Milton :— " How oft, amidst Thick clouds and dark, does Heaven's all-ruling Sire Choose to reside, his glory unobsenred, And with the majesty of darkness round Circles his throne ! " § 269. Obscurity is another source of the sublime. We an awful precipice ? To what is the sublimity of the firmament owing? How, in every-day life, do we avail ourselves of the effects produced by elevation ? Why do all nations locate Heaven above them, and Hell below ? § 268. What other elements contribute largely to the sublime ? Give instances of their effect. As regards sublimity, what is the effect of darkness on the heav- ens, the sound of bells, &c. ? What is often introduced into descriptions of the Deity, and with what effect ? Give an earamplc from Scripture ; from Milton. 198 THE SUBLIME. have said that in natural and visible objects, when a portion of the form is seen, it is essential that the whole be within reach of the eye, unless there is such uniformity that its ap- pearance can be readily inferred. When no part, however, is visible or material, but the whole is left to imagination, the obscurity and uncertainty fill the mind with indescribable awe. Thus we find that descriptions of supernatural beings are characterized by subHmity, though the ideas they yield are confused and indistinct. The superior power we at- tribute to such beings, the obscurity -vvith wliich they are veiled, and the awe they awaken in our minds, necessarily render them sublime. The grand effect of obscurity is ol> vious in the following passage from the book of Job : — " In thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep fallcth on men fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a spirit passed before my face ; the hair of my flesh stood up. It stood still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was before mine eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, say- ing, * Shall mortal man be more just than God ? shall a man be more pure than his Maker ? ' " As a general principle, all objects greatly elevated, or far removed as regards either space or time, are apt to strike us as grand. Whatever is viewed through the mist of distance or antiquity looms larger than its natural size. Hence epic poets find it expedient to select as heroes the great personages of bygone times, rather than those of their own day, though equally distinguished. It follows that no ideas are so sublime as those connected with the Supreme Being, the least loiown but incomparably the greatest of all tilings ; the infinity of whose nature and the eternity of whose duration, joined to the immensity of His power, though they transcend our concei:)tions, yet exalt them in the highest degree. § 370. Sublimity is also frequently heightened by disor- §260. What is another source of the Piiblime? Show the difference in this respect between material and immaterial things. What is said of supematuml f)bject8 ? Quote from Job a sublime passage descriptive of a spirit. As a general principle, what ol)ject8 strike us as grand? Wliy do epic poets select as herooa personages of bygone times ? With whom are our sublimest ideas connected ? § 270. By what is sublimity frequently heightened? What feeling docs strict THE SUBLIME. 199 der. When we gaze at things strictly regular in their out- line and methodical in the arrangement of their parts, we feel a sense of confinement incompatible with mental expansion. Exact proportion of parts, though it often contributes additional ef- fect to the beautiful, seldom enters into the sublime. A great mass of rocks thrown wildly and confusedly together by the hand of nature pro- duces a greater impression of grandeur on the mind than if they had been adjusted to each other with the utmost taste and care. § 271. We have thus far considered sublimity as belong- ing to visible things merely ; it may, however, characterize objects of hearing, as well as those of sight. Among the arts which please the imagination through the ear, poetry and rhetoric have already been enumerated. Though, with the aid of conventional characters wliich represent words and thereby ideas, they address the eye, and may therefore be understood by the deaf, yet they are to be regarded as primarily appeahng to the ear, and governed by principles laid down with the direct view of producing the livehest ef- fect on that organ. Accordingly, under the head of sublim- ity, as pertaining to objects of hearing, we must treat of the sublime in writing ; and this, by reason of its importance, will constitute a separate lesson. It remains for us here to enumerate the sounds characterized by sublimity. These are included in five classes, as follows : — I. Those associated with ideas of danger ; such as, the howling of a storm, the rumbling of an earthquake, the groaning of a volcano, the roaring of thunder, the report of artillery. II. Those associated with great power actively exerted ; as, the noise of a torrent, the fall of a cataract, the uproar of a tempest, the dash of waves, the crackling of a conflagration. III. Those associated with ideas of majesty, solemnity, deep melancholy, or profound grief ; as, the sound of the trumpet and other warlike instruments, the notes of the organ, the toUing of a bell, &c. regularity produce ? To what does exact proportion of parts contribute ? In what position do massive rocks produce the greatest impression of grandeur? §271. To what, besides objects of sight, does sublimity belong ? To what sense are the arts of poetry and rhetoric addressed ? With what three classes of ideas must sounds be associated, in order to be sublime ? Give examples of each. 200 THE SUBLIME. IV. Of the notes of animals, those awaken the emotion of grandeur which are known to proceed from strong or ferocious creatures. As examples of this class, the roar of the lion, the growling of bears, the howling of wolves, and the scream of the eagle, may be men- tioned. V. Those sounds of the human voice may be accounted sublime which indicate that the more serious emotions, — sorrow, terror, and the like, — arc strongly excited. The tones which, in general, denote a high degree of emotion, will be found to be loud, grave, lengthened, and swelling. § 272. It will be seen that the sublimity of sound arises, not from any inherent quality or independent fitness to pro- duce the emotion, but exclusively from the association of ideas. This is evident from the fact that, as soon as the sound is separated from the idea, it ceases to be sublime. Thus, persons who are afraid of thunder frequently mistake some common sound for it, such as the roll- ing of a cart or carriage. While the mistake continues, they feel an emotion of sublimity ; but, the moment they are undeceived, they are the first to laugh at their error and ridicule the noise that occasioned it. Similar mistakes are often made, in those countries where earthquakes are common, between inconsiderable sounds and the low rumbling noise which is said to precede such an event ; there can be no doubt that, the moment the truth is discovered, the emotion of sublimity is at an end. So, children are at first as much impressed with the thunder of the theatre as with that of the genuine tempest ; but, when they understand the delusion, regard it as no more than the insignificant noises they hear every day. Again, to the Highlander the sound of the bag-pipe is sub- lime, because it is the martial instrument of his country, and is con- stantly associated with splendid and magnificent images ; to the rest of the world, the instrument is at best barely tolera])le. Finally, that sub- limity in the tones of animals arises from associations with their charac- ter seems obvious from several considerations. The howl of the wolf differs little from that of the dog either in tone or strength ; but there is Of the notes of animals, which awaken the emotion of grandeur f What sonods of the human voice arc accounted eublimo ? What tones denote a high degree of emotion ? § 272. From what docs the eublimhy of noinid arifo ? What evidence is there of thit?? IlhiPtratc the point b}' PtJitinL; what takes place wlien some iusiiniificant Bound is mlytakon for thunder or the rumbling of an earthqualce. How is the Bound of the bag-pipe rogiudcd by tlio Higlilandors f How, by the rest of the TliE StTBLlME m WUlTIi^G. 201 no comparison between them in point of sublimity, because we know the one to be a savage, and the other a domestic, animal. There are few animal sounds so loud as the lowing of a cow ; yet it will be admitted that it is far from being characterized by sublimity. We may, therefore, infer that sounds possess this quality, not by reason of any inherent character, but only through the associations connected with them. LESSON XL. THE SUBLIME IN WEITING. § 273. Foe a literary composition to possess sublimity, it is necessary that the subject be* sublime ; that, if a scene or natural object, it be one which, exhibited to us in reality, would inspire us with thoughts of the elevated, awful, and magnificent character that has been described. This ex- cludes what is merely beautiful, gay, or elegant. If it be attempted, w^itli the aid of rhetoric, to make any such object the theme of a sublime composition, the effort will prove a failure, and bombast or frigidity of style will result. § 274. "We shall find, then, that the passages generally accounted sublime are, for the most part, descriptions of the natural objects mentioned in the last lesson as capable of producing the emotion of grandeur ; or, in other words, of what is vast, mighty, magnificent, obscure, dark, solemn, loud, pathetic, or terrible. Shakspeare, in the following lines, furnishes us with a fine example of sublimity, arising from the vastness of the objects successively prc- world ? What occasions the difference ? From what docs sublimity in the toue<< of animals ariee ? Illustrate this. § 273. What is cssentiiil to sublimity in a literary composition? If a scene or natural object is treated of, what must be its character? What is excluded? What will result, if it be attempted to write sublimely on a trivial subject ? § 274. Of what, then, for the most part, are sublime passages descriptions ? Repeat the quotation from Shakspeare, and show wherein its sublimity consists, 202 THE SUBLIME IN WRITTNG. sented, and the pathetic thought that all this magnificence and greatness is destined to destruction : — " The cload-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces, The solemn temples, the great globe itself, Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve ; And, like an insubstantial pageant faded, Leave not a rack behind." As observed in § 265, battles are among the sublimest spectacles on which the eye can gaze, by reason of their displaying immense power in the act of violent exertion. We may, therefore, look for the same ele- ment of grandeur in descriptions of such scenes. Ilomer furnishes one of the sublimest, as well as earliest, in the whole range of poetry : — " When now gathered on either side, the hosts plunged together in fight ; shield is harshly laid to shield ; spears crash on the brazen corse- lets; bossy buckler with buckler meets; loud tumult rages over all; groans are mixed with the exultmg shouts of men ; the slain and the slayer join their cries ; the earth is floating round with blood. As when two rushing streams from two mountains come roaring down, and throw together their rapid waters below, they roar along the gulfy vale. The startled shepherd hears the sound, as he stalks o'er the distant hills ; so, as they mixed in fight, from both armies clamor with loud terror arose." From Ossian we take another description of a battle-scene, which bears, it will be observed, a decided resemblance to the one last quoted, both in the enumeration of circumstances and in the comparison of the contending hosts to two mountain torrents. Both are eminently sub- lime, presenting to us in a few words a succession of striking images : — " Like Autumn's dark storms pouring from two echoing hills, towards each other approached the heroes ; as two dark streams from high rocks meet and roar on the plain, loud, rough, and dark in battle, meet Loch- lin and Inisfail. Chief mixes his strokes with chief, and man with man ! Steel sounds on steel, and helmets are cleft on high : blood bui-sts and smokes around : strings murmur on the polished yews : darts rush along the sky : spears fall like circles of light which gild the stormy face of night. " As the noise of the troubled ocean when roll the waves on high, as the last peal of thundering heaven, such is the noise of battle. Though Cormac's hundred bards were there, feeble were the voice of a hundred bards to send the deaths to future times ; for many were the deaths of the heroes, and wide poured the blood of the valiant." What arc among the sublimest spectacles, and why ? What follows with re- spect to descriptions of battle-scenes ? From what two authors arc general de- scriptions of battles quoted? Uow do they compare in point of sublimity ? In What respects do they resemble each other ? What other poet's description of a similar scene is presented ? Repeat it. How, in your opinion, does It compare in point of grandeur with the two extracts just given f THE SUBLIME IN WBITING. 203 Compare with these the line passage in the sixth book of Paradise Lost, than which nothing could be more lofty or forcible : — " Now storming fary rose, And clamor such as heard in Heaven till now Was never ; arms on armor clashing brayed Horrible discord, and the madding wheels Of brazen chariots raged ; dire was the noise Of conflict ; overhead the dismal hiss Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew, And flying vaulted either host with Are. So under fiery cope together rushed "^ Both battles main, with ruinous assault And inextinguishable rage ; all Heaven Resounded ; and, had earth been theo, all earth Had to her centre shook." Darkness, obscurity, and difficulty, are introduced with fine effect into the following passage from Milton, which describes the travelling of the fallen angels through their dismal habitation : — " O'er many a dark and dreary vale They passed, and many a region dolorous ; O'er many a frozen, many a fieiy Alp ; Rocks, caves, lakes^ fens, bogs, dens, and shades, of death— A universe of death." Seldom has a supernatural being been represented with such genuine sublimity as in the following fine extract from Ossian, descriptive of Fingal's interview with the spirit of Loda. The ghost is invested with obscurity, might, and terror ; the king of Morven, with fearless heroism ; the darkness of night is around : all things contribute to intensify the sublimity, with which, it may be added, the simple sententiousness of the style is eminently in keeping : — " A blast came from the mountain : on its wings was the spirit of Loda. He came to his place in his terrors, and shook his dusky spear. His eyes appear like flames in his dark face : his voice is like distant thunder. Fingal advanced his spear in night, and raised his voice on high. * Son of night, retire : call thy winds, and fly ! Why dost thou come to my presence with thy shadowy arms ? Do I fear thy gloomy form, spirit of dismal Loda? Weak is thy shield of clouds; feeble is . that meteor thy sword I The blast rolls them together : and thou thy- self art lost. Fly from my presence, son of night ! call thy winds and •fly!' What other passage is presented from Milton ? What points are introduced with fine efi"ect ? What specimen is given of descriptions of supernatural ob- jects ? With what is the ghost invested ? With what, the king ? What con- tributes to intensify the sublimity ? How is the spirit of Loda described ? What does it command Fingal to do ? What is the result of the interview ? 204 THE StriJLlME IN WRITiNG. " ' Dost thou force mc from my place ? ' replied the hollow Toiec. ' I turn the battle in the field of the brave. 1 look on the nations, and they vanish : my nostrils pour the blast of death. I come abroad on the winds : the tempests are before my lace. But ray dwelling is calm above the clouds ; pleasant are the fields of my rest.' " ' Dwell in thy pleasant fields,' said the king. ' Let Comhal's son be forgotten. Do my steps ascend from my hills into thy peaceful plains * Do I meet thee with a spear on thy cloud, spirit of dismal Loda ? Why then dost thou frown on me? Why shake thine airy spear? Thou frowncst in vain : I never fled from the mighty in war ; and shall the sons of the wind frighten the king of Morven? Xo — he knows the weakness of their arms.' " ' Fly to thy land,' replied the form ; ' take to the wind, and fly ! The blasts are in the hollow of my hand : the course of the storm is mine. Fly to thy land, son of Comhal, or feel my flaming wrath ! ' " He lifted high his shadowy spear ! he bent forward his dreadful height. Fingal, advancing, drew his sword, the blade of dark-brown Luno. The gleaming path of the steel winds through the gloomy ghost. The form fell shapeless into air." § 275. Besides the objects enumerated in the last lesson, there is another class from which the subjects of the sub- limest passages are often taken. They consist of the great and heroic feelings and acts of men ; and the elevation which distinguishes them is generally known as the moral or sentimental sublime. When, in an extremely critical position, a person forgets all selfish interests and is con- trolled by high inflexible principles, we have an instance of the moral sublime. The most fruitful sources of moral sublimity are these : — I. Firmness in the cause of truth and justice. Of this species of heroism, ancient Roman history furnishes many distinguished examples. Brutus, with unyielding sternness sentencing his sons to death, for having conspired against their country ; and Titus Manlius, ordering his son to the stake, for engaging with an enemy con- trary to his command ; — excite in our minds the most elevated ideas. Socrates is another instance, who chose to die by hemlock, though means of escape were in his power, because their employment might have been construed into an admission of guilt. Above all, among never-to-be-for- § 275. What is meant by the moral or pontiinontal sublimo ? When have wo instances of the moral Bublimc ? What is the first source of moral publiinity f Wliat history furnishes us examples of this species of heroism ? Mention two. What illustration is aflbrilcnl by Socnitos' career ? What other memorable ex- amples are cited ? What is the second source of the moral sublime ? Show how the Btoiy of Damon and Pythias faroishcs two examples of moral enblimity. TiiE SliBLBlE IN WRITING. ^05 gotten instances of the moral sublime, arc to be mentioned the heroic deaths of the Christian martyrs, who, amid tortures inconceivable, in flames and on the rack, testified to the reality of their faith. II. Generous self-sacrifice in behalf of another. The story of Damon and Pythias, the former of whom, having in- curred the enmity of the tyrant Dionysius, was by him sentenced to death, furnishes us with two remarkable examples : first, that of Pythias, who remains as hostage during his friend's farewell visit to his family, on condition of suffering in his stead if he does not return at the appointed time ; and, secondly, that of Damon, who, refusing to profit by the self-devotion of Pythias, comes back in season to redeem his pledge. We find another forcible illustration in the career of Coriola- nus ; when, after having been besought in vain by the leading men of Rome, he yields to his mother's tears and prayers, though aware that the consequences will be fatal to himself, and consents to withdraw his army with the sad words, " Mother, thou hast saved Rome, — but lost thy son ! " Equally sublime is the self-devotion of Codrus, the last Athenian king. Informed by the oracle, that, in a battle which was about to take place, Athens or her king must perish, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, and by the sacrifice of himself saved, as he thought, his country. III. Self-possession and fearlessness in circumstances of danger. Of such elevated emotion, an incident in the career of CjEsar affords a striking illustration. Crossing, on one occasion, a branch of the sea, he was overtaken by a tempest of such violence that the pilot declared himself unable to proceed, and was in the act of turning back. " Quid times? Ccesarem vehis!''^ "What do you fear? You carry Cajsar!" was the sublime reply. We have another example of heroism in Mu- cins Sca?vola, thrusting his arm into Porsenna's camp-fire, to show how he scorned his threatened tortures, and keeping it there with unmoved countenance till it was entirely consumed. More than this, we see the effect produced by the act ; for Porsenna was so struck with it that he gave the youth, who had come to murder him, his life, and subsequently negotiated a peace with Rome. IV. Exalted patriotism. Wolfe's death-scene embodies the height of the moral sublime. What instance is cited from Roman history ? What, from the early history of Athens ? What is the third source of moral sublimity ? Exemplify it with inci- dents drawn from the career of Cwsar and that of Mucins Scasvola. What is th« 206 THE SUBLIME IN WRITING. Wounded on the Plains of Abraham, in the very death-agony, he heard the distant shout, " They fly ! they fly ! "—" Who fly ? " eagerly asked the dying hero. — " The enemy," replied one of his oflScers. — " Then," said he, " I die happy ! " and expired. Another notable instance, quoted by all French critics, occurs in one of Comeille's tragedies. In the famous combat between the Horatii and the Curiatii, the old Iloratius, being informed that two of his sons are slain, and that the third has be- taken himself to flight, at first will not believe the report ; but, being thoroughly assured of the fact, he is filled with grief and indignation at this supposed unworthy behavior of his surviving son. lie is reminded that his son stood alone against three, and is asked what he wished that he had done. " That he had died ! " ( Qu'il mourut / ) is the reply. LESSON XLI. THE SUBLIME IN WRITING (CONTINUED). § 276. To give effect to the description of a sublime ob- ject, a clear, strong, concise, and simple, style, must be em- l^loyed. These different qualities of style will be treated of hereafter ; their general character is sufficiently understood for our present purpose. Everything must be painted in such terms as to leave no room for mis- .apprehension. To insure strength, such circumstances must be selected for the description as exhibit the object in a striking point of view. It is plain that things present different appearances to us according to the side we look upon ; and that, when there are a variety of circumstances, our descriptions will vary in character according to those we select. In this selection lie the great art of the composer and the difficulty of sublime writing. If the description is too general, and barren of circum- stances, we can not present a forcible picture ; while, if any trivial or commonplace circumstance is introduced, the whole is degraded. Thus, fourth source of moral eublimity? Illustrate this with an account of Wolfe's dcath-sccnc. Wliat notable instance of exalted patriotisiQ occurs in one of Cor- noiUe's tragedies ? § 276. To give effect to the description of a sublime object, what kind of a style must be employed? How must every thing be painted? To insure ptrcngth, what circumstances must be selected for the description ? In what lies the great art of subiimo writing ? If the description is too general, what follows? THE SUBLIME IN WEITING. 207 if a storm is the subject, something else is necessary than to say that torrents of rain pour down, and trees and houses are overthrown. We must seize on the more striking phenomena with which it is attended, and dwell only on its grander effects. § 277. Conciseness is one of the most important essen- tials of sublimity in writing. The greatest thoughts must be presented in the fewest words. If the specimens in the last lesson, particularly those from Homer and Ossian, are examined, it will be seen that this is their leading feature ; no words are introduced unless essential to the idea. " I love God and little children," says the German philosopher Rich- ter. In what more elevated terms could he have expressed his love for sinlessness and innocence ? The sentence is grand, because so strikingly condensed. The same conciseness constitutes the sublimity of Caesar's famous Veni, vidi, vici, in which he announced to the Senate the result of one of his battles ; a saying which loses just half its terse energy, when translated into English, " I came, I saAv, I conquered." In the sentence before quoted, ^^ Quid times i Ccesarem vehis,^^ the effect is also due, in a measure, to the sententiousness of the style. It is readily seen how much is gained by conciseness, when we compare with these brief and eloquent words of the fearless conqueror, Lucan's account of the scene, in which, by attempting to amplify and adorn the thought, he has diluted it into insignificance : — " But Cffisar, still superior to distress, Fearless and confident of sure success, Thus to the pilot loud :— ' The seas despise, And the vain threatening of the noisy skies ; Though gods deny thee yon Ausonian strand, Yet go, I charge you ; go, at my command. Thy ignorance alone can cause thy fears. Thou know'st not what a freight thy vessel bears ; Thou know' St not I am he to whom 'tis given Never to want the care of watchful Heaven. Obedient fortune waits my humble thrall. And, always ready, comes before I call. Let wmds and seas loud wars at freedom wage, And waste upon themselves their empty rage ! What, if a trivial circumstance is introduced? If a storm is the Bubject, what must be seized on, and what left untouched ? §277. What qiaality of style is particularly conducive to sublimity? What must be the character of the thoughts, and what of the words ? What will bo found, on examining the specimens in the last lesson ? Give a sentence from Richter, which is sublime by reason of its conciseness. Give one from Csesar. When translated into English, how does this sentence compare in sublimity with i^08 Til 13 StULEME IK WRIllNG. A stronger, mightier, demon is thy friend ; Thou and tliy bark on Caesar's fate depend. Tliou Btand'st amazed to view this dreadful scene. And wonder'st what the gods and fortune mean ; But artfully their bounties thus tliey raise. And from my danger arrogate new praise ; Amidst the fears of death they bid me live,' And still enhance what they arc sure to give."— RowE. § 278. Simplicity is no less essential to sublimity than conciseness. The words employed must be, not only few, but plain. High-flown and turgid expressions must be avoided no less carefully than mean, low, and trivial ones. Ornament, however conducive to beauty of style, is here out of place. Nothing is more mistaken than to suppose that magnificent words, accumulated epithets, and swelling ex- pressions, constitute real elevation. This will be apparent from an illustration. Longinus and all critics from his time to the present have concurred in attributing the highest Bublimity to the verse in Genesis which describes the creation of light : *' And God said, Let there be light : and there was light." But exchange its simplicity for misplaced ornament, — " The sovereign arbiter of nature, by the potent energy of a single word, commanded light to exist, and im- mediately it sprang into being," — and the sound is indeed magnified, but the sentiment is degraded, and the grandeur is gone. The reason why a deficiency of conciseness or simplicity is fiital to the sublime appears to be this. The emotion in question raises the mind considerably above its ordinary tone. A temporary enthusiasm is pro- duced, extremely agreeable while it lasts, but from which the mind is every moment in danger of sinking to its usual level. Now when an author has brought us, or is attempting to bring us, into this state of elevated rapture, if he indulges in unnecessary words, if he stops to in- troduce glittering ornaments, if he even throws in a single decoration that is inferior to the loading imago, he loses the critical moment ; the tension of the mind is relaxed ; the emotion is dissipated. The beautiful may survive ; the sublime is sacrificed. the original ? What other sentence of Cajsar's owes a portion of Its sublimity to conciseness ? How is this shown ? § 278. What besides conciseness is essentinl to sublimity? What kind of ex- pressions must b'> avoided ? Illustrate the ditlerent etTects producetl by simple and by high-flown language. Explain why a deficiency of conciecnois or sim- plicity is total to the sublime. THE SUBLIME IN WKITIKG. 209 § 279. The writer must not only be concise and simple ; he must also have a lively impression of his subject. If his own enthusiasm is not awakened, he can not hope to excite emotion in others. All forced attempts by which a winter endeavors to excite himself and his readers, when his imagination begins to j3ag, have just the oppo- site effect from what is intended. A poet gains nothing by labored ap- peals, invocations of the muses, or general exclamations concerning the greatness, terribleness, or majesty, of what he is about to describe. We find an example of such forced introductions in Addison's description of the Battle of Blenheim : — "But, O my muse 1 what numbers wilt thou find, To sing the furious troops in battle joined ? Methinks I hear the drum's tumultuous sound, The victor's shouts, and dying groans confound ; " &c. § 280. When, therefore, an awe-inspiring object is pre- sented in nature, a grand creation in art, an exalted feeling in the human mind, or a heroic deed in human action ; then, if our own impression is vivid, and we exhibit it in brief, plain, and simple terms, without rhetorical aids, but trusting mainly to the dignity which the thought naturally assumes, we may hope to attain to the sublime. Sublimity, by its very nature, awakens but a short-lived emotion. By no force of genius can the mind for any considerable time be kept so far raised above its common tone. Neither are the abilities of any hu- man writer sufficient to furnish a long continuation of uninterruptedly sublime ideas. The utmost we can expect is that the fire of imagina- tion should sometimes flash upon us, like lightning from heaven, and then disappear. No author is sublime throughout, in the true sense of the word. Yet there arc some, who, by the strength and dignity of their conceptions, and the current of high ideas that runs throughout their compositions, keep their readers' minds in a state of comparative eleva- § 279. What else must a writer have, to write sublimely ? What is said of forced attempts to excite one's self and one's readers ? From what does a writer ^ain nothing ? Illustrate this from Addison. § 280. How, then, may we hope to attain to the sublime ? What kind of an emotion docs sublimity awaken ? Why can not the emotion continue for any icngth of time ? What is the utmost we can expect ? Can any author hope to be sublime throughout ? What is the nearest approach to it 1 What writers among the ancients, and who among moderns, are distinguished for the elevated tone which rauB throughout their compositions ? 210 THE SUBLIME IN WRITING. tion. In this class, Pindar, Demosthenes, and Plato, among the ancients, and Ossian and Milton, among modems, are worthy of being ranked. § 281. An unimproved state of society is peculiarly favorable to the production of sublime compositions. When the mind is unaccustomed to the ornamental, it is more apt to appreciate and admire the grand. In the infancy of nations, men are constantly meeting with objects to them new and striking ; the imagination is kept glowing ; and the passions are often vehemently excited. They think boldly, and express their thoughts without restraint. Advances towards refinement are conducive to the development of beauty in style, but signally limit the sphere of the subUme. We find this theory borne out by fact. As a general thing, the sub- limest writers have flourished either in the early ages of the world or in the infancy of their respective nations. Thus, the grandest of all pas- sages arc found in the earliest of books, the Bible. The style of the in- spired writers is characterized by a sublimity commensurate with the majesty and solemnity of their subjects. What can transcend in gran- deur the following descriptions of the Almighty ? The student is re- quested to observe how they combine the various elements mentioned above as calculated to elevate the mind and affect the imagination : — " In my distress I called upon the Lord, and cried unto my God : He heard my voice out of His temple, and my cry came before Him, even into His ears. Then the earth shook and trembled ; the foundations also of the hills moved and were shaken, because He was wroth. There went up a smoke out of His nostrils, and fire out of His mouth devoured ; coals were kindled by it. lie bowed the heavens also, and came down, and darkness was under His feet. And He rode upon a cherub, and did Uy : yea, He did fly upon the wings of the wind. He made darkness His secret place; His pavilion round about Him were dark waters and thick clouds of the skies." — Psalm xviii., 0-11. " Before Him went the pestilence, and burning coals went forth at His feet. He stood, and measured the earth : Ho beheld, and drove asunder the nations ; and the everlasting mountains were scattered, the perpetual hills did bow : His ways are everlasting. The mountains saw Thee, and they trembled : the overflowing of the waters passed by ; the § 281. What Btato of society Ib fevorable to the sublime ? Explain the reason. To what are advances towards rcfinemont conducive? At what period do wo fuul that the aubllmci^t writers have flourished ? What book contains the grand- est of all passages ? What descriptions are peculiarly sublime ? Eepcat the de- scription of the Almighty firom Psalm xvili. Repeat that from Ilabakkuk. THE SUBLIME IN WRITING. 211 deep uttered his voice, and lifted up his hands on high." — Habakkuk, III., 5, 6, 10. The same remark holds true in Greek literature. Ilomer, who was the earliest, is also the most sublime, poet that has written in that lan- guage, his ideas being grand and his diction unaffected. We have already- seen how magnificently he describes a battle. A similar passage, wor- thy of special mention, occurs in the 20th book of the Iliad. It repre- sents the gods as taking part in an engagement between the Greeks and Trojans. All heaven and earth are in commotion. Jupiter thunders from on high. Minerva and Mars gird themselves for the terrible conflict. Neptune strikes the earth with his trident ; the ships, the cities, and the mountains, shake ; the earth trembles to its centre. Pluto starts from his throne, in dread lest the secrets of the infernal regions be laid open to the view of mortals. After the magnificent passages quoted from Ossian, it is hardly ne- cessary to say that he is one of the most sublime of writers. He pos- sesses the- plain and venerable manner of antiquity. lie deals in no supM-fluous or gaudy ornaments, but throws forth his images with a rapid conciseness which appeals powerfully to the mind. Among poets of more poUshed times we must look for elaborate graces, exact proportion of parts, and skilfully conducted narratives. In the midst of smiling land- scapes, the gay and beautiful have their home ; the sublime dwells among the rude scenes of nature and society which Ossian describes ; amid rocki and torrents, whirlpools and battles. LESSON XLII. THE SUBLIME IN WRITING (CONTINUED). § 282. Rhyme, which generally forms a feature of Eng- lish verse, is unfavorable to sublimity in writing, by reason of its constrained elegance, its studied smoothness, and the Wherein consiBts tlie sublimity of these passages ? Who is the sublimest of Greek poets ? Give the siihstance of a fine passage in the 20th book of the Iliad. What is said of Ossian ? Describe his style. Where must we look for the elabo- rate graces of writing ? Where, for the sublime ? § 283. What is the effect of rhyme as regards sublimity ? How does it pro 212 THE SUBLIME IN WRITING. superfluous words often brought in to produce a recurrence of tlie same sound. Homer's description of the nod of Jupiter has been admired in all ages as a model of elevated thought : — " He spoke, and, bending his sable brows, gave the awful nod ; while he shook the celestial locks of his immortal head, all Olympus was shaken." Pope translates this pas- sage into English verse, with a decided loss of sublime effect. It will be seen that he enlarges on the thought and attempts to beautify it ; but the result is that he only weakens it. The third line is entirely exple- tive, being introduced for no other reason than to furnish a rhyme for the preceding one : — " He spoke : and awful bends his sable brows, Shakes his ambrosial curls, and gives the nod, The stamp of fate, and sanction of a god. High heaven with trembling the dread signal took, And all Olympus to its centre shook." § 283. The freedom and variety of our blank verse render it a decidedly better medium than rhyme for the expression of sublime ideas. Hence it is much to be preferred for epic poetry. Milton has availed himself of this fact. The images he successively presents in Paradise Lost are unsur- passed for grandeur. Take, for instance, the description of Satan after his fall, at the head of the infernal hosts : — " lie, above the rest, In shape and gesture proudly eminent, Stood like a tower ; his form had not yet lost All her original brightness, nor appeared Less than archangel ruined ; and the excess Of glory obscured : as when the sun, new risen. Looks through the horizontal misty air. Shorn of his beams ; or, from behind the moon, In dim eclipse, disastrous twilight sheds On half the nations, and with foar of change Pen^lexes monairhs. Darkened so, yet shone Above them all the archangel'' This passage is justly eulogized by Blair. " Here," he says, " concur duce this effect? Repent Homer's description of the nod of Jupiter, as litcmlly tmnslated. Repeat Pope's translation of the same. How docs It compare with the literal version ? Explain tl50 reason. § 2a3. What kind of verse is preferable to rhyme for the expression of sublime ideas? Hence, for what should It be employed? Who has thus used It with groat success ? What Is said of the images successively presented In Paradise Lost ? Repeat Milton's description of Satan aRcr his fall. What docs Blair say About this passage f THE SUBLIME IN WEITING. 213 a variety of sources of the sublime: the principal object eminently great ; a high superior nature, fallen indeed, but erecting itself against distress ; the grandeur of the principal object heightened, by associating it with so noble an idea as that of the sun suffering an eclipse ; this pic- ture, shaded with all those images of change and trouble, of darkness and terror, which coincide so finely with the sublime emotion ; and the whole expressed in a style and versification, easy, natural, and simple, but magnificent." § 284 Those who aim at the sublime are liable to fall into two faults, — frigidity and bombast. § 285. Frigidity consists in degrading an object or sen- timent which is sublime in itself, by our mean conception of it, or by a weak, low, and childish description. No fault is more to be avoided. As a forcible example of frigidity, we quote a passage from a poem of Sir Richard Blackmoor's, descriptive of an eruption of Etna ; in which, as humorously observed by Dr. Arbuthnot, he represents the mountain in a fit of colic : — " Etna, and all the burning mountains, find Their kindled etores with inbred storms of wind Blown up to rage, and roaring o.ut complain. As torn with inward gripes, and torturing pain ; Laboring, they cast their dreadful vomit round. And with their melted bowels spread the ground." So Ben Jonson, in a battle-scene, rather injudiciously caps the climax of his would-be sublimity by representing the sun in a perspiration : — " The sun stood still, and was, behind the cloud The battle made, seen sweating to drive up His frighted horse, whom still the noise drove backward." Catiline, Act V. § 286. Bombast consists in attempting to raise an ordi- nary or trivial object above its level, and to endow it with a sublimity it does not possess. Such attempts illustrate the old saying that there is but a step from the sublime to § 284. Into what foults are those who aim at the sublime liable to fall ? § 285. In what does frigidity consist ? Quote a passage from Blackmoor, illus- trative of this fault. Point out wherein the frigidity lies. Wliat lias been hu- morously observed respecting these lines ? How does Ben Jonson represent the Bun in a battle-scene ? Of what fault is he therein guilty ? % 386. In what does bombast consist? What is the mind prone to do ? Into 214 THE BEAUTIFUL. the ridiculous. When under the control of violent passions, the mind, it is true, is prone to magnify the objects of its conceptions beyond their natural bounds ; but such h^-per- bolical description has its limits, and, when carried too far, degenerates into the burlesque. Ben Jonson, Blackmoor, and Dryden, have fallen into this fault : — " Great and high The world knows only two, that's Rome and I. My roof receives me not ; 'tis air I tread, And at each step I feel my advanced head Knock out a star in heaven." Ben Jonson. Sejantu, Act. V. " Give way, and let the gushing torrent come ; Behold the tears we bring to swell the deluge, Till the flood rise upon the guilty world, And make the ruin common." Ben Johnson. Ladj/ Jane Orey^ Act IV. "To see this fleet upon the ocean move, Angels drew wide the curtains of the skies ; And heaven, as if there wanted lights above, For tapers made two glaring comets rise." Dbyden. LESSON XLII THE BEAUTIFUL. § 287. Beauty does not afford the imagination so high a degree of pleasure as sublimity; but, characterizing a greater variety of objects than the latter quality, it is a more fruitful source of gratification to that faculty. The emotion it awakens is easily distinguishable from that of grandeur. It is calmer and more gentle, and is calculated, not so much to elevate the mind, as to produce in it an agreeable seren- ity. Sublimity raises a feeling too violent to be lasting; the pleasure arising from beauty admits of longer continuance. what does hyperbolical description degenerate ? What writers have fallen into this fault ? Give examples, and show wherein the bombast lies. S 2S7. Which aflfords the higher degree of pleasure, beauty or sublimity ? THE BEArTIFUL. 215 Few words in the language are applicable to as wide a range of ob- jects as beauty. It is used in connection with whatever pleases the eye or ear ; with many of the graces of writing ; and even with the abstract terms of science. We speak of a beautiful tree or flower ; a beautiful poem ; a beautiful character ; and a beautiful theorem in mathematics. § 288. Frequent attempts have been made to discover in what the beautiful consists ; what quality it is, which all beautiful objects possess, and which is the foundation of the agreeable sensations they produce. Yet no theory has been advanced on this subject which is not open to objection ; and it would, therefore, seem as if the various objects so de- nominated are beautiful, by virtue, not of any one principle common to them all, but of several different qualities. The same agreeable emotion is produced by them all, and they are therefore designated by the common appellation beau- tiful ; but this emotion seems to spring from sources radi- cally different. Of the theories here alluded to, several are worthy of mention. The principle of the beautiful has been made to consist in, I. Agreeahleness. Experience, however, which is the great test of theory, proves this hypothesis false. All agreeable things are not beau, tiful ; nor do those which have the one quality in the highest degree possess the other in proportion. We never speak of a beautiful taste or a beautiful smell ; but would certainly do so, if the beautiful and the agreeable were synonymous. As long as they can be separated and are not commensurate with each other, they can not be identical. II. Utility. Here again, applying the test of experience, we find the theory does not hold good. A three-legged stool may be very useful, yet is far from being generally regarded as beautiful. III. Unity and variety. This has been a favorite theory, and makes beauty to consist in a variety of contrasting features so combined that Which is the more fraitftil source of gratification ? Why? Show the diflference in the emotions they respectively produce. To what is the term beauty applicable ? § 288. What attempts have been made by dififerent writers ? What is said of the various theories advanced? What would seem to follow, with respect to the source of the beautiftxl ? In what does the first theoiy mentioned make the beautiful to consist ? What is the great test of theory? What does experience prove with respect to this hypothesis? Show how this is proved. According to the second theory, in what does beauty consist ? Show how this hypothesis does not always hold good. 216 THE BEAUTIFUL. unity of design characterizes the whole. Thus, in a beautiful flower, there is a unity of proportion and symmetry, and at the same time a di- versity in the size and tints of the leaves. Even in mathematics, what is beautiful is not merely an abstract principle ; it is a great truth, carrying ■with it a long train of consequences. Yet it is objected, and with jus- tice, that many things please us as beautiful in which we are unable to detect any variety at all ; and others, again, in which variety is carried to such a degree of intricacy as to preclude the idea of unity. As, therefore, we can discover no common and universal source of beauty, we shall next consider the different qualities from which it pro- ceeds in individual cases. § 289. Color is one of the chief elements of beauty ; though why it is so we can explain no further than by say- ing, that the structure of the eye is such as to receive more pleasure from some modifications of tlie rays of light than others. This organ, moreover, is so variously constituted, that a color which is agreeable to one may excite no special admiration in another. Still, we find there are some pecu- liarities belonging to colors, which, in the estimation of all, enhance their beauty. I. They must not be dusky or muddy, but clear and fair. II. They must be delicate rather than strong. Light straw- color and mellow pink are generally considered more beautiful than deep and dazzling yellow and red. III. If the colors are strong and vivad, they must be mingled and contrasted with each other, the strength and glare of each being thus abated. This constitutes the charm of variegated flowers. These various traits are found to characterize the beautiful colors which nature everywhere employs to render her works attractive, and which art finds it extremely difficult to imitate. They will be recognized in the blending shades with which she paints the feathers of birds, the What has been a favorite theory with many ? Exemplify it. What objection is justly made to it ? What, therefore, are we unable to discover V § 289. What is one of the chief elements of beauty ? How far are we able to explain this ? What three peculiaritice, in the general estimation, enhance the beauty of colors ? In what natural objects do these peculiarities characterizo THE BEAUTIFUL. 217 complexion of blooming youth, the floral creation, and the sunset sky. As in sounds, so in the case of colors, there is little doubt that the asso- ciation of ideas often contributes to the pleasure received. Green, for instance, may appear more beautiful from being connected in our minds with rural scenes ; white, from its being the type of innocence ; and blue, from its association with the serenity of the sky. § 290. Figure. — Regular figures, or such as we perceive to be formed according to fixed principles, are, as a general rule, beautiful. Such is the character of circles, squares, triangles, and ellipses. The mind unconsciously connects with well-proportioned forms the idea of practical adap- tation to some useful end. Regularity, however, does not involve the idea of sameness, which would tire and disgust the eye ; on the contrary, variety is generally united wdth it in the most attractive works of nature. Gradual variation in the parts uniting to form a whole seems to be one of the commonest sources of natural beauty. There is generally a constant change of direction in the outline ; but it is so gradual that we find it difficult to determine its beginning or end. Thus, in the form of a dove, the head increases insensibly to the middle, whence it lessens gradually until it becomes blended with the neck. The neck loses itself in a larger swell, which continues to the middle of the body, whence there is a corresponding duninution towards the tail. The tail takes a new direction ; but soon, varying its course, blends with the parts below : and thus the outline is constantly changing. Curves change their direction at every point, and hence afford the commonest instances of gradual variation. Circular figures, therefore, are generally more beautiful than those bounded by straight lines. This is a theory of Hogarth's, Avho makes beauty of figure consist chiefly in the preponderance of two curves, which he calls the line of beauty and the line of grace. The former is a waving line, inclining alternately backwards and forwards, something like the letter m . It is constantly color ? As in the case of sounds, what often contributes to the pleasure received from colors ? Exemplify this in the case of green, white, and blue. § 2(K). What figures, as a general rule, are beautiful ? What idea does the mind connect with well-proportioned forms ? What does regularity not involve ? On the contrary, in the works of nature, what is generally united with it ? What is said of the outline of the most attractive natural objects ? Illustrate this in the case of the dove. What figures are the most beautiful ? Why ? In what does Hogarth make beauty consist ? Describe his line of beauty. In what does it constantly occur ? Describe Hogarth's line of grace. In what is it exhibited ? 10 218 THE BEAUTIFUL. occurring in shells, flowers, and other ornamental works of nature, and enters largely into the decorations employed by painters and sculptors. This curve twisted round a solid body, or having the same appearance as if it had been so twisted, constitutes the line of grace. The latter is exhibited familiarly in the cork-screw ; also, in a winding stair-case, anc' a lady's ringlet loosely curled. § 291. Smoothness. — Smoothness is another qualit}? essential to beauty. We receive pleasure from contemplat- ing the smooth leaves of flowers, smooth slopes of earth, smooth streams in a landscape, smooth coats in birds and beasts, smooth skins in our own species, and smooth and polished surfaces in furniture. Give any beautiful object a broken and rugged surface ; and, however well it may be formed in other respects, it pleases no longer. Smoothness appeals, not only to the sight, but also to the touch. The slightness of the resistance made to that part of the body with which a smooth surface comes in contact, produces a pleasing emotion, though one of inferior degree. § 292. Motion. — Other things being equal, bodies in motion are more attractive than those at rest; and such as move in undulating lines please us in a higher degree than those that undeviatingly pursue the same direction. This fact is readily accounted for by Hogarth's principle. Up- ward motion, moreover, afibrds greater pleasure than that in the opposite direction. This, together with its waving character, constitutes the beauty of curling smoke ; a feature which painters are fond of introducing into their landscapes. Motion is an element of beauty, only when gentle in its character. When very swift or forcible, it becomes sublime. The motion of a binl gliding through the air, or of a placid brook, is beautiful ; that of the lightning as it darts from heaven, or a mighty river chafing against its banks, partakes rather of sublimity. § 291. What other quality is essential to beauty ? In what natural objects U it found ? What results from giving any beautiful object a rugged surface ? To what sense besides sight docs smoothness appeal ? Show how it produces n pleasing emotion through tlio touch. § 292. What imparts an additional attraction to bodies ? Wliat kind of motion is the most beautiftil? What feature are painters fond of introducing into land- Bcapes ? In what does its beauty consist ? In what case docs motion coutributa to BUbllrolty rather than beauty ? THE BEAUTIFUL. 219 §293. Smallkess aot) Delicacy. — As vastness and strength are elements of the sublime, so smallness and deli- cacy belong to the beautiful. The former qualities excite our astonishment and admiration ; the latter, our sjnnpathy and love. Whatever we are fond of is associated in our minds with the idea of smallness. Hence the diminutives used in every language to express affection and tenderness. So, an air of robustness and strength, however conducive to the sublime, is incompatible with the beautiful. To the latter an appearance of delicacy is essential, which may even be carried to the borders of fragility. It is not the immense and mighty oak of the forest that we consider beautiful ; but the delicate myrtle, the fragile violet, the modest forget- me-not. For the same reason we are more pleased with the slender greyhound than the burly mastiff, and with the slight Arabian courser than the stout carriage-horse. To these qualities, too, much of woman's beauty is attributable. § 294. Design. — Another source of beauty is found in design, as evidenced in the skilful combination of parts in a whole, or the adaptation of means to an end. So largely does this enter into the beautiful, that some have considered it the leading principle of the latter. This causes our pleas- ure when we contemplate the wonderful structm-e of the hand, and see with what nicety its many parts are adjusted, to form a member unequalled in strength, flexibility, and usefulness. The pleasure arising from the sense of design is entirely distinct from that produced by the various qualities described above. Thus, in a watch, we recognize beauty in the exterior, by reason either of the color, polish, smoothness, or regularity of shape ; but the pleasure pro- duced by an examination of the internal machinery arises entirely from § 293. As regards size, what is essential to the beautiful ? What feelings are excited by vastness and strength ? What, by smallness and delicacy ? What idea do we associate with beloved objects ? What are diminutives in every language used to express ? What effect has an air of robustness and strength ? Illustrate this. To what is much of woman's beauty attributable ? § 294. In what is another source of beauty found ? What causes our pleasure when we contemplate the wonderful structure of the hand ? In the case of a watch, Bhow how distinct emotions of pleasure are produced by the befo re-men- 220 THE BEAUTIFUL. our consciousness of design, our appreciation of the admirable skill with which so many complicated pieces are united for one useful purpose. This element has an influence in the formation of many of our opin- ions. It is the foundation of the beauty which we discern in the pro- portions of doors, arches, pillars, and the hke. However fine the orna- ments of a building may be, they lose most of their attractions, unless, either in appearance or reality, they conduce to some useful end. This principle should be constantly borne in mind by the composer. In a poem, a history, an oration, or any other literary work, unity of de- sign and an adjustment of the parts in one symmetrical whole, are as essential to effect as in architecture and other arts. The finest descrip- tions and most elegant figures lose all their beauty, or rather become actual deformities, unless connected with the subject, and consistent with the leading design of the writer. Let the object proposed be con- stantly kept in view, and nothing foreign to it, however beautiful in it- self, be introduced to distract the attention. § 295. Such are some of the leading elements of beauty, possessed, in different measures, by the various creations of nature and art. Some objects combine them all, and there- by become attractive in the highest degree. Thus, in flow- ers and birds, we are entertained at once with color, regu- larity of form, unity in variety, smoothness, delicacy, and, at times, motion. Different sensations are produced by each of these qualities ; yet they blend in one general perception of beauty. The most beautiful object that nature presents is a landscape, which combines, in rich variety, luxuriant fields, picturesque trees, running water, birds skimming the air, animals moving in the pasture, and hu- man figures as the climax of the whole. The chaiins of the pictui-e are enhanced by the judicious introduction of the creations of art, — an arch- ing bridge, a moss-covered cottage with graceful smoke ascending from tlic chinmey, a busy mill, an unpretending house of worship. A taste capable of appreciating such scenes is essential to success in poetical description. tioncd qunHtles and by the sense of design. How docs this clement Influence ua in the formation of our opljilonB ? How docs this principle apply to literary com- l)Ositloni» ? Wliat must be cons»tanlly kept in view ? § 205. What objects arc attractive in the highest degree ? With what arc we entertained In the case of flowers and birds ? What is the most beautiful object Hiat nature presents ? What le »e8entlal to eucccss in poetical description ? GRACEFULNESS. 221 § 296. There is a moral beauty, as well as a moral sub- limity. The latter, we have seen, characterizes great and heroic acts, self-devotion, fearlessness, and patriotism. The moral beautiful belongs to the gentler virtues, affability, generosity, compassion, and the like. The emotion they ex- cite resembles that produced by beautiful external objects. LESSON XLIV. GRACEFULNESS. — THE BEAUTIFUL IN THE HUMAN COUNTE- NANCE, IN SOUND, AND IN WRITING. § 297. Gracefulness. — In the effect it produces on the mind, gracefulness is analogous to beauty. This quality be- longs chiefly to posture and motion. Grace requires that there should be no appearance of difficulty ; that the body should not be kept rigidly erect, but slightly bent, and that its parts should be so disposed as neither to embarrass each other, nor to be divided by sharp and sudden angles. In this roundness of shape and delicacy of attitude, resides a chann which must be obvious to all who consider attentively the Venus de Medici, the Antinous, or any great statue. § 298. The Beautiful in the Human Countenance. — The beauty of the human countenance is more complicated than that belonging to most natural objects. It depends at once on color, or complexion ; on figure, or outline ; and on unity of design, that is, the adaptation of its various parts to the purposes for which they were formed. The chief § 296. What is meant by moral beauty? Wherein consists the difference be- tween it and moral sublimity ? What does the emotion produced by the moral beautiful resemble ? § 297. What, in its effect, is analogous to beauty ? To what, chiefly, does gracefulness belong ? What does it require ? In what statues is it exhibited ? $ 298. How does the beauty of the human countenance compare with that of most natural objects ? On what does it depend ? In what does its chief beauty 222 THE BEAUTIFUL IN SOUND. beauty of the countenance, however, lies in what is called its expression, or the idea which it conveys respecting the qualities of the mind. If good-humor, intelligence, frank- ness, benevolence, or any other amiable quaUty, is indicated, the beauty of the face is heightened even more than by faultlessness of feature. It is difficult to explain how certain conformations of feature give us the impression of certain peculiarities of mind and disposition. Perhaps both instinct and experience have a share in producing this connection. Some regard the relations subsisting between the two as exceedingly in- timate. The celebrated physiognomist Campanella, who made extensive observations on human faces and was wonderfully expert in imitating such as were in any way remarkable, held that it was impossible for one even temporarily assuming a particular expression, to avoid, for the time his countenance was so changed, the mental disposition connected therewith. When desirous of becoming acquainted with a person's feel- ings, he imitated his expression, his carriage, and all his other peculiari- ties of face and body, as nearly as possible, and then carefully observed Avhat turn of mind he seemed to acquire by the change ; thus, he claimed, he could enter into any one's thoughts as etFectually as if he were con- verted into the man himself. § 299. The Beautiful in Sound. — Beauty, as well as sublimity, extends to the objects of liearing equally >vith those of sight. It belongs, in a high degree, to that com- position of different sounds which we call Music, the prin- ciples of wliich are so various and complex as to constitute an independent science. Musical compositions that combine grand and magnificent sounds, that are remarkable for loudness, strength, and quick transitions, prop- erly belong to the sublime. Most music, however, is distinguished by sweetness, and is, therefore, simply beautiful. Milton, in his L' Allegro, happily describes airs of this character. It will be observed how per- lic ? What heightens the beauty of the countenance even more than fnultloesnces of feature ? What, perhaps, combine to pive us pleasure from certain conformations of feature ? What was Campanella ? What did he hold with regard to the counte- nance ? By what process did he claim that he could enter into a person's thoughts ? § 299. To what besides objects of sight docs beauty extend ? To what does it belong in a high degree ? What mnsical compositions properly belong to the sublime ? By what, however, is most music distinguished ? Repeat the lines in which Milton describes airs of this character. By what are these llnea themr t elves characterized ? THE BEAUTIFUL IN WRITmG. 223 fectly the passage is in keeping with the subject, how easy and flowing the measure, and how pleasing the harmony of the words, both as taken individually and as combined together. We should vainly seek for a more striking example of the beautiful in writing : — " And ever, against eating cares, Lap me in soft Lydian airs ; In notes with many a winding bout Of linked sweetness long drawn out ; With wanton head and giddy cunning, The melting voice through mazes running ; Untwisting all the chains that tie The hidden soul of harmony." Of simple sounds, those fall under the head of the beau- tiful that are characterized by sweetness, softness, and deli- cacy. Much here, also, is due to association. The notes of beautiful animals are, by reason of a connection of ideas, themselves beautiful. This is the chief reason why we find so much to admire in the warbling of birds. The minute- ness and delicacy of their forms, their modes of life, and the domestic attachments subsisting between them, render them objects of special interest and tenderness on the part of the human family ; and hence, their notes, intuitively connected in our minds with the objects from which they proceed, awaken a strong emotion of beauty. Superstitious feelings sometimes impart effect to sounds which would otherwise be far from awaking any special admiration. To most per- sons the cry of the stork is hardly tolerable ; but, for the Hollander, with whom this bird is the object of a popular and pleasing superstition, it possesses a singular charm. Those sounds of the human voice are generally accounted most beau- tiful which are low and grave, and gradually increase in volume. § 300. The Beautiful in Writing. — ^The term beauty^ as applied to writing, is often used with but little definite meaning. When we speak of a beautiful sonnet, letter, or What simple sounds fall under the head of the beautiful ? To what is much of the pleasure received from them due ? Why do we admire the warbling of birds ? What feelings sometimes impart effect to sounds ? How does the cry of the stork affect most persons ? How, the Hollander ? Why ? What sounds of the human voice are accounted most beautiful ? § 300. As generally applied to writing, what does the term beauty signify ? Properly speaking, to what is it applied ? Show how it differs from sublimity of 224 THE BEAUTIFUL ll^ WAITING. oration, we mean simply one that is well composed ; that is agreeable either by reason of the sentiment it embodies, or the style in which it is expressed. But, properly speak- ing, this term has a more limited signification ; being ap- plied, not to what is impassioned, sparkling, vehement, or elevated, but to all that raises in the reader a gentle, placid emotion, similar to that produced by the contemplation of beauty in natural objects. The beautiful in writing is not confined to descriptions of attractive external objects, but extends to all subjects except those of an abstract or elevated character. It does not, like sublimity, exclude ornament, or require plainness of words ; nor is it necessarily confined to occasional passages. It may characterize an author's style throughout. Among the ancients, Virgil is as much distinguished for the beauty of his pe- riods as Homer is for the sublimity of his conceptions. So, Cicero's orations have more of the beautiful than tlie sublime ; in this latter quality they are surpassed by those of Demosthenes. Among moderns, Fenelon and Lamartine in French, Addison in English, and Irving in American, literature, possess those various graces of composition which constitute the beautiful. EXERCISE. As an example of the beautiful in writing. Eve's account of her first consciousness of existence and her introduc- tion to Adam is quoted from Milton. Let tlie student point out its successive beauties, and, as an exercise in punctua- tion, supply the omitted points : — " That day I oft remember when from sleep I first awaked and found myself reposed Under a shade on flowers much wondering where And what I was whence thither brought and how. Not distant far from thence a murmuring sound Of waters issued from a cave and spread Into a liquid plain then stood unmoved Pure as the expanse of heaven I thither went With unexperienced thought and laid me down On the green bank to look into the clear Smooth lake that to me seemed another sky. As I bent down to look just opposite Btyle. How do Virgil and Homer compare, as regards beauty and sublimity? How, Cicero and Demosthenes? What modem writers possess those gracce of compoeition which constitute the beautiful ? WIT. 226 A. shape within the watery gleam appeared Bending to look on me. I started back It started back but pleased I soon returned Pleased it returned as soon with answering looks Of sympathy and love. There I had fixed Mine eyes till now and pined with vain desire Had not a voice thus warned me What thou seest What there thou seest fair creature is thyself With thee it came and goes but follow me And I will bring thee where no shadow stays Thy coming and thy soft embraces he Whose image thou art. * * * * * What could I do But follow straight invisibly thus led ? Till I espied thee fair indeed and tall Under a platane yet methought less fair Less winning soft less amiably mild Than that smooth watery image. Back I turned Thou following criedst aloud Return fair Eve Whom fliest thou ? Whom thou fliest of him thou art His flesh his bone to give thee being I lent Out of my side to thee nearest my heart Substantial life to have thee by my side Henceforth an individual solace dear. Part of my soul I seek thee and thee claim My other half. With that thy gentle hand Seized mine I yielded." LESSON XLV. WIT. § 301. Sublimity and beauty are not the only sources of the pleasure derived from literary compositions. Wit, humor, and ridicule, when introduced judiciously, have an agreeable effect, and must next be considered. § 302. Wit is that quality of thoughts and expressions which excites in the mind an agTeeable surprise, not by means of any thing marvellous in the subject, but merely by § 301. What besides sublimity and beauty are sources of pleasure iu litcrai-y compositions ? S 302. What is wit? 226 WIT. employing a peculiar imagery, or presenting in a novel and lingular relation ideas remotely connected, § 303. This agreeable surprise is excited in four ways : — I. By degrading elevated things. II. By aggrandizing insignificant things. III. By representing objects in an unusual light by means of singular imagery. IV. By paronomasia, or play upon words. § 304. Of wit consisting in the degrading of elevated subjects, Butler furnishes many specimens in Hudibras. From these we select the following lines, descriptive of early dawn ; in which the low metaphorical style of the first couplet and the singular simile used in the second, consti- tute the witty points : — " And now had Phoebus in the lap Of Thetis taken out his nap : And, like a lobster boiled, the mom From black to red began to turn." Another example follows, in which the comparison of the sublima blast and the angry thunder to trivial objects produces the effect in question : — " I love to hear the shrieking wind, Magnificently wild !— Like the melodious music of A bastinadoed child. " I love to hear the thimder burst, O'er woodland, plain, and hill ;— Like the loud note of angry swine, Petitioning for swill." The object being to surprise the mind with an unexpected deprecia- tion of what is by nature serious or grand, homely expressions, vulgar idioms, and cant phrases, arc often the source of this species of wit. To this division of the subject belong parodies and travesties, or writings in which serious productions by occasional alterations of words are made applicable to other subjects, particularly those of a ludicrous § 303. In what four ways is this agreeable surprise excited ? § 304. Who funilshcs many specimens of the first species of wit ? Repeat the lines in which he describes the early dawn. What constitute the witty jMjInts? In the second example quoted, what produces the effect in question ? What arc often tho eourco of this Bpcciea of wit ? What belong to this division of the sulv WIT. 227 character. Of a similar nature are compositions which maintain a se- rious tone throughout, until at the close some unexpected allusion, sen- timent, or image, is introduced, which entirely changes thp tenor of the piece. The following will serve as a specimen : — " ' Old man ! old man ! for whom digg'st thou this grave ? ' I asked, as I walked along ; For I saw, in the heart of London streets, A dark and busy throng. " 'Twas a strange wild deed I but a wilder wish Of the parted soul, to lie 'Midst the troubled numbers of living men, Who would pass him idly by I " So I said, ' Old man, for whom digg'st thou this grave, In the heart of London town ? ' And the deep-toned voice of the digger replied :— ' We're laying a gas-pipe down I ' " § 305. The second species of wit is the converse of that just illustrated, and is often denominated hurlesque. Its object being to give a mock unportance to trivial things, it aflfects pompous and sonorous language, just as the first species admits of the lowest and most vulgar. Pope's writings abound in this kind of pleasantry. In the following extract from the " Rape of the Lock ", he represents a lady's toilet under the allegory of a solemn religious ceremony. The belle herself figures as priestess of the mysteries, assisted in her sacred office by the dress- ing-maid, while her mirrored image is the divinity whose rites are thus celebrated : — " And now unveiled, the toilet stands displayed, Each silver vase in mystic order laid. First, robed in white, the nymph intent adores, With head uncovered, the cosmetic powers. A heavenly image in the glass appears, To that she bends, to that her eyes she rears. The inferior priestess at her altar's side. Trembling, begins the sacred rites of pride ; Unnumbered treasures ope at once, and here The various offerings of the world appear ; From each she nicely culls with curious toil, And decks the goddess with the glittering spoil." iect? What is meant ^aJ parodies? What other compositions are of a similar nature ? Give the substance of the piece quoted, and show wherein the wit con- sists. § 305. What is the second species of wit often denominated ? What is its ob- ject, and what does it affect ? Whose writings abound in this kind of pleas- antry ? What is the subject of the passage quoted ? How does the author rep- resent it ? Wherein consists the wit ? 228 Wtt. Under this head fall the applications of grave reflections to frivolous subjects, as in the following lines from Phillips : — "My galligaskins, that have long withstood The winter's fury and encroaching frosts, By time subdued (what will not time subdue ! ), An horrid chasm disclose." Analogous to this is the connection of small things with great, whereby they are represented as of equal importance. Pope furnishes many passages in point : — " Then flashed the livid lightning from her eyes, And screams of horror rend the affrighted skies. Not louder shrieks to pitying heaven arc cast, When husbands, or when lap-dogs, breathe their last 1 Or when rich china vessels, fallen from high. In glittering dust and painted fragments lie I " " Not youthful kings In battle seized alive. Not scornful virgins who their charms survive, Not ardent lovers robbed of all their bliss. Not ancient ladles when refused a kiss, Not tyrants fierce that unrepentlng die. Not Cynthia when her manteau's pinned awry,— E'er felt such rage, resentment, and despair. As thou, sad virgin I for thy ravished hair." § 306. Of the third species of wHlt, which surprises the mind with the singularity of the images it employs, there are many varieties, of which a few specimens may be presented. The first consists in connecting things between which there is an apparent contrariety. Tims, Roger de Coverley, in the Spectator, says tliat he would have given his widow * a coal-pit to have kept her in clean linen ; and that her fingers should have sparkled with one hundred of his richest acres.' So, Garth, in the following lines, compares the dropsy to a miser, and produces an agreeable surprise in the mind by represent- ing it as poor in the midst of opulence, and thirsty though drenched with water : — " Then Hydrops next appears among the throng ; Bloated and big, she slowly sails along : But like a miser in excess she's poor. And pines for thirst amid her watery store." What else fall under this head ? Give an example, and show where the wit lies. In what other way is a similar ofl'oct produced? In the passages quoted from Pope, sliow what constitutes the wit. § 80C. With what does the third species of wit surprise the mind? In what does the first variety consist ? Howls this exemplified In the Spectator? To what does Garth compare the dropsy ? How does he produce an agreeable sur- WIT. 229 A second variety consists in artfully confounding the literal and fig- nrative sense of an expression. In this way, what at first sight presents a specious appearance is presently seen to be absurd ; as in the follow- ing lines from Hudibras : — "While thus they talked, the knight Turned the outside of his eyes to white, As men of inward light are wont To turn their optics in upon 't." The eye is naturally turned to light, and hence the closing line at first seems reasonable ; but, when we reflect that it is the metaphorical light of knowledge to which reference is here made, the absurdity be- comes manifest. A third variety attributes corporeal or personal attributes to what is incapable, by its very nature, of possessing them. Thus, in the fol- lowing passage, grace, or piety, and virtue, are represented as so nearly related to each other that a marriage between them (that is, their union in the same person) would be unlawful : — "What makes morality a crime The most notorious of the time ; Morality, which both the saints • And wicked too cry out against ? 'Cause grace and virtue are within Prohibited degrees of kin : And therefore no true saint allows They shall be suffered to espouse." A fourth variety consists in attributing to a person as a virtue what is merely a necessity ; as in the following : — *' The advantage of the medical profession is that the dead are distiu' guished by wonderful charity and discretion ; we never hear them com- plain of the physic that has killed them." There are many other phases in which this species of wit is displayed. We shall content ourselves with mentioning but one more ; that in which premises are introduced that promise much but perform nothing ; as in the following : — Beatrice. With a good leg and a good foot, uncle, and money enough in his purse, such a man would win any woman in the world, if he could get her good-will. Much Ado about Nothing, Act 11.^ Sc. L Beatrice. I have a good eye, uncle, I can see a church by daylight. ^Ibid. prise in the mind ? In what does the second variety of this kind of wit consist ? Illustrate it from Hudibras, and show the point. Describe the third variety. Give the substance of the quotation from Hudibras which illustrates it. In what does the fourtli variety consist ? Illustrate it. Describe the fifth variety. Dlustratc it. 230 wrr. g 307. The last species of wit is what the French call jeu de mots, and what we recognize in English as the pun, or a play upon words. Though regarded as the lowest kind of wit, yet there are few to whom it is not, at times, a source of amusement. In tracing its history, we find that it has been a favorite entertainment with all nations in a cer- tain stage of their progress towards refinement of taste and manners, and has afterwards gradually, though invariably, fallen into disrepute. Thus, in England, during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., it was regarded as one of the chief graces of writing, and as such entered, not only into the works of Shakspeare and other great dramatists, but also into the sermons and moral essays of grave divines. As soon as a language is formed into a system, and the meaning of words is ascertained with tolerable accuracy, opportunity is afforded for expressions, which, by the double meaning of certain words, in reality have an entirely diflferent meaning from what at first sight they seem to have ; and the penetration of the reader or hearer is gratified by de- tecting the true sense in spite of its disguise. But, in process of time, the language becomes matured; the meaning of its words is more stric; ly defined; those capable of a double application, having been once used in this way, lose their effect for the future, inasmuch as without novelty they can excite no surprise or pleasure in the mind : and thus the pun falls in the estimation of the tasteful and judicious. Novelty, as just remarked, is essential to the effect of a pun ; as, indeed, it is to all kinds of wit. Nothing is more tasteless, we may al- most say disgusting, than a joke that has become stale through frequent repetition. Any appearance of study or premeditation also detracts from the effect of a pun; and hence, what appears excellent when thrown out extemporaneously in conversation, may be intolerable when put in print. Examples of paronomasia, or a play upon words, arc so common that only a few specimens arc here necessary for the illustration of the sub- ject. The word in whose double meaning the point lies, is in italics. § 307. What Is tho last species of wit here preeentod, called by the French ? What do we call it in English? How is it regarded? In tracing its hinton what do we find ? At what time was it much esteemed in England ? Into whot>o writings did it largely enter? At what period of the history of a language is an opportunity afforded for effective puns ? What takes place in procets of time ? What is eBsential to the effect of a pun ? Explain how a pun may appear excel- HUMOR AND KIDICULE. 231 We may add that conundrums, rebuses, and riddles in general, arc em- braced in this class of witticisms. " They say thine eyes, like sunny skies, Thy chief attraction form ; I see no sunshine in those eyes,— They take one all !>y storm.'''' " Here thou, great Anna 1 whom three realms ohey, Dost sometimes counsel take and sometimes tea." "Prince Eugene is a great taJcer of snuff as well as of towns." EPITAPH ON A SCOLDING WIPE. " Beneath this stone my wife doth lie ; She's now at at rest, and so am I." EPIGRAM ON A SHREW. " They tell me that your brow is fair, And is surpassed by none ; To me the cause is very clear— You brow-beat every one." Sometimes the wit of the pun consists, not in the double meaning of a word, but in its having the same sound as some other word, with which it is brought into juxta-position for the purpose of temporarily mislead- ing the hearer. This is illustrated at the beginning and close of the following Baker's Advertisement : — " The subscriber, knowing that all men need bread, wishes the public to know that he also kneads it. He is desirous of feeding all who are hungry, and hopes his good works may be in the mouth of every one. He is well-disposed towards all men ; and the best bred people among us will find him, he hopes, one of the best bread-men in the city." LESSON XLVI. HUMOR AND RIDICULE. § 308. Humor consists, for the most part, in a represen- tation of imaginary, short-lived, or over-strained emotions, lent when extemporaneously thrown off, yet very poor when subsequently re- lated. What is the technical name of the pim ? What else are embraced in this class of witticisms ? In what does the wit of the pun sometimee consist ? Give an example. § 308. In what does humor consist? Under what head do representations of HUMOR AND EIDICULE. which display themselves preposterously, or so as to excite derision rather than sympathy. Representations of real emotion, in the display of which there is no violation of taste or good sense, fall under the head of the pathetic, to which, consequently, the humorous is opposed. These two kinds of writing are much heightened in effect by being presented in contrast ; a fact of which writers of fiction often avail themselves. This constitutes the chief charm of Dickens's novels. § 309. The subject of humor is character : not every- thing in character ; not its graver faults or vices ; but its peculiarities, its foibles, caprices, extravagances, anxieties, jealousies, childish fondnesses, and weaknesses generally, — its affectation, vanity, and self-conceit. One who possesses a talent for the humorous finds the greatest scope for its display in telling familiar stories, or acting a whimsical part in an assumed character. Even the mimicking of minute peculiarities of pronunciation, or grammatical faults in discourse, is admissible in the humorous production. The object is to expose the weak points of the individual under description ; and these are often best set forth by en- tering into the minutest details. Even over-acting, if not immoaerate, contributes to the entertainment of the picture. § 310. Humor is not, like wit, sudden and short-lived ; a brilliant scintillation, which flashes forth, and is then lost in obscurity. It often extends through entire productions ; and, indeed, forms the staple of comic writing in general. Buck- ingham justly says of comedy, " Humor is all. Wit should be only brousht To turn agreeably gome proper thought." Novelty, moreover, i^ not essential to humor. Its truth- fulness to nature prevents it from being tiresome ; and it en- dures readings and re-readings, which would make mere wit absolutely disgusting. real emotion fall ? Of what fiict do writers of fiction often avail themselves ? Of whose works docs this conntltate the chief charm ? § 309. What is the subject of humor ? In what docs a talent for the humomus find the best field for its display ? IIow arc the weak points of au individual often best exposed ? What is the cfi'oct of over-acting ? § 310. How does humor compare with M-it in duration ? Of what does it form the staple ? What docs Buckingham say of its use in comedy f What prcvcnti linmor from being tiresome ? HUMOR AND RIDICULE. 233 § 311. Ill every literature, humor has been employed, to a greater or less extent, in the lighter departments of compo- sition, as a means of pleasing. Cervantes, perhaps, in his Don Quixote, has carried it to a greater degree of perfection than any other writer. Into English literature, particularly its dramatic compositions, it enters largely. Shakspeare, Gay, Farquhar, and others, have used it with great effect. It is to be regretted that English comedy has not confined itself to pure and legitimate humor. To the discredit of our stage, obscenity and ribaldry are too often allowed to take its place. This can hardly be at- tributed to a lack of natural refinement. The cause seems rather to be that the first great masterpieces in this department of literature, written in a licentious age, were stained with gross indelicacy, which subse- quent authors, with this precedent before them, deemed it necessary to imitate. With obscenity, humor has nothing in common. § 312. The aim of humor is simply to raise a laugh. When there is an ulterior object, — that is, when it is sought by means of this laugh to influence the opinions and pur- poses of the hearer or reader, — then humor becomes ridi- cule. In this case, a keener contempt of the weakness under review must be awakened than in the case of humor. Ridicule is to argumentative composition what the reductio ad absuv' dum is to a mathematical demonstration, — a negative, yet satisfactory, way of arriving at the object proposed. It may be effectively applied to whatever is absurd, and, in a measure, also, to what is false. When sober argument would be too dignified and formidable a weapon to employ, ridicule may with propriety take its place. To a certain extent, the same foibles feel its lash as are open to the more, genial attacks of hu- mor. It goes, however, a step further ; adding to the former category, ignorance, cowardice, profligacy, and dishonesty. Great crimes are be- yond its sphere. To raise a laugh at cruelty, perfidy, or murder, would be intolerable. §311. In what departments of literature is humor extensively employed? Who has carried it to the greatest perfection ? What is said of English comedy ? What seems to he the cause of this ? § 312. What is the aim of humor ? When does humor become ridicule ? Wh?t feeling is in this case awakened? To what is the relation between ridicule and argumentative composition compared? To what may ridicule be applied ? When may it with propriety take the place of argument ? What are beyond its sphere, tnd why ? 234 HUMOR AND RIDICULE. § 313. The attack of ridicule is, from its very nature, a covert one. "What we profess to contemn, we scorn to con- fute. Hence, the reasoning of which ridicule is the medium must be carried on under a species of disguise. Sometimes the contempt itself is dissembled, and the railer assumes an air of arguing gravely in defence of what he is exposing as ridicu- lous. He affects to be in earnest ; but takes care to employ so thin a veil that one can easily see through it and discern his real intent. Such a course of reasoning is Icnown as irony ^ and it often constitutes the most effective way of dealing with folly and falsity. We have a brief specimen of ironical ridicule in Elijah's address to the priests of Baal, who were endeavoring by sacrifices and prayers to draw a manifestation of power from their false god : — " Cry aloud : for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awakened." EXERCISE. The first extract given below illustrates humor; the second, ridicule. Let the student point out their distin- guishing features ; and, as an exercise in punctuation, let liim supply such points as are omitted. THE LANGUID LADY. " The languid lady next appears in state Who was not born to carry her own weight She lolls reels staggers till some foreign aid To her own stature lifts the feeble maid. Then if ordained to so severe a doom She by just stages journeys round the room But knowing her own weakness she despairs To scale the Alps that is ascend the stairs. My fan let others say who laugh at toil Fan hood glove scarf is her laconic style And that is spoke with such a dying fall That Betty rather sees than hears the call The motion of her lips and meaning eye Piece out the idea her ftiint words deny. \ 818. What is the character of the attack of ridicule ? How must the reason- ing of which it is the medium be carried on? Sometimes, what docs the rallcr t»com to be doing? What does he tnko cnre, however, that the heartT or reader shall discover ? What name is given to this species of ridicule ? What is said of its effect ? Repeat the quoted Bpccimen of ironical ridicule. FiauKES. 235 Oh listen with attention most profound Her voice is but the shadow of a sound. And help oh help her spirits are so dead One hand scarce lifts the other to her head If there a stubborn pin it triumphs o'er She pants she sinks away and is no more. Let the robust and the gigantic carve Life is not worth so much she'd rather starve But chew she must herself ah cruel fate That Rosalinda can't by proxy eat." — Young. THE PKOFOUND WHITER. " By these methods in a few weeks there starts up many a writer ca- pable of managing the profoundest and most universal subjects. For what though his head be empty provided his commonplace book be full. And if you will bate him but the circumstances of method and style and grammar and invention allow him but the common privileges of tran- scribing from others and digressing from himself as often as he shall see occasion he will desire no more ingredients towards fitting up a treatise that shall make a very comely figure on a bookseller's shelf there to be preserved neat and clean for a long eternity adorned with the heraldry of its title fairly inscribed on a label never to be thumbed or greased by students nor bound to everlasting chains of darkness in a library but when the fulness of time is come shall happily undergo the trial of pur- gatory in order to ascend the sky." — Swift. LESSON XLVII. FIGUEES OP OETHOGEAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, AND SYNTAX. § 314. FiGUEES are intentional deviations from the or- dinary spelling, form, construction, or application, of words. They are arranged in four classes ; figures of orthography, figures of etymology, figures of syntax, and figures of rhet- oric. Though admissible in both prose and poetry, they occur more frequently in the latter. § 315. Figures of orthography are intentional deviations from the ordinary spelling of words. They are two in num- ber ; Mi-me'-sis and Ar'-cha-ism. § 314. What are figures ? Into what classes are they divided ? In what do they most frequently occur ? 236 FIGUKES OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY. Mimesis consists in imitating the mispronunciation of a word, by means of false spelling ; as, " Well, zwr, I'll argify the topic." Archaism consists in spelling a word according to ancient usage ; as, " The gret Kyng hathe, every day, fifty fair Damy- seles, alle Maydenes^ that serven him everemore at his Mete.'''' § 316. Figures of etymology are intentional deviations from the ordinary forms of words. Those most used are eiglit in number; A-phaer'-e-sis, Pros'-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o- pe, Par-a-go'-ge, Di-aer'-e-sis, Syn-aer'-e-sis, and Tme'-sis. A2:)hceresis is the elision of a letter or letters from tlie beginning of a word : as, ^bove, for above ; hieath, for be?ieath. I^osthesis is the prefixing of a letter or letters to a word : as, adownj for dow7i ; bedecked, for decked. Syncope is the elision of a letter or letters from the mid- dle of a word: as, ^en, for even ; ha^ penny, for halfpenny. Apocope is the elisipn of a letter or letters at the end of a word : as, th\ for the ; tho\ for though. Paragoge is the annexing of a letter or letters to a word : as, vasty, for vast y withoutcn, for loithout, Dimresis is the separation into different syllables of two contiguous vowels that might unite in a diphthong. This figure is usually indicated by placing two dots over the last of the separated vowels. Thus, aeronaut, instead of cefro- naut ; cooperate, for cooperate. Synceresis is the condensing of two syllables into one : as, waWst, for walkest ; haUoioed, for hallow-ed It was formerly customary to make the participial termination td a separate syllable ; as, lov-cd^ droum-ed. This practice is still adhered to by some in solemn discourse ; but, in common pronunciation, SN-neoresis § 815. What arc flgtircs of orthography ? Name them. In what does Mimesis conoist ? In what. Archaism ? § 310. What arc flj^ires of etymology ? Mention the principal once, observ- ing that an acute accent in each case denotc8 the syllable that receives the stress of the voice. Define them in turn, and give examples of each. In the case of Aphajresis and other figures that consist in elisions, what mark must be em- ployed? Howls Difcrcsis indicated? What termination was formerly made a ••parate syllable ? What is the pmctlce at the preeent day ? FIGUEES OF SYNTAX. 237 incorporates the final ed with the preceding syllable, whenever this is not impossible by reason of the nature of the letters. Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound by introducing a word or words between them : as, what wai/ soever he turned ; to us ward. § 317. Figures of syntax are intentional deviations from the ordinary construction of words. Those most in use are five in number; El-Hp'-sis, Ple'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, En-al'- la-ge, and Hy-per'-ba-ton. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words, necessary to the construction of a sentence, but not essential to its mean- ing ; as, " [He] who steals my purse, steals trash." — " To whom thus Eve [spoke]." Words thus omitted are said to be understood. They are used in the syntactical parsing of sentences, to explain the agreement or government of the words expressed. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, " The boy, oh ! where was he? " — " I know thee, loJio thou art.'''' This figure often imparts force to expressions, and is generally employed when the feelings are strongly excited. Sylleijsis is the construing of words according to the meaning they convey, and not by the strict requirements of grammatical rules ; as, " Philip went down to the city of Sa- maria, and preached Christ unto them.'''' — "The moon her silver beams dispenses." In the first example, city is 3d person, singular number ; and, accord- ing to strict grammatical rules, them should be it. By the city, however, the writer means tlie people in the city ; and he is, therefore, at liberty to use a pronoun in the plural. In the last example, it will be seen, there is a species of inferior personification, by which sex is attributed to the moon, an inanimate object ; we may therefore substitute a feminine pro- noun for itSy which, strictly speaking, it would be necessary to use. As in this last case, the deviation which constitutes Syllepsis often arises from the introduction of a rhetorical figure, such as personification or metaphor. § 317. What are figures of syntax ? Name those most in use. What is Ellip- sis ? What is said of words omitted according to this figrire ? In what are they used ? What is Pleonasm ? What does this figure impart to expressions, and When is it generally employed ? What is Syllepsis ? Point out how this figure EXEECISE ON FIGUEES. Miallage is the use of one part of speech, or one modi- fication of a word, for another; as, "They fall successive and successive rise." — " Sure some disaster has hefeW In the first example, we should have the adverb successively to modify the verbs fall and Ww, instead of the adjective successive ; and, in the last, the participle befallen, in place of the imperfect befell. The truth is, that this figure has been found necessary, to excuse the grammatical errors that occur in distinguished writers. The young composer is warned against supposing that Enallage can justify a violation of the rules of Syntax. Perhaps the only case in which it may with propriety be used, is the substitution of you for thou and we for /, when reference is made to a single person. Hyperhaton is the transposition of words ; as, " He wan- ders earth around," — for, " He wanders around earth." This figure constitutes one of the chief features that distinguish poetry from prose. Judiciously used in either, it imparts variety, strength, and vivacity, to composition. Care must be taken, however, not to carry it to such an extent as to occasion ambiguity or obscurity. EXERCISE. Point out the figures that occur in the following passages, and show, if they were not employed, what changes would have to be made in the words : — 1. There's but one pang in death, — leaving the loved. 2. Thro' me shine the pearly pebbles. 3. Maister, have you any wery good weal in your vallet ? 4. E'en 'neath the earth I'll him pursue. 5. At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay down : at her feet he bowed, he fell ; where he bowed, there he fell down dead. 6. It's never a trouble, so plase your honor, for an Irishman to do his duty. 7. He touchethe no thing, he handlethe nought, but holdethe everemore his Ilondes before him, upon the Table. 8. Adown the steepy hill they toil. 0. Th' aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 10. So little mercy shows who needs so much. 11. Pr'ythee, peace. 12. There lament they the live day long. 18. I lay in Sion a stumbling-stone, and rock of oftcnce ; and whosoever be- lieveth on him shall not be ashamed. 14. Turn thou mo, and I shall be turned. 15. He that hath charity, for him the prayers of many ascend. operates in Ihe two plven example!'. From what does Syllepsis often arise ? What is Enallacfo ? Show how it ()i)eiatos in tlie given examples. For what has this figure been found necessary? Against what is the composer warned ? In what case may Enallage be properly emi)loyed ? What is riyperbaton ? In what is this figure most used ? What does it contribute to produce f What may rfl>- fiult from its immoderate use ? FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 239 16. First Evening draws her crimson curtain, then Night throws down her pall. lY. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. 18. Dan Chaucer, Well of English undefyled, On Fame's eternall beadroU worthie to be fyled. 19. * * Let us instant go, O'erturn his bowers, and lay his castle low. 20. 'Tis Fancy, in her fiery car, Transports me to the thickest war. 21. Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys. 22. Bliss is the same in subject as in king, In who obtain defence, or who defendL LESSON i^LVIII. riGUEATIVE LANGUAGE. § 318. The figures defined in the last lesson, though it is important that the student should be able to recognize them, and, if need be, use them, have but little to do with style, compared with those which we shall next consider, and which are known as figures of rhetoric. Before proceeding to treat of these separately, we may with propriety consider figurative language in general, its origin, its pecuharities, and the advantages gained by its use. § 319. Definition. — Figurative language implies a de- parture from the simple or ordinary mode of expression ; a clothing of ideas in words which not only convey the mean- ing, but, through a comparison or some other means of ex- citing the imagination, convey it in such a way as to make a lively and forcible impression on the mind. Thus, if we say, " Saladin was shrewd in the council, brave in the field," we express the thought in the simplest manner ; but if we vary § 318. How do the figures just defined compare in importance with figures of rhetoric ? Before proceeding to treat of the latter, what is it proposed to consider ? § 319. What does figurative language imply ? Illustrate its use with the two examples given. 24:0 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. the expression thus, " Saladin was a fox in the council, a lion in the field," we clothe the same sentiment in figurative language. Instead of cunning and courage, we introduce the animals that possess these quali- ties in the highest degree, and thus present livelier images to the mind. So, we have a plain and simple proposition in the sentence, " It is impos- sible, even by the most careful search, fully to ascertain the divine na- ture." But when we say, " Canst thou, by searching, find out God ? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection ? It is high as heaven, what canst thou do ? deeper than hell, what canst thou know ? " we unite with the same proposition questions expressive of admiration, and thus render it more forcible. § 320. Origin. — To account for the origin of figures, we must go back to that of language itself, for they are coeval. At this early period, men would naturally begin with giving names to the different objects with which they came in con- tact. Their nomenclature was at first, of course, limited and imperfect ; but, as knowledge increased and ideas multiplied, the store of words would naturally increase also. Neverthe- less, to the infinite variety of objects and ideas, language was inadequate ; or rather, to extend it so as to have a separate word for each, would have involved a vocabulary too cum- brous for even the best memories. This difficulty was to be avoided ; and a natural expedient was adopted, — that of mak- ing a word already applied to one idea or object stand for another, between which and the primary one they found or fancied some resemblance to exist. Thus, compassion in the human breast, as well as mildness of speech, seemed to be a kindred idea to softness in material bodies. The latter term was therefore extended to the two former ideas ; we speak with equal propriety of a soft bed, a soft heart, and soft tcords. Figures of this kind abound in all languages. The operations of the mind and affections, in particular, arc designated by words originally ap- plied to sensible objects. These words, being earliest introduced, were § 820. To account for tho origin of flpures, to what must we po back? With what would men naturally begin ? What was the character of their nomenclature at first? When did it begin to be extended ? What was the objection to invent- ing a separate word for each idea and object? What natural expedient waa adopted? Olvc an illustration. To what objects were names flr^t given? To what, in particular, were these names afterwards extended? Cite some espres- FIGITEATIYE LANGUAGE. 241 naturally extended, by degrees, to those mental peculiarities of which men had more obscure ideas and to which they found greater difficulty in as- signing distinct names. Hence arose such expressions as a piercing judgment, a warm and a cold heart, a rough temper. In some cases, these figurative words are the only ones that can well be applied to such ideas ; as the student will be convinced, on attempting to find a synony- mous expression for "a cold ot freezing reception". With the origin of figures, moreover, imagination has had much to do. Every object that makes an impression on the mind is accompanied with certain cognate ideas. Nothing presents itself in an isolated man- ner. There are relations which inseparably connect every material ob- ject with other things which either precede or follow it, produce it or are produced by it, resemble it or are opposed to it. Thus every idea carries others in its train, which may be regarded as its accessories ; and the latter often strike the mind more forcibly than the principal idea it- self. They are pleasanter, perhaps, or more familiar ; or they recall to remembrance a greater variety of important circumstances. The imagi- nation, thus disposed to rest on the accessory rather than on the prin- cipal object, often applies to the latter the name or epithet originally appropriated to the former. Hence, choice, as well as the necessity alluded to above, has given currency to a great number of figurative ex- pressions, and men of lively imaginations are adding to them every day. Thus, instead of saying, " Under Augustus, Rome enjoyed greater power and glory than at any other period," we take an analogous idea, sug- gested by imagination from the growth of a plant or tree, and say, " Rome flotirished most under Augustus ; " or, remembering that, when a heavenly body is directly overhead, and therefore apparently at the highest point of its orbit, astronomers say it is at its zenith, we substitute this accessory and say, " Under Augustus, Rome was at the zenith of her power and glory," — and thus express the thought more tersely and point- edly than by the literal language above cited. § 321. History. — Such was the origin of figurative lan- guage. First introduced by necessity, it was found to yield such pleasure to the imagination and communicate so much life to composition, that men used it in preference to plain sions which arose in this way. What faculty of the mind, also, liad much to do with the origin of figures ? Describe the way in which it operated to produce them. Express, in plain language, the fact that under Augustus Rome attained her greatest power and glory. Express the same sentiment figuratively in two dif- ferent ways. Show, in each case, whence the figure is derived. § 331. What two causes, then, led to the use of figurative language ? When 242 FIGTrEATTVE LANGUAGE. language, even when they could express their meaning equally well by means of the latter. Both these causes op- erated with special force in the early stages of society. The barrenness of language made it necessary to use words in a figurative sense ; while imagination, then more vivid than in subsequent ages, gave a decided preference to terms so em- ployed. As it was in the infancy of society, so we find it gen- erally to be with savage tribes. New objects strongly im- press their minds. They are governed by imagination and passion, rather than reason ; and this is shown in their lan- guage. The North American Indian tongues afford striking illustrations of this fact. Bold, picturesque, and metaphorical, they abound in allusions to material objects, particularly such as are most striking in a wild and solitary life. An Indian chief, in an ordinary harangue to his tribe, uses more meta- phors than a European w^ould employ in an epic poem. As a language progresses in refinement, precision is more regarded, and there is a tendency to give every object a distinct name of its own. Still, figurative words continue to occupy a considerable place. Wo find, on examination, that, while there are some which, by reason of fre- quent use, have come to be regarded as purely literal expressions, such as a clear head, a hard Iicart, and the like ; there are many others which, in a greater or less degree, retain their figurative character and impart to style the peculiar effect described above. As examples, wc may point to such phrases as the following: *^ to enter upo7i a. subject,''^ ^^ to folloio out an argument," " to stir up strife," " to move the feelings," &c. In the use of such expressions, the correct writer will always carry out the fig- ure ; that is, will regard the allusion on which it is based, and introduce in the same connection nothing inconsistent therewith. One may, for instance, " be sheltered under the patronage of a great man " ; but it would be wrong to say, " sheltered under the mask of dissimulation," — for a mask does not shelter, but conceals. §322. Advantages. — Tlie advantages which accrue^ from the use of figures are as follows : — did these causes operate with special force ? Why ? In what languages do they also operate strongly ? What tongues afford striking illustrations of this fact? What is the character of these Indian tongues ? As a language progresses in rt fincment, what tendency prevails ? What follows, as n^gards figurative cxpn - pions ? What do we find, in process of time, with respect to them ? In the ut-o of figurative expressions, what must the writer be careful to do ? Illastrate this. FIGUEATIVE LANGUAGE. 243 I. They enrich language by increasmg its facilities of expression. By their means, words and phrases are multi- pHed, so that all kinds of ideas, the minutest differences, and the nicest shades of thought, can be distinctly and ac- curately expressed. IL They dignify style. Words and phrases to which the ear is accustomed are often too colloquial and familiar to be employed in connection with elevated subjects. When treating of the latter, we should be greatly at a loss were it not for figures. Properly used, they have the same effect on language that is produced by the rich and splendid dress of a person of rank ; that is, by imparting a general air of magnifi- cence, they exact admiration and respect. Assistance of this kind is often necessary in prose ; in poetry, it is indispensable. To say the sun rises, for instance, is trite, and fails to awaken any pleasure in the mind ; but the same thought is pleasing in the highest degree, as figuratively expressed by Thomson : — " But yonder comes the powerful king of day, Eejoicing in the East." So, what a contrast is presented by the plain proposition, " all men are subject alike to death," and the same sentiment as expressed by Horace : — "With equal pace, impartial Fate Knocks at the palace and the cottage gate." in. They bring before the mind two objects simulta- neously yet without confusion. We see one thing in an- other, and this is always a source of pleasure. In nothing does the mind more gladly employ itself than in detecting and tracing resemblances. When, for example, for youth we substitute the morning of life, the fancy is entertained with two ideas at once, — the early period of exist- ence, and the opening of the day ; each of which has its own associa- tions, and awakens its peculiar train of images. The fancy is thus ex- § 322. What is the first advantage resulting from the use of figures ? What, the second ? When wo are treating of elevated subjects, what words must not he used? In such cases, to what must we have recourse ? To what is the eff'ect of figurative language compared ? In what department of composition is assistance of this kind indispensable ? Show, by means of two examples, the dilTerenco in effect between trite and figurative language. What is the third advantage gained 244 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. cited in a two-fold degree ; and this double pleasure is enhanced not a little by the evident resemblance between the objects compared. IV. Again, as already seen, figures frequently convey the meaning more clearly and forcibly than plain language. This is particularly true in the case of abstract conceptions, which, in a greater or less degree, they represent as sensible objects, surrounding them with such circumstances as enable the mind fully to comprehend them. A well-chosen figure, indeed, not unfrequently, with the force of an argument, carries conviction to the mind of the hearer ; as in the fol- lowing illustration from Young : " When we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir a sediment that renders it im- pure and noxious." § 323. Rules. — In the use of figures, rules are of ser- vice, as they are in every other department of composition. There is no force in the argument that they are unnecessary, because people who have never heard of a rule use figures properly every day. We constantly meet with persons who sing agreeably and correctly without knowing a note of the gamut ; is it, therefore, improper to reduce the notes to a scale, or unnecessary for a musician to study the principles of his art ? The ornaments of composition are certainly as capable of improvement as the ear or the voice ; and the only means of insuring this improvement are careful study of the various rules founded on na- ture and experience, and constant practice with reference to the prin- ciples they establish. § 324. Use. — ^Though the advantages arising from the use of figurative language have been dwelt on at some length, it must not be supposed, either that its frequent use is absolutely essential to beauty of composition, or that fig- ures alone, without other merits, can constitute such beauty. by tlie U8C of figures? Explain and illustrate tills point. Fourthly, how do fli:- nrcs frequently convey a writer's meaning ? In the case of what is this particu- larly true ? To what is a well-chosen fl<:;ure often equivalent in force ? Give au illustration from Young. § 323. What is said of rules for the use of figures? What argument is urged against them ? Expose the fallacy of this argument. § 324. What must not be supposed with respect to figurative language ? Which is more Important,— the thought or Itu dress ? EXERCISES ON FIGUEATltE LAKGIJAGE. 245 As the body is more important than the dress, so the thought is of more moment than the mode of expressing it. No figviie can render a cold or empty composition interesting ; while, on the other hand, if a sentence is sublime or pathetic, it can support itself without borrowed assistance. LESSON XLIX. EXERCISES ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. EXERCISE I. In the following passages, change the figurative to plain language : — JlxAMPLE. Figurative. — The king of terrors. The waves are asleep on the bosom of ocean. Plain. — Death. The ocean is calm. 1. The morning of life ; — the veil of night; — a /^ry temper; — a deep thinker ; — a light disposition ; — a cold heart ; — a wa7'm friend ; — an at- tack of sickness ; — a thin audience ; — high hopes ; — a hard lot, 2. Athens was now at the pinnacle of glory. 3. The sea swallows many a vessel. 4. Beside the warrior slept his bow. 5. Guilt is wedded to miserj'. 6. Homer's genius soars higher than Virgil's. 7. Some great men are noted for the roughness of their behavior. 8. Time had left his footprints on her brow. 9. The breath of spring infuses new life into the vegetable world. 10. The sanguine man is sometimes rudely wakened from his dreams. 11. Even at imaginary woes the heart will sometimes ac7tc. 12. Abstinence is the only talisman against disease. 13. This lamentation touched his heart. 14. We should not be cast down by light afflictions. 15. " Adversity's cold frosts ^ill soon be o'er ; It heralds biixihter days :— the joyous Spring Is cradled on the Winter^s icy breast^ And yet comes flitshed in beauty." 16. " Vice is a monster of so frightful mioi, As to be hated needs but to be seen ; Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face., We first endure, thcn^ji^y, then embi^aee,'''' EXERCISE II. In each of the following passages, introduce figurative language without altering the sense. Punctuate the sen- tences so formed, and be careful to carry out the figure 246 FIGURES OF RHETOEIC. properly. The student may form figures of his own, or may employ those suggested by the words in parentheses. Example, riain. — The uncompassionate man has no smpathy for the unfortunate. Figurative. — The hard-hearted man turns a deaf ear to the unfortunate. 1, The mind should be kept uneontaminated {weeds, garden). 2. Let us be virtuous, and not yield to the temptations of pleasure {jmth, listen, voice), r^. With the ancient Stoics it was a principle never to indulge their appetites unduly (overstep). 4. Suspicion is a source of great un- happiness (poison). 5. Providence has wisely ordained that we shall not know the future (sealed). 6. Calumnious reports are often circulated about those whose lives afford the least reason for them (aim, arrows). '7. He is dying (tide). 8. Fortune, though it may involve us in temporal difficulties, can not make us permanently unhappy, if we do no evil. 9. Time makes many changes. 10. The young man, on leaving college, should pause a moment for serious thought before engaging in active Yii'ii (launching). 11. We should constantly have regard to the require- ments of truth and justice. 12. We meet with few utterly stupid per- sons ; with still fewer noble geniuses : the generality of mankind are be- tween the two extremes. 13. Often, when apparently gay, the heart is sad. 14. Seldom do the old form very ardent friendships. 15. Our worst enemies arc our own evil passions. 16. The rising sun shines on the tops of the mountains (gilds). 11. The lightning is seen first on one peak and then on another (leaps). 18. He is in love. LESSON L. FIGURES OP RHETORIC. § 325. Figures of rhetoric are intentional deviations from the ordinary application of words. They are constant- ly occurring in every department of composition, and are a source of life and beauty to style. Rhetoricians have de- voted much attention to defining, analyzing, and classifjang them ; and, by making slight shades of difference sufficient ground for the formation of new classes, have succeeded in enumerating more than two hundred and fifty. Such mi- nuteness is of no practical use ; and we shall limit our con- § 325. What arc figures of rhetoric ? How many have been enumerated by rhetoricians ? How have they succeeded in making bo many ? How many are FiaUEES OP EHETOEIO. 24:7 sideration to the sixteen leading figures, which embrace many of the subdivisions above alluded to, and are all that it is necessary to understand or of advantage to employ. The sixteen principal figures are Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-go-ry, Me-ton'-y-my, Sy-nec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Vi'- sion, A-pos'-tro-phe, Per-son-i-fi-ca'-tion, In-ter-ro-ga'-tion, Ex- cla-ma'-tion, An-tith'-e-sis, Cli'-max, I'-ro-ny, A-poph'-a-sis, and On-o-mat-o-poe'-ia. Several of these figures are called tropes (a term derived from the Greek, meaning turm\ because the word is turned^ as it were, from its ordinary application. § 326. Simile is the comparison of one object to another, and is generally denoted by like, as, or so ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." — " Thy smile is as the dawn of the vernal day." Comparisons are sometimes made without any formal term to denote them ; as, " Too much indulgence does not strengthen the mind of the young ; plants raised with tenderness are seldom strong." Here a com- parison is made just as much as if the word as were introduced before plants. So, Chaucer employs a simile in the following beautiful line, without directly indicating it : — " Up rose the Bun, and up rose Emilie." All comparisons may be divided, according to the purpose for which they are employed, into two classes, known as Explanatory Similes and EmbelUshing Similes. The former may be used without impropriety even in abstruse philosophical compositions, which, indeed, they often illustrate in the happiest manner. One of this class is successfully em- ployed by Harris, to explain the distinction between the powers of sense and those of imagination. " As wax would not be adequate to the pur- pose of signature, if it had not the power to retain as well as to receive the impression ; the same holds of the soul, with respect to sense and imagmation. Sense is its receptive power; imagination its retentive. Had it sense without imagination, it would not be as wax, but as water, where, though all impressions be instantly made, yet as soon as they are here coneidered ? Name them. What are several of these figures called ? What does the word tropes mean ? § 326. What is Shiiile ? By what words is it indicated? How are compari- Bons sometimes made? Give an example. Into what two classes are Similes AlYided ? Define each, and give examples. 248 FIGUEES OF EHETOEIC. made, they are instantly lost." The Embellishing Simile, on the other hand, is introduced, not for the sake of explanation or instruction, but simply to beautify the style. Such, for instance, is the effect of the fol- lowing from Ossian : — " Pleasant are the words of the song, said Cuchul- lin, and lovely are the tales of other times. They are like the calm dew of the morning on the hill of roes, when the sun is faint on its side, and the lake is settled and blue in the vale." § 327. Metaphor indicates the resemblance of two ob- jects by applying the name, attribute, or act of one directly to the other ; as, " He shall be a tree planted by the rivers of water." Metaphor is the commonest of all the figures. It assumes a variety of forms, under some of which it is constantly appearing in composition. Sometimes there is no formal comparison ; but, as was instanced in the last lesson, an act is assigned to an object, which, literally, it is incapa- ble of performing, to represent in a lively manner some act which it c:m perform ; as, " Wild fancies gamholled unhHdled through his brain." We may properly apply the term metapliorical to words used in this figurative sense, like many of those in the last Exercise. § 328. Allegory is the narration of fictitious events, whereby it is sought to convey or illustrate important truths. Thus, in Psalm Ixxx., the Jewish nation is repre- sented under the symbol of a vine : — " Tliou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou prcparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were hke the goodly cedars." It will be seen that an Allegory is a combination of kindred meta- phors so connected in sense as to form a kind of story. The parables of Scripture, as well as fables that point a moral, are varieties of this figure. Sometimes an Allegory is so extended as to fill a volume ; as in the case of Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress ". § 329. Metonymy is the exchange of names between I 327. Wliat does Metaphor indicate ? What is paid of the forms under wlilth it appears? IIow is it sometimes used in conncctiou with a single object? Wliat term may bo properly applied to words u»ed flguratively ? § 328. What is Allegory ? Of what is it a combination ? What are mentioned as yarictics of this figure ? How far Is an Allegory sometimcB extended ? § 329. What is Metonymy ? On what is tliis fl;;urc not founded ? Mention the J^IGtJRES OF lillEtOEIO. 240 things related. It is founded, not on resemblance, but on the relation of, 1. Cause and effect ; as, " They have Moses and the prophets ", i. e., their writings ; " Gray hairs should be respected", i. e., old age. 2. Progenitor and posterity; as, "Hear, O IsraeV, i. e., descendants of Israel. 3. Sub- ject and attribute ; as, " Youth and beauty shall be laid in dust ", i. e., the young and beautiful. 4. Place and inhab- itant ; as, " What land is so barbarous as to allow this in- justice ? " i. e., what people. 5. Container and thing con- tained ; as, " Our ships next opened a fire ", i. e., our sailors. 6. Sign and thing signified ; as, " The sceptre shall not de- part from Judali", i. e., hingly power. 7. Material and thing made from it ; as, " His steel gleamed on high ", i. e., his sword. § 330. Synecdoche is using the name of a part for that of the whole, the name of the whole for that of a part, or a definite number for an indefinite : as, " The sea is covered with sails ", i. e., ships ; "Our hero was gray, but not from age ", i. e., his hair was gray ; " Ten thousand were on his right hand ", i. e., a great number. § 331. Hyperbole is the exaggeration of attributes, or the assigning to a subject of a wonderful and impossible act as the result of ardent emotion ; as, " They [Saul and Jonathan] were swifter than eagles , they were stronger than lions.^^ — " And trembling Tiber dived beneath his bed.^^ Hyperbolical expressions are of frequent occurrence in common con- versation ; we often say, as cold as ice, as hot asfre, as white as snow, &c., in all which phrases the quality is exaggerated beyond the bounds of truth. Their frequency is to be attributed to the imagination, which ah ways takes pleasure in magnifying the objects before it. Languages are, therefore, more or less hyperbolical, according to the liveliness of this various relations subsisting between objects whose names are exchanged, and illustrate each. § 330. What is Synecdoche ? §331. What is Hyperbole? Where docs this figure frequently occur? Givo fioine common colloquial hyperbolical expressions. To what is their frequency attributable ? According; to what is a language found to be more or less hyper' Iwlical ? By whom is Hyperbole most frequently used ? 250 FIGURES OF EHETORIC. faculty in those who speak them. Ilence the Orientals indulge in Hy- perbole more freely than Europeans, and the young use it to a much greater extent than those of maturer years. § 332. Vision, also called Imagery, is the representa- tion of past events, or imaginary objects and scenes, as act- ually present to the senses ; as, " Caesar leaisea Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy ", i. e., left Gaul, crossed the Rubicon, &c. — " They rally, they bleed, for theur kingdom and crown." It will be seen from the examples that this figure often consists in substituting the present tense for the past. § 333. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject, into an invocation or address ; as, " Death is swallowed up in victory. O death, where is thy sting ? O grave, where is thy victory ? " § 334. Personification, or Pros-o-po-pod-ia, is the at- tributing of sex, life, or action to an inanimate object ; or the ascribing of intelligence and personality to an inferior crea- ture ; as, " The Sea saw it sLndfied^ — " The Worm, aware of his intent, harangued him thus." § 335. Interrogation is the asking of questions, not for the purpose of expressing doubt or obtaining information, but in order to assert strongly the reverse of what is asked ; as, " Doth God pervert judgment ? or doth the Almighty pervert justice ? " This figure imparts animation to style. It is constantly employed in the Book of Job. § 336. Exclamation is the expression of some strong emotion of the mind ; as, " Oh ! the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God I " This figure employs exclamatory sentences and vocative clauses. § 337. Antithesis is the placing of opposites in juxta- position, for the purpose of heightening their effect by con- § 883. What is YiBion Bometimes called ? Define this figure. What tcni« does it often require ? § 833. What is Apostropbo ? § 334. What is Pcrsouiflcation ? § 335. What is Interrogation ? Where does it constantly occur t § 336. Wliat is Exclamation ? What does this figure employ ? § 387. What la AntiUiceis ? Where is it used with great effect f FIGURES OF KHETOKIC. 251 trast ; as, " A good man obtaineth favor of the Lord ; but a man of wicked devices will He condemn." — " Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrueP This figure is used with great effect in the Book of Proverbs, x.-xv. It is one of the most effective ornaments that can be employed in composi- tion. " To extirpate antithesis from literature altogether," says the author of Lacon, "would be to destroy at one stroke about eight-tenths of all the wit, ancient and modem, now existing in the world." § 338. Climax is the arrangement of a succession of words, clauses, members, or sentences, in such a way that the weakest may stand first, and that each in turn, to the end of the sentence, may rise in importance, and make a deeper impression on the mind than that which preceded it ; as, " Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? Shall tribulation, or distress, ov persecution, or famine, or naked- ness, ov peril, or sword? " This term is derived from the Greek word klimax, " a ladder". The definition given above has reference to the Climax of sense. We have also a Climax of sound, which consists in arranging a series of words or clauses according to their length, that is, so that the shortest may come first; as, " He was a great, noble, disinterested man ; " not, "He was a disinterested, noble, great man." A fine effect is produced by combin- ing the Climax of sense with that of sound. Cicero understood this fact, and, in his orations, constantly availed himself of it, with the greatest success. The faulty arrangement of words and clauses in the opposite order to that prescribed by this figure, that is, so that they successively decrease in importance, is known as Anti-climax. It is well illustrated in the fol- lowing couplet : — " And thou, Dalhousie, thou great god of war, Lieutenant-colonel to the earl of Mar 1 " The term Climax is also applied by some to sentences in which, for the sake of emphasis, an expression occurring in one member is repeated § 338. What is Climax ? From what is this term derived ? What is meant by a Climax of sound ? How is a fine effect produced ? Who has availed himself of this fact ? What is Anti-climax ? Cite a couplet in point. To what sentences is the term Climax also applied? Kepeat the illustration quoted from Pope. What other name is given to this variety of Climax ? 252 FiGtJBES OF UliETOEtC. in another ; as, " When we have practised good actions a while, they be- come easy ; and, when they are easy, we begin to take pleasure in them ; and, when they please us, we do them frequently ; and, by frequency of acts, they grow into a habit." So, Pope, to heighten compassion for the fate of an unfortunate lady, repeats the idea that she lacked friendly sympathy in her distress : — *' By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed, By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed ; By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned, By strangers honored and by strangers mourned." Some make this an independent figure, and style it licpetition. § 339. Irony is a figure by which is expressed directly the opposite of what it is intended shall be understood ; as when Elijah said to the pnests of Baal, who were trying to induce their false god to manifest himself miraculously, " Cry aloud, for he is a god," &c. This figure has been al- ready considered under the head of Ridicule. § 340. Apophasis^ Paralqms, or Omission^ is the pre- tended suppression of what one is all the time actually men- tioning ; as, " I say nothing of the notorious profligacy of his character ; nothing of the reckless extravagance with which he has wasted an ample fortune ; nothing of the disgusting intemperance which has sometimes caused him to reel in our streets ; — but I aver that he has exhibited neither probity nor abiUty in the important office which he holds." § 341. Onomatopoeia is the use of a word or phrase formed to imitate the sound of the tiling signified ; as when we say, rat tat tat^ to denote a knocking at the door ; how woio^ to express the barking of a dog ; or, buzz^ buzz^ to in- dicate the noise made by bees. §889. What is Irony? § »U). What other names has Apophasis ? Define this figurfc S 841. What is Onomatopoeia ? Exemplify it. EXERCISE ON FIGURES. 253 LESSON LI. EXERCISE ON FIGURES. Point out the figures that occur in the following pas- sages, and state to which of the four classes they belong. There may be more than one in the same sentence. 1. They that are of a fro ward heart are abomination to the Lord ; but such as are upright in their way are His delight. 2. As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is without discretion. 3. For I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor prin- cipalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord, 4. The depth saith. It is not in me : and the sea saith, It is not with me. 5. Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore ! Bend thy fair head over the waves, thou loveUer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves on the sunbeam, at noon, over the silence of Morven. He is fallen : thy youth is low ! 6. He smote the city. 1. There are a million truths that men are not concerned to know. 8. On this side, modesty is engaged ; on that, impudence : on this, chastity ; on that, lewdness : on this, in- tegrity ; on that, fraud : on this, piety ; on that, profaneness : on this, constancy ; on that, fickleness : on this, honor ; on that, baseness : on this, moderation ; on that, unbridled passion. 9. For all the land which thou seest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed forever. And I will make thy seed as the dust of the earth ; so that, if a man can number the dust of the earth, then shall thy seed also be numbered. 10. Ignorance is a blank sheet, on which we may write ; but error is a scribbled one, from which we must first erase. 11. Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman ; but in process of time he became so addicted to gam- ing, not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon ex- hausted his estate, and ruined his constitution. 12. Hast thou eyes of flesh ? or seest thou as man seeth ? Are thy days as the days of man ? Are thy years as man's days ? 13. Streaming grief his faded cheek be- dewed. 14. My heart is turned to stone: I strike it, and it hurts my hand. 15. Friendship is no plant of hasty growth. 16. Cool age ad- vances, venerably wise. 17. Oh! that ye would altogether hold your peace ; and it should be your wisdom. 18. Whoso loveth instruction loveth knowledge ; but he that hateth reproof is brutish. 19. His arm Boon cleared the field. 20. Some lead a life unblamable and just, Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust. 21. The combat thickens. On, ve brave, Who rush to glory or the grave 1 22. Oh 1 unexpected stroke, worse than of death 1 Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ! thus leave Thee, native soil, these happy walks, and shade*, Fit haunt of gods 1 254: RULES FOB THE USE OF BHETORICAL FIGURES. 23. O books, ye monuments of mind, concrete wisdom of the wisest ; Sweet solaces of daily life ; proofs and results of immortality ; Trees yielding all fruits, whose leaves are for the healing of the natioui: ; Groves of knowledge, where all may eat, nor fear a flaming 6Word. 34. Earth felt the wound ; and Nature from her seat Sighing, through all her works, gave signs of woe That all was lost. 25. How slow yon tiny vessel ploughs the main I Amid the heavy billows now she seems A toiling atom ; then from wave to wave Leaps madly, by the tempest lashed ; or reels, Hall wrecked, through gulfs profound. 26. Me miserable I which way shall I fly Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? • Which way I fly is hell, myself am hell, — And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, To which the hell I suffer seems a heaven. 27. The earth Gave si^s of gratulations, and each hill. Joyous the birds : fresh gales and gentle airs Whispered it to the woods, and from their wings Flung rose, flung odor from the spicy shrub, Disporting. Dash along 1 Slash along I Crash along ! Flash along 1 ' On ! on ! with a jump, And a bump, And a roll. Hies the flre-fiend to his destined goal ! LESSON LII. RULES FOR THE USE OP RHETORICAL FIGURES. § 342. For a practical view of the figures defined in Lesson L., and to learn under what circumstances they are most effectively introduced, the young writer is recom- mended to a careful and critical perusal of standard authors. A few remarks, however, on figures in general, and some brief rules respecting the use of the most important ones, will be fomid of service, § 343. In the first place, an observation already made must be remembered, that composition is by no means de- pendent on figures for all, or even the greater part, of its beauties and merits. Examples of the most sublime and § 342. Where is the student referred for a practical view of figures ? S 843. What observatiou is first made respecting the effect of figures on com- RULES FOR THE USE OF KHETOKICAL FIGURES. 255 pathetic writing abound, and many have been cited above, in which, powerful as is their effect, no assistance is derived from this source. Figures, therefore, though valuable as auxiharies, should not be the chief object had in view. If a composition is destitute of striking thoughts, or even if the style is objectionable, all the figures that can be employed will fail to render it agreeable. They may dazzle a vulgar eye, but can never please a judicious one. In the second place, to be beautiful, figures must rise nat- urally from the subject. Dictated by imagination or passion, they must come from a mind warmed by the object it would describe. They must flow in the same train as the current of thought. If deliberately sought out, and fastened on where they seem to fit, with the express design of embellishing, their effect will be dhectly the opposite of what is intended. Again, even when imagination prompts and the subject naturally gives rise to figures, they should not be used to excess. The reader may be surfeited with them; and, when they recur too often, they are apt to be regarded as evidence of a superficial mind that delights in show rather than in sohd merit. Lastly, without a genius for figurative language, no one should attempt it. Imagination is derived from nature ; we may cultivate it, but must not force it. We may prune its redundancies, correct its errors, and enlarge its sphere ; but the faculty itself we can not create. "We should therefore avoid attempts which can result only in making our weak- ness apparent. With these general principles in view, we proceed to certain rules and cautions relating to simile, metaphor, and hyperbole, the commonest ornaments of style. § 344. Simile. position ? What is essential to the heauty of figures ? When they are deliber- ately sought for, what is their effect ? What is said of using them to excess, even when they arise naturally from the subject? What writers should avoid attempts at figurative language ? 250 RULES FOR THE USE OF RHETORICAL FIGURE^. I. Objects must not be compared to things of the same kind, that closely resemble them. Much of the pleasure we receive from this figure arises from its discovering to us similitudes where at first glance we would not expect them. When Milton compares Satan's appearance, after his fall, to that of the sun suffering an eclipse and terrifying the nations with portentous darkness, we are struck with the point and dig- nity of the simile. But when he likens Eve's bower in Paradise to the arbor of Pomona, or Eve herself to a wood-nymph, we receive but hftlo entertainment, as one bower and one beautiful woman must obviously, in many respects, resemble another. II. Still less should similes be founded on faint resemblances. In this case they neither explain nor embellish, and instead of entertaining the mind distract and perplex it. Shakspeare, bold in his use of figures, rather than delicate or correct, frequently violates this rule. The fol- lowing is a case in point : — " Give me the crown.— Hero, cousin, seize the crown: Here on this side, my hand ; on that side, thine. Now is this golden crown like a deep well. That owes two buckets, fillin meet that our English housewife be a woman of great modesty and temperance as well inwardly as outwardly inwardly as in her behavior and carriage towards her husband wherein she shall shun all violence of rage passion and humor coveting less to direct than to be directed ap- pearing ever unto him pleasant amiable and delightful and though occa- sion of mishaps or the misgovernment of his will may induce her to con- trary thoughts yet virtuously to suppress them and with a mild sufferance rather to call him home from his error than with the strength of anger to abate the least spark of his evil calling into her mind that evil and uncomely language is deformed though uttered even to servants but most monstrous and ugly when it appears before the presence of a husband outwardly as in her apparel and diet both Avhich she shall proportion according to the competency of her husband's estate and calling making her circle rather straight than large for it is a rule if we extend to the uttermost we take away increase if we go a hair's breadth beyond we en- ter into consumption but if we preserve any part we build strong forts against the adversaries of fortune provided that such preservation be honest and conscionable. — Markham. CONCISE STYLE. Studies. — Some books are to be tasted others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed and digested that is some books are to be read only in parts others to be read but not curiously and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy and extracts made of them by others but that would be only in the less important arguments and the meaner sort of books else distilled books are like common distilled waters flashy things. Reading 270 ESSENTIAL TROPERTIES OF STYLE. maketh a full man conference u ready man and writing an exact man and therefore if a man write little he had need have a great memory if he confer little he had need have a present wit and if he read little ho had need have much cunning to seem to know what he doth not.-' Bacon. nervous style. On the Impeachment of Warren Hastings. — In the course of all this proceeding your lordships will not fail to observe he is never corrupt but he is cruel he never dines with comfort but where he is sure to create a famine. He never robs from the loose superfluity of standing greatness he devours the fallen the indigent the necessitous. His extortion is not like the generous rapacity of the princely eagle who snatches away the living struggling prey he is a vulture who feeds upon the prostrate the dying and the dead. As his cruelty is more shocking than his corrup- tion so his hypocrisy has something more frightful than his cruelty. Fof whilst his bloody and rapacious hand signs proscriptions and sweeps away the food of the widow and the orphan his eyes overflow with tears and he converts the healing balm that bleeds from wounded humanity into a rancorous and deadly poison to the race of man. — Bcrke. LESSON LVI. ESSENTIAL PEOPEETIES OF STYLE. — ^PURITY. — PROPRIETY. § 352. It has been observed that the peculiarities of in- dividual minds, appearing in their respective styles of com- position, give rise to the varieties enumerated in the last lesson. In some, this peculiarity of manner is so decided that the author, even when he writes anonymously, is easily recognized. Such marked individuality of style, adhered to by an author throughout his compositions, is known as mannerism. While these peculiarities of diction are by no means forbidden by the rules of composition, there are cer- tain properties which every stjde ought to possess. These arc seven in number; Purity, Propriety, Precision, Clear- ness, Strength, Harmony, and Unity. % 352. From what do the varieties of style take their rise f What is manner Ism T What is meant by the essential properties of style f Mention them. PUEiTy. 271 § 353. PuEiTY consists in the use of such words and con- structions as properly belong to the genius of the language. It may be violated, therefore, in two ways : first, by the Bar- barism, or use of an impure word ; and, secondly, by the Solecism, or use of an impure construction. Of these faults there are several varieties. § 354. JBarbarisms. — These consist of, I. Obsolete words ; that is, such as have gone out of use. Among these we may mention the following, sometimes employed by affected writers ; — Behest^ command. Bewray^ betray. Erst^ formerly. IrTcs, wearies. Lety hinder. Peradveniure, perhaps. Quoth, said. Sithy since. Stroam, roam. }VIdlom, of old. Wist, knew. Wot, know. Whatever these and similar words may have been in the days of our forefathers, they can not now be regarded as pure English. They arc sometimes used in poetry, in burlesques, and in narratives of ancient times, to which, being in keeping with the characters and objects described, they are peculiarly appropriate ; but in all other varieties of composition they should be carefully avoided. Analogous to this fault is that of employ- ing a word in good use with an obsolete signification. Thus, in the days of Shakspeare the verb owe often had the meaning of own : — " Thou dost here usurp, The name thou oivest [ownest] not." The writer who should, at the present day, use oioe in this sense would be guilty of a barbarism. II. Newly-coined words ; or such as find their way into conversation and newspapers, but are not authorized by good usage : as, obligate, for oblige / deputize, for commission, &c. What we are to regard as good usage will be explained hereafter. § 353. In what does purity consist ? In how many ways may it be violated ? What is the barbarism ? What, the soleciem ? § 354. What is the first variety of barbarism ? Mention Bome of the obsolete words occasionally used by afifected writers, and give their modem equivalents. In what varieties of writing are they sometimes used with propriety ? What fault is analogous to this ? Illustrate this with the verb owe, as used in Shak- speare. What is the second species of barbarism ? What writers are at liberty 272 ruRiTY. A writer who is unfolding the principles of a new science, and who ia thus destitute of words with which to express his meaning, is at liberty to coin such terms as he needs. He must do it, however, with cautioD, and must first satisfy himself that there is no suitable word already in the language. In such cases, recourse is .generally had to Latin and Greek, particularly the latter ; and etymological analogies must be re- garded in the process of formation. With this exception, the coining of words is strictly prohibited ; and the judicious writer will avoid, not only such terms as have been thus recently formed, but also those which, though invented years ago by authors of note, have not been received into general use. It had been bet- ter for our language, perhaps, had this principle in .later times been more carefully followed. We should thus have avoided such cumbrous words as numcrosity^ cognition, irrefragahiliiy, and hundreds like them, whose meaning can be as accurately, and far more intelligibly, conveyed by words in existence long before they were invented. With some writers, the coining of these Latin derivatives seems to have been a passion. Saxon they reserved for conversation ; their compositions they deemed it necessary to adorn with ponderous Latin. The former was their natu- ral idiom ; the latter, their labored after-thought. Dr. Johnson was their great leader, respecting whom an anecdote is related which strikingly illustrates this propensity. Speaking, on one occasion, of " The Re- hearsal ", he said, " it has not wit enough to keep it sweet ; " then, after a pause which he had employed in translating this thought into his latin- ized dialect, he added, " it has not sufficient virtue to preserve it from putrefaction." A^ our language now stands, it is abundantly copious for all pur. poses ; and not only is the coining of new words inadmissible, but wo should also, as we have seen, avoid the frivolous and unnecessary inno- vations of others. The only latitude allowed is the formation of com- pound words by the union of two or more simple ones with the hyphen, whereby lengthy circumlocutions arc sometimes avoided ; but even here care must be taken to combine only such as naturally coalesce, are cleaily understood, and convey an idea which no word already existing bears. Thus, stand-point is an unobjectionable compound ; but side-kill is not to ^e tolerated as long as hill-side continues in good standing. to coin words ? How must the privilcve have molded? What is said of the passion of some writers for Latin derivative^' ? Illustrate this with an anecdote of Dr. Johnson, In what may some latitude bo ftllowed? Even here, what must be observed? Illustrate this. What is the rURiT\^. 273 III. Foreign words. These are to be rejected, when there are pure English words which express the thought equally well. As in former years there was a passion for Latin, so at the present time there is a great fondness for French ; and Gallicisms, or words and idioms from this language, are abundantly interlarded in the current compositions of the day. Some of these expressions, such as ennui^ hors de combat^ &e., express the idea intended more accurately than it can be conveyed by any pure native word or phrase ; and we can not, therefore, prohibit th6ir use. In the case of the following,* however, and many others, there are corresponding English words equally expressive ; and by using their foreign substitutes, we only incur the imputation of pedantry. Amende honorable, apology. A projMs, appropriate. Bagatelle, trifle. Beau mo)ide, fashionable world. Canaille, rabble. Coup d'etat, stroke of state policy. Delicaiesse, delicacy. Dernier r^ssort, last resort. Sineute, disturbance. Fougue, turbulence. Fraicheur, coolness. Hauteur, haughtiness, Haut ton, people of fashion. Naivete, simplicity, NHmporte, no matter. Nous verrons, we shall see. Par excellence, preeminently. Politesse, politeness. IV. Provincial words ; that is, such as are employed in particular districts, but are not in general use. Thus, chuck- hole in some localities denotes a steep hole in a wagon-rut ; and chuffy in Sussex and Kent means surly : but such words can not properly be introduced into composition. § 355. Solecisms. — As above defined, a Solecism is a deviation from the proper construction of words. It appears in many different forms, as follows : — I. Syntactical errors. All violations of the rules of syn- tax fall under this head. Some of the principal of these we have already considered in § 216-229. II. Phrases which, when looked at grammatically, con- third variety of barbarism ? For what is a fondness manifested by many writers at the present day ? What are gallicisms ? What is said of some of them, such ascnwm'and hors de combat? When there are corresponding English expres- sions, what effect has the use of French words ? Repeat the list of French words often used, and give their English equivalents. What is the fourth species of barbai-ism ? Give examples. § 355. Wh&i is a solecism ? What is the first form in which it appears ? What, the second ? Exemplify it. What, the third ? Give illustrations. 274 PURITY. vey a different meaning from that intended ; as, " He sings a good song," for " He sing^ well." A good song may be ill sung, and therefore the grammatical meaning of the sen- tence is different from that which it is made to bear. Sim- ilar solecisms are involved in the expressions, " He tells a good story," " He plays a good fiddle," &c. in. Foreign idioms : such as, " He knows to sing," for " He knows how to sing ; " — " It repents me," for " I re- pent," &c. § 356. In § 354 we spoke of words not authorized by good usage ; it becomes necessary to inquire into the mean- ing of this expression. It is evident that usage is the only standard both of speaking and writing ; that it is the high- est tribunal to which, in cases of grammatical controversy, we can appeal. This, however, can not be the case with all usage ; if it were, we might with propriety defend the grossest violations of orthography and S3rntax, for which abundant precedents can be found. That usage alone must be regarded as a standard, which is, I. Beputahle, that is, authorized by the majority of ■writers in good repute : not such as are most meritorious, because on this point individual views may disagree ; but those whose merit is generally acknowledged by the world, respecting which there can be little diversity of opinion. n. JVatiojiaL as opposed to provincial and foreign. The ignorant naturally regard the limited district in Avhich they live as the world at large, and all that it authorizes as correct. The learned are apt to conceive a fondness for foreign tongues, and to transplant thence peculiarities of diction into their own vernacular. Thus originate provincial and foreign usage, neither of which carries with it any weight of authority. § 35G. Wliat is the only standard of ppcakhic: and writinpr ? Why may we not regard all usage as a standard ? To be so regarded, what three essential qualities must usage possess ? What is meant by reputable usage ? Why arc not meri- torious, rather than reputable, authors selected as staudartls ? What is meant by national usage ? Show how provincial and foreign usage originate. To what Is presout usage oppoBed ? IIow far may tho authority of old writers bo admitted ! puRiTir. 275 V III. Present^ as opposed to obsolete. The authority of old writers, however great their fame, can not be admitted in support of a term or expression not used by reputable authors of later date. § 357. We sometimes find, however, that good usage is not unifonn ; that is, that respectable authors can be pro- duced on both sides of a question, in support of two different forms of expression, respecting which there is controversy. In this case, we can not characterize either as barbarous ; yet between them we have to select ; and it is the province of criticism to establish principles by which our choice may be directed. Reference is here made to controverted points ; not to those differences in words and .constructions which are not questions of right and wrong, but allowable varia- tions of expression. In doubtful cases, the following rules will be found of service : — • I. When usage is divided as to any two words or phrases, if either is ever used in a different sense from the one in question while the other is not, employ the latter. Thus, to express consequently^ the two phrases hy consequence and of consequence are employed. The former is prefera- ble, because the expression of consequence may also mean of moment, of importance. II. In the fonns of words, consult the analogies of the language. Thus, contemporary is preferable to cotemporary ; because, in words com- pounded with con, the final w, though expunged before a vowel or h mute, is generally retained before a consonant: as, coincide, coheir, concomitant. We have, indeed, an exception in copartner ; in which, though the radical commences with the consonant p, the final n of con is omitted : but in doubtful cases we must be guided by the rule, and not the exception. III. When there are several different forms in other respects equal, that ought to be preferred which is most agreeable to the ear. Thus amiableness and amiability arc both correct and authorized words, formed according to the analogies of the language ; but, under this rule, the lat- ter, being the more harmonious, should have preference. IV. When there is doubt, if either of the words or expressions in § 357. What do we sometimes find with respect to fjood usage ? In this case, to what must we have recourse ? Give the substance of the first nile, and illus- trate it. As regards the forms of words, what must we consult ? Exemplify this with the word contem,porary. Other things being equal, which form of a word, 276 PROl'KIETY. question would seem, from its etymological form, to have a signification dift"ereiit from that which it commonly bears, we should reject it. Thus, loose and unloose are both used to denote the same idea. Since, how- ever, the prefix un negatives the meaning of the radical, io unloose would etymologically signify io fasten, io iic, and we should therefore, in all cases, give the preference to loose. § 358. The second essential quality of style is PROPRiETi' : which consists in avoiding vulgarisms^ or undignified and low expressions; in choosing correctly between ' words formed from the same radical, which resemble each other in appear- ance, but diifer in application and meaning ; and in employ- ing words only in such acceptations as are authorized by good usage. Vulgarisms are out -of place in every variety of composition except low burlesques. Under this head are included, not only coarse expres- sions, such as " io iurn up one's nose at any thing ", but also words which are proper enough in conversation but not sufficiently dignified for com- l)Osition. The latter are technically called colloquialisms ; " by dhU of argument," " not a whit better," " to gd a disease," will serve as exam- ples. Young writers naturally express themselves in writing as they would in speaking. Hence colloquialisms, unless they exercise great care, will constantly occur in their compositions. The second fault which violates Propriety is the confounding of kin- dred derivatives, in the case of which the writer is misled by the resem- blance in the appearance of the words, though the difference between their respective meanings may be so great that they can hardly be re- garded as synonymes. Thus, from fdse we have three nouns formed, which are too often used without proper discrimination,— /a/«cne««, falsUiiy and falsehood. The following distinction should be observed in their, use : — falseness is equivalent to the want of truth, and is applied to per- sons only : falsity and falsehood are applied to things alone ; the former denotes that abstract quality which may be defined as contrarieti/ to truth^ the latter is simply an untrue assertion. AVe speak of the falseness of one who icWs falschood'i, and expose the falsity of his pretensions. nccording to the third mlo, shonld be preferred ? Qlvo the substance of the fourth rule, and apply it in the case of loose nnd unloose. § ;i58. What Ib the second oBnenlinl (luality of style? In what does propriety consist? Where alone are vulgarisms admissible? What are included under this head ? What writers are apt to fnll into colloquialisms ? What is the second fanlt which violates propriety ? Give the three nouns derived from J'altie ; show the proper application, aud illustrate the use, of each. Define the two derivatives EXERCISE ON PURITY AND PROtRlETY. 277 So, observation and observance are often confounded. The radical, ta observe^ signifies both to note^ to mark, and to keep, to celebrate. In its former acceptation, it gives rise to the verbal noun observation ; in its latter, to observanr A . PRECISION. §*359. The third essential proioerty of style is Pee- cisiON. This term is derived from the Latin prmcidere^ to cut off ; and the property so called consists in the use of such words as exactly convey the meaning, and nothing more. Suppose we mean to say, " Cajsar displayed great courage on the battle-field " ; w^ere we to use fortitude in- stead of courage^ we should violate Precision, because the former quality is displayed in supporting pain, the latter in meeting danger. We should be guilty of the same fault, if we were to employ both words, — " Cajsar displayed great courage and fortitude on the battle-field," — ^because it would be saying more than we mean. § 360. Precision is most frequently violated by a want of discrimination in the use of synonymous terms ; as in the example above, when fortitude is substituted for courage. § 359. What is tbe third essential property of style ? From what is the word precision derived ? In what does the quality so called consist ? Illustrate this with the sentence, " Csesar displayed great courage on the battle-field." S 360. How is precision most frequently violated ? When is one word isaid 280 PRECISION. One word is said to be the synonynie of another, when it means the same thing or nearly the same : as, enough and sufficient ; active^ hrisk^ agile^ and nimble. In such synonymous terms our language abounds, in consequence of its having received additions from many diflferent sources. While a very few of these differ so imj^erceptibly that they may be regarded as almost identical in signification, by far the greater part are distinguished by delicate shades of meaning; and their discriminate use at once denotes the scholar and imparts the finest effect to composition. The habit of using words accurately begets the habit of thinking ac- curately ; the student, therefore, when in the act of composing, can not be too careful in the choice of the words he employs, — can not make a better use of his time than in examining and comparing the various synonymous expressions that present themselves to his mind, and in thus enabling himself to select from among them such as exactly convey his meaning, and nothing more or less. As aids in this improving mental exercise, he will find Webster's Quarto Dictionary and Crabb's "English Synonymes " specially useful. To illustrate this subject, a few synoivymes are here defined in contrast, from which the importance of using them aright will be apparent. I. Custom, habU. Custom is the frequent repetition of the same act ; liahit is the effect of such repetition. By the custom of early rising, we form habits of diligence. Custom applies to men collectively or individu- ally ; habit applies to them as individuals only. Every nation has it* customs ; every man has his peculiar liahits. II. Surprise, astonish, amaze, confound. "We are surprised at what is unexpected ; astonished, at what is more unexpected, and at what is vast or great ; amazed, at what is incomprehensible, or what unfavorably affects our interests ; confounded, at what is shocking or terrible. We ai-e surprised to meet a friend, at an hour when he is generally engaged at home ; we arc astonished to meet one whom we supposed to be across the ocean ; we arc amazed to meet a person of whose death we have been in- formed ; wc are confounded to hear that a family of our acquaintance have been poisoned. III. Abhor, detest. To abhor implies strong dislike ; to detest com- to be the synonyme of another? Why arc Kynonymous tonus numerous in our language? What is said respecting their shades of mo^in lug? How can an ex- amination into these delicate difTorences of signification benefit the student? Stiow and illustrate the diflTcrence between custom and fialM ; between eurprite^ PKECISION. 281 biues with this dishke an equally strong disapprobation. We abhor being in debt ; we detest treachery. lY, Onljj^ alone. Only imports that there is no other of the same kind ; alone imports being accompanied by no other. An only child is one that has neither brother nor sister ; a child alone, is one that is left by itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise language, bet^veen the two phrases, " virtue only makes us happy," and " virtue alone makes us happy." The former implies that nothing else can do it ; the latter, that virtue itself, unaccompanied with other advantages, is sufficient to insure our happiness. V. Entire, complete. A thing is entire when it wants none of its parts ; complete, when it lacks none of its appendages. A man may have an entire house to himself, and yet not have one complete apartment. VI. Enough, sufficient. Miough, properly speaking, has reference to the quantity one wishes to have; sufficient, to that which one needs. The former, therefore, generally implies more than the latter. The miser may have sufficient, but never has enough. VII. Avow, acknowledge, confess. Each of these words implies the admission of a fact, but under different circumstances. To avow sup- poses the person to glory in the admission ; to acknowledge implies a small fault, for which the acknowledgment compensates ; to cojifess is used in connection with greater offences. A patriot avows his opposition to a tyrant, and is applauded ; a gentleman acknoioledges his mistake, and is forgiven ; a prisoner confesses his crime, and is punished. § 361. The precise writer rejects all unnecessary words : he does not, for instance, say that such a thing can not possibly be, or must necessarily be, because possibly and necessarily imply nothing more than can and must. He does not, after having made a statement, repeat it without any modification of the idea, in several different clauses, imagining that he is thereby adding to what has been said. Such unmeaning repetitions are called redundancies, and no other fault so enfeebles style. Addison, at the beginning of his Cato, is guilty of several gross re- dundancies : — astonish^ amaze, and confound ; between a^Jwr and detest ; between only and alone; between entire and complete; between enough and sufficient; between avow, acknowledge, and confess. § 361. What is said of the precise writer ? What are radundancies ? What is their effect on style? Who is mentioned as guilty of this fault? Kepeat the 282 fEECISION. " The dawn is overcaBt, the morning lowere, And heavUy in clouds brings on the day» The great, the important day, big with the fate Of Cato and of Rome." In the first two lines, the same sentiment is three times repeated in different words. " The dawn is overcast," means no more than " the morning lowers " ; and both these expressions denote precisely the samo thing as the line that follows. In the third line, three synon}Tnous ex- pressions appear, — ** the great^ the important day, big with the fate ". In revising a composition, special regard must be had to Precision. Unnecessary words (and sometimes many will be found) must be un- sparingly pruned out. The best method of avoiding such superfluities, or of breaking up a loose style, when once formed, is to endeavor, before writing, to get a well-defined conception of the subject. Redundancies often proceed from the writer's not having any precise idea himself of what he wants to say. § 362. Another violation of Precision consists in the af- fected substitution for the names of persons or the terms which we ordinarily apply to abstract ideas, circumlocutions expressive of some attribute, which may belong to another object, dnd is therefore liable to be mistaken by the reader. Thus, Shaftesbury, devoting several images of one of his worlcs to Aristotle, names him only as " the master critic," " the mighty genius and judge of art," "the prince of critics," " the grand master of art," and " the consummate philolo- gist," — leaving the reader to infer who is meant by these high-sounding titles. So, in another passage, without des- ignating them by name, he alludes to Homer, Socrates, and Plato, respectively, as " the grand poetic sire," " the philo- sophical patriarch," and "his disciple of noble birth and lofty genius ". In like manner, when the proper name has been mentioned, an allu- sion to the same individual by means of a circumlocution is apt to give the reader a wrong impression ; as, " Literary and scientific men hastened passage, and point out tho redundancies. In revising a composition, to what must special regard bo had ? Wliat is the best method of avoiding superflnitles and breaking up a loose style ? From what do redundancies often proceed ? § 3(52. What other violation of precision is here alluded to ? Show how Shaftes- bury violates this principle. When tlie proper name has been mentioned, what is the effect of alluding lo tho earn© individual by means of a circumlocution ? II* lustrate thiss PKECISION. 283 to the court of Charlemagne, anxious to secure the favor of the greatest monarch of his age." A reader ignorant of history might suppose that it was not Charlemagne's favor, but that of some other monarch residing at his court, that they were desirous of securing. A slight change will prevent the possibiUty of mistake as to the meaning : " Anxious to secure the favor of Charlemagne, literary and scientific men hastened to his court." EXEECISE. In the following sentences, when two synonymes are presented within brackets, select the proper one; when Precision is violated, correct the error : — 1. He [only, or alone ?] of all their number had sufficient resolution to declare himselfready to proceed. — This circumstance [only, or alone?] is sufficient to prove the worthlessness of the criticism. — On questioning them, they all denied knowledge of the fact except one [only, or alone ?], in whose countenance I traced evident signs of guilt. 2. As soon as you have heard [enough, or sufficient ?] music, we will adjourn to the other apartment. — I am obliged to remain here, because I have not [enough, or sufficient?] money to proceed on my journey. 3. We [avow, ac- knowledge, or confess?] an omission 'of duty; — we a debt; — the crimmal can not be persuaded to ; — the martyr s his faith. 4. The equipment of the ship is [entire, or complete ?]. 6. A being who has nothing ta pardon or forgive in himself may reward every man ac- cording to his works. 6. The physician enjoined temperance and ab- stinence on his patient. 7. There was no tenant in the house ; it was [vacant, or empty ?]. — The house was stripped of its furniture ; it was entirely [vacant, or empty ?]. — Mr. D.'s death has left a [vacant, or empty ?] seat in the Board. 8. Paley has said that man is a bundle of [customs, or habits ?]. — Many great men have the [custom, or habit?] of taking snuflf. — The [custom, or habit ?] of going to church may pro- duce [customs, or habits ?] of piety. 9. The general said that he [re- ceived, or accepted ?] with pride and satisfaction this token of their friendship. 10. Though numerous applications were made for the pris- oner's [forgiveness, or pardon?], they were all [unsuccessful, or ineffec- tual ?]. 11. The pleasures of imagination are more preferable than those of sense. 12. This is the chiefest objection that I have to such a course. 13. No man of spirit can acquiesce in, and remain satisfied with, this de- cision. 14. This wavering and unsettled policy can not be too strongly condemned. 15. I am certain and confident that the account I have given is correct and true. 16. He then made his statement and related his story. 17. We rested beneath the umbrageous shadow of a shady oak, and then again resumed our journey anew. 18. The brightness of pros- perity, shining on the anticipations of futurity, casts the shadows of ad- versity into the shade, and causes the prospects of the future to look bright. 19. We often conjure up grounds of apprehension, and givp ourselves unnecessary uneasiness. 20. The magistrate questioned the prisoner minutely and examined him at length. 21. Now, if the fabric of the mind or temper appeared to us such as it really is ; if we saw it impossible to remove hence any one good or orderly affection, or to in- 284r. C'LEAKic ? In what department of HAKMONY. 305 may be made to resemble the sense with the happiest effect. This can sometimes be accomplished in prose, but is to be looked for chiefly in poetry, where inversions and other licenses give us a greater command of sound. The sounds of words are employed for representing, chiefly, three classes of objects : first, other sounds ; secondly, differ- ent kinds of motion ; thirdly, the passions of the mind. The simplest variety of this kind of Harmony is the imitation, by a proper choice of words, of striking sounds which we wish to describe ; such as the noise of waters, or the roaring of winds. This imitation is not difficult. No great degree of art is required in a poet, when he is describing sweet and soft sounds, to use words that are composed principally of liquids and vowels, and therefore glide easily along; or, when he is speaking of harsh noises, to throw together a number of rough syllables of difficult pronunciation. This is, in fact, no more than a continued onomatopoeia, a rhetorical figure already de- fined ; it is simply carrying out a principle which has operated in the formation of many words in our language. In common conversation we speak of the whistling of winds, the shriek of the eagle, the whoop of the Indian, the buzz of insects, and the hiss of serpents. These sounds we express respectively by articulate sounds which resemble them ; and this is just what the poet seeks to do, only at greater length, and by combi- nations instead of individual words. The first two examples are passages from Paradise Lost, representing respectively the sounds made by the unclosing of the gates of Hell, and the opening of the portals of Heaven. Observe how admirably these sentences are adapted, each to its subject ; how harsh the one, how har- monious the other : — " On a sudden, open fly, With impetuous recoil and jarring sound, The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate Harsh thundei-." "Heaven opened wide Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound, On golden hinges turning." composition, chiefly, is this beauty to be looked for, and why ? What thre« classes of objects are oftenest thus represented by sounds ? What is the simplest variety of this kind of harmony ? How may sweet and soft sounds be reprei?ent- ed ? How, harsh noises ? What figure is thus carried out ? Give examples of words formed in imitation of the sounds which they denote. What do the first two examples represent? How do they compare with each other? What poet, 306 IIAKMONY. None knew better than Pope the effect of this higher kmd of Har- mony. He thus, m the Odyssey (xxi., 449), represents the sound of a bow-string : — " The string, let fly, Twanged short and sharp, like the ehrlll swallow's cry." So, in his Iliad (xxiii., 146), he imitates the noise of axes and falling oaks : — *' Loud sounds the axe, redoubling strokes on strokes, On all sides round the forest hurls her oaks Headlong. Deep echoing groan the thickets brown, Then, rustling, crackling, crasIUng, thunder downy The roaring of a whirlpool he describes in the following terms : — " Dire Scylla there a scene of horror forms, And here Charybdis fills the deep with storms ; When the tide rushes from her rumbling caves, Tlie rough rock roars ; tumultuous boil the waves." In allusion to the very subject before us, — i. e. making the sound, in poetry, resemble the sense, — the same author gives a precept, and strik- ingly illustrates it, in a single line : — " But, when loud surges lash the sounding shore. The /loarse rough verse should like the torrent roar^ In the second place, the sound of words is often em- ployed to imitate motion, whether swift or slow, violent or gentle, equable or interrupted. Though there is no natural affinity between sound and motion, yet in the imagination they are closely connected, as appears from the relation sub- sisting between music and dancing. Long syllables naturally give the impression of slow and difficult motion, as in these lines of Pope : — " A needless Alexandrine ends the song ; That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along^ " Just writes to make his barrenness appear. And strains from hard-bound brains eight lines a year^ A succession of short syllables containing but few consonants de- notes rapid motion, as in the last of the following lines from Cowley, In particular, has attained this higher kind of harmony ? Repeat the lines in which ho represents the sound of a bow-string ; tliose in which he Imitates tho noise of axes and falling oaks ; those in which he describes tho roaring of a whirlpool ; those in which he alhidcs to tlic subject under cousidcmtion. What is the second variety of this kind of harmony ? What is said of the con- nection between sound and motion ? How is the impression of slow and diffi- cult motion conveyed? Illustrate this from Pope. How is rapid motion de* HAEMONY. 307 TThich Johnson says, as an example of representative versification, " per- haps no other English line can equal ". " He who defers this work from day to day, Does on a river's bank expecting stay, Till the whole stream that stopped him shall be gone,— Which runs, and, as it rum, forever shall run on.'''' Pope furnishes an example of easy metrical flow, which admirably represents the gentle motion of which he speaks : — " Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows, And the snwoth stream in smoother numbers flows.'''' A. sudden calm at sea is well painted in the following lines : — " Then the shrouds drop ; The downy feather, on the cordage hung. Moves not : the flat sea shines like yellow gold Fused in the fire, or like the marble floor Of some old temple wide." Sounds are also capable of representing the emotions and passions of the mind : not that there is, logically speak- ing, any resemblance between the two ; but inasmuch as dif- ferent syllabic combinations awaken certain ideas, and may thus predispose the reader's mind to sympathy with that emotion on which the poet intends to dwell. Of this, Dryden's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day is a striking exemplification ; as, also, is Collins's Ode on " The Passions ". An extract or two from the latter poem will sufficiently illustrate the subject ; it will be observed that the words, the metre, and the cadence, admirably correspond with the emotion in each case depicted : — "Next Anger rushed, his eyes on Are, In lightnings owned his secret stings ; In one rude clash he struck the lyre. And swept with hurried hand the strings." " With woeful measures wan Despair- Low sullen sounds his grief beguiled ; A solemn, strange, and mingled air, 'Twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild I " noted ? Quote, in illustration, a line from Cowley, highly commended by John- eon. Quote a couplet of Pope's, which represents gentle motion. Eepeat the ex- ample in which a sudden cahn at sea is described. What else are sounds capable of representing? Explain how this is possible. What poems afford examples? Repeat the passages quoted from Collins's Ode, and show how the sound corre- sponds with the emotion denoted. 308 EXERCISE ON HARMONY. "But thoa, O Hope, with eyes eo fair, What was thy delighted measure? Still it whispered promised pleasure. And bade the lovely scenes at distance hail I Still would her touch the strain prolong, And from the rocks, the woods, the vale. She called on Echo still through all her Bong ; And where her sweetest theme she chose, A soft responsive voice was heard at every close. And Hope, enchanted, emiled, and waved her golden hair ! ' LESSON LXIII. EXERCISE ON HARMONY. Correct .the following sentences according to the rules for the promotion of Harmony : — 1. No mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, knows to what use his works, whatever they are, may, some time or other, be applied (§ 381). 2. It is likewise urged that there are, by computation, in this kingdom, above ten thousand parsons, whose reve- nues, added to those of my Lords the Bit' bales of goods. 8. A mild child is liked bet- ter than a wild child. 9. St. Augustine lived liolily and godlily. 10. Notwithstanding the barefacedness of his conduct, we could not help pitying the miserableness of his condition. 11, The slow horse that keeps on his course may beat the fast horse that stops to eat or sleep by the way (§ 378). 12. It is he that has committed the deed, at least ao- cessorily. 13. Sobermindedness and shamefacedness are by some con- sidered evidences of virtue. 14. (renerally spoakiitg, a prudent general will avoid a general engagement unless his forces are equal in bravery and discipline to those of his opponent. 15. This is distinctly stated in an encyclical letter of that age. 16. Energy, industry, temperance, and handincss, reconmiend mechanics. 17. Hydrophobia (which is derived from two Greek words, meaning /<(Tr of water ^ and is so called from the aversion to that element which it produces in human patients sutrering from its attack, though it seldom causes a similar aversion in the animal from whose bite it originates) sometimes does not display itself for UNITY. 309 months after the poison has been received into the system. 18. To two tunes I have made up my mind never to listen. 19. Days, weeks, and months, pass by ; the rocks shall waste and man shall turn to dust. 20. In an mialogous case, this might be different. 21. Should liberty con- tinue to be abused, as it has been for some time past, (and, though dem- agogues may not admit it, yet sensible and observing men will not deny that it has been) the people will seek relief in despotism or in emigra- tion. 22. We should carefully examine into, and candidly pass judgment on, our faults. 23. In a few years, the hand of industry may change the face of a country, so that one who was familiar with it may be unable to recognize it as that which he once knew ; but many generations must pass before any change can be wrought in the sentiments or manners of a people cut off from intercourse with the rest of the world, and thereby confined to the sphere of their own narrow experience (§ 380), 24. Confident as you are now in your assertions, and positive as you are in your opinions, the time, be assured, approaches, when things and men will appear in a different light to you. 25. Some chroniclers^ by an inju- dicious use of familiar phrases, express themselves sillily. 26. The scene is laid on an inloiA lake. LESSON LXIV. UNITY. § 385. The last essential property of a good style is Unity ; which consists in the restriction of a sentence to one leading proposition, modified only by such accessories as are materially and closely connected with it. The very nature of a sentence implies that it must contain but one proposition. It may, indeed, consist of parts ; but these must be so bound together as to convey to the mind the im- pression of one fact, and one alone. § 386. The first requirement of Unity is, that during the course of the sentence the scene and the subject be changed as little as possible. The reader must not be hurried by § 886. What is the last essential property of a good style ? In what does imity consist ? What does the nalure of a sentence imply ? If it consists of parts, what must be their character? § 386. What is the first requirement of unity? What is the effect of sudden tnmsitious in a sentence from place to place or from person to person ? Illus- 310 UNITY. sudden transitions from place to place, or from person to person. One leading subject at a time is enough for the mind to contemplate ; when more are introduced, the atten- tion is distracted, the Unity destroyed, and the impression weakened. This, it will be seen, is the effect in the follow- ing sentence, which contains no less than four subjects, — friends, we, Z, who [that is, passengers]. Observe how a slight change in the construction gets rid of two of the sub- jects and thus insures the Unity of the sentence : — " My friends turned back after we reached the vessel, on board of which I was received with kindness by the passengers, who vied with each other in showing me attention." Corrected. — " My friends having turned back after we reached the vessel, the passengers received me on board with kindness, and vied with each other in showing me attention." § 387. A second rule is, do not crowd into one sentence things that have no connection. This rule is violated in the following passage : — " Archbishop Tillot- son died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by King Wil- liam and Queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him." Who, from the beginning of this sentence, would ex- pect such a conclusion ? When we arc told that he was loved by the king and queen, we naturally look for some proof of this affection, or at least something connected with the main proposition ; whereas we are suddenly informed of Dr. Tennison's nomination in his place. To cor- rect such an error, we must remove the discordant idea, and embody it, if it is essential that it be presented, in a distinct sentence : — " He was exceedingly beloved by King William and Queen Mary. Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, was nominated to succeed him." The following sentence, from a translation of Plutarch, is still worse. Speaking of the Greeks, under Alexander, the author says : — " Their march was through an uncultivated coimtry, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish." Hero the scene is changed again and again. The march of the trato this with a sentence containing four Bubjccts, and show bow the toult may be corrected, § 387. What is the second mlo for the preservation of unity? Repeat a pas- sage in which it is violated. Show whorcin the error lies, and correct it. Give the substance of the passage quoted from a translation of Plutarch. What is oly UNITY. 311 Greeks, the description of the inhabitants through whose country they travelled, the account of their sheep, and the reason why these animals made unsavory food, form a medley which can not fail to be distasteful in the highest degree to an intelligent reader. A violation of this rule is fatal to Unity even in periods of no great length, as is apparent from the examples just given ; in sentences unduly protracted, however, there is a still greater liability to err in this particular. The involved style of Clarendon furnishes numerous examples. Nor does he stand alone ; many of the old writers are, in this respect, equally faulty. From Shaftesbury we shall quote a sentence in point. He is describing the effect of the sun in the frozen regions ; beginning with this orb as his prominent subject, he soon proceeds to certain monsters and their exploits ; whence, by an unexpected and unaccountable transition, he suddenly brings man into view, and admonishes him at some length as to his religious duties. The only way to correct such an involved period as this, is to break it up into several smaller sentences : — " It breaks the icy fetters of the main, where vast sea-monsters pierce through floating islands, with arms which can withstand the crystal rock ; whilst others, who of themselves seem great as islands, are by their bulk alone armed against all but man; whose superiority over creatures of such stupendous size and force, should make him mindful of his privilege of reason, and force him humbly to adore the great com- poser of these wondrous frames, and the author of his own superior wisdom." It may be contended that, in passages like the above, punctuation will bring out the meaning by showing the relation between the various parts ; and that, therefore, if commas, semicolons, and colons, are prop- erly used, a violation of Unity may be tolerated. It is true that punc- tuation does much to remedy even faults as gross as those in the last paragraph ; but it must be remembered that the points it employs do not make divisions of thought, but merely serve to mark those already existing, and are therefore proper only when they correspond with the latter. Let those who think that a proper distribution of points will jectionable in it? In what Bentences is a want of unity most likely to occur? Whose long and intricate periods furnish examples ? From whom is a sentence in point quoted ? Give its substance. What mistaken view do some take with respect to the correction of sentences deficient in unity, by means of punctua. tion ? Show why this view is mistaken. 312 UNITY. make up for the want of Unity, try the experiment in the last example. The ideas it contains are so foreign to each other that we must have at least three distinct sentences to express them properly ; yet it is evident that, as the members now stand, periods between them are inadmissible, on account of the closeness of their connection. § 388. In the third place, a regard for Unity requires that we avoid long parentheses. We liave already alluded to their effect as prejudicial to Clearness, Strength, and Har- monj^ In the old writers they are of frequent occurrence, and constitute so palpable a fault that in later times it has been thought the safest course to reject parentheses of every kind. Passages in which they occur, must be divided into as many sentences as there are leading propositions. Example. — The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, (which were discovered in 1*797, by a peasant, who, catching some water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could not move it, and the bot- tom covered with a shining substance which turned out to be mercury) yield, every year, over three hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal. Corrected. — The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, were discov- ered by a peasant in 1797. Catching some water from a spring, he found the tub so heavy that he could not move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance which turned out to be mercury. Of this valuable metal, the mines in question yield, every year, over three hundred thou- gand pounds. EXERCISE. Correct the following sentences so that their Unity may be preserved, altering the punctuation as may be required by the changes made : — 1. The usual acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two different things, and not only calls the followers or votaries of them by the several names of busy and idle men, but distinguishes the faculties of the mind that are conversant about them ; calling the operations of the first, wis- (lorn ; and of the other, wit ; — which is a Saxon word, used to e.\pres!* what the Spaniards and Italians call ingenio, and the French, esprit, both from the Latin : though I think wit more particularly signifies that of poetry, as may occur in remarks on the Runic language. — Sir WiLLiAif Tkmplk. 2. To this succeeded that licentiousness which entered with tlic Restoration, and from infecting our religion and morals fell to cor- rupt our language ; which last was not likely to be much improved by those who at that time made up the court of King Charles the Second ; either such as had followed him in his banishment, or who had been al- 8 388, What is the third rule ? What is the effect of long parenthesee ? THE FOEMING OF STYLE. 313 together conversant in the dialect of these fanatic times ; or young men who had been educated in the same country ; so that the court, which used to be the standard of correctness and propriety of speech, was then, and I think lias ever since continued, the worst school in England for that accomplishment ; and so will remain, till better care be taken in the education of our nobility, that they may set out in the world with some foundation of literature, in order to quahfy them for patterns of polite- ness. — Swift. 3. We left Italy with a fine wind, which continued three days ; when a violent storm drove us to the coast of Sardinia, which is free from all kinds of poisonous and deadly herbs, except one ; which resembles parsley, and which, they say, causes those who eat it to die of laughing. 4. At Coleridge's table we were introduced to Count Frioli, a foreigner of engaging manners and fine conversational powers, who was killed the following day by a stcan\boat explosion. 5. The lion is a noble animal, and has been known to live fifty years in a state of confinement. 6. Haydn (who was the son of a poor wheelwright, and is best known to us by a noble oratorio called " The Creation ", which he is said to have composed after a season of solemn prayer for divine assist- ance) wrote fine pieces of music when he was no more than ten years old. *?. The famous poisoned valley of Java (which, as Mr. Loudon, a recent traveller in that region, informs us, is twenty miles in length and is filled with skeletons of men and birds ; and into which it is said that the neighboring tribes are in the habit of driving criminals, as a conven- ient mode of executing capital punishment) has proved to be the crater of an extinct volcano, in which carbonic acid is generated in great quan- tities, as in the Grotto del Cane at Naples. 8. The Chinese women are for the most part industrious ; and use, as embellishments of their beauty, paint, false hair, oils, and pork fat, 9. London, which is a very dirty city, has a population of more than three millions. 10. We next took the cars, which were filled to overflowing, and brought us to a landing, where a boat was in waiting that looked as if it were a century old ; but which, while we were examining its worm-eaten sides, put off at a rate which soon showed us that its saiUng qualities were by no means con- temptible, and taught us the practical lesson that it is unsafe to judge of the merits of a thing by its external appearance. LESSON LXV. THE FORMING OF STYLE. § 389. As we have now considered the various kinds of style, and the essential properties which should be preserved in them all, it may not be out of place to add a few practi- cal suggestions respecting the best mode of forming a char- U 314 THE FORMING OF BTYLE. acteristic manner of expressing one's thoughts. Whether a young composer's style is to be concise or diffuse, simple or labored, nervous or feeble, will depend, of course, in a great measure, on the bent of his mind when he shall liave attained mature years ; but, as it is necessary to begin com- posing at an early age, it is unsafe to trust to the vicissi- tudes of natural temperament, and run the risk of contract- ing bad habits, which, when discovered, it may be hard to lay aside. These difficulties it is best to avoid by employ- ing, from the outset, such aids as reason and experience rec- ommend. The object in so doing is not to sacrifice nature to art, to restrain the flow of genius, or to destroy individu- ality of manner : but, on the other hand, to promote the healthy development of this individuality ; to modify its ex- travagances, suppress those of its features which are objec- tionable, and cultivate with the utmost care such as are meritorious and pleasing. § 390. In the first place, give careful and earnest thought to the subject about which you propose to write. Though at first sight this may seem to have little to do with the for- mation of style, the relation between the two is in reality extremely close. Before we have ourselves obtained a full, clear, and decided view of a subject, we can not hope to communicate such an impression of it to others. The habit of writing without first having distinct ideas of what we intend to say, will inevitably produce a loose, confused, and slovenly, style. § 391. Secondly, compose frequently. Rules are of sei*- vice, but they are not intended to take the place of practice. Nothing but exercise will give facility of composition. § 392. In the third place, compose slowly and with care. It is to hasty and careless writing that a bad style may gen- § 889. On what will the characteristics of a young composer's style, in a great measure, depend ? What is said of the necessity of using aids in the formation of style ? What is the object in so doing ? § 31H). Wlmt is the flrPt nilo relating to the formation of style ? Wliat is said of the connection between stylo and thought? What will inevitably result from writing without having distinct ideas of what we intend to say ? § 391. What is the second rule t THTD FOEMINO CiF STYLE. B15 erally be traced. Faults are thus contracted, which it will cost infinite trouble to unlearn. Quintilian (bk. x., cli. 3) alludes to this point in the following terms : — " I enjoin that such as are beginning the practice of composi- tion -write slowly and with anxious deliberation. Their great object, at first, should be to write as well as possible ; practice will enable them to write quickly. By degrees, matter will offer itself still more readily ; words will be at hand ; composition will flow ; every thing, as in the ar- rangement of a well-ordered family, will present itself in its proper place. The sum of the whole is this : by hasty composition we shall never ac- quire the art of composing well ; by writing well, we shall soon be able to write speedily." § 393. Fourthly, revise carefully. Nothing is more necessary to what is written, or more important to the writer. "Condemn," says Horace, in his Epistle to the Pisos, V. 292-294, " condemn that poem which many a day and many a blot have not corrected, and castigated ten times to perfect accuracy." Even the most experienced writers are apt to commit oversights, for which revision is the only remedy. If we put aside what has been writ- ten till the expressions we have used are forgotten, and then review our work with a cool and critical eye, as if it were the performance of an- other, we shall discern many imperfections which at first were overlooked. This is the time for pruning away redundancies ; for seeing that the parts of sentences are correctly arranged and connected by the proper parti- cles ; for observing whether the requirements of grammar are strictly complied with ; and for bringing style into a consistent and effective form. Disagreeable as this labor of correction may be, all must submit to it who would attain literary distinction, or even express their thoughts with or- dinary propriety and force. A little practice will soon create a critical taste, and render the work, if not pleasant, at least easy and tolerable. § 394. In the fifth place, study the style of the best au- thors. Notice their peculiarities ; observe what gives effect § 392, What is the third rule ? To what is a bad style generally traceable ? What is Quintilian's advice on this point? § 893. What is the fourth rule ? What does Horace say on this point ? De- scribe the most effective method of revising. To what, in this process, must the author's attention be directed? What is said of the necessity of this labor of correction ? § 394. What is the fifth rule ? Explain what is meant by this. What is said 316 THE FOKMING OF STYLE. to their writings ; compare one with another ; and, in compos- ing, endeavor to avoid their faults and imitate tlieir beauties. No servile imitation is here recommended. Tliis is in the highest de- gree dangerous, generally resulting in stiffness and artificiality of manner, and a lack of self-confidence, which is fatal to success in composition. Avoid adopting a favorite author's peculiar phrases or constructions. " It is infinitely better," says Blair, " to have something that is our own, though of moderate beauty, than to affect to shine in borrowed ornaments, which will, at last, betray the utter poverty of our genius." Modifying our style by assimilating it to one which we particularly admire, or which the world has stamped with its approval, is quite a different thing from laying aside our own individuality entirely, to adopt another's, which we have but a slight chance of being able to maintain. No exercise is likely to aid us more in acquiring a good style than to translate frequently from the writings of some eminent English author into our own words ; to take, for instance, a page of Addison or Gold- smith, and, having read it over until we have fully mastered the meaning, to lay aside the book and attempt to reproduce the passage from memory. A comparison of what we have written with the original will then show us in what the fiiults of our style consist, and how we may correct them ; and, among the different modes of expressing the same thought, will en- able us to perceive which is the most beautiful. § 395. Avoid such mannerism as would prevent you from adapting your style to your subject and to the capac- ity of those you address. Keep the object proposed in view, and let your mode of expression be strictly consistent therewith. Nothing is more absui'd than to attempt a florid, poetical style, on occasions when it is our business only to reason ; or to speak w ith elaborate pomp of expression, be- fore persons to whom such magnificence is unintelligible. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE ON THE ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. In the following sentences, make such corrections as arc required by the rules for Purity, Propriety, Precision, Clear- ness, Strength, Harmony, and Unity : — of servile imitation ? What does Blair say on this subject ? Show the difference between a fservile imitation and the course here advised. What exercise is lllicly to aid us ? § 895. What is the lat^t rule, relating to the adaptation of the style to the sub- ject ? What advice is {,'iveu on this hi ad ? exerOIse on style. 317 1. Misfortunes never arj^ive singly, but crov/d upon us en masse when we arc least able to resist them. 2. A [peaceable, or peaceful ?] valley ," — a [peaceable, or peaceful ?] disposition. 3. I decline accepting of the situation. 4. Petrarch was much esteemed by his countrymen, who, even at the present day, mention with reverence the poll of Vaucluae and the inventor of the sonnet. 5. This is so; and so cruel an [act, or action ?] has rarely been heard of. 6. The lad can not leave his father ; for, if he should leave /w'wi, he would die. 7. The works of art receive a great ad- vantage from the resemblance which they have to those of nature, be- cause here the similitude is not only pleasant, but the pattern is perfect. 8. A friend exaggerates a man's virtues ; one who is hostile endeavors to magnify his crimes (§ 3'74). 9. This is not a principle that we can act on and adhere to. 10. Diana of the Ephesians is great. 11. We do things frequently that we repent of afterwards. 12. Great and rich men owe much to chance, which gives to one what it takes from others. 13. There are those who allow their envy of those wJio are more fortunate than them- selves to get the better of them to such an extent that they try to injure them all they can. 14. [Classic, or classical ?] and English school ; — a [classic, or classical?] statue. 15. Running out to see whether there was a new emeute^ which the havtcnr of the new governor rendered very plausible, I came within an ace of being done for. IG, They attempted to remain incog. 17. If a man have little meiit, he had need have much modesty. 18. The laws of nature are truly what Lord Bacon styles his aphorisms, — laws of laws. Civil laws are always imperfect, and often false deductions from them, or applications of them ; nay, they stand, in many instances, in direct opposition to them. 19. Being content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it. 20. That temperamental dignotions, and conjectures of prevalent humors, may be collected from spots in our nails, we are not averse to concede. 21. It can not be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore, in such a country, whatever it might be in the Abbot of St. Real's, which was Savoy, I think ; or in Peru, under the Incas, where Garcilasso de la Vega says it was lawful for none but the nobility to study — for men of all degrees to instruct themselves in those affairs wherein they may be actors, or judges of those that act, or controllers of those that judge. 22. The moon Avas casting a pale light on the numer- ous graves that were scattered before me, as it peered above the horizon when I opened the little gate of the church-yard. 23. This work, having been fiercely attacked by critics, he proposes for the present to lay aside. 24. Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation obscures t7icm, and that their commendable qualities do stand in their light ; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure the)7i. 25. In this uneasy state, both of his public and private life, Cicero was oppressed by a new and cruel afiiiction, the death of his beloved daughter, Tullia, which happened soon after her divorce from Dolabella, whose manners and humors were entirely disagreeable to her. 26. The erroneous judgment of parents concerning the conduct of schoolmasters, has crushed the peace of many an ingenious man who is engaged in the care of youth ; and paved the way to the ruin of hopeful boys. 27. The discontented man (as his spleen irritates and sours his temper, and leads him to discharge its venom on all with whom he stands connected) is never found without a great share of malignity. 28. We have been chomed out of our rights by these clod-polls and blackguards. 29. As no 318 CRITICISM. one is free from faults, so few want good qualities (§ 378). 30. No man of feeling can look upon the ocean without /ec^m/y an emotion of grandeur. \\\. The niei'cenariness of many tradesmen leads them to speak derogatoi-ily of their neighbors. 32. With Cicero's i^nVings, it is riglU that young di- vines should be conversant ; but they should not give them the prefer- ence to Demosthenes, who, by many degrees, excelled the other ; at least as an orator. 33. After he has finished his elementary studies, which will discipline his mind, and fit it for the pursuit of more advanced branches, I advise him to conunence with the ancient languages, which '^ill, by easy stages, prepare him for the acquisition of the modern tongues ; whence he may with propriety proceed to the careful study of the higher departments of mathematics and belles-lettres, which form an important part of every scholar's education. 34. Such were the prudence and energy of Cicero's course during this critical state of afiairs, that his countrymen overlooked his self-conceitedness^ and vied with each other in testifying their respect to " the father of his country ". 35. He used to •me many expressions, which, though useful^ are not usually used, and have not come into general use. LESSON LXVI. CRITICISM. g 398. JDefiiiitlon. — Criticism (from the Greek Kpivo, 1 judge) may be defined as the art of judging with propriety concerning any object or combination of objects. In the more limited signification in wliich it is generally used, its province is confined to literature, philology, and the fine arts, and to subjects of antiquarian, scientific, or liistorical, investi- gation. In tliis sense, every branch of literary study, as well as each of the arts, has its proper criticism. § 397. Rules. — It is criticism that has developed the rules and principles of Rhetoric. As was remarked wlien we first entered on the study of tliis subject, its rules are not arbitrary, but have been deduced from a careful exami- § 890. From what ia the term criticism derived ? What does It Bignify ? As generally used, to what i« it coufined ? S 897. How have the rules and principles of rhetoric been developed f What CRITICISM. 310 nation of those great productions wliich have been admired as beautiful in every age. Nor has beauty been the sole ob- ject of the critic's search. Truth, particularly in history and the sciences, it has been his province not only to seek out, but, when found, to use as a balance in weighing the objects on which he passes judgment. The office of criticism, there- fore, is, first to establish the essential ideas which answer to our conceptions of the beautiful or the true in each branch of study ; and next to point out, by reference to these ideas, the excellencies or deficiencies of individual works, according as they approach, or vary from, the standard in question. Thus, historical criticism teaches us to distinguish the true from the false, or the probable from the improbable, in historical works ; scien- tific criticism has in view the same object in each respective line of sci- ence : literary criticism, in a general sense, investigates the merits and demerits of style or diction, according to the received standard of excel- lence in every language ; while, in poetry and the arts, it develops the principles of that more refined and exquisite sense of beauty which forms the ideal model of perfection in each. § 398. Hdation hetioeen its ancient and its present char- acter. — Criticism originated among the Greeks and Romans at an early day, and was carried by them to a high degree of perfection. Aristotle, Dionysius Halicamasseus, and Longinus, among the former, and, among the latter, Cicero and Quintilian, did much towards awakening a critical taste in their respective countrymen ; enabling them to appreciate propriety of diction, and making them acquainted Avith those minute matters, which, however insignificant they may ap- pear, are essential to effective composition. The classical critics, however, confined themselves mainly to that department of their art which has reference to the principles of beauty. Their sphere of knowledge being more limited than ours, their minds beeides beauty has been the object of the critic's search ? What, then, is the oflace of criticism? What does historical criticism teach us? What is the ob- ject of scientific criticism ? What, of literary criticism ? § 398. What is said of criticism among the ancient Greeks and Romans ? What authors are mentioned as distinguished in this department? What eflfect did their efforts produce on their countrymen ? To what did the classical critics con- ^20 CRITICISE. were more sedulously exercised in reflecting on their own )erceptiona. Hence the astonishing progress they made in the fine arts ^ and hence, in literature, beauty of language and sentiment was their hi^iiest aim. Accordingly, the criticisms of antiquity relate almost exclusively vo liter- ature and the arts ; and the terra is, therefore, still confined, in its most popular signification, to those provinces of research. The criticism of truth, which pertains chiefly to history and science, was of later origin ; but may be regarded as closely allied to the criti- cism of beauty, inasmuch as it is regulated by analogous principles, and minds which possess a high degree of judgment in the one are generally capable of farming right apprehensions in the other. One principle, im- portant to be noted, is equally true of each : that, whether beauty or truth is the aim, extensive knowledge of the subject, as well as education and practice, is necessary in the sound critic ; — yet knowledge alone is not suflicient; the ability to discriminate and judge correctly is still more important, and this no knowledge, however great, can stipply. To be acquainted with a rule, and to be able to apply it in difficult eases, are entirely different things. § 399. Literary Criticism. — ^We have here to do with criticism, only so far as it pertains to the works of literature. The rules of good writing having been deduced in the manner above described, it is the business of the critic to employ them as a standard, by a judicious comparison with which he may distinguish what is beautiful and what is faulty in every performance. He must look at the sentiments expressed, and judge of their correctness and consistency ; he nmst view the performance as a whole, and see whether it clearly and properly embodies the ideas intended to be conveyed ; he must examine whether there is sufficient variety in the style, must note its beauties, and show, if it is susceptible of improvement, in what tliat improvement should consist ; he must see whether the principles of syntax or rhetoric are violated ; and, finally, must extend his scrutiny even to the line themselves ? How Is the astonishing progress of the ancients in the fine arts explained ? In literature, what was their highest aim ? Acconlipgly. to what did thdr criticisms relate? To wlint does the criticism of t rath chiefly rcfor? Wliiit is the coimection between it and the criticism of beauty? What impor- tant principle is equally true of hotii ? § 31)9. With whnt department of criticism have we here to do? Point owt the various duties of the literary critic. By what must he be guided ? To what CEITICISM. ^21 individual words employed. And all this must be done with- out allowing prejudice to bias his decisions, or the desire of displaying his own knowledge to lead him from the legiti- mate pursuit of his subject. The critic must be guided by feeling as well as rules ; otherwise, his efforts will result in a pedantry as useless as it is distasteful. He should not, on account of minor imperfections, condemn, as a whole, a perform- ance which evinces in its author deep and correct feeling, or possesses other merits equally important. He should carefully draw a distinction between what is good and what is bad, giving full credit for the one and showing how to correct the other. His criticisms should not be con- fined to little faults and errors, which no writer, however careful, has been able entirely to avoid. A true critic will rather dwell on excel- lencies than on imperfections ; will seek to discover the concealed beau- ties of a writer, and communicate to the world such things as are worthy of their observation. This, indeed, is a more difficult task, and involves a more delicate taste and a profounder knowledge, than indiscriminate fault-finding. As Dryden has justly remarked, " Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow ; He who would search for pearls, must dive below.'" § 400. Abuse. — The most exquisite words and finest strokes of an author are those which often appear most ex- ceptionable to a man deficient in learning or delicacy of taste ; and it is these that a captious and undistinguishing critic generally attacks with the greatest violence. In this case, recourse is often had to ridicule. A little wit is capa- ble of making a beauty as well as a blemish the subject of derision. Though such treatment of an author may have its effect with some, who erroneously think that the sentiment criticised is ridiculous instead of the wit with which it is at- tacked, yet in the intelligent reader it will naturally produce indignation or disgust. Fhould his criticisms not be confined ? On what will the true critic dwell ? Is the discovery of beauties or defects the more difficult task ? What couplet of Dryden's illustrates this point ? § 400. What is said of an author's most exquisite words and finest strokes ? To what does tlie malicious critic often have recourse ? What is said of the use of wit or ridicule in criticism? What habit is a critic who indulges in ridicule apt to form ? How is pleasantry of this kind characterized ? 322 CRITXCISM. When, moreover, a critic frequently indulges in such a course, he is apt to find fault with every thing against which he can bring this favorite Aveapon to bear ; and often censures a passage, not because there is any thing wrong in it, but merely from the fact that it affords him an oppor- tunity of being merry at another's expense. Such pleasantry is unsea- sonable, as well as disingenuous and unfair. § 401. Objections, — The objection most commonly urged against criticism is that it abridges the natural liberty of genius, and imposes shackles wliich are fatal to freedom of thought and expression. This argument has been noticed before. It is sufficient here to say that the cutting off of faults can not be called an abridgment of freedom ; or, if it can, it is well that such freedom should be abridged. The reasonable author is not unwilling to have his work examined by the principles of good taste and sound understanding ; and this is all that the true critic proposes to do. There may, indeed, be some unreasonable critics who carry their strict- ures to the verge of personal abuse ; but their violence gives no more ground for objecting to healthy and proper criticism than the fact that there are unsound reasoners affords for inveigliing against all logic. A more specious objection is sometimes made, which is aimed particularly at the principles on which criticism is founded. These, it is charg-ed, are arbitrary and untrue, be- cause it sometimes happens that what tlie critic condemns the pubUc receive with approbation. Were this often the case, there would be ground to doubt whether the art of the critic, and indeed all the departments of rhetoric, are not resting on a false foundation. Such instances, though very rare, do sometimes occur. It must be admitted that works containing gross violations of the rules of art have attained a general and even a lasting reputation. Such are tlie plays of Shakspeare, which, considered as dramatic poems, are § 401. What is most commonly urged as an objection acrainst critlciBm ? How is tliiu objection answered? What more specious objection is eonielimcs ad- vanced? What admission is made? Explain how this fact furnishes no argu- ment la favor of tho objector. Whose produetious are instanced as having CRITICISM. 323 irregular in the highest degree. But it must be observed that they have gained public admiration, not by their trans- gressions of the laws of criticism, but in spite of such trans- gressions. The beauties they possess, in points where they conform to the rules of art, are sufficient to overshadow their blemishes and inspire a degree of satisfaction superior to the disgust arising from the latter. Shakspeare pleases, not by bringing the transactions of many years into one play, not by his mixture of tragedy and comedy in the same piece, nor by his strained thoughts and affected witticisms. These we regard as blemishes, traceable to the tone of the age in which he lived. But these faults are forgotten in his ani- mated and masterly representations of character, his lively descriptions, his striking and original conceptions, and above all his nice appreciation of the emotions and passions of the human heart; beauties which true criticism teaches us to value no less than nature enables us to feel. We have not here the space for an example of extended criticism. Blair, whose lucid pen, correct taste, sound judg- ment, and extensive reading, eminently fitted hun for the task, furnishes in his Lectures (xx.-xxiv.) several admirable papers on the style of Addison and Swift. To these, the student who wishes specimens of critical writing extended to some length, will do well to refer. We here present a brief examination of two passages in which verbal criticism is exemplified. SPECIMENS OP VERBAL CRITICISM. 1, " Man, considered in himself, is a very helpless and a very wretched beiujji Launched alone on the sea of life, he would soon suffer shipwreck." We have here a proposition strikingly true, expressed in clear and forcible terms. The first word, " man," is universally employed by the best authors as an appellative for the human race. " Man, considered in himself," signifies, the human family viewed as individuals independent of each other. In this state, says the author, he is " a very helpless being". The term " helpless " here implies the want of power to succor himself: and it is evident that, if man were left to himself in infancy, gained a world-wide popularity in spite of their irregularities ? To what is this popularity attributahle ? 324 CRITICISM. he would perish; and that, if altogether detached from society in man- hood, it would be only with great difficulty that he could procure for himself either the comforts or the necessaries of life. But man, " considered in himself," is not only a very helpless, but also "a A^ery wretched being". It will be observed that additional em- phasis is here communicated by the repetition of the article and the ad- verb. He is not merely a very helpless and wretched being, but " a very helpless and a very wretched being". The term "wretched" is gen- erally used as synonymous with nnJiappif or miserable ; but, in this pas- sage, it expresses the meaning of the author more precisely than either of these words would have done. Unhappy may denote merely the un- easiness of a man who may be happy if he pleases ; the discontented arc nnhappy, because they think others more prosperous than themselves. Miserable is applied to persons whose minds are tormented by the stings of conscience, agitated by the violence of passion, or harassed by worldly vexations ; and, accordingly, we say that wicked men are miserable. But " wretched ", derived from the Saxon word for an exile, literally signifies cciat away, or abandoned. Hence appears the proper application of the word in this sentence : man, if left to himself, might indeed exist in a solitary state without being either unhappy or miserable, provided his bodily wants were supplied ; though he certainly would be a very " wretched " being, when deprived of all the comforts of social life, and all the endearments of friends and kindred. Having thus stated his proposition, the author illustrates it with a metaphor. The figure, though appropriate, is trite ; life has, from time immemorial, been compared to a sea, and man to a vo^'ager. An origi- nal comparison, which a little thought could hardly have failed to sug- gest, would have been more striking and effective. 2. " Education is the most excellent endowment, as it enlarges the mind, pro- motes its powers, and renders a man estimable in the eyes of society." This sentence, though it contains many pompous words, is a remark- able example of a style which lacks propriety. Education is not an " endowment " ; for an endowment is a natural gift, such as taste or imagination. Education does not " enlarge " the " mind " ; though it may, in a figurative sense, enlarge its capacities. Neither can it "pro- mote " the mental " powers " themselves ; but it may promote their im- provement. Nor does it follow, that, because a man has improved his mind by education, he is on tiiat account "estimable", esteem being pro- duced only by intrinsic worth ; but a good education may render a man respectable. The sentiment which the author intended to convey should have been expressed thus: "Education is the most excellent attainment, as it enlarges the capacities of the mind, promotes their improvement, and renders a man respectable in the eyes of society." PART IV. PROSE COMPOSITION. LESSON LXVII. INVENTION. — ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. § 402. Up to the present point, the attention of the stu- dent has been directed chiefly to the dress in which he should clothe his thoughts ; we now proceed to the thoughts themselves, and those practical exercises in composition, to prepare for which has been the object of the preceding pages. The process of evolving thoughts in connection with any particular subject is known as Invention. It is this that furnishes the material of composition, and on which, in a great measure, its value depends. Here, moreover, lies most of the difficdty which the young expe- rience in writing. Let them have definite thoughts, and they will gen- erally find it easy to express themselves. But how are they to deal with intangible things ; to form the necessary conceptions ; and to insure that, when formed, they will be worthy of being embodied and preserved § 402. Up to the present point, to what has the student's attention been di- rected ? To what do we now proceed ? What is Invention ? What does it fur- nish ? What is said of the difllculty which the youug experieuce in writing ? 326 INVENTION. in language ? This question we now proceed to answer ; not claiming that the want of intellectual ability can be supplied by this or any other course ; yet believing that those to whom composition is distasteful, will, by pursuing the plan here prescribed, find most of their difficulty vanish, and that all who fairly test the system will improve more rapidly than they could do if left to chance or their own unaided efforts. § 403. As soon as a subject lias been selected, the first thing required is thought, — careful, deliberate, concentrated, thought. When Newton was asked how he had succeeded in making so many great discoveries, he replied, " By think- ing." This labor the composer must undergo ; no instruc- tion or aid from foreign sources can take its place. It must be patient and deliberate thought, moreover, not hasty or superficial ; it must be original thought, not a reproduction of the ideas of others ; it must be well-directed thought, fixed on a definite object, and not allowed to ^vander from one thing to another ; it must be exhaustive thought, em- bracing the subject in all its relations. When this task has been fairly performed, the next step is in order. This is an Analysis of the subject, or a drawing out of the various heads which suggest themselves to the mind as appropriate to the theme of discourse. Such heads will of course differ according to the subject mider considera- tion, as will appear when we treat in turn of the different kinds of composition. There is so general a resemblance be- tween them, however, that from an example or two there will be no difficulty in understanding what is here meant. Suppose, for instance, that Anger is the subject. On a little reflec- tion, such questions as the following will suggest themselves to the com- poser ; and, as they occur, he notes them down : — What is meant by the term Anger ? — What visible effect docs this passion produce on the person indulging in it ? — IIow does he feel, when his fit of passion has subsided ? — Morally speaking, what is the charac- §403. When a subject has been pclcctod, what is the first thing required? What kind of thought is hero referred to? To what did Newton attribute his discoveries ? What step is next iu order ? What is meant by analyzing a sub- ject ? Suppose Anger to be the theme, what questions wiil suggest themselves ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. 327 ter of tRis passion? — What are its usual effects on individuals ?— To what may the angry man be compared ? — What examples does history afford ? — What has been said by others respecting Anger ? — What are the best modes of regulating this passion, or of avoiding its occasions ? — What are its effects on society ? — Draw a contrast between a man of calm, placid, temper, and one of a hasty, irritable, disposition. — Show the ad- vantage, under as many heads as possible, of regulating angry feelings. Here, then, is the germ of a composition. Abundant material is now at hand. Thoughts beget thoughts ; from these ideas, others will naturally spring durmg the process of writing. Before proceeding to this, however, it will be necessary to arrange these heads in their proper order, so that a logical connection may be preserved throughout the whole. The leading subject of inquiry must be kept constantly in view, and all thoughts must be rejected that do not bear directly upon it. Unity is as necessary in an extended composition as in a single sentence. The time to insure sequence and unity of parts is when the Analysis is being revised. Beginning with a general introduction, arranging properly, enlarging on some of the heads by following out the trains of thought suggested, and closing with practi- cal reflections, the analysis, as improved by the writer, would stand as follows : — ANALYSIS OP AN ESSAY ON ANGER. I. Introdtidion. The passions in general ; relation which anger sus- tains to the rest. II. Definition. What anger is. A proverb found in various languages says it is " a short-lived madness ". Show why. 1. A man in a violent fit of anger looks as if he were insane ; show in what respects. 2. His mind is 'beyond the control of reason and judgment; it is like a chariot without a driver, or a ship in a storm without a pilot. 3. He says and does things so unreasonable that they must be the result of temporary derangement. He may be compared to a tor- nado, a mountain torrent, or a conflagration, to whose fury none can set bounds, and whose disastrous effects are visited even on the innocent. 4. The world, and even the law, in a measure, deal with him as if he were a maniac. 5. Even the angry man himself admits that he has no control over his reason, deeming it sufficient apology for the most unseemly blow or word to say that it was done in a passion. to the composer ? What will these questions furnish ? Before proceeding to write out the matter they suggest, what is it necessary to do ? What must be kept in view ? What is essential in an extended composition, as well as in a single sentence ? What is the time for insuring sequence and unity of parts ? Aa properly arranged and ready for the writer, give an analysis of an Essay on Anger. 328 Ai^ALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. III. Feelings which follow its induh/ence. Mortification ; humiliation ; re- gret at what may have been done under the influence of passion. "An angry man," says Publius Hyrus, " is again angry with him- self when he returns to reason." lie may be likened to a scorpion which stings itself as well as others. IV. Historical Jllustrations. Cain and Abel ; Alexander the Great and Clitus ; &c. V. Moral Character of Anger. At variance with the principles of the Gospel. " Wrath is cruel, and anger is outrageous." — Prov. xxvii., 4. VI. Quotaiiom. What do others say of anger ? A passionate man rides a horse that runs away with hira. Maundcr's Proverbs, Anger begins with folly, and ends with repentance. — Ibid. Rage is the mania of the mind. — Ibid. A passionate man scourgeth himself with his own scorpions. Hafs Proverbs. An angry man opens his mouth and shuts his eyes.— Ca^o. Anger is certainly a kind of baseness, as it appears well in the weakness of those subjects in whom it reigns, children, old folks, sick folks. — Lord Bacon. When passion enters at the fore-gate, wisdom goes out at the pos tern. — Fieldhufs Proverbs. Anger and haste hinder good counsel. — Ibid. No man is free who docs not command himself. — Pythagoras. VII. Effects of Anger on Society. 1. In individuals, leads to crime, as in the above examples. Makes one enemies, and becomes a source of adversity. Draw a con- trast between a man of placid temper and one of hasty disposi- tion. 2. In families and communities, produces hard feelings and unhap- piness. 3. In nations, causes war and all its attendant evils. VIII. Best Modes of regulating this passion. IX. ConclvMon. Our own duty in this respect, and what we shall gain by controlling our angry feelings. Here, in its proper form, is an abstract of what the writer intends to say. Of course, the worda and formal divisions used above will not ap- pear in his composition. They are merely the means of insuring a proper arrangement and exhaustive examination of the subject. The Invention is now in a great measure done ; all that remains is to embody these thoughts in proper language, according to the rules and principles already considered at length, and to interweave with them such further matter as presents itself. This is called Amplification, and will be considered ia In a composition from this analygis, what will not appear? For what «x» they used ? What now remains ? What is the process called ? By what most R l)c followed ? Euumcratc tqc three Ptcps to be taken in composing. What way A]VIPLIFICATION. 820 the next lesson. Followed by a careful revision, it completes the process of composing ; which consists, to sum up our remarks, of three steps : — I. Roughly drafting all the thoughts suggested by the subject. II. Arranging and enlarging these into a formal Analysis. III. Amplifying this Analysis into a composition. To some, this threefold process may seem to involve unnecessary labor ; but experience proves that these steps can all be properly taken, and the composition written in less time than by the common method of attempting to write without any guide of the kind here proposed. It will, at the same time, be found a far more satisfactory and interesting mode of proceeding ; and will result in the production of a more meri- torious composition. Those who are in the habit of writing much, al- most invariably make a preliminary Analysis of their subject, no matter what they are about to compose. The lawyer always draws up a brief of his points ; and the minister, a corresponding abstract of his sermon. It is expected, therefore, that, in every case, the student, before attempt- ing to write his exercise, will draw up the two Analyses, as here suggested. ExEECiSE. — Draw up careful and exhaustive Analyses, on the plan here described, of the subjects Education and Death. LESSON LXVIII. AMPLIFICATION. . § 404. The analysis completed, the next step is Ampli- ncATiON. This, as already explained, consists in enlarging on the ideas before expressed under the various heads, throw- ing in appropriate additional matter, and forming a complete and consistent whole. fome think of this threefold process ? What does experience prove with regard to it ? What is said of those who are in the habit of writing ? What is expected of the student ? § 404. After analyzing the subject and properly arranging the beads, what is 330 AMPtlilOATlOIf. The following example will serve to illustrate the process to which we refer. A brief and simple proposition is here made the basis of several successive amplifications, in each of which some new fact or circumstance is added. 1. Alexander conquered the Persians. 2. Alexander the Great, the son of Philip of Macedon, conquered the Persians. 3. Alexander the Great, the son of Philip of Macedon, being chosen generalissimo of the Greeks, destroyed the empire of the Persians. 4. Alexander the Great, the son of Philip of Macedon, being chosen generalissimo of the Greeks, destroyed the empire of the Persians, the inveterate enemies of Greece. 5. About 330 years before Christ, Alexander the Great, the son of Philip of Macedon, being chosen generalissimo of the Greeks, destroyed the empire of the Persians, the inveterate enemies of Greece. 6. About 830 years before Christ, Alexander the Great, the son of Philip of Macedon, after a long series of splendid victories, succeeded in demolishing the empire of the Persians, the ancient and inveterate ene- mies of Grecian liberty. Analogous to such an amplification of a simple proposition, is the production of a composition from an analysis like that furnished in the last lesson. When the writer passes from one head to another, he should commence a new paragraph ; that is, leaving blank the remainder of the line on which he has been writing, he should pass to the next, and com- mence about an inch from the left edge of the page. This division is im- portant. A distinct portion of a composition relating to a particular point, whether consisting of one sentence or of more, should invariably constitute a distinct paragraph. Of course, different writers, in the expression of their ideas, will am- plify in different ways, according to their respective turns of mind and the amount of thought they bestow on the subject. Yet the general principles stated below will apply in a majority of cases, and may be found of service. § 405. As regards the introduction, it must be short, pointed, and appropriate. On this part of the composition much depends, for it is all-important that a good impression be made at the outset. Tlie reader's mind, not j^et occupied with facts, or fairly engaged in tlie consideration of the sub- ject, is directed chiefly to the words and constructions em- thenextBtep? In what does amplification coneist? Give an example in which a simple proposition is made the bnpia of five successive ampliflcation?. To such an amplification what is analogous ? Wlint is the meaning of commencing a neio paragraph f When should a new paragraph be commenced ? f 405. What must bo the character of Introductions ? ^Vhy is It important AAIPLIFICATIOK. 331 ployed; and, if it finds ground for severe criticism, will naturally be prejudiced against the author and his work. If the composition is to be short, the introduction should be brief in proportion. In some cases, a formal mtroduction is unnecessary, and the author at once lays down the propo- sition he intends to prove, or defines the subject of which he proposes to treat. In this case, the first sentence should be brief, forcible, and striking. § 406. An effective introduction is frequently made by commencing with a general proposition, proceeding thence to a particular statement, and following this with an individual appHcation ; as in the following paragraph from The Spectator, which would be an appropriate introduction for an essay on " The Art of Music, as practised by the Ancient Hebrews " : — {General Assertion.) "Music, among those who were styled the chosen people, was a religious art. {Particular Assertion.) The songs of Sion, which we have reason to believe were in high repute among the courts of the Eastern monarchs, were nothing else but psalms, and pieces of poetry, that adored or celebrated the Supreme Being. {Individ- ual Assertion.) The greatest conqueror in this holy nation, after the manner of the old Grecian lyrics, did not only compose the words of his divine odes, but generally set them to music himself ; after which, his works, though they were consecrated to the tabernacle, became the na- tional entertainment, as well as the devotion, of his people." § 407. The commonest and easiest introduction, however, is one in which a remark is made respecting the general class to which the object under consideration belongs ; from which remark there is an easy transition to an analogous statement respecting the particular case in question. An example of such an introduction follows : — {General Statement.) " Few institutions can contribute more to pre- serve civilization, and promote moral and intellectual improvement among all ranks of people, than the establishment of public lectures in every part of the kingdom, periodically repeated after a short interval. {Particular Statement}) Such is the light in which are to be considered that they should be well written ? To what must the length of the introduction be proportioned ? Instead of presenting a formal introduction, to what does the writer sometimes proceed? In this case, what should be the. character of tho first sentence ? § 406. How is an effective introduction frequently made ? Give an example. S 407. Describe the commonest introduction. Give an example. Give the sub- 832 AMPLIFICATION. the discourses appointed by the wisdom of the Church to be everywhere held on the recurrence of the seventh day. By these, the meanest and most illiterate are enabled to hear moral and philosophical treatises on every thing which concerns their several duties, without expense, and without solicitation." An introduction of this character would be appropriate to the essay on Anger, analyzed in the last lesson ; something, for instance, like the following : — Every passion in the breast of man, when allowed to control his ac- tion, unrestrained by the conservative power of reason, is attended with the unhappiest consequences, both to himself and the community in which he lives. If this is true of the passions in general, even of tliof^e which are comparatively mild in their nature, how emphatically is it the case with Anger, which, more than all others, disdains the control of good sense and a sound understanding ! § 408. A happy allusion to some stor}^, tradition, or his- torical fact, is among the most pleasing, and therefore suc- cessful, introductions that can be employed. When the cir- cumstance to which reference is made is well known, the mere allusion is sufficient ; as when we say, " There are some to whose charity ties of blood are the only open sesame.'''* The story of " The Forty Thieves ", in which these words occur as the charm used in opening the door of the robbers' cave, is familiar to every one, and therefore an explanation is unnecessary. If, however, there is a likelihood that some may be ignorant of the subject alluded to, it is well briefly to tell tlie story, and then to apply it in the case in question. This is gracefully done in the following example, which would be an admirable introduction for the subject, " Liberty to be cherished, under whatever fonn it may appeal-" : — "Ariosto tells a pretty story of a fairy, who, by some mysterious law of her nature, was condemned to appear at certain seasons in the form of a foul and poisonous snake. Those who injured her during this period of her disguise were forever excluded from participation in the blessings she bestowed. But to those, who, in spite of her loathsome aspect, pitied and protected her, she afterwards revealed herself in the beautiful and celestial form which was natural to her; accompanied their footsteps, granted all their wishes, filled their houses with wealth, made them hai)py stance or an introduction appropriate to tlio essay on Anger analyzed in the lapt lesson. § 408. Wliat i» mentioned as oiu' of the most pleasing introdactionB ? In whnt case is the mere allusion nufflcient? ^Vhon ia au explanation necessary ? Giro an example of a happy introductory allusion. AMPLIFICATION. 333 in love, and victorious in war. Such a spirit is Liberty. At times she takes the form of a hatefiil reptile. She grovels, she hisses, she stings. But woe to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her ! And happy are those, who, having dared to receive her in her degraded and frightful shape, shall at length be rewarded by her in the time of her beauty and glory ! " § 409. A definition may be amplified by presenting the meaning of the terra defined under different forms, if there is danger of its being misunderstood ; by stating any erro- neous impression respecting it, against which it may be neces- sary to guard ; or, negatively, by pointing out in what it does not consist. Historical illustrations and quotations may be multiplied according to the reading of the student. Arguments for or against a proposition may be extended by enumerating the particular instances from which the general truth has been deduced, in which case the process is known as Induction ; or by an appeal to the statements of others, which is called the argument from Testimony ; or by refer- ring to what is proved or acknowledged to be true in similar cases, which is the argument from Analogy. Under the head of effects, we may extend our observations to collateral consequences ; or contrast the subject under discussion with its opposite, as regards the results which follow from each. The conclusion, in many cases, makes a practical application of the subject ; which may be diversified by appealing to the conscience, or sense of right and wrong ; to the selfish propensities, on which considerations of expediency act ; to the common sense, which weighs what is said, and opens the mind of the candid inquirer to conviction ; or to the feelings, which awaken the sympathy, and persuade, though they may fail to convince. § 409. How may a definition Tje amplified ? What is said of historical illuetra- lions and quotations ? In what three ways may arguments be extended ? Under the head of eflfects, how may we amplify? What does the conclusion in many «ases do ? How may it be diversified ? 334 REVISION AND CORRECTION OF COSIPOSITIONS. LESSON LXIX. EETISION AND COERECTION OF COMPOSITIONS. § 41 0. Mevisioji of Compositions. — When a composition has been prepared according to the suggestions in the last two lessons, the next thing is to revise it. Before this is attempted, a short interval should be allowed to elapse, so that the writer may, in a measure, forget the expressions he has used, and criticise his work as severely and impartially as if it were the production of another. To insure time for this important examination, at least a week should be allowed for the preparation of each exercise ; the first part of which should be appropriated by the student to its composition, and the re- mainder to its careful correction. In revising, each sentence should be read aloud slowly and distinctly, that the ear may aid the eye in detect- ing faults. The principles laid down for the promotion of Propriety, Precision, Strength, &c., should be strictly followed. Whatever violates them must be altered, no matter what the expense of time or trouble. Even such passages as seem doubtful to the writer, although he may be unable to detect in them any positive error, it will be safest to change. The commonest faults are solecisms, tautologies, redundancies, and a want of unity ; for the detection of these, therefore, the reviser should be constantly on the alert. Ilaving satisfied himself that, in these par- ticulars, his sentences will pass criticism, he should next seek to increase their effect and enhance their beauty, by improving, polishing, and orna- menting his style, when this can be done without the appearance of af- fectation. He should insure that a proper connection is maintained be- tween the parts, supplying omitted matter that may be essential to a proper understanding of the train of thought, and omitting whatever of a foreign nature he may at first inadvertently have introduced. A clean copy is now to bo made, in doing which regard must be had to neatness of chirography. A careless habit of writing is apt to lead to a careless habit of composing, a careless habit of study, and a careless habit of life. What is worth doing at all, it has been remarked, is worth doing well ; and, therefore, though it may seem to some a trifling matter, S 410. After a compoBitlon Is written, what la next neceBsary ? What ia said with respect to allowinfi; an interval between the act of composing and revising? Describe the process of revision. lu making a clean copy, what must be r«- EEVISIOlSr AND CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS. 335 the careful student will see that his exercise is presented in the neatest possible form. The most convenient paper, as regards size, is the ordi- nary letter sheet. A margin of an inch and a half should be allowed on each side for the remarks of the teacher. The subjiect should occupy a line by itself, should be equally distant from both margins, and should be written in a larger hand than the rest. Attention must be paid to the spelling and punctuation. When there is not room for the whole of a word at the end of a line, it must be divided after one of its syllables, and the hyphen must connect the separated parts as directed in § 202. SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. § 411. Correction of Compositions. — ^Most teachers have their own system of examining and correcting compositions : those who have not, may find the following suggestions of service : — I. Read the exercises presented in the presence of the class, and in- vite criticism from all. The credits allowed should be based, as well on the promptitude and soundness of the remarks thus made, as on the merits of the performances submitted. It is surprising to see how soon this simple exercise develops a critical taste, and what a salutary effect this taste in turn produces on the style of those in whom it is awakened. Underline words in which errors of any kind occur, and require the student to correct them himself. ■ Remarks on the style may with ad- vantage be made by the teacher, and their substance embodied in the margins left for that purpose. II. In certain Avords, errors in orthography are very common ; hmi- ness is apt to be written buisness ; separate, seperate ; believe, beleive, &c. When such errors occur, let the words be spelled by the whole class in concert. If, as is often the case, special difficulty is found in spelling particular words, it is well for the teacher to keep a record of the latter, and to give them to the class from time to time as a lesson in orthog- raphy. III. In correcting compositions, do not criticise so closely or severely as to discourage the pupil ; but adapt your remarks to his degree of ad- vancement. Let your corrections, in every case, be in harmony with the garded 1 Wliat is said of a careless habit of writing ? What suggestions are made with respect to paper, &c. ? 336 REVISION AND CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS. scope and style of the exercise. With beginners, it is well to make no other alterations than such as are absolutely required. As the composer advances, his performances may be more closely criticised, and his atten- tion may be directed to those nicer points, to which, at an earlier period, it would be injudicious to refer. IV. After a criticism by the class and remarks by the teacher, the student should make the required corrections, and submit them for ap- proval. He should then copy his exercise in a book provided for the purpose, a comparison of the different parts of which will at any time show what progress he has made. V. In correcting, the student will save time and trouble by availing himself of some of the marks used in the correction of proof, and exhib- ited on a specimen sheet at the close of this volume. EXERCISE IN AMPLIFICATION. I. Amplify, according to the example in § 404, in five or more successive sentences, each of the following simple propositions : — ■ 1. Alfred the Great died. 2. Richard Coeur de Lion engaged in one of the Crusades. 3. A storm wrecked the Spanish Armada. 4. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. B. Can we doubt the immortality of the soul ? II. According to the example in § 406, construct an in- troduction asserting, ^ { Generall}/) ih&t a knowledge of music is becoming rapidly ex- tended in this country ; {Particularly) that singing and instrumen- tal music are studied in difterent sections and by all grades of society ; and {IndividuaUi/) that almost every household contains some performer. These propositions must be amplified, and con- stitute not less than three distinct sentences. III. "Write, on the same plan, an introduction laying down the proposition that dissimulation is one of the promi- nent faults of the present generation. IV. According to the example in § 407, write introductions stating, MISCELLANEOUS EXEECISES. 337 1. That a virtue carried to an extreme becomes a fault ; and that, therefore, by those who do not look closely enough to discern the line which distinguishes the two, they are apt to be con- founded : apply this in the case of frugality and parsimony. 2. The general consequence of becoming familiar with any thing, and the particular consequence of becoming familiar with vice. 8. The fact that every tongue may be regarded as an index to the pecuUarities of the people speaking it, and that this is the case with the English language. LESSON LXX. — Exercise in Amplification. Prepare an Essay on Anger from the analysis in Lesson Lxvn. LESSON LXXL — Exercise in Amplification. "Write an Essay on Education from the analysis already prepared. LESSON LXXIL — Exercise on Plain and Figurative Language. Compose two sentences for each of the following words, one of which shall contain it in its literal, the other in its figurative, signification : — EXAMPLES.— Weigh. [Literal.'] On toeighing the goods he had purchased that morning at the market, he found they were deficient hy at least two pounds. [Figurative.'] After well weighing the matter in his mind, he determined upon pursuing the plan he had first intended. BiTTEB. [Literal.] Among the fruits we met with in this country, was a sort of bitter apple, very disagreeable to the taste. [Figurative.] He is now no longer the gay, thoughtless, creature of former years ; his face is furrowed, his look haggard and anxious, and his heart a prey to the bitterest anguish. Rest — stand — watch — cover — mask — idle — deep — sleep — monument — constellation — refulgent — overwhelm — sepulchre — response — burn — discover — observation — enter- tain — carnation — illuminate — eradicate — torment — laby- rinth — emanate — pliable. 15 338 MISCELLANEOUS EXEECISES. LESSON LXXin.— E3tERCiSE in Extended Simile. Trace, at length, the points of resemblance between the given subjects that follow, carrying out the comparison as in the Example : — EXAMPLE.— Old age, Sunset. Old age has been called tlie eunset of life ; it is then that the mind, free from the agitation and tumult of the passions, is calm and tranquil, like the still serenity of the evening, when the busy sound of labor is hushed, and the glare of the meridian sun has passed away. The soul of the just man, conscious of his own integrity, like the glorious orb enveloped in those mellow tints which are then reflected from it in a thousand hues, sinks into a peaceful slumber, again to rise in brighter splendor, and renew in another world the course destined for it by the Almighty Ruler of the universe. ^-[^. Youth — morning. 2. I^ife — an ocean. 3. e/by and Sorrow — light and shade. 4. Knowledge — a hill. 5. Earth — a mother. 6. Uncultivated genius — an unpolished diamond. 7. Neglected talent — a flower in the desert. 8. Death of a c/i^7c^blighting of a blossom. 9. Charity diffusing its blessings — the sun imparting light and heat. 10. Honor appearing through a mean habit — the sun breaking through clouds. LESSON LXXIV.— Exercise in Extended Simile. Select natural objects to which the following abstract qualities may be compared, and carry out the simile as in the Example in the last Lesson : — Adversity. Ambition. Peace. Death. Prosperity. Ignorance. War. Memory. Melancholy. Calumny. Sin. Justice. LESSON LXXV.— Exercise in Metaphorical Language. Compose sentences containing the following words used, metaphorically, in the sense of the words placed after them in italics : — EXAMPLE.— Path, Career. Notwithstanding all the temptations held out to him, he resolutely pursued i\iQ path of integrity, untouched alike by the follies and licentiousness of a corrupt court. 1. Crown— glorg. 2. Bregs—vice. 3. Cloak— covering. 4. Yoke— power. 5. Abyss — ruiti. G. Spring — source. 7. Fruits— residts, 8. Curh— restraint, 9. Blow-afflietio?!, MISCELLANEOUS EIEECISES. 339 10. Rod — tyranny. 11. Veil — conceal, 12. Paint — describe, 13. Blush — become red. 14. Drink — absorb. 15. Seal — close. 16. Dance — move gracefully. 17. Steal — move silently. 18. Frown upon — testify disapprobation of. 19. Fly — move swiftly. 20. Scum — unworthy portiofi. LESSON LXXVI.— Exercise in Allegory. Two examples of Allegory, extracted from The Spectator, are presented below. The one is an apologue, or fable, which, to convey a great moral truth, represents the lower animals as possessing reason, and inanimate objects as en- dowed with life and intelligence ; the second is an allegory proper, wliich, with the same end in view, personifies the abstract qualities. Imitate the latter model in alifegories representing, I. Truth and Falsehood. II. Diligence and Idleness. III. Modesty and Assurance. IV. Man, a voyager, addressed on the one hand by Pleasure, on thd other by Virtue. THE complaining DROP. "A drop of water fell out of a cloud into the sea ; and, finding Itself lost in such an immensity of fluid matter, broke out into the following reflection:— ' Alas 1 what an inconsiderable creature am I in this prodigious ocean of waters I My existence is of no concern to the universe ; I am reduced to a kind of noth- ing, and am less than the least of the works of God.' It so happened that an oyster, which lay in the neighborhood of this drop, chanced to gape and swallow it up in the midst of this its humble soliloquy. The drop lay a great while hard- ening in the shell, until by degrees it was ripened into a pearl ; which, falling into the hands of a diver, after a long series of adventures, is at present that famous pearl which is fixed on the top of the Persian diadem." THE PALACE OP VANITY. {From an Allegory entitled " The Paradise of Fools ".) " At last we approached a bower, at the entrance of which Error was seated. The trees were thick woven, and the place where he sat artfully contrived to darken him a little. He was disguised in a whitish robe, which he had put on that he might appear to us with a nearer resemblance to Truth ; and as she has a light whereby she manifests the beauties of nature to the eyes of her adorers, so he had provided himself with a magical wand, that he might do something in imitation of it, and please with delusions. This he lifted solemnly, and, mutter- ing to himself, bid the glories which he kept under enchantment to appear be 340 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. fore us. Immediately wc cast our eyes on that part of the sky to which he pointed, and observed a thin blue prospect ; wliich cleared as mountains in a summer morn- ing when the mist goes off, and the palace of Vanity appeared to sight. ***** "Attlie gate, the travellers neither met with a porter, nor waited till one should appear ; every one thought his merits a sufficient passport, and pressed forward. In the hall we met with several phantoms, that roved amongst us and ranged the company according to their sentiments. There was decreasing Honor, that had nothing to show but an old coat of his ancestor's achievements. There was Ostentation, that made himself his own constant subject; and Gallantry, strutting upon his tiptoes. At the upper end of the hall stood a throne, whose canopy glittered with all the riches that gayety could contrivw to lavish on it ; and between the gilded arms sat Vanity, decked in the pea- cock's feathers, and acknowledged for another Venus by her votaries. The boy who stood beside her for a Cupid, and who made the world to bow before her, was called Self-Conceit. Hia eyes had every now and then a cast inwards, to the neglect of all objects about him ; and the arms which he made use of for con- quest, were borrowed from those against whom he had a design. The arrow which he sliot at the soldier was fledged from his own plume of feathers ; the dart he directed against the man of wit, was winged from the quills he writ with ; and that which he sent against those who presumed upon their riches, was headed with gold out of their treasuries. He made nets for statesmen from their own contrivances ; he took fire from the eyes of the ladies with which he melted their hearts ; and lightning from the tongues of the eloquent, to inflame them with their own glories. At the foot of the throne sat three false Graces ; Flattery with a shell of paint. Affectation with a mirror to practise at, and Fashion ever changing the posture of her clothes. These applied themselves to secure the conquests which Self-Conceit had gotten, and had each of them their particular polities. Flattery gave new colors and complexions to all thinirs ; Af- fectation, new airs and appearances, which, as she said, were not vulgar ; and Fash- ion both concealed some home defects, and added some foreign external beauMes." LESSON LXXVII.— Exercise in Hyperbole. Represent the following subjects by Hyperbole : — Example.— ^1» impressive speech. His speech was so deeply interesting and impressive, that the very walls listened to his arguments, and were moved by hla tdoquence. 1. The brightness of a lighted room. 2. The splendor of a dress ornamented with jewels. 8. Tlie number of persons in a crowd. 4. The quantity of rain which has fallen in a shower. T). The thirst of an individual (by the quantity of liquid he consumes). G. The size of a country (by the rising and setting of the sun). 7. The affliction caused by the death of a distinguished individual. 8. The depth of a precipice. 9. The waves of the ocean in a storm. 10. The heat of a summer day. 11. The refreshing effects of a shower. 12. The excitement of city life. 18. The darkness of night. 14. The selfishness of a miser. 16. Vegetation in the torrid zone. MISCELLANEOUS EXEECISES. 841 LESSON LXXVIII. — Exercises in Vision and Apostrophe. I. Employ Vision in brief descriptions of the foUo^anp^ scenes : — I. A Battle-scene. III. An Earthquake. II. A Storm at Sea. IV. A Thunder-storm. . II. Alter the following passages, so that they may con- tain examples of Apostrophe : — 1. I can not but imagine tliat the virtuous heroes, legislators, and patriots of every age and country, are bending from their elevated seats to witness this con- test, as if they were incapable, till it be brought to a favorable issue, of enjoying their eternal repose. Let these illustrious immortals enjoy that repose I Their mantle fell when they ascended ; and thousands, inflamed with their spirit, and impatient to tread in their steps, are ready to swear by Him that sitteth upon the throne and liveth for ever and ever, that they will protect Freedom in her last asylum, and never desert that cause, which they sustained by their labors, and cemented with their blood. 2. Thus passes the world away. Throughout all ranks and conditions, " one generation passeth, and anotlier generation cometh"; and this great inn is by turns evacuated and replenished by troops of succeeding pilgrims. The world is vain and inconstant. Life is fleeting and transient. When will the sons of men leara to think of it as they ought ? When will they learn humanity front the afflictions of their brethren; or moderation and wisdom from the sense of their own fugitive state ? LESSON LXXIX. — Exercise in Personification. I. Introduce into sentences the following expressions illustrative of Personification : — Sleep embraces — Nature speaks — The evening invites — The moon gilds — The morning smiles — The sun climbs — Care keeps watch — ■ Night spreads — Vengeance bares his arm — Time has tamed — Years had ploughed — Britain saw — Death prepared his dart — Memory wept — Free- dom shrieked — Rapine prowls — Murder stalks — The vessel cleaves — Wisdom strays — Hope fled — Love watches. II. Write sentences containing the following subjects personified : — 'ExAMVhv^.—Contentimnt. If Contentment, the parent of Felicity, and the faithful companion of Hope, would whisper her consolations in our ears, in vaiu might Fortune wreck us on inhospitable shores. Eternitt. Pity. Charity. Folly. Idleness. Hope. Disease. Peace. The Grate. Faith. Mirth. Light. 342 MISOELLAlfEOUS EXERCISES. LESSON LXXX. — Exercises in Climax and Antithesis. I. In each of the following passages, arrange the parts so as to form a Climax : — Example.— /w3!>«)p€r/y arranged. What a piece of work is man 1 in action liow like an angel 1 how noble in reason I in apprehension how like a god I how infinite in faculties I in form and motion how expressive and admirable ! Arranged in tin form of a Climax. What a piece of work is man I how noblo in reason I how infinite in faculties ! in form and motion how expressive and admirable 1 in action how like an angel 1 in apprehension how like a god 1 1. Nothing can be more worthy of us than to contribute to the hap- piness of those who have been once useful and are still willing to be so ; to be a statf to their declining days ; to make the winter of old age wear the aspect of spring ; to prevent them from feeling the want of such pleasures as they are able to enjoy ; and to smooth the furrows in their laded cheeks. 2. The history of every succeeding generation is this. New objects attract the attention ; new intrigues engage the passions of man ; new actors come forth on the stage of the world ; a new world, in short, in the course of a few years, has gradually and insensibly risen around us ; new ministers fill the temples of religion ; new members, the seats of justice. 3. It is pleasant to command our appetites and passions, and to keep them in due order, within the bounds of reason and religion, because that is empire ; it is pleasant to mortify and subdue our lusts, because that is victory ; it is pleasant to be virtuous and good, because that is to excel many others ; it is pleasant to grow better, because that is to excel ourselves. II. — Represent the following subjects in Antithesis, re- membering the principle stated in § 374: — Example.—^ Wise Man and a Fool. A wise man endeavors to shine in him- self; a fool, to outshine others. The former is humbled by the sense of his own Infirmities ; the latter is lifted up by the discovery of those which he observes iu others. The wise man considers Mhat he wants ; the fool, what he abounds in. The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; and the fool, when 6c recommends himself to the applause of those about him. Summer and Winter. Pride and Humility. Modesty and Prudery. Moderation and Intemperance. Gratitude and Ingratitude. Peace and War. Morality and Religion. Discretion and Cunning. Knowledge and Ignorance. Cheerfulness and Melancholy. Geography and History. Spring and Autumn. LESSON LXXXI.— Parallels. A Parallel is a comparison showing the points of simili- MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 343 tude and dijBFerence between two persons, characters, or ob- jects, that resemble each other either in appearance or in reaUty. In this variety of composition, individual peculiari- ties are often contrasted by means of Antitheses with fine effect. From Dr. Johnson's Life of Pope, we extract the following fine specimen of the Parallel : — DRYDEN AND POPE. " In acquired knowledge, the superiority must bo allowed to Drydeu, wliosiJ education was more scholastic, and who, before he became an author, had been allowed more time for study, with better means of information. His mind has a larger range, and l»e collects his images and illustrations from a more extensive circumference of science. Dryden knew more of man in his general nature, and Pope in his local manners. The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehen- sive speculation, and those of Pope by minute attention. There is more dignity in the knowledge of Diyden, and more certainty in that of Pope. Poetry was not the sole praise of either, for both excelled likewise in prose; but Pope did not borrow his prose from his predecessor. The style of Dryden is capricious and varied ; that of Pope is cautious and uniform. Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind ; Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition. Dry- den is sometimes vehement and rapid ; Pope is always smooth, uniform, and gentle. Dryden's page is a natural field, rising into inequalities, and diversified by the varied exuberance of abimdant vegetation ; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and levelled by the roller. " Of genius,— that power which constitutes a poet ; that quality without which judgment is cold, and knowledge is inert ; that energy which collects, combines, amplifies, and animates ;— the superiority must, with some hesitation, be allowed to Dryden. It is not to be inferred, that of this poetical vigor Pope had only a little, because Diyden had more ; for every other writer, siuce Milton, must give place to Pope : and even of Dryden it must be said, that if he has brighter par- agraphs, he has not better poems. Dryden's performances were always hasty, either excited by some external occasion, or extorted by domestic necessity ; he composed without consideration, and published without correction. What his mind could supply at call, or gather in one excursion, was all that he sought, and all that he gave. The dilatoi-y caution of Pope enabled him to condense his sen- timents, to multiply his images, and to accumulate all that study might produce, or chance might supply. If the flights of Dryden, therefore, are higher. Pope continues longer on the wing. If of Dryden's fire the blaze is brighter, of Pope's the heat is more regular and constant. Dryden often surpasses expec- tation, and Pope never falls below it. Dryden is read with frequent astonish- ment, and Pope with perpetual delight." Draw Parallels, in the style of the example just given, between, 1. Napoleon and Washington. 2. Lafayette and Howard. LESSON LXXXIL— Exercise in Parallels. Draw Parallels between. 34:4 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 1. Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria. 2. The United States and England. LESSON LXXXIII.— Exercise in Parallels. Draw Parallels between, 1. The Torrid and the Temperate Zone. 2. The European and the Oriental. 3. The Eloquence of the Bar and that of the Pulpit 4. A Plain and a Florid Style. LESSON LXXXIV.— Exercise in Defining Synontmes. Analogous to the drawing of Parallels is the defining of the shades of difference between synonymous terms, models of which will be found on pp. 280, 281. In a similar man- ner, show the distinction between the following synonymes, and illustrate their use in different sentences : — 1. Invention, Discovery. 5. Wit, Humor. 2. Genius, Talent. C. Poison, Venom. 3. Pride, Vanity. 7. Peaceful, Peaceable. . 4. Handsome, Pretty. 8. Continuation, Continuance. LESSON LXXXV.— Exercise in Defining Synonymes. Show the difference between the following synonymous terms : — 1. Associate, Companion. 2. Idle, Lazy, Indolent. 8. Great, Large, Big. 4. Sick, Sickly, Diseased. 5. Contemptible, Despicable, Pitiful. 6. Right, Clnim, Privilege. 1. Disregard, Slight, Neglect. 8. Anecdote, Tale, Story, Novel, Romance. LESSON LXXXVL— Exercise in Paraphrasing. A Paraphrase is the amplified explanation of a passage in clearer terms than those employed by its author. Para- phrases frequently occur in versions from foreign languages ; when, instead of a literal translation of the original text, the Miscellaneous exercises. 345 substance is given in an amplified form and in a style which is regarded as more intelligible. Maxims, Aphorisms, Proverbs, and Saws, are often para- phrased. A Maxim is a proposition briefly expressed, which teaches a moral truth and is susceptible of practical applica- tion. An Aphorism (which corresponds with the Apoph- thegm of the ancients) is a speculative rather than a practical proposition, embodying a doctrine or the principles of a science. A Proverb, or Saying, (the Adage of the ancients) is a terse proposition current among all classes, relating to matters of worldly wisdom as well as moral truth. A Saw is a vulgar proverb. The following examples will show the difference between them : — Maxim. — Forgiveness is the noblest revenge. Aphorism, — Originality in Art is the individualizing of the universal. Proverb. — A word to the wise is sufficient. Saw. — A nod is as good as a wink to a blind horse. Paraphrase the following Maxims, Proverbs, &c. : — ^XKmvLE.— Wealth begets tcanf. Paraphrase.— The desires of man increase with his acquisitions. Every step that he advances, brings something within his view, which he did not see before, and which, as soon as he sees it, he begins to want. When necessity ends, curi- osity begins ; and no sooner are we supplied with every thing that nature can demand, than we sit down to contrive artificial appetites. 1. Either never attempt, or persevere to the end. 2. Poor and content is rich, and rich enough. 3. Good news docth good like medicine. 4. No pains, no gains. 5. Fear is the mark of a mean spirit. 6. One swallow does not make a summer. 7. Nothing venture, nothing have. 8. Between two stools one comes to the ground. 9. One good turn deserves another. 10. Money makes the mare go. 11. It never rains but it pours. 12. Penny wise, pound foolish. LESSON LXXXVII.— Exercise in pARAPtoASiNa. Paraphrase the following passages : — I. Make no man your idol, for the best man must have faults ; and his faults Trill insensibly become yours, in addition to your own. 346 M16CELLAKE0US EXERCISES. 2. He that argues for victory is but a gambler in words, Becking to enrich himself by another's loss. 3. Distress and difllculty are known to operate in private life as the spurs of diligence. 4. The love of gain never made a painter ; but it has marred many. 5. Complaints and murmurs are often loudest and most frequent among those who possess all the external means of temporal enjoyment. 6. The want of employment is one of the most frequent causes of vice. 7. A wound from a tongue is worse tlian a wound from the sword : for the latter affects only the body ; the former, the soul. 8. Trust him little who praises all ; him less, who censures all ; and him least, who is indifferent about all. 9. He that finds truth, without loving her, is like a bat ; which, though it hath eyes to discern that there is a sun, yet hath so evil eyes that it can not delight in the sun. 10. They who have never known prosperity, can hardly be said to be unhappy ; it is from the remembrance of joys we have lost, that the arrows of affliction are pointed. 11. Every man has just as much vanity as he wants understanding. 12. The strongest passions allow us some rest, but vanity keeps us in perpet- ual motion. " What a dust do I raise I " says the fly upon a coach-wheel. *• At what a rate do I drive 1 " says the fly upon the horse's ba(^ LESSON LXXXVIII.— Exercise ik Abridging. Abridging (sometimes called Epitomizing) is the opposite of Amplification, and consists in expressing the substance of a passage, article, or volmne, in fewer words. Example.— Tradition says, that Foo-tsze, the Chinese philosopher, was in his youth of so impatient a temper, that he could not endure the drudgery of leani- ing, and determined to give up literary pursuits for some manual employment. One day, as he was returning home with a full determination to go to school no longer, he happened to pass by a half-witted old woman, who was rubbing a small bar of iron on a whetstone. When the young student asked her the reason of this strange employment, she replied, "Why, sir, I have lost my knitting-needle, and just thought I would rub down this bar to make me another." The words acted like magic on the young philosopher, who returned to his books with ten- fold diligence ; and, whenever ho felt impatient and despondent, would say to himself, "If a half-witted old woman has resolution enough to mb down a bar of iron into a needle. It would be ^disgraceful in me to have less perseverance, when the highest honors of the empire are before me." He lived to see the Jii.< tice of these reflections. His acquirements, in process of time, made his name ;i proverb, and procured for him those very honors, which, but for this fortunate incident, he would have thrown away, and which without exertion none can hope to attain. Abridged.— Foo-tBze, the Chinese philosopher, was possessed of bo little dili- gence in his youth that he determined to abandon literary pursuits. Returning from school with the resolution of at once seeking some manual employment, ho observed a half-witted old woman nibbing a bar of iron on a whetatone. Asking MiSCELLANEOtJS EXERCISES. 34^ the reason of this strange proceeding, he learned from her that she had lost her knitting-needle and was endeavoring to make another hy rubhing down the bar. The words acted like magic on the young philosopher. " Shall an old woman," he said to himself, "have more resolution and perseverance than I, within whose reach are the highest honors of the empire ? " Inspired with new vigor, he re- turned to his books ; his good resolutions were kept ; and history still names him as among the wisest of philosophers. LESSON LXXXIX.— Exercise in Abridging. Abridge, and present in your own words, the matter con- tained in Lesson XXXIX. of this volume, on "The Sub- lime". LESSON XC. — Exercise in Abridging. Abridge, and present in your own words, the matter con- tained in Lesson LXYL, on Criticism. LESSON XCL— Exercise in Criticism. In the style of the Examples presented in Lesson LXVI., write a criticism on the Allegory entitled "The Palace of Vanity ", quoted in Lesson LXXVT. LESSON XCIL— Exercise in Criticism. Questions on the Remarks in the Preceding Lessons. — What is an apologue, or fable ? What is an allegory proper ? What is a parallel ? What figure is used with advantage in parallels ? What is a para- phrase ? In what do paraphrases frequently occur ? What are often paraphrased ? What is a maxim ? What is an aphorism ? What was it called by the ancients ? What is a proverb ? What is a saw ? Give examples of each. What is meant by abridging ? What other name is sometimes given to this process ? Write a criticism on Dr. Johnson's Parallel between Dry- den and Pope, quoted in Lesson LXXXI. 348 DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS. LESSON XCIII. DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS. § 412. Composition is the art of inventing ideas and ex- pressing them by means of written language. A Composition is a written production on any subject, and of any length or style. § 413. There are two great divisions under which all compositions may be classed, — Prose and Poetry. Those compositions are embraced under the head of Prose, in which a natural order and mode of expression are em- ployed, without reference to an exact arrangement of sylla- bles or the recurrence of certain sounds. Poetry embraces such compositions as are characterized by a departure from the natural order and mode of expres- sion ; or, by an exact arrangement of syllables or the recur- rence of certain sounds. § 414. The parts of composition, whether Prose or Poetr}% are five ; Description, Narration, Argument, Exposition, and Speculation. Either of these may separately constitute the bulk of a written jiroduction ; or, they may all, as is frequent- ly the case, enter, in a greater or less degree, into the same composition. § 415. Description consists in delineating the character- istics of any object by means of words. It fonns an impor- tant part of almost every variety of composition ; and allows the widest scope for ornament and beauty of language. The style used in description should correspond with the charac- ter pf the object treated. If the latter is grand, the language § 412. What is compositiou ? What is meant by a composition f § 413. Wliat are the two great divisions under which all compositions are classed ? Which are embraced under the head of Prose ? Which, under Poetry ? § 414. Enumerate the parts which enter, in a greater or less degree, into dif- ferent compositions. § 415. In what docs description conBist 7 For what docs it allow wide scope ? DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS. 340 in which it is described should be elevated in proportion. If beauty is the leading characteristic of the one, it should dis- tinguish the other also. Whatever the nature of the object described, the style, to be effective, should be adapted to it, according to the principle stated under the head of Har- mony. Writers are most frequently called on to describe material objects, natural scenery, and persons. § 416. In the description of material objects, such heads as the following will generally be found appropriate ; and, in drawing up an analysis for any particular subject, a selec- tion may be made from them, and such new divisions intro- duced as are suggested :-^ I. The place where, and the circumstances under which, the object was seen ; the time when it was made, invented, or discovered ; the changes which time may have produced in it. II. Its history ; traditions or reminiscences connected with it. III. The materials of which, and the persons by whom, it was made. IV. Its form, size, and general appearance. V. Comparison of it with any similar object. VI. The feelings excited by beholding it. VII. The purpose for which it was designed. VIII. The effects it has produced. § 417. As a specimen of this kind of description, we ex- tract from Forsyth's " Remarks on Antiquities, Arts, and Letters " a passage on THE COLISEUM. A colossal taste gave rise to the Coliseum. Here, indeed, gigantic dimensiona were necessary ; for, though hundreds could enter at once, and fifty thousand find seats, the space was still insufficient for Rome, and the crowd for the morn- ing games began at midnight. Vespasian and Titus, as if presaging their own deaths, hurried the building, and left several marks of their precipitancy behind. In the upper walls they have inserted stones which had evidently been dressed for a different purpose. Some of the arcades are grossly unequal ; no moulding preserves the same level and form round the whole ellipse, and every order is full of license. Happily for the Coliseum, the shape necessary to an amphitheatre has given it a stability of construction sufficient to resist fires, and earthquakes, and light- What is said of the style to be used in description ? What are writers most fre- quently called on to describe ? § 416. In the description of material objects, what heads will generally bo found appropriate ? 350 DESCEEPTION OF NATUBAL SCENERY. nings, and Bieges. Its elliptical form was the hoop which bonnd and held It en» tire till barbarians rent that consolidating ring; popes widened the breach; aud time, not unassisted, continues the work of dilapidation. At this moment, the hermitage is threatened with a dreadful crash ; and a generation not very remote must be content, I apprehend, with the picture of this stupendous monument. When the whole amphitheatre was entire, a cliild might comprehend its de- sign in a moment, and go direct to his place without straying in the porticos ; for each arcade bears its number engraved, and opposite to every fourth arcade was a staircase. This multiplicity of wide, straight, and separate passages, proves the attention which the ancients paid to the safe discharge of a crowd ; it finely illustrates the precept of Vitruvius, and exposes the perplexity of some modem theatres. Every nation has undergone its revolution of vices ; and, as cruelty is not the present vice of ours, we can all humanely execrate the purpose of amphitheatres, now that they lie in ruins. Moralists may tell us that the truly brave are never cruel; but this monument says, "No." Here eat the conquerors of the world, coolly to enjoy the tortures and death of men who had never offended them. Two aqueducts were scarcely sufllcient to wash off the human blood which a few hours' sport shed in this imperial shambles. Twice in one day came the senators and matrons of Rome to the butchery ; a virgin always gave the signal for slaughter; and, when glutted with bloodshed, those ladies sat down in the wet and streaming arena to a luxurious supper 1 Such reflections check our regret for its ruin. As it now stands, the Coliseum is a striking image of Rome itself; decayed, vacant, serious, yet grand ; half-gray and half-green ; erect on one side and fallen on the other, with consecrated ground in its bosom ; inhabited by a beadsman ; visited by every caste ; for moralists, antiquaries, painters, architects, devotees, all meet here to meditate, to examine, to draw, to measure, and to pray. "In contemplating antiquities," says Livy, "the mind itself becomes antique." It contracts from such objects a venerable rust, which I prefer to the polish and the point of those wits who have lately profaned this august ruin with ridicule. EXERCISE. Write a Criticism on the above extract LESSON XCIV. DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL SCENERY, AND PERSONS. § 418. In descriptions of natural scenery, a selection may generally be made from the following heads. The order in which they should be treated depends somewhat on the natiu-e of the subject. § 418. In descriptions of natural scenery, what heads wUl generally be found •ppropriate ? DliSCEIPTIOlT OF NATURAL SCENERY. 351 I. Circumstances under which it was seen ; whether at sunrise, at noon, or by moonlight. II. Natural features of the scene ; level or undulating ; fertile or bar- ren ; vegetation, trees, mountains, streams, &c., within view. III. Improvements of art; whether well cultivated; buildings, and other productions of human industry. IV. Living creatures that animate the scene ; human beings. V. Neighboring inhabitants ; pecuHarities, &c. VI. Sounds ; murmur of a stream ; noise of a waterfall ; rustling of leaves ; lowing of cattle ; barking of dogs ; singing of birds ; cries of children ; noise of machinery, &c. VII. Distant prospect. VIII. Comparison with any other scene. IX. Historical associations. X. Feelings awakened in the mind. § 419. For an example of this kind of description, the student is referred to the following extract from Sir Walter Scott. He will find other specimens, of a different style, inasmuch as they treat of individual curiosities of scenery rather than extended landscapes, in Willis's description of the Grotto of Adelsburg, quoted on p. 90 of this volume, and Campbell's Account of Fingal's Cave in a letter to his friend Thomson, Lesson XCVI. A YORKSHIRE FOREST SCENE. The sun was setting upon one of the rich grassy glades of this forest. Hun- drcds of broad-headed, sbort-stemmed, wide-branched, oaks, which had wit- nessed, perhaps, the stately march of the Roman soldiery, flung their gnarled arms over a thick carpet of the most delicious greensward. In some places, they were intermingled with beeches, hollies, and copsewood of various descriptions, 80 closely as totally to Intercept the level beams of the sinking sun ; in others, they receded from each other, fo lining those long sweeping vistas, in the in- tricacy of which the eye delights to lose itself, while imagination considers them as the paths to yet wilder scenes of sylvan solitude. Here, the red rays of the sun shot a broken and discolored light that partially hung upon the shattered boughs and mossy trunks of the trees ; and there, they illuminated, in brilliant patches, the portions of turf to which they made their way. A considerable open space in the midst of this glade seemed formerly to have been dedicated to the rites of Druidical superstition ; for, on the summit of a hillock 80 regular as to seem artificial, there still remained part of a circle of rough un- hewn stones of large dimensions. Seven stood upright; the rest had been dis- lodged from their places, probably by the zeal of some convert to Christianity, and lay, some prostrate near their former site, and others on the side of the hill. One large stone only had found its way to the bottom ; and, in stopping the course of a small brook which glided smoothly round the foot of the eminence, gave, by its opposition, a feeble voice of murmur to the placid, and elsewhere Bilent, streamlet. § 420. Descriptions of persons are often required in com- 352 DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. position. In writing them, such heads as the following are generally taken : — I. Form ; whether tall or short, fleshy or thin, &c. II. Face, features, hair, expression, &c. III. Manners ; dignified, graceful, awkward, haughty, or aflfable. IV. Dress. V. Any peculiarity of appearance. VI. Character, disposition, mental abilities, &c. § 421. Two graphic specimens of this kind of description are given below : one from Cooper, representing a well- drawn character in his " Last of the Mohicans " ; the other, from the elegant pen of Bulwer : — DAVID GAMUT, THE SINGING-MASTER. The person of this remarkable individual was to the last degree ungaiuly, without being in any particular manner deformed. He had all the bones and joints of other men, without any of their proportions. Erect, his stature eur- passed that of his fellows ; though, seated, he appeared reduced within the ordi- nary limits of our race. The same contrariety in his members seemed to exist throughout the whole man. His head was large; his shoulders, narrow; his arms, long and dangling ; while his hands were small, if not delicate. His legs and thighs were thin nearly to emaciation, but of extraordinary length ; and his knees would have been considered tremendous, had they not been outdone by the broader foundations on which this false superstructure of blended human orders was so profanely reared. The ill-assorted and injudicious attire of the individual only served to render his awkwardness more conspicuous. A sky- blue coat, with short and broad skirts and low cape, exposed a long thin neck, and longer and thinner legs, to the worst animadversions of the evil-disposed. His nether garment was of yellow nankeen, closely fitted to the shape, and tied at his bunches of knees by large knots of white ribbon, a good deal sullied by use. Clouded cotton stockings, and shoes, on one of the latter of which was a plated spur, completed the costume of the lower extrcmity of this figure, no curve or angle of which was concealed, but, on the other hand, studiously ex- hibited, through the vanity or simplicity of its owner. From beneath the flap of an enormous pocket of a soiled vest of embossed silk, heavily ornamented with tarnished silver lace, projected an instrument [a tuning-fork], which, from being seen in such martial company, might have been easily mistaken for some mis- chievous and unknown implement of war. Small as it was, this uncommon en- gine had excited the curiosity of most of the Europeans in the camp, though sev- eral of the provincials were seen to handle it, not only without fear, but with the utmost familiarity. A large civil cocked hat, like those worn by clenrymeu within the last thirty years, surmounted the whole, furnishing dignity to a jjood- natured and somewhat vacant countenance, that apparently needed such artificial aid to support the gravity of some high and extraordinary trust. NINA DI RASELLI. At once vain, yet high-minded,— resolute, yet impassioned.— there was ft gor- geous magnificence in her very vanity and splendor, and ideality in herwas'ward- ncss : her defects made a part of her brilliancy; without them she would have Bcemed less woman, and, knowing Ucr, you would have compared all women by DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. 353 her standard. Softer qualities beside her seemed not more charming, but more insipid. She had no vulvar ambition, for she had obstinately refused many alli- ances which the daughter of Raselli could scarcely have hoped to form. The un- tutored minds and savage power of the Roman nobles seemed to her imagination, which was full of the poefr]/ oi' rank (its luxuiy and its graces), as something barbarous and revolting, at once to be dreaded and despised. She had, there- fore, passed her twentieth year unmarried, but not, perhaps, without love. The faults themselves of her chai-acter, elevated that ideal of love which she had formed. She required some being round whom all her vainer qualities could rally ; she felt that where she loved she must adore ; she demanded no common idol before which to humble so strong and imperious a mind. Unlike women of a gentler mould, who desire for a short period to exercise the caprices of sweet empire, when she loved she must cease to command, and pride, at once, be hum- bled to devotion. So rare were the qualities that could attract her, so iaipe- riously did her haughtiness require that those qualities should be above her own, yet of the same order, that her love elevated its object like a god. Accustomed to despise, she felt all the luxury it is to venerate 1 And if it were her lot to bo united to one thus loved, her nature was that which might become elevated by that it gazed on. For her beauty, reader, shouldst thou ever go to Rome, thou wilt see in the capitol the picture of the Cumoean Sibyl, which, often copied, no copy can even faintly represent ; why this is so called I know not, save that it has something strange and unearthly in the dark beauty of the eyes. I beseech thee, mistake not this sibyl for another, for the Roman galleries abound in sibyls. The sibyl I speak of is dark, and the face has an Eastern cast ; the robe and turban, gorgeous though they be, grow dim before the rich but transparent roses of the cheek ; the hair would be black save for that golden glow which mellows it to a hue and lustre never seen but in the South, and even in the South most rare ; the fea- tures, not Grecian, are yet faultless; the mouth, the brow, the ripe and ex- quisite contour, all are human and voluptuous ; the expression, the aspect, is something more ; the form is, perhaps, too full for the ideal of loveliness, for the proportions of sculpture, for the delicacy of Athenian models ; but the luxuriant fault has a majesty. Gaze long upon that picture : it charms, yet commands, the eye. While you gaze, you call back five centuries. You see before you the breathing image of Nina di Raselli. EXERCISE. Write a Criticism on either of these extracts. LESSON XCV. NARRATION.— ARGtlMENT. — EXPOSITION. — SPECULATION. § 422. Narration is the account of real or imaginary facts or events. A neat or an elegant style is most effective for this § 422. What is narration ? What style is recommended for this kind of writ tog 1 In what order should events be related ? 354: AKGUMKNT. — EXPOSITION. — SPECULATION. kind of writing, in which too much ornament is out of place. Events should be related in the order of their occurrence, and in such a way that the interest of the reader may be kept alive. § 423. Argument is the statement of reasons for or against a proposition, made with the view of inducing be- lief in others. Clearness and strength are essential to its success. Little, if any, ornament is necessary; to this element of composition, a neat diffuse style is appropriate. § 424. Exposition consists in explaining the meaning of an author, in defining terms, setting forth an abstract subject in its various relations, or presenting doctrines, precepts, principles, or rules, for the purpose of instructing others. A treatise on grammar, for instance, consists principally of ex- position. Clearness being the chief object, and the nature of the subject in most cases almost entirely excluding orna- ment, this kind of matter should be presented in a neat, concise, style. § 425. Speculation is the expression of theoretical views not as yet verified by fact or practice. It enters largely into works on metaphysics, and is best understood through the medium of a neat, simple, style. § 426. A specimen of narration follows : — THE FIELD OF THE PIOUS. In one of those terrible eruptions of Mount Etna which have often happened, the danger of the inhabitants of the adjacent country was uncommonly great. To avoid immediate destruction from the flames and the melted lava which ran down the sides of the mountain, the people were obliged to retire to a consider- able distance. Amidst the hurry and confusion of such a scene, every one fleeing and carrying away whatever he deemed most precious, two brothers, in ths height of their solicitude for the preservation of their wealth and goods, suddenly recollected that their fother and mother, both very old, were unable to save themselves by flight. Filial tenderness triumphed over every other considera- tion. "Where," cried the generous youths, "shall wo find a more precious treasure than they are, who gave us being, and who have cherished and protect- § 423. What Is argument ? In what style is It best presented ? § 421. In what docs exposition consist? Of what, for instance, does it form the principal part ? What is the chief object in exposition? What style is ap- propriate to it? § 425. Wliat is speculation ? Into what does It largely enter ? Through what style ia It best understood ? LETTEES. 355 ed us through life ? " Having said this, the one taking up his father on his shoulders, and the other his mother, they happily made their way through the surrounding smoke and flames. All who were witnesses of this dutiful and affectionate conduct were struck with the highest admiration; and they and their posterity ever after called the plain through which these young men made their retreat, " The Field of the Pious ". EXERCISE. I. Amplify the above specimen of narration, presenting it entirely in your own language. n. Amplify the following heads into a specimen of nar- i-ation, in the style of the above model, using your ov\^ language throughout: — THE SWORD OF DAMOCLES. Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, though surrounded by riches and pleas- ures, was far from being happy. [Why ?] Damocles, one day, complimented him on his power, and affirmed that no monarch was ever greater or happier than he. Dionysius asked him whether he would like to make trial of this happiness, and see whether it was as great as he imagined. On Damocles' gladly consenting, the king ordered a gilded couch to be brought in for him, a splendid banquet to be prepared, and the royal pages to wait on him as if he were their monarch. [Describe the ban- quet.] Damocles was intoxicated with pleasure. But, chancing to look up, as he lay luxuriously pillowed on his royal couch, he saw a glittering sword suspended from the ceiling, by a single hair, exactly ovei* his head. This sight put an end to his joy. The rare perfumes and inviting dishes had lost their charm. [Describe his feelings in detail.] Finally, leaping from the couch, he besought the king to allow him to return to his former humble position. [Moral which Dionysius, in his answer, drew from this act of his courtier, with respect to the happiness of kings.] LESSON XCVI. LETTERS. § 427. There are six leading divisions of Prose Composi- tion ; Letters, Narratives, Fiction, Essays, Theses or Argu- mentative Discourses, and Orations. S 427. Enumerate the six leading divisions of prose composition. 366 LETTERS. LETTERS. § 438. Definition. — A Letter is a written communication on any subject from one person to another. Letter-writing is commonly called Epistolary Correspond- ence. It is one of the most important branches of compo- sition, entering more largely than any other into the daily business of life. The form of the letter has often been used for essays, novels, histo- ries, &c. ; that is, these productions have been divided into parts, each of which commences with an address to some friend of tlie author or imaginary personage, as if it had passed as an actual communication. Such compositions, however, should be classed under the divisions to which, according to their matter, they respectively belong. The letter proper is one intended for the person to whom it is addressed. § 429. Varieties.— The principal kinds of letters are, L News letters, or communications to papers or periodi- cals, containing accounts of what has happened or is haj> pening elsewhere than at the place of publication. Such communications have lately become popular, and now form a feature of almost all leading newspapers. In these letters, profundity is not expected, unless they treat of political, religious, or other serious topics. They should rather be characterized by brilliancy of thought, and an original, striking, mode of expression. Their effect may often be increased by strokes of humor, and what is commonly called piqiiatin/y or a pleasing vein of sarcasm on persons and things in general. Taste and judgment are I'cquired for a proper selection of subjects. The space allowed, being generally limited, should be filled to the best advantage. Local matters should be avoided ; it is well to introduce no topics but those of general interest. II. Letters of business. In these, brevity and clearness are all-important. The writer should aim at the greatest degree of conciseness consistent with perspicuity, and should confine himself strictly to the business in hand. III. Official letters, or such as pass between men in fl 428. What is a fetter? What is letter-writing commonly called ? What is enidofits importance? For wlint Is the fonu of the letter often need? How should Huch conipoHitions be clas>9ed ? What \» the letter proper ? 5 429. What are the principal kinds of letters ? What are new9 letters ? What lb eaidof the popularity of news lettcru? ^liat is not expected in them? Dy LETTEES. 357 office, respecting public affairs. These are always formal, and abound in phrases of courtesy. Their style should be firm and dignified. IV. Letters of friendship. In these, a tendency to diffuseness, arising in young writers from a fear that they may not have enough matter to fill the sheet, must be avoided. " There is hardly any species of composition, in my opinion," says Kirke White, " easier than the epistolary," There is an off-hand ease about the letter which renders its production a work of but UtUe time or difficulty : and, by reason of this very facility of composition, the writer is apt to express himself carelessly and without proper thought. Time and labor should be bestowed on this, as well as every other, de- partment of composition. Flippancy, also, should be carefully avoided. It must be remem- bered that what is committed to paper does not, like conversation, pass into forgetfulness ; it is preserved, and may, at any time, be made pub- lic. We should therefore never write, even to the most intimate friend, any thing which we would be ashamed that the world should see. The commonest fault, perhaps, of letters of friendship, is egotism. This can not but be distasteful to the person addressed, no matter how- great his interest in the writer. A friend, of course, expects from his correspondent some personal intelligence, but he looks for other matter along with it ; and will inevitably be struck with the bad taste of one who confines his letter to an enumeration of his own exploits or those of the limited circle to which he belongs. In like manner, we should avoid filling a letter with details relating to parties with whom the person addressed is unacquainted. V. Letters of condolence, written to persons in affliction for the purpose of expressing sympathy with their mis- fortunes. In these, great tact is necessary ; for ill-judged consolation, instead of healing the wound, opens it afresh. In this, as well as the two classes which follow, the writer should confine himself to the leading subject of his commu- nication. what should they be characterized ? What often increases their effect ? What topics should he selected for such letters ? What are required in letters of busi- ness ? To what must thoy be confined ? What is meant by official letters ? De- scribe them. In letters of friendship, to what is there a tendency ? What does Kirke White say of cpistolaiy correspondence ? To what is this facility of com- position apt to lead ? What else must be carefully avoided? Why? What should 368 LETTERS. VI. Letters of congratulation, or those in which the writer professes his joy at the success or happiness of an- other, or at some event deemed fortunate for both parties or for the community at large. They should be brief, sincere, and to the point. Vn. Letters of introduction, in which the writer com- mends a friend to the kind offices of some third party. It is customary to leave such letters unsealed, and to put on tho back, besides the superscription, the name of the party introduced. In giving letters of introduction, it is of primary importance to adhere strictly to the truth. It is false kindness to exaggerate the merits of the bearer, or to recommend in high terms a person but partially known. Such a course often places all parties concerned in an impleasant position. § 430. Style. — The style of letters (with the exception of official commimications, which require a studied and formal elegance) should be simple, easy, and natural. All appear- ance of effort, far-fetched ornaments, and attempts at dis- play, are fatal to their effect. Puerilities and affected sim- plicity, on the other hand, are equally objectionable. A good letter bears the same relation to other kinds of writing, that friendly conversation does to the more dignified varieties of spoken lan- guage. " I love talking letters dearly," said the poet Cowper, and the majority of correspondents will agree with him. A letter of friendship should be a mirror of the writer's mind, and nothing is so likely to in- sure this as a conversational stylo. Wc should write as we would speak were the friend we address suddenly to make his appearance, — yet, of course, with more deliberation and care. • If his stay were to be brief, we would naturally touch only on the more interesting topics ; and so, in a letter, where we are necessarily limited, we should give preference to those subjects that are most important. wo never write, even to the most intimate friend ? Wliat is the commonest fault of letters of friendship ? Wliat is the eflfcct of egotism on the person ad- dressed? With what, iu like manner, should wo avoid filling a letter? What are letters of condolence ? Why should they be written with great tact ? To what should the writer confine himself? What are letters of congratulation ? What should be their character? "NVhat is meant by letters of introduction? What is customary with respect to such letters ? What caution is given ? § 430. What stylo is most effective for letters ? What exception is made ? What must be avoided ? To what is tho relation which a good letter bears to other kinds of writing compared ? What kind of letters did Cowper like ? How •hould we write to a friend ? What subjects should we eelect ? LETTEES. 359 § 431. Answers. — Every letter, not insulting, merits a prompt reply ; and such a reply is called an Answer. In answering, it is proper always, at the outset, to acknowledge the receipt of your correspondent's communication, in some such words, for instance, as the following : " Yours of the 15th inst. came safely to hand yesterday ; and I am glad to learn from it," &c. ; or, " Your welcome letter of the 10th tilt, was received in due course of mail, and would have been answered sooner had it not been," &c. Besides this, it is customary for a person answering a business or official letter to embody in his opening sentence a statement of what he understands it to contain ; as in the following, which also illustrates the profuse use of form and titles in official communications : — Department of State, Washington, April 28, 1854. The undersigned. Secretary of State of the United States, has had the honor to receive the note of Mr. , her Britannic Majesty's En- voy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, of the 2l8t instant, ac- companied by the declaration of her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in regard to the rule which will for the present be observed towards those Powers with which she is at peace, in the existing war with Russia. § 432. Manual JEJxecution. — By complying with the following suggestions, the student will insure neatness in making copies of his letters and other compositions : — Draw two light pencil lines parallel with the left edge of the page, the first about half an inch, the second an inch and a half, distant from it. Commence your composition, and every successive paragraph, on the inner marginal line ; but let the body of your writing rest on the outer one. When you have completed a page, erase the marginal lines neatly with india-rubber. When a letter is not long enough to fill a page, it should not be commenced on the first line, but at such a dis- tance from it as will leave an equal space above and below. § 433. Date, — The date of a letter, which should always §431. What is meant by an answer? What letters merit answers ? In an- swering, what is always proper at the outset ? Give examples. Besides this, what is it customary for a person answering a business or official letter to em- body in the opening sentence ? Give an example. § 432. What suggestions are made, for the purpose of insuring neatness ? % 433. Describe the date of a letter. Where does it stand ? 360 LETTEES. be distinctly stated, must stand at the right of the first line. It consists of the name of the place where it is written, the month, day of the month, and year; as, Mobile^ August 2Qth, 1868. § 434. Address. — The address of a letter is found on the next line below the date, at the left side. It contains, in the first line, the name and title of the party written to ; and, on the second, the words, " Sir," " Dear Sir," " My dear Sir," for a gentleman, — or, " Madam," " Dear Madam," " My dear Madam," for a married lady, — according to the degree of intimacy. An unmarried lady is best addressed in a single line : *' Miss ; " " Dear Miss ; " or, " My dear Miss ." In addressing a business firm, place on the first line its proper style and title ; and, on the second, the word " Gen- tlemen " or " Ladies ", according to the sex of the parties composing it. A relative is properly addressed by the name that indi- cates the relationship ; as, " My dear Father," " My dear Grandson," " My dear Sister ; " or, a relative of the same age, or a friend, may be addressed by the Christian name, if intimacy will allow it ; as, " My dear William," " My dear Julia." Some prefer placing the first line, containing the name and title of the party addressed, at the bottom of the letter instead of the top, ;» above suggested. Examples of proper forms of date and address follow ; the pupil will do well to observe their punctuation : — 1T3 Greenwich St., Xew York, ) Sept. 1, 1868. j" Messrs. Davis & Clapp : Gentlemen, $ 4d4. Where is the address of a letter found ? Describe it. How Ib an un- married lady best addressed ? Describe the address of a business firm. How is a relative properly addressed ? Where do some prefer placiufj the first lino contaiuinji the name and title of the party addressed ? Give some examples of proper forms of date and address. Hon. E. S. Norton, Canal Com. of the State of N. Y. : Sir, LETTERS. 361 \ Jackson, N. C, 2d Sept., 1868. Rev. James Norton, D. D. Rev. and dear Sir, Stewart L. Roy, Esq. : Dear Sir, Mesdames E. & J. Lacretelle : Ladies, Miss R. A. Tompkins : My dear Friend, Haskins P. 0., Tenn., September 3, 1868. Steamer Washington, ) Miss. River, Sept. 4th, '68. f Boston, Aug. 20, '68. N. 0., Aug. 26, 1868. § 435. Subscrij^tion. — By the subscription of a letter is meant that clause or sentence at the end which contains the terms of affection or respect, and the signature. Different forms are appropriate, according to the relative position of the writer and the person addressed. A few of the most common are subjoined. It will be seen at once in what case each is appropriate. Observe the punctuation, as before. I remain, dear Sir, Your obedient servant, Geo. H. Smith. Allow me to subscribe myself Your obliged and obt. servt., Thomas Dean. With my best wishes for your welfare, I remain Your sincere friend, Reuben H. S. Wells. Hoping to hear from you without delay, I remain Yours &c., S. Wellman Brown. § 435. What is meant "by the subscription of a letter? To what must the sub- Bcriptiou be appropriate ? Give examples, 16 302 LETTERS. "With my best love to all, I am, as ever, Your afifectionate daughter, Helen. Rest assured, dear Madam, that your long-continued kindness will not be forgotten, but will ever command the gratitude and service of Yours most respectfully and truly, Horace H. Hinman. Whatever may betide, you have the warm and earnest sympathy of Your faithful and affectionate cousin, Jane. The undersigned has the honor to avail himself of this opportunity to renew to the Secretary of State of the United States the assurance of his distinguished consideration. John F. Crampton. Hon. W. L, Marcy, Secretary of State, &c. § 436. We subjoin four specimens of the different kinds of letters. The first is a business letter, given by a person of known responsibility to a friend, to enable the latter to procure goods on time. It is commonly called a letter of credit. The second is a letter of introduction. The third is a letter of friendship, written by the poet Campbell, descriptive of a visit to Fingal's Cave. The fourth is in a more familiar style, being one of Moore's letters to his mother. The student is particularly requested to notice their characteristics. No. 1. Letter op Credit. September 15, 1868 Cobnrjr, Canada West, » Gentlemen, Please deliver to Richard Berry, of this place, goods, silks, and merchandise, to any amount not exceeding five thousand dollars ; and I will hold myself ac- countable to you for tho payment of the same, In case Mr. Berry should fell to make payment therefor. You will please to notify me of the amount for which you may ^ve him credit ; and, if default should be made in the payment, let me know it immediately. I am, gentlemen, /our moBt oht. servant, John Anderson. Messrs. Isaac Smith & Co., No. 25 Broadway, N. Y. LETTEES. 363 No. 2. Letter of Introduction. St. Louis, Jan. 3, 1869. My dear Sir, Allow me to introduce to you my friend, Cyrus Johnson, a distinguished teacher of this place, who visits your city for the purpose of making himself ac- quainted with the system of instruction pursued in your common schools. He is one whose life thus far has been devoted to the cause of education, and whose efforts have already been signally blessed to hundreds of our youth. Any aid, therefore, that you may be able to render him in the prosecution of his inquiries, will be a service to our whole community, as well as a pei-sonal favor to Yours very truly, Henry F. Quinn. Joseph B. Stacy, Esq., 14 Fifth Avenue, N.Y. No. 3. J, 16th day of t Sept. 16, 1795. Thule's Wildest Shore, 16th day of the Harvest Storm, I My dear Friend, I have deferred answering your very welcome favor till I could inform you of the accomplishment of my long-meditated tour through the Western Isles. Though I have been disappointed in my expectations of seeing St. Kilda, yet I have no reason to be dissatisfied with my short voyage, having visited the famous Staffa and Icolmkill, so much admired by your countrymen. I had fonned, as usual, very sanguine ideas of the happiness I should enjoy in beholding wonders so new to me. I was not in the least disappointed. The grand regularity of Staffa, and the venerable ruins of lona, filled me with emotions of pleasure to which I had heen hitherto a stranger. It was not merely the gratification of curiosity ; for these two islands are marked with a grand species of beauty, be- sides their novelty, and a remarkable difference from all the other islands among the Hebrides. In short, when I looked into the cave of Staffa, I regretted noth- ing but that my friend was not there too. Staffa, the nearest to Mull, and the most admirable of all the Hebrides, is but a small island, but exceedingly fertile. From one point to another, it is probably an English mile. The shore is boisterous and rocky near the sea ; but at the distance of twenty yards from its rugged base, it rises for thirty or forty feet into a smooth, stony, plain, gradually sloping to the bottom of the rocks, which rise perpendicularly to a vast height, and form the walls of the island. On the top of these are rich plains of grass and com, in the centre of which stands a lonely hut, in appearance very like the abode of a hermit or savage. The walls of the island (for so I beg leave to denominate the rocks that form its sides) are traly wonderful. They are divided into natural pillars, of a tri- angular shape. These pillars are not a random curiosity, broken and irregular. They are as exactly similar and well-proportioned, as if the hand of an artist had carved them out on the walls with a chisel. The range of them is so very long and steep that we can not admit the idea of their being wrought by human hands. There is a wildness and sublimity in them beyond what art can produce ; and we are so struck with its regularity that we can hardly allow Nature the merit of such an artificial work. Certain it is, if Art accomplished such a curiosity, she has handled instruments more gigantic than any which are used at present ; and if Nature designed the pillars, she has bestowed more geometry on the rocks of Staffa, than on any of her works so stupendous in size. The cave of Staffa is 364 LETTERS. at least three hundred feet long, lined with long Btripcs of pillars of the samo kind, and hung at the top with stones of an exact figure of five side?. The height is seventy feet, so that, being very wide, it appears like a very large Gothic cathedral. Its arch is gradually narrowed at the top, and its base, except the footpath on one side, is the sea which comes in. V/e entered the mouth of tho cave with a peal of bagpipes, which made a most tremendous echo. Icolmkill is venerable for being the burial-place of forty-eight Scotch, and eight Danish, kings, whose tombs we saw. Our voyage lasted three days. I slept the first night at Icolmkill, the second at Tiree, and the third a^-ain at Mull. If I had room, I would scribble down an elegy, composed a few days after my arrival in Mull from Glasgow ; but you see I have clattered away all my paper upon Staffa. I depend upon your good-nature to excuse my prolix description, and the illegible scrawling of your very sincere friend, Lb Camellb. Mr. James ThomBon, London. No. 4. Aboard the Boston, 1 Sandy Hook, thirty miles from New York, V Friday, May 11, 1804, ) My darling Mother, I wrote to you on my arrival at New York, where I have been nearly a week, and am now returned aboard the frigate, which but waits a fair wind to sail for Norfolk. The Halifax packet is lying alongside of us, and I shall take the oppor- tunity of sending this letter by her. At New York, I was made happy by my father's letter of the 25th January, and dear Kate's of the 30th, which make four in nil that T have received from home. I had so very few opportunities at Ber- muda, and they were attended with so much uncertainty, that I fear you may have suff'ered many an anxious moment, darling mother, from the interruption and delay of the few letters I could despatch to you. But, please Heaven ! we shall soon have those barriers of distance removed ; my own tongue shall tell you my ''travel's history", and your heart shall go along with hie over every billow and step of the way. When I left Bermuda, I could not help regretting tliat the hopes which took me thither could not be even half realized ; for I should love to live there, and you would like it too, dear mother : and I think if the situation would give mo but a fourth of what I was so deludingly taught to expect, you should all have come to me ; and, though set apart from the rest of the world, we should have found in that quiet spot, and under that sweet sky, quite enough to counterbalance what the rest of the world could give us. But I am still to seek, and can only hope that I may find at last. The environs of New York are pretty, from the number of little, fanciful, wooden houses that are scattered, to the distance of six to eight miles, round tho city; but when one reflects upon tho cause of this, and that these houses are the retreat of the terrified, desponding, inhabitants, from the wilderness of death which every autumn produces in the city,* there is very little pleasure in the prospect ; and, notwithstanding the rich fields, and tho various blossoms of their orchards, I prefer the barren, breezy, rock of Bermuda to whole continents of such dearly-purchased fertility. While in New York, I employed my time to advantage in witnessing all the novelties possible. I saw young M. Buonaparte, and felt a slight shock of an * Reference is here i«.tde to the yellow fevor, which, at the time thU letter wm written, prCTalled la New York, to « greater or less extent, every year. LETTERS. 365 earthquake, which arc two things I could not often meet with upon Usher's Quay. Prom Norfolk I intend goin;? to Baltimore and Washington ; if possible, also (o Philadelphia and Boston, from thence to Halifax. From Halifax I hope to set sail, in the cabin where I now write this letter, for the dear old isles of the Old World again ; and I think it prohable that twelve months from the time I left England, will veiy nearly see me on its coasts once more. * * * Your own, T. M. EXERCISE. Somewhat in the style of the above models, write a LEITEB' OF CEEDIT, and a LETTER Oi' INTRODUCTIOiS". LESSON XCVII. LETTERS (continued). § 437. Folding and Sealing. As envelopes are now generally used for enclosing letters, the most convenient mode of folding is as follows : — As the sheet lies before you, turn up the bottom until its edge exactly lies upon the edge at the top, and make a fold in the middle. The sheet is now in an oblong form. Bring the side at your right hand to your body, and fold over about one third of the letter towards the top. Finally, turn as much of the upper part over in the opposite direction. Most envelopes are self-scaling ; that is, are furnished with a glutinous Eubstance, which, on being moistened, answers the purpose of a seal. When this convenience is wanting, a wafer is generally used ; in which case, care must be taken not to make it so wet as to spread and soil the adjacent parts. The use of the wafer, however, implies haste ; and those who study etiquette, almost without exception, give the preference to sealing-wax. Indeed, according to Lord Chesterfield, the use of the wafer is open to a still more serious objectien than the mere implying of haste. This nobleman is said, on having received a letter sealed with the obnoxious article in question, to have remarked with some indigna- tion, " What does the fellow mean by sending me his own spittle? " § 437. What are now generally used for enclosing letters ? Describe the most convenient mode of folding. With what are most envelopes furnished ? When this convenience is wanting, what is generally used? In the use of the wafer, what must be avoided ? To what do those who study etiquette give the prefer- pnce? Why? What was Lord ChesterflekVs objection to the wafer? If the old-fashioned mode of folding is followed, what must be avoided in putting on the Real? 366 LETTERS. If no envelope is used, but the old-fashioned mode of folding is follow- ed, be careful that the seal, whether wax or wafer, is so placed, that the opening of the letter will not render any part of the writing illegible. § 438. Superscription. — The superscription of a letter is the direction on the outside, consisting of the name of the person addressed, and the place and state in which he lives. In directing, be careful not to apply to a person two titles that mean the same thing ; as, Mr. Robert Jones, Esq. ; Dr. Edward Sayre, M. D. In the first example, either«a/r. or Esq. should be omitted ; afid, in the last, either Dr. ov M. D When a letter is not sent by mail, but is taken by private hand, it is customary to acknowledge the favor by placing on the outside, at the lower corner on the left, the bearer's name, in some such expression as the following : — " Politeness of Mr. " / " Courtesy of Mrs. " ; " Favored hy Miss ". A letter of introduction should contain, in the same position as the above, the name of the person introduced, in some such form as the fol- lowing : — " Introducing Mr. " ; " To introduce Mr. ". § 439. A short letter is called a JVbte. Business notes have the same form as letters. Notes of invitation should be written on small sheets, called, from the use to which they arc appropriated, note-paper. It is customary, in writing notes, to use the 3d person instead of both the 1st and 2d, as in the example given below. Care must be taken to avoid the common error of introducing the 1st or 2d person, after the 3d has been thus employed ; as in the following: "J/rs. White presents Iter compliments to Mr. Hoy, and solicits the pleasure of your [instead of /''^l company on Monday evening, the Aih inst.^^ In notes, the eldest or only daughter of a family is addressed u.t Miss , no other name being used ; when there are other daughters, they are distinguished by their Christian names. If Mr. David Temple, for instance, has three dau^ters, Caroline, Mary, and Cornelia, the first is properly addressed as Miss Temple ; the second, as Miss Mary Temple ; and the third, as Miss Cornelia Temple. On the death or marriage of §438. What Is meant by the Buperscriptlon of a letter? In directing, what must wo avoid ? Give examples. When a letter Is taken by prlvnto hand, how is it customary to acknowledge the favor ? What should a letter of iutrodaction coutaiii on the back, besides the superscription ? § 439. Wlint is a note ? What form have business notes ? On what sbonld notes of invitation be written ? In what person docs the writer speak of him- self? In what, of the person addressed? Aj^inst what common error is the NAEEATIVES. 367 Caroline, Mary becomes Miss Temple ; and, on that of both Caroline and Mary, Cornelia assumes the title in question. A few forms, with their appropriate replies, may be of service. INVITATIONS. EEPLIES. No. 1. ' No. 1. Mrs. Dunn presents her compliments Mr. and Mrs. Baker accept, with to Mr. and Mrs. Baker, and solicits the pleasure Mrs. Dunn's polite invitation pleasure of their company on Tuesday for the 12th inst. evening, the 12th inst. 23 Broadway, Jay St., Sept. 8. Sept. 9. No. %. No. 2.— A Regret. Mr. Bristow requests the pleasure Mr. Marshall regrets that a previous of the Hon. Mr. Marshall's company engagement will deprive him of the at dinner on Wednesday next, at 4 pleasure of accepting Mr. Bristow's in- o'clock. vitation to dinner for Wednesday next. T Greene St., Astor House, Sept. 4. Sept. 5. No. 3. No. Z.—A Regret. Mr. W. F. Cameron presents his re- Miss Lydia Bryant presents her com- spects to Miss Lydia Bryant, and begs pliments to Mr. W. F. Cameron, and that he may be allowed to wait on her regrets that sickness in her family will this evening to the Italian Opera. prevent her acceptance of his invita- tion for this evening. Liberty St., Montague Square, Sept. 3. Sept. 3. EXERCISE. I. "Write a letter to a friend in the city from some country retreat which you may have lately visited, remembering to draw up a preliminary analysis, and to follow the models in the last lesson, as regards date, address, &c. II. Write a note requesting the loan of a volume from a friend. m. "Write a note accepting a friend's invitation to tea. LESSON XCVIII.- NARRATIVES. jj -MO. A Narrative is a composition which consists, for t>ie most part, of an accoimt of real facts or events ; but writer cautioned ? In notes, how is the eldest daughter of a family addressed ? How, the other daughters ? Give an example. On the death or marriage of the eldest daughter, how is the second daughter addressed ? Give the form of a note of invitation, and the reply. 868 NAEEATIVES. into which, description, argument, exposition, or speculation, may also be introduced. § 441. Narratives are divided into Histories, Biogi'aphics, Obituaries, Voyages, Travels, and Anecdotes. § 442. A History is an account of facts or events pertain- ing to distinguished places or objects, to communities, nations, or states. A detached portion of history, confined to any particular era or event, is known as an Historical Sketch. The difference between a history and annals is, that the latter merely enumerate events in chronological order, without admitting any obser- vations on the part of the writer ; whereas history has less regard to the order of time, and allows the writer to investigate causes and effects, and to introduce other matter connected with the subject. § 443. A histor}'-, to be good, must be true and interesting. The first essential is truth. The writer must present a faithful ac- count of what has taken place, or his work is valueless. All prejudice must be laid aside. Nothing must be concealed, nothing exaggerated. All available sources of information must be explored, and whatever bears on the subject in hand must be brought to light. In cases of doubtful or conflicting testimony, the rules of evidence must be carefully weighed, and truth insured at the expense of every other consideration. In the second place, a good history must be interesting. Much de- pends on the manner of the historian. Whatever the nature of the events he records, however great his research or accurate his state- ments, if his style is dry, dull, or lifeless, he can not hope to gain the favor of his readers. He should aim at simplicity, clearness, and strength; but, when he is dwelling on those uplendid achievements which at intervals have spread a glorious refulgence over the page of history, with his subject he naturally rises to sublimity. The English language has produced many historians of the first rank ; among whom, Robertson, Hume, and Gibbon, are worthy of special men- § 440. Wlint is a narrative ? § 441. Into what arc narratives divided? §442. What ici a history? Wliat is an hletorical sketch f Define the difftr- ence between a history nnd annals*. § 443. What two thinfjH are essential to a prood history ? To insure tmth, what must the writer do ? What in the second essential of a good history ? On what does much depend ? At what should the historian aim ? When docs he natu- rally rise to sublimity ? Muntlon some of the prominent English historians. NAERATIVES. 369 tion. American literature can boast of names equally great, — Bancroft, Motley, Hiidreth, and Prescott. The style of Prescott is justly regard- ed as a model of historical writing, as well from its purity and beauty as from the absorbing interest with Avhich it invests wliatever he treats. The North American Review makes the following remarks on Pres- cott's style, which are worthy of being added, as likely to convey a just idea of what a good historical style should be : — • "Mr. Prescott is not a mannerist in style, and does not deal in elaborate, an- tithetical, nicely-balanced, periods. His sentences are not cast in the same arti- ficial mould, nor is there a perpetual recurrence of the same forms of expression, as in the writings of Johnson or Gibbon ; nor have they that satin-like smooth- ness and gloss for which Robertson is so remarkable. The dignified simplicity of his style is still farther removed from anything like pertness, smartness, or affectation ; from tawdry giim-flowers of rhetoric, and brass-gilt ornaments ; from those fantastic tricks with language which bear the same relation to good writing that vaulting and tumbling do to walking. It is perspicuous, flexible, and natural, sometimes betraying a want of high finish, but always manly, al- ways correct,— never feeble, and never inflated. He does not darkly insinuate statements, or leave his reader to infer facts. Indeed, it may be said of his style, that it has no marked character at all. Without ever offending the mind or the ear, it has nothing that attracts observation to it, simply as a style. It is a trans- parent medium, through which we see the form and movement of the writer's mind. In this respect, we may compare it with the manners of a well-bred gen- tleman, which have nothing so peculiar as to awaken attention, and which, from their very ease and simplicity, enable the essential qualities of the understauding »nd character to be more clearly discerned." § 444. A Biography is an account of the life of an indi- vidual. When the chief incidents only are touched upon, it is called a Biographical Sketch. The style recommended in the last paragraph for history is also appropriate to biogra- phy. The writer should avoid a tendency to minuteness of uninteresting detail, and exaggerated praise of the person of whose life he is treating. § 445. The third variety of narrative is the Obituary, which is a notice of a person's death, accompanied with a brief sketch of his life and character. Obituaries are gener- ally written by Mends of the deceased, in whom, as in the Mention those distinguished in American literature. What ia said of Prescott'S style ? In what terms does the North American Review speak of it? § 444. What is a biography ? What is a biographical sketch ? What style is appropriate to biography ? Against what tendency should the biographer be on his guard ? § 445. What is the third variety of narrative ? What is an obituary ? By whom are obituaries generally written ? What, therefore, is the natural tendency in the 16* 370 NAREATIVES. biographer, there is a natural tendency to exaggerate the abiUties and virtues of those whose memory they would pre- serve. Such exaggeration fails of its object, being readily detected, and in that case not only losing its effect, but actually offending the reader. In this, as in every other species of narrative, truth should be the primary object. § 446. Travels constitute the fourth kind of narrative. They may be defined as an account of incidents that have happened, and observations that have been made, during a journey ; and form one of the most entertaining and popular departments of literature. Narration constitutes the greater part of a book of travels ; but de- scription and the other elements of composition may also be introduced, in a greater or less degree. Keen powers of observation are essential to the writer in this department of composition. His style should be varied to suit the different objects and incidents he is called on successively to describe; ornamented or simple, sublime or sparkling with humor, as occasion may require. To awaken interest in his readers, he should se- lect new and important subjects only, and exhibit them in their most striking light. § 447. The fifth class comprises Voyages ; which resem- ble travels in every respect, except that the incidents they relate are such as have happened to one passing by water between countries remote from each other. As regards style, the same principles apply as in the case of travels. § 448. The last variety of narrative we shall here mention, is the Anecdote. This term is derived from two Greek words (a privative, and t-/c(Jorof, given out^ viade public) ; and was originally appUed to an historical fact not generally writers of obitnariea ? What is said of such exaggeration ? In all the varieties of narrative, what shoiild be the primary object ? § 440. What constitute the fourth kind of narrative ? \\liat is meant by trav- els f What constitutes the greater part of a book of travels ? What else may bo introduced ? What is essential to success in the writing of travels ? What stylo is most effective for them? What subjects should be selected by the writers of travels ? § 447. What Is the fifth division of narratives ? In what do voyages differ from travels ? What style is recommended for voyages ? g 448. What is the last variety of narrative mentioned ? From what is th» NAEKATIVES. 3Yl known, when promulgated for the first time. As now used, however, this term signifies an account of an interesting detached incident, particularly one connected with the career of some distinguished person. The point of an anecdote should not be obscured by too many words. § 449. The only example it is thought necessary to pre- sent, is one of the anecdote. The other varieties form so considerable a jDortion of the current literature of the day, that the student can hardly go amiss for suitable models. ANECDOTE OF DR. FRANKLIN. Long after the victories of Washington over the French and English had made his name familiar to all Europe, Dr. Franklin chanced to dine with the English and French ambassadors ; when, as nearly as the precise words can he recol- lected, the following toasts were drunk :— " England— The ^wn. whose bright beams enlighten and fnictify the remotest comers of the earth." The French ambassador, filled with national pride, but too polite to dispute the previous toast, drank the following :— " Fbance— The Moon whose mild, steady, and cheering rays, are the delight of all nations, consoling them in darkness, and making their dreariness beautiful." Dr. Franklin then arose, and, with his usual dignified simplicity, said :— " George Washington— The Joshua who commanded the Sun and Moon to stand still, and they obeyed him." EXERCISE. I. Write, in your own language, an Anecdote of Richard the Lion-hearted. II. Write, in your own language, an Anecdote of Philip of Macedon, from the following heads : — A Macedonian soldier had so distinguished himself by extraoi'dinary acts of valor as to gain the favor of King Philip and many marks of royal approbation. This soldier was once shipwrecked ; and, being cast ashore with scarcely a sign of life, was revived only by the care and tenderness of a Macedonian, whose lands were contiguous to the sea, and who hastened to his relief. Placed in this good man's bed, carefully nursed, and freely supplied with the necessaries of life, the shipwrecked soldier found himself, at the expiration of forty days, suflaciently re- covered to be able to resume his journey. He left with loud protestations of gratitude to his kind host ; and, informing the latter of his influence with the king, promised that his first care should be to secure from the royal bounty a munificent reward for one who had so generously befriended him in time of need. word anecdote derived ? To what was this term originally applied T As now used, what does it signify ? What is the effect of too many words in an anecdote ? 372 EXERCISE IN BIOGEAPHr. In reality, however, he was filled with base cupidity, and nngrateftilly reeolvcd to procure for himself the grounds of his benefactor. Shortly after, he presented himself before the king ; and, recounting his misfortunes and at the same time his services, begged that Philip would give him an estate, and specified that of his entertainer as one which would be peculiarly acceptable. Ignorant of the circumstances, Philip inconsiderately granted the request. The soldier immediately returned, and, driving out hui urcserver with violence, seized on the property in question. The latter, stung to the heart by this un- paralleled ingratitude, boldly approached the king, and laid the whole case before him. Philip, finding, on examination, the story to be true, lamented his o^vn in- considerate act, ordered the property to be restored, made the suffering com- plainant a munificent present, and, seizing the base soldier, confiscated his goods, and had the words the ungrateful guest branded on his forehead. [Close with remarks on the king^e justice.] LESSON XCIX. EXERCISE IN BIOGRAPHY, From the following points, draw up two Biograpliical Sketches, one of Alfred the Great, and the other of William the Conqueror. If further information is needed, any his* tory will supply it. ALFRED THE GREAT. introduction — Responsibility resting on kings — How much the happiness or misery of their subjects depends on them — How some kings abuse their opportunities of doing good, while others are incalculable blessings to the lands they rule — How it was in the case of Alfred. Born 849, at Wantage, in Berkshire — son of Ethelwolf ; his mother was Osburgh, daughter of Oslac, butler to Ethel- wolf, but well descended. His early education neglected — his natural thirst for knowledge — skilled in bodily exercises. His enemies, the Danes ; i. e. the people of Scandinavia (Sweden, Denmark, and Norway). Commander of his brother's armies — recommends a navy. Exercise in biogeaphy. ^^73 Losses and reverses of fortune — anecdote of the burnt cakes — visit in disguise to the Danish camp — defeat of the Danes — baptism of Guthrum — Alfred's power increases — peace during the last two years of his reign — dies 901. His character — learning — piety — habits — political insti- tutions — jiatronage of learned men — division of England into counties, hundreds, tithings, &c. '■ WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. Introduction — Some kings seem to have been chosen by Providence as instruments for effecting mighty changes in nations — the case with William the Conqueror — intermixture of Normans with Saxons produced the English nation of the present day. Whose son ? — his title to the English throne — his rival — the invasion of England — the number of William's army — where he landed. Harold's title to the crown — proposals made by William to Harold the night before the battle. The battle and its circumstances — death of Harold, and victory of William, 14th October, 1066 — extinction of the Saxon rule — submission of the clergy. Coronation — oath — return to Normandy — effects of his absence — conspiracy of the English — return of William, and treatment of the rebels and English clergy. Destined to vexation and trouble — his. children — anec- dote of their quarrels. Insurrection in Normandy — conduct of the queen, daugh- ter of Baldwin, Earl of Flanders — rebellion quelled by an English army. Death of Queen Matilda — insurrection in Maine aided by the King of France. Invasion of France by William — accident which caused the death of the king in 1087. Character — changes produced in England during his reign — relations between the Saxons and the Normans — changes in the language. S74: FICTION. LESSON C. FICTION. § 450. Fiction is that branch of composition which con- sists in the narration of imaginary incidents. With this narration, descriptions of material objects, of natural scenery, and of persons, are generally combined. It will be seen that the difference between the narrative and the fic- tion lies in the character of the incidents they respectively relate ; the former being limited to such as are true, while those of the latter are created either wholly or in part by the imagination. We say in part, for fictions may be founded on fact, historical events being often taken as the basis of such compositions. If the details have been invented by the author, if imaginary conversations, characters, or scenes, are intro- duced, it is sufficient to constitute a fiction. § 451. Tlie chain of incidents on which a fiction is founded, is called its Plot. A plot should not be glaringly improb- able ; it should be moral, consistent in all its parts, and so managed as to keep alive the reader's interest throughout. Tliis is often insured by reserving some important denoue- ment for the last. § 452. Next to a good plot, nothing is more necessary to success in fictitious composition than a striking and life- like portraiture of character. Individual peculiarities of mind and manners must be carried out. "W^iatever the person- ages introduced say or do, must strictly harmonize with the character assigned them by the writer. § 453. Fictitious compositions constitute one of the most § 450. What is Action ? With this narration, what are generally combined f What constitutes the diflForcnce between a narrative and a fiction ? On what may fictions be founded ? What are often talien as a basis for them ? In such cases, what is snfflclent to constitute a fiction ? § 451. What is meant by the plot of a fictitious composition ? What is essential with respect to a plot ? How is the reader's interest often kept alive to the end ? § 452. Next to a good plot, what is most important to success in fictitious com- position ? Wliat Is meant by this ? § 453. Explain how fictitious compositions exert a powerftil inflaenco oo th« FICTION. 375 important departments of literature. Obtaining greater cur- rency than almost any other kinds of writing, and furnishing food, as they do, to a great extent, for the imaginations of the young, they exert a powerful influence on the morals and taste of a nation. That tliis influence should be cast on the side of morality and truth, is all-important. In the hands of judicious writers who feel the responsibility of their position, fiction becomes an important instrmnent of good. It furnishes one of the best channels for conveying instruction, for showing the errors into which we are betrayed by our passions, for rendering virtue attrac- tive and vice odious. Accordingly, we find that the wisest of men, in all ages, have used fables and parables as vehicles of moral instruction. It must be observed, however, that, while fiction, as shown above, may be an effective instrument of good, it is no less powerful an agent of evil, when diverted from its proper use, and made to teach a false moral or pander to the baser passions. No ordinary responsibility, therefore, rests on the writer in this department of composition. § 454. The principal forms in which fiction appears are Tales, Novels, Romances, and Dialogues. The first three of these are closely related ; the differ- ence between them is as follows. The Tale is short and simple, and admits of comparatively few characters ; it is told without much regard to keeping the reader in suspense, and often has but little depth of plot or importance of de- nouement. The Novel and the Romance, on the contrary, admit of every possible variety of character, and afford the greatest scope for exciting the interest of the reader by a rapid succession of events, an involvement of interests, and the unravelling of intricacies of plot. The Novel, though thus like the Romance in its main features, differs from the latter in that it aims at the delineation of social manners, or the development of a story founded on the incidents of or- dinary life, or both together ; whereas the Romance is based morals and taste of a nation. In the hands of judicious writers, what does fiction \)ecome ? Show how it is made an instrument of good. On the other hand, show how it may be attended with the most pernicious effects. § 454. What are the principal forms in which fiction appears ? What are the distingniehing features of the tale, the novel, and the romance ? What word is 37G i^icnoN* on incidents, not merely improbable, but altogether wild and out of the common course of life at the present day, — on legends of bygone ages, heroic exploits of former times, su- pernatural events, and vagaries of the imagination in gen* eral. In all three, the plot may be unfolded, at least in a measure, by means of conversations between the characters introduced. The word story is commonly used as synonymous with tale. Properly speaking, however, this term is applied to any narrative of past events, real or fictitious. We speak of " the story of Joseph ", and " the story of the Forty Thieves ". A Dialogue is a fictitious conversation between two or more persons. Dialogues have been used with great success, particularly by the ancients, as a convenient form for the discussion of serious topics con- nected with criticism, morals, and philosophy. Well conducted, they are peculiarly entertaining to the reader ; as they not only afford him a full view of the subject in all its relations, but at the same time please him with their easy conversational style, and their display of well-sup- ported characters. But, to be thus effective, a dialogue must show in a striking light the character and manners of the several speakers, must adapt to these their thoughts and expressions respectively, — in a word, must be a spirited representation of a real conversation. In this difficult branch of composition, few have equalled Plato, in whose mind soundness of judgment seems to have been combined in an unprecedented degree with richness of imagination. Socrates is one of his prominent characters. This sage, whom he reveres as a philosopher and loves as his master, is represented as conversing with the sophists on various topics ; as asking them questions which bear on the point with- out their perceiving it, founding new interrogatories on the answers re- ceived, and thus leading them on until they suddenly find themselves in- volved in difficulties and absurdities, and are obliged, by the admissions they have made, to own the falsity of their own position and the correct- commonly need as pynonymous with talef Wliat twofold Piijiiiftcation has thla term story f Illustrato each. Wliat is a dialogic? For what have dialogues been used? What renders them, when well conducted, peculiarly entertaining to the reader? To be effective, what is essential with respect to a dialogue? Who Is distinguished for his skill in this department of composition ? Who con- Ptitutes one of Plato's prominent characters ? Describe the Socratic mode of reasoning as represented in Plato's dialogues. What is meant by a Socratic dia- logue/ What other kind of dialogue iu mentioned? What ancient writer ex* FICTION. 377 cess of their adversary's. This mode of reasoning has hence been called Socratic ; and a Socratic dialogue is one in which it is pursued. There are also lighter dialogues, in which wit and humor play an im- portant part, and which are designed principally to satirize the follies of the day. These, Lucian, among the ancients, carried to a high degree of perfection. In modern times, we have few specimens either of the lighter or the graver kind, that can be said to possess superior merit ; the diffi- culty of this style of composition seems to have brought it into disfavor with the majority of writers. • § 455. An extended dialogue, consisting of different scenes accommodated to action, and participated in by a number of characters, who appear and disappear at intervals as may be necessary for the development of the plot, is called a Drama. Dramas are written in either prose or poetry, but generally the latter ; for Avhich reason, we shall at present postpone their consideration. § 456. We subjoin a specimen of the tale, — one, how- ever, in which, by reason of its brevity, there is necessarily but little plot. Li tales of any length, description may be introduced with effect^ CARDINAL Richelieu's guest. Cardinal de Richelieu has always been considered a great minister, and on some accounts he well deserved the name. He rendered an immense seiTice to monarchy in dispatching the last heads of the feudal hydra, and literature owes him much for the establishment of the French Academy. Although himself but an indifferent writer, he was ever ready to encourage the arts, and paid liberally for the efforts of others. The Cardinal, however, could not endure that his acts should be made the subject of comment, particularly since some of them were cf a character not calculated to elicit very warm commendation from lovers of morality. The more powerful, indeed, occasionally indulged in freedom of speech ; but woe to the humble individual that was indiscreet enough publicly to find fault with the peccadilloes of his Eminence. With cnch he had a sum- mary way of privately dealing which effectually closed their lips for the future. M. Dumont, a small merchant of the Rue St. Denis, received one morning a letter dated Rueil, a little village on the outskirts of Paris, where the Cardinal had a country-seat. This letter contained an invitation to supper for the next day with his Eminence. M. Dumont could not believe his eyes ; he read the let- ter several times, looked at the direction, and finally concluded that he must be indeed the person to whom it was addressed. Amazed beyond expression, he celled in it ? What has brought this kind of composition into disfavor with the majority of writers ? § 455. What is a drama ? Are dramas generally written in prose, or poetiy ? 378 FICTION. caHed his wife and daughters, to communicate to them hia good fortune. Yon may imagine the joy and pride of the three women I About four o'clock he mounted his horse, and started for Rneil. He had scarcely passed the suburbs, when the clouds assumed a threatening look, and the sound of distant thunder announced the approach of a violent storm. The merchant, having neglected to provide himself with a cloak, doubled the speed of bis horse. But the storm travelled faster than his eteed ; flashes of lightning succeeded each other with frightful rapidity, and the rain fell in torrents. Assailed by the tempest, our hero put his horse to the gallop ; but at length, unable to continue his journey, he stopped at a small tavern in Manterre. lie alighted, sent his horse to the stable, and took refuge in a low room, where the servant lighted a blazing fire to dry his clothes. "While he was warming himself, the door opened, and another person, also drenched with rain, entered, and seated himself in the op- posite corner. The two travellers looked at each other for some time in silence. At last, M. Dumont addressed his companion with the words : " What detestable weather ! " "It is very bad, indeed," replied the stranger. "But it is only a shower, which, I hope, will soon pass over." "Hear," continued M. Dumont; "the storm increases; peals of thunder shake the house ; the rain falls in torrents : and yet I must go on." "Sir," said the unknown, "it must be important business that can induce yon to proceed on your journey in this weather." " It is, indeed," said Dumont ; " I will tell you : it is no secret. I am invited to a supper, this evening, with the Cardinal de Richelieu." " Ahl I know it is a difllcult matter to decline such an invitation. But you have still a long way to go, and how can you present yourself before his Emi- nence in the state in which you now are ? " "His Eminence will, perhaps, appreciate my eagerness to accept his kind invitation." " If I did not fear to appear indiscreet, I would ask you if you ever had any thing to do with the Cardinal." " Nothing at all. I must even say that I can not account for the favor which I have received." " The Cardinal is very jealous of his authority ; he does not like to have his actions judged. One word sometimes is sufficient to excite his suspicion ; think well. Have you never given his Eminence any cause for complaint against you ? " " I think not. I have been constantly occupied with my business. I have no interest in what they call politics. However, I believe that, before two or three friends only, I censured the death of the Duke of Montmorency, and you would have done the same, had your grandfather been the steward of that illustrious noble," " My dear sir, you look like an honest man. You have inspired me with much interest for you ; will you listen to me, then ? Do not go to RueiL" " Not go to Rueil ! I shall set out this instant, In spite of the storm." "One word more, my friend, for your position interests mo exceedingly; you really believe that tlie Cardinal is expecting you to supper? Well, let me undeceive you. Yon are expected, it is true,— but to be hung I " " Oh, mcrciftil Heaven ! what do you mean ? It Is impossible." " I tell you again," said the stranger, " to be hung I " At these words, Dumont, shuddering with terror, drew himself near to tht unknown. " For Heaven's sake, how do you know ? " "lam sure of it." ESSAYS. 379 " Bnt what have I done to deserve such a fate ? " " I don't know ; hut I am sure of what I say, for I am the one who has been sent for to hang you." The poor merchant, pale as a corpse, drew hack several steps, and, scarcely able to speak, said: " Pray tell me, sir— who are you ? " " The hangman of Paris, called by his Eminence to dispatch you. Think of the service I have rendered you, and remember that the least indiscretion on your part will be my ruin." The merchant remounted his horse without waiting for the storm to abate ; and, drenched to the bone, he reached Paris. Instead of repairing to his own house, he sought shelter with an old friend, to whom he related his adventure and wonderful escape. With the aid of money, he obtained a passport, under a false name ; and, well disguised, started for England. There he remained till the death of the Cardinal, which occurred two years after. EXEKCISE. Write a Tale, founded on incidents of your own inven- tion, and conveying the moral that appearances are deceitful^ LESSON CI. ESSAYS. § 457. Essays constitute the fourth division of prose compositions. The term essay literally signifies an attempt ; and is gen- erally apphed, in literature, to productions in which a writer briefly sets forth his views on the leading points connected with a subject, without pausing to consider them carefully or minutely. Some writers, hov/ever, in a spirit of modesty, have thought proper to characterize as essays their most pro- found and elaborate compositions, following the example of Locke in liis celebrated " Essay on the Human Understand- ing ". The term has thus come to have a widely extended signification ; and is now equally applicable to the crude ex- § 457. What constitute the fourth division of prose compositions ? What does the term €ssa2/ literally signify ? To what is it generally applied in literature? What have some writers, in a spirit of modesty, used this term to denote ? What is the consequence, as regards the present acceptation of the word essay f What, for the most part, constitute the themes of essays ? 380 ESSAYS. crcise of the school-boy and the sublimest effort of the man of letters. The themes of essays are, for the most part, either ab- stract subjects or topics connected with life and manners. § 458. The term essay being thus comprehensive, the compositions so designated are susceptible of division into a variety of classes distinguished hy particular names ; the principal of which are Editorials, Reviews, Treatises, Tracts, Dissertations, and Disquisitions. An Editorial is a short essay on some current topic of the day, presented in a newspaper or periodical as embodying the views of its conductors. A Review is a critical essay on some literary production, in which its beauties and defects are pointed out. A Treatise is a methodical and elaborate essay, generally on some ethical, political, or speculative, subject. A Tract is a brief essay, generally on some religious or political theme, called forth by the events of the day, and seldom possessing sufficient general interest to survive the occasion which gave it birth. A Dissertation is an essay of some length, investigating, in all its relations, some disputed subject ; and written, not for the purpose of establishing a given position, but of fairly presenting the arguments on all sides, and arriving at the truth. A Disquisition has the same object in view as a disserta- tion, — that is, the eliciting of truth ; it differs from the latter only in being more brief, and being confined more strictly to the particular point under consideration. § 459. In the conduct of the essay, great latitude is allowed. Its subjects arc so various that no uniform mode of treatment can be recommended or followed. The heads § 458. Ennmerntc the classes into which ofisnj's are divided. WTint is an edi- torial ? a review? a treatise ? a tract ? a dissertation ? a disquisition ? § 450. Wliat is allowed in the conduct of an essay ? Wliy can not a uniform modo of treatment be followed T According to what will the heads to be taken differ ? ESSAYS. 381 to be taken will of course differ according to the character of the topics treated ; yet, in most compositions of this class, the following will be found appropriate.. They may be am- plified according to the suggestions in § 409. I. Introduction. — Suggestions respecting it will be found in § 405, 406, 407, 408. II. Definition. III. Origin. IV. History. V. Historical Illustrations. VI. Advantages. Similes and Quotations. VII. Disadvantages. Similes and Quotationa. VIII. Practical Conclusion. If the subject is one on which there is a difference of opinion, it may be well, in place of the fourth and the fifth head, given above, to sub- stitute the following : — IV. Statement of Views. I. General view. What has been thought on this subject by all nations, and in all ages ? II. Local view. What opinions are entertained on it in the age and country to which the writer belongs ? Or the following division may be preferable : — I. Ancient view, or that held by the ancients generally, and es- pecially their philosophers. II. Modern view. Causes which may hare operated to produce a change of opinion. V. Author^s Vieiv. Arguments to sustain it. The negative argument, or proving the truth of what is advanced by showing the absurd- ity of the contrary, is often introduced with fine effect. It will be seen from the above heads that the essay may contain all the parts of composition, — description, narration, argument, exposition, and speculation. § 460. As a specimen of the essay, in the brief form in which, as a school or college exercise, it generally appears, we subjoin a composition on Friendship.^ which may be sup- posed to have been written from the following ANALYSIS. I. Definition. What is friendship ? II. Origin and necessity. III. Estimation in which it was formerly held. Examples. IV. Universality ; extends to all ranks of life. V. Benefits of true, and evils of false, friendship. VI. Conclusion. Practical reflections. What heads will generally be found appropriate ? If the subject is one on which there is a difference of opinion, what heads will it be well to take ? 382 ESSAYS. FRIENDSHIP, Frlendehip is an attachment between persons of congenial dlspoaitionB, habits, and pursuits. It has its origin in the nature and condition of man. Tie is a social creature, and naturally loves to frequent the society, and enjoy the affections, of those -who are like himself. He is also, individually, a feeble creature ; and a sense of this weakness renders friendship indispensable to him. Though he may have all other enjoyments within his reach, he still finds his happiness incomplete, unless participated by one whom he considers his friend. When in difllculty and dis- tress, he looks around for advice, assistance, and consolation. No wonder, therefore, that a sentiment of such importance to man should have been so frequently and so fully considered. We can scarcely open any of the volumes of antiquity without being reminded how excellent a thing is friend- ship. The examples of David and Jonathan, Achilles and Patroclus, Pylades and Orestes, Nisus and Euryalus, Damon and Pythias, all show to what a degree of enthusiasm it was sometimes carried. Even the great Cicero deemed it of suffi- cient importance to form the subject of one of his masterly essays. But it is to be feared that, in modern times, friendship is seldom remarkable for similar de- votedness. With some, it is nominal rather than real ; and, with others, it is regulated entirely by self-interest. Yet it would, no doubt, be possible to produce, from every rank in life, and from every state of society, instances of sincere and disinterested friendship, creditable to human nature, and to the age in which we live. We can not think BO ill of our species as to believe that selfishness has got the better of their nobler feelings sufficiently to destroy their sympathy with their fellow-creatures, and their love towards those whom God hath given them for neighbors and brethren. After these remarks, to enlarge on the benefits of possessing a real fHend ap- pears unnecessary. What would be more intolerable than the consciousness that in all the wide world, not one heart beat in unison with our own, or cared for our welfare ? What indescribable happiness must it be, on the other hand, to possess a real friend ;— a friend who will counsel, instnict, assist ; who will bear a willing part in our calamity, and cordially rejoice when the hour of happiness returns ! Let us remember, however, that all who assume the name of friends are not entitled to our confidence. History records many instances of the fatal conse- quences of infidelity in friendship ; and it can not be denied that the world con- tains men who are happy to find a heart they can pervert, or a head they can mislead, if thus their unworthy ends can be more surely attained. Caution in the formation of friendships is, therefore, in the highest degree necessary. We should admit none to the altar of our social affections without closely scrutinizing their lives and characters. We must assure ourselves of the uprightness and truth of those to whom we open our hearts in friendship, if we would not have a pernicious influence exerted on our o\\'n dispositions ; if we would not, in the Iiour of trial, find ourselves forgotten and abandoned to the cold charities of an un sympathizing world. EXERCISE. Write an Essay from the following extended Analysis : — A GOOD CAUSE MAKES A STOUT HEART. I. /nirodudion. Courage is n natural quality, yet it is often increased or lessened by circumstances. Among the considerations which BXEECISE IN ESSAY-WEITING. 383 tend to confirm this quality on particular occasions, is the con- sciousness that we have right on our side, that we are engaged in a just and honorable cause. II. Reasons why this is the case. . 1. A mind conscious of right is not ashamed ; and, as shame is always cowardly, so the absence of it conduces to moral courage. 2. A mind conscious to itself of honest intentions is not paralyzed by any fear of being detected in what it is doing. 3. Conscious rectitude gives confidence to the heart, from a convic- tion of being in the path of duty. 4. A good cause makes a stout heart, from a persuasion that God will maintain the right ; and, " if God be for us, who can be against us ? " 5. A desire for the approbation of men will encourage those who are engaged in the cause of truth and justice. 6. The just man will be further emboldened by the reflection that his adversary's cause is a bad one, and can not prevail against him. Y. Even to fail in a good cause is honorable ; and, therefore, the upright mind is sustained by the double assurance mentioned by St. Paul, " Whether we live, we live unto the Lord ; or whether we die, we die unto the Lord : living or dying, we are the Lord's." III. Contrast. — While he who feels he is in the right is thus fearless, one who is doing what he knows to be wrong is afraid to be seen : his heart is paralyzed by a constant dread of detection, disgrace, and punishment ; and the conviction that he is maintaining the wrong against an adversary who is armed with the consciousness of recti- tude, will have a most pernicious influence upon both his moral and physical courage. IV Similes. — As bright armor will resist a musket-ball far better than a rusty suit of mail, so a good cause is far stronger than a puissant arm raised to uphold what is wrong. A good foundation makes a building firm ; and when the rain descends and the floods come, and the winds blow and beat upon that house, it will not fall, because its foundation is secure ; whereas, a house built upon the sand can not resist the rain, the floods, and the wind, but will fall when they beat against it, and great will be the fall thereof. A ship built of sound timber may weather the roughest sea ; but one made of rotten planks can not ride in safety through the smoothest water. A dog stealing a bone is alarmed at the slightest sound, and will run away ; while the same dog, guarding a house at night, can not be terrified by threats or danger. A " thief doth fear each bush an oflScer " ; but a soldier in the battle-field will stand fearlessly at the cannon's mouth. Boys engaged upon their duty are not afraid of the eye of their master ; but every sound alarms them when they are doing what tliey know to be wrong, A dying man who has endeavored to discharge his duty, is not 384 EXERCISE IN ESSAY-WRITING. afraid to meet his Maker ; but one whose conscience tells him that he has been an evil-doer, is in an agony of fear when he finds himself on his death-bed. Y. Historical Illustrations. — According to Shakspeare's representation, Richard III., at the battle of Bosworth Field, was weighed down with the oppression of conscious guilt ; but Richmond, being buoyed up with the conviction of the justness of his cause, fought like a lion, and prevailed. Macbeth started at every whisper of the wind, or shriek of the night-hawk, when he went to murder Duncan ; but stood as an " eagle against a sparrow, or a lion against a hare," in the fierce contest with the Norwegian rebels. Siccius Dentatus resisted a hundred adversaries sent to assassi- nate him, with considerable success ; killing fifteen, and wounding thirty others, A usurper is in constant fear of conspiracies : common tradition says that Cromwell wore armor under his clothes, and never went and returned by the same route. Leonidas, at the pass of Thermopyla), was not afraid with three hundred men to oppose Xerxes, the invader of Greece, at the head of a million troops. William Tell, with a handful of adherents, boldly resisted the Austrian multitude, and even repulsed it. David, with a simple sling and stone, encountered Goliath, the giant of Gath, and slew him. VI. Quotations. — Honor shall uphold the humble in spirit. — Prov. xxix., 23. The wicked flee when no man pursucth ; but the righteous are bold as a lion. — Prov. xxviii., 1. Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. — Shalspeare. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just ; And he but naked, though locked up in steel. Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. Shakspeare. Conscience makes cowards of us all. — Shakspeare. Conscience is a dangerous thing, it makes a man a coward ; a man can not steal, but it accuscth him ; a man can not swear, but it checks him. 'Tis a blushing shamefaced spirit, that mutinies in a man's bosom, and fills one full of obstacles. — Shakspeare. When the mind proposes honorable ends, not only the viituing trains of argument, composed of a number of propositions chained together, with principles and consequcucei dei)endent on them, are always embarrassing to the auditor. SERMON-WKIXmG. 395 Connection. By this is meant the relation of the text to the foregoing or following verses. This must be found by deliberate thought, with the aid of good commentaries. The connection often contributes much to the elucidation of the text ; and, in this case, should always be alluded to in the discourse. The beginning of the sermon seems to be the best place for treating it ; it often affords good material for an introduction. Division. Four or five heads are generally sufficient ; a greater number are embarrass- ing to the hearer. There are two sorts of divisions which we may properly make : the first, which is the most common, is the division of the text into its parts ; the other is a division of the discourse, or sermon itself. The division of the sermon itself is proper in the following cases :— 1. When a prophecy of the Old Testament is handled ; for, generally, the un- derstanding of these prophecies depends on many general considerations, which, by exposing and refuting false senses, open a way to the true explication. 2. When a text is connected with a disputed point, the understanding of which must depend on the state of the question, and the arguments that have been ad- vanced. All these lights are previously necessary, and they can be given only by general considerations. For example, Rom. iii., 28,—" We conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law." Some general considerations must precede, which clear up the state of the question between St. Paul and the Jews touching justiacation, which mark the hypothesis of the Jews upon that subject, and which discover the true principle that St. Paul would establish ; 80 that, in the end, the text may be clearly understood. 3. In a conclusion drawn from a long preceding discourse ; as, for example, Rom. v., i., " Therefore, being justified by faith, we have peace with God, through our Lord Jesus Christ." The discourse must be divided into two parts: the first consisting of some general considerations on the doctrine of justification, which St. Paul establishes in the preceding chapters ; and the second, of his con- clusion, that, being thus justified, we have peace with God, &c. 4. In the case of texts quoted in the New Testament from the Old. Prove by general considerations tliat the text is properly produced, and then proceod clearly to its explication. Of this kind are Hebrews i., 5, 6, " I will be to him a Father," &c. " One in a certain place testified," &c., ii., 6. " Wherefore, as the Holy Ghost saith," &c., iii., 7. 5. In this class must be placed divisions into different views. These, to speak properly, are not divisions of a text into its parts ; but rather different applica- tions, which are made of the same texts to divers suhjects. Typical texts should be divided thus ; and a great number of passages in the Psalms, which relate, not only to David, but also to Christ : such should be considered first literally, as they relate to David ; and then in the mystical sense, as they refer to the Lord Jesus. There are also typical passages, which, besides their literal sense, have figu- rative meanings, i-elating, not only to Jesus Christ, but also to the church in gen- eral, and to every believer in particular. For example, Dan. Ix., 7, " O Lord, righteousness belongeth unto thee, but unto us confusion of faces as at this day," must not be divided into parts, but considered in different views : 1. In regard to all men in general. 2. In regard to the Jewish Church in Daniel's time. 3. In regard to ourselves at the present day. So, again, Heb. iii., 7, 8., " To-day if ye will hear his voice," which is taken from Psalm xcv., cannot be better divided than by referring it, 1. To David's time, 2. To St. Paul's. 3. To our own. 390 SERMON- WRITING. As to the division of the text itself, sometimes the order of the words is bo clear and natural, that no division is necessary ; we need only follow the order in question. As, for example, Eph. 1., 3, "Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath blessed us with all spiritual blessings in heav- enly places in Christ." Here the words divide themselves, and to explain them we need only follow them. A grateful acknowledgment, "Blessed be God". The title under which the Apostle blesses God, " The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ". The reason for which he blesses him, because " he hath blessed us ". The plenitude of this blessing, " with all blessings ". The nature or kind signi- fied by the term spirUual. The place where he hath blessed us, " in heavenly places ". In whom he hath blessed us, " in Christ ". Most texts, however, ought to be formally divided; for which purpose we must regard chiefly the order of nature : put that division which naturally pre- cedes, in the first place, and let the rest follow in its proper order. There are two natural orders : one natural in regard to subjects themselves ; the other natural in regard to us. Though in general you may follow which of the two you please, yet there are some texts that determine the division ; as Phil, ii., 13, "It is God which worketh effectually in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure." There are, it is plain, three things to be discussed: the action of God's grace upon men, " God worketh effectually in j'ou " ; the efl'ect of this grace, " to will and to do " ; and the spring or source of the action, accord- ing to " his good pleasure ", I think the division would not be proper, if we were to treat, 1. Of God's good pleasure ; 2. Of his grace ; and 3. Of the will and works of men. Above all things, in divisions, avoid introducing any thing in the first part which implies a knowledge of the second, or which obliges you to treat of the second to make the first understood; otherwise you will be obliged to make many tedious repetitions. Endeavor to separate your parts from each other as well as you can. When they arc veiy closely connected, place the most detached first, and make that serve for a foundation to the explication of the second, and the second to the third ; so that, at the conclusion, the hearer may at a glance perceive, as it were, a perfect body, a well-finished building. One of the greatest merits of a sermon is harmony in its component parts ; that the first lead natu- rally to the second, the second to the third, &c. ; that what goes before excite a desire for what is to follow. When, in a text, there are several terms which need a particular ex- planation, and which can not be explained without confusion, or without divid- ing the text into too many parts, then do not divide the text at all, but divide the discourse into parts. First explain the tenns, and then proceed to the sub- ject itself. There are many texts, in discussing which it is not necessary to treat of eithei subject or attribute ; but all the discussion turns on words that convey no mean- ing independently of other terms, and which arc called in logic syncategorematica. For example, John iil., 16, " God so loved the world, that he gave bis only begot- ten Son, that whosoever believctb in him should not perish, but have everlasting life." The categorical proposition is, God loved the world; yet, it is necessary neither to insist mnchupon the term God, nor to speak in a commonplace way of the divine love. The text should be divided into two i)arts : first, the gift which God in his love hath made of his Son; secondly, the end for which this gift was bestowed, " that whosoever bclievcth in him should not perish, but have ever- lasting life ". There arc texts of reasoning which are composed of an objection and an axh SEKMON-WRITING. 397 ewer. These are naturally clivlded into the objection and the solution. As, Ro- mans vi., 1, 2, " What shall we say then," &c. There are some texts of reasoning which are extremely difficult to divide, because they can not be extended into many propositions without confusion. As, John iv., 10, " If thou knewest the gift of God," &c. Here we may take two heads : the first including the general proposition contained in the words ; the second, the particular application of these to the Samaritan woman. There are some texts which imply many important truths without expressing them. These should be alluded to and enlarged upon. In such cases, the text may be divided into two parts ; one referring to what is implied, and the other to what is expressed. Subdivisions also should be made, for they are of great assistance to the ■writer; they need not, however, be mentioned in the discourse. Methods of Discussion. These are four in number. According to the nature of the subject, one or mo>e may be employed. Clear subjects must be discussed by observation or continued application ; difficult and important ones, by explication. Explication. — This consists in explaining the terms used, or the subject, or both. There are two sorts of explications : the one, simple and plain, needs only to be proposed, and agreeably elucidated; the other must be confirmed, if it speak of fact, by proofs of fact ; if of right, by proofs of right ; if of both, by proofs of both. A great and important subject, consisting of many branches, may be reduced to a certain number of propositions or questions, and these may be discussed one after the other. I. Explication of Terms.— Tha difficulties of these arise from three causes : either the terms do not seem to make any sense, or they are equivocal, forming different senses ; or the sense they seem to make at first appears perplexed, im- proper, or contradictory; or the meaning, though clear, maybe controverted, and is exposed to cavil. First propose the difficulty: then solve it briefly. What we have to explain in a text consists of one or more simple terms ; of ways of speaking peculiar to Scripture ; or of particles called syncategoi^ematica. 1. Simple terms are the divine attributes, goodness, &c. ; man's virtues or vices, faith, hope, &c. These are either literal or figurative ; if figurative, give the meaning of the figure, ajd, without stopping long, pass on to the thing itself. Some simple terms should be explained only so far as they bear on the meaning of the sacred author. Sometimes the simple terms in a text must be discussed at length, in order to give a clear and full view of the subject. 2. Expressions peculiar to Scripture deserve a particular explanation, because they are rich in meaning ; such as, " to be in Christ," " come after Clirist," &c. 3. Particles called syncategvrematica (such as /lone, some, aU^ now^ when, &c.) which augment or limit the meaning of the proposition, should be carefully examined, for often the whole explication depends upon them. II. Exj)licationofthe Subject— litha difficulty arise from errors, or false senses, refute and remove them ; then establish the trath. If from the intricacy of the subject itself, do not propose difficulties, and raise objections, but enter imme- diately into the explication of the matter, and take care to arrange your ideas well. In all cases, illustrate by reasons, examples, comparisons of the subject ; their relations, conformities, or differences. You may do it by consequences ; by the person, his state, «&c., who proposes the subject ; or the persons to whom it is proposed ; by circumstances, time, place, &c. Observation.— This method is best for clear and historical passages. Somo 398 SEEMOX-WRITING. texts require both explication and observation. Sometimes an observation may be made by way of explication. Observations, for the most part, ought to be thco- Io',dcal ; liistorical, philosophical, or critical, very seldom. They must not be pro- posed in a scholastic style or commonplace form, but in a familiar manner. Continual Application. — This method may be entirely free from explana- tions and observations ; it is appropriate to texts exhorting to holiness. Proposition.— Texts may be reduced to two propositions at least, and three or four at most, having a mutual dependence and connection. This method opens the most extensive field for discussion. In the former modes of discussion you are restrained to your text, but here your subject is the matter contained in your proposition. Peroration, or Conclusion. This ought to be short, lively, and animating ; full of great and beautiful fi-', hap-j pily. The trisyllabic feet are eight in number, as follows : — Anapest v-' s-' — , intervene. Dactyl — --''-', happily. AMPniBRAcn w — >--, redundant. Amphimacer — >— ' — , winding-sheet. Bacchius ^^ , the dark night. Antibacchius ^-'j eye-servant. MoLOSSUs , long dark night. Tribrach -~^^^-^, insu-| perablo. Of these twelve feet, the iambus, the trochee, the ana- pest, and the dactyl, are oftenest used; and are capable, more than one syllable, which syllables are long, and which short ? In the case of monosyllables, which of the parts of speech are generally long, and which are short ? What is the case in Latin and Greek, with respect to the quantity of syllables ? What relation subsists in English between the quantity of syllables and the sound of the vowels they contain ? Illustrate this. §477. What is a foot? How many dissyllabic feet are there? Enumerate them, state of what syllables they are respectively composed, and give an exam- ple of each. How many trisyllabic feet are there ? Enumerate them, state of what syllables they are composed, and give an example of each. Of these twelve 404 METRES, OR MEASURES. respectively, without the assistance of the rest, of forming distinct orders of numbers. They are, therefore, called primary feet ; and the measures of which they respectively form the chief component part, are known as iamhic, trochaic, anapestic, and dactylic. A line which consists wholly of one kind of foot is called ^^WT'e .* that is, a line containing nothing but iambi is a pure iambic ; one into which no foot but the trochee enters is a pure trochaic. Verses not consisting ex- clusively of one kind of foot are said to be mixed. Exam- ples follow : — 1. Pure Iambic. — The rul-|ing p58-[sJon c0n-Iqu6i*8 rea-json still. 2. Ftire Trochaic. — Sistor | spirit | come il-|wriy. 8. Pure Anapestic. — From tho plains, |frorathe wood- j lands and gruves. 4. Pure Dactylic. — Bird of the | wilderness. 1. Mixed Iambic. — No crime \ was thine | i//-/a-[ted filir. 2. Mixed Trochaic. — Trembling, | hoping, | lingering, \ fly'Ing. 3. Mixed Ana}iestic. — Dear re-|gions of si-jlence and shade. 4. Mixed Dacf'ilic. — MidnTght as-|s7s^ our mOan. The remaining eight feet are called secondary, and arc occasionally admitted for the sake of preventing monotony and allowing the poet freer scope. § 478. By Metre, or Measure, is meant the sj'stem ac- cording to which verses are formed. Tlie metre depends on the character and number of the feet employed. According to the character of the feet, metres, we have already seen, are distinguished as iambic, trochaic, anapestic, and dactylic. According to the number of the feet, the varieties of metre are as follows : Monometer, or a measure composed of one foot ; Dimeter, of two feet ; Trimeter, of three ; Tetrameter, of four ; Pentameter, of five ; Hexameter, of six ; Heptam- cter, of seven ; Octometer, of eight. A line at the end of which a syllabic is wanting to com- plete the measure, is said to be catalectic. One in which feet, which are oftcnest used ? What name is given to these four ? Wliy ? \N'hat are the measures of which tliey respectively form tlie chief component part, called ? What is meant hy a pure Iambic lino ? What, by a mixed ? Enumerate the secondary feet. For what purpose are they occasionally admitted ? § 478. What 1b meant by metre, or measure ? On what does the metro depend ? According to the character of the feet, what arc the varieties of metre? Wliat, 405 there is a syllable over at the end, is called hypercatalectic. When there is neither deficiency nor redundancy, a line is said to be acatalectic. Scanning is the process of dividing a line into the feet of which it is composed. § 479. Examples of the different measures follow. Some of the lines are pure, and some are mixed. The figures 1, 2, 3, (fee, respectively denote monometer, dimeter, trimeter, &c. Vertical lines mark some of the divisions into feet. Scan- ning is performed by pronouncing the syllables which con- stitute the successive feet, and after each mentioning its name. Thus, in scanning the fifth line, the following words v.'ould be employed : ^^ Honor, trochee ; and shame, iambus ; from no, iambus ; cqndi-, iambus ; tion rise, iambus." The line is mixed iamhie pentameter acatalectic. The student is requested to scan the following lines, and name the measure of each : — IAMBIC MEASURES. 1. LCchiel 1 2. Th6 main I | thS main ! 3. FQr tis | th6 8tlm-|mSr3 shine. 4. First stands | thg nO-|ble Wash-|Ingt8n. 5. Honor | and shame | from no | condi-|tion rise. 6, With his sharp-pointed head he dealeth deadly wounds. •?. Over the Alban mountains high, the light of morning broke. 8. all ye people, clap your hands, and with triumphant voices siUjJf. TROCHAIC MEASURES. 1. Turning. 2. F5ar stir- 1 rounds mS, 3. D6ar6r | friSnds ca-|r5ss theS. 4. Honor's | but an | empty | bubble. 5. Chains of care to lower earth enthrall me. 6. Up the dewy mountain. Health is bounding lightly. 7. Hasten, Lord, to rescue me, and set me safe from trouble. 8. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary. ANAPESTIC MEASURES. 1. When hS winks. 2. LSt thg 8tQ-|p!d bS gr5ve. 3. HQw thS nlght-lingaies w5r-ibie their lOves 1 4. ThS plCn-ltlfiil molst-liire Sncflm-lbSred thS flower 1 according to the number of the feet ? What is meant by a catalectic line ? What, by a hypcrcatftlectic line ? What, by an acatalectic line ? What is scanning ? 406 METRES, OR MEASURES. DACTYLIC MEASURES. 1. Think Of It 2. Rash and tin-|dtltlfm. 3. Brighter thSn | eammCr's greSn | cSrpStlng. 4. Cold is thy heart, and as frozen as charity. 5. Land of the beautiful, land of the generous, hail to thee ! 6. Land of the beautiful, land of the generous, hail to thee heartily 1 7. Out of the kingdom of Christ shall be gathered by angels o'er Satan victorioue. CATALECTIC MEASURES. Almost any of the above metres may be made a syllable shorter, and thus become catalectic. The following will serve as specimens : — 1. Iamb. Tetram. Cat.—T6-&S.j | nO axe | Is Tlng-\ing. 2. Tro. Tetram. Cat.— Mother | darksOme, | mOth6r | drMd. 8. Dact. Tetram. Ca^.— Hark, h6w Crg-iatiOn's deCp | mQsIcai | cMr&s. 4. Ti'O. Tetram. Ca^— Heaving, | tipwfird 1 15 thg | light. HYPERCATALECTIC MEASURES. The addition of a syllable to any of the acatalectic varieties of metre makes them hypercatalectic. Specimens follow. From the first two lines it will be seen, that, in iambic and trochaic metres, a verse ending with an odd syllable may be regarded either as a higher measure cata- lectic, or a lower measure hypercatalectic. 1. lami). Trim. Hyp.—Tli-d&j | nO axe | Is rlng-ltn^-. 2. Tro. Trim. Hijp.— Mother | darksGme, I mOthgr | driad. 8. Amp. Tetr. Hi/p.—'Tis th6 chief I Of G16na-|ra ISmSnts | fOr Ws 6&r-\nng. 4. Dact. Mon. Hyp.—L\ii h&r with | cdre. LESSON CVI. STANZAS. — SONNETS. — HEROIC VERSE. — BLANK VERSE. § 480. Iambic measures constitute the great body of our poetry, both from the fact that they are easier of construe- tion than any other, and because there is no emotion which they are not adapted to express. Trochaic measures are peculiarly appropriate to gay and tender sentiments ; ana- pestic, to what is animated, forcible, or heart-stirring. Dac- §480. Of what measures does the great body of our poetry consist? Whatrea. eons arc given for this ? To what arc trochaic measures appropriate ? To what, ftuapcBtic ? What is said of dactylic verse ? STAITZAS. 407 tylic verse is the most difficult to write, and enters into our poetical literature to such a limited extent that its capacities can hardly be properly estimated. It is effective whenever a rapid movement is desirable, and has been used with suc- cess in humorous poetry. § 481. It was observed in the last lesson that lines may be combined into an infinite variety of stanzas, according to the poet's taste. To illustrate all of these with examples is impracticable ; we can allude only to those that most fre- quently occur. The commonest stanza, perhaps, consists of four lines, of which either the first and third, and the second and fourth, rhyme together ; or, the first and second, and the third and fourth ; as follows : — " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me."— Gray. " The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee."— Byron. This stanza, when composed of iambic tetrameters, rhyming either consecutively or alternately, is known as Long Metre : — " O all ye people, clap your hands. And with triiunphant voices sing ; No force the mighty power withstands Of God, the imiversal King."— Psalms of David. When the first and third lines are iambic tetrameters, and the second and fourth iambic trimeters, the rhyme being alternate or confined to the two last mentioned, this four-lined stanza becomes Common Metre : — " Over the Alban mountains high The light of morning broke ; From all the roofs of the Seven Hills Curled the thin wreaths of smoke."— Maoaulay. When all the lines of this stanza are iambic trimeters except the third. § 481. Describe the commonest stanza met with in poetry. Give examples of it from Gray and Byron. Describe long metre ; common metre ; short metre. To what are these three metres peculiarly adapted, and for what are they there- fore employed ? In what other way may long and common metre be written ? What is the regular ballad-measure of our language ? How are stanzas of eight 408 STANZAS. and that is tetrameter, the rhyme being the same as in the last case, we have Short Metre. " The day is past and gone ; The evening shades appear ; Oh ! may we all remember well The night of death draws near."— Htmn-book. These three metres are peculiarly adapted to slow and solemn music, and hence are generally employed, in preference to others, in the compo- sition of psalms and hymns. By a comparison of the last two examples but one, with numbers 7 and 8 of the iambic measures presented at the close of the preceding lesson, it will be seen that long metre is simply iambic octometer divided into two equal parts, while common metre is iambic heptametcr divided after the first four feet. The latter is the regular ballad-measure of our language. Octometer and heptameter, on account of their length, are generally thus divided into two separate lines. The four-lined stanza doubled and trebled makes effective and com- mon stanzas of eight and twelve lines respectively. Six-lined stanzas are often used. Some of these have their first and second lines rhyme, their third and sixth, and their fourth and fifth. In others, the first four lines rhyme as in the four-lined stanza, and the last two rhyme with each other ; as, in the following : — " Friend after friend departs ; Who has not lost a friend ? There is no union here of hearts, That finds not here an end ; Were this frail world our final rest, Living or dying, none were blest."— Montgomert. The most noted of all stanzas is the Spenserian, so called from the author of " The Faery Queen ", by whom it was borrowed from Italian poetry. Though highly artificial, in the hands of a master it has a fine effect. Its difficulty has deterred most of our later poets from attempt- ing it in pieces of any length ; Thomson, however, in his " Castle of In- dolence", Beattie in "The Minstrel", and Byron in"Childe Harold", have used it with success. The following from Byron will serve as a specimen ; it will be seen that it consists of nine lines, of which eight are iambic pentameter, while the last is a hexameter : — and twelve lines formed ? Wliat are the difl'crout ways of rhyming in six-lined stanzas ? Repeat a eix-lined stanza from Montgomery. What is the most noted of all stanzas? Whence was it borrowed? What is said of its effect? Wh.u has deterred our later poets from attempting it ? Who have used it with the bt'^t euccoss ? Of how many lines does it consist ? What measure are they ? licpcat one of Byron's Spenserian stanzas. THE SONNET. 409 " To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell. To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, Where things that own not man's dominion dwell. And mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been ; To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, With the wild flock, that never needs a fold ; Alone, o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ; — This is not solitude ; 'tis but to hold Converse with Nature's charms, and view her stores unrolled." § 482. The Sonnet, though not a stanza, inasmuch as it is a complete poem in itself, will next be considered ; its dis- tinguishing features having reference, not so much to the matter it contains, as to the form it assumes, and the pecu- liar manner in which its lines rhyme. Everett, in his comprehensive and thorough "System of English Versification ", thus describes the Sonnet : — " The Sonnet, like the Spen- serian stanza, was borrowed from the Italians. Petrarch is reckoned the father of it. It is still more difficult of construction than the Spenserian stanza ; for, besides requiring a great number of rhymes, it demands a terseness of construction, and a point in the thought, which that does not. In the Sonnet, no line should be admitted merely for ornament, and the versification should be faultless. Sonnets, like Spenserian stanzas, are somewhat affected ; and this is to be attributed to the age in which they were introduced, when far-fetched thoughts and ingenious ideas were more in vogue than simplicity and natural expression. — The Sonnet is subject to more rigorous rules than any other species of verse. It is composed of exactly fourteen lines, so constructed that the first eight lines shall contain but two rhymes, and the last six but two more. The most approved arrangement is that in which the first line is made to rhyme with the fourth, the fifth, and the eighth, — the second rhyming with the third, the sixth, and the seventh." With respect to the last six lines, Hallam observes : — " By far the worst arrangement and also the least common in Italy is that we usually adopt, the fifth and sixth rhym- ing together, frequently after a full pause ; so that the sonnet ends with the point of an epigram. The best form, as the Italians hold, is the rhyming together of the three uneven and the three even lines ; but, as our language is less rich in consonant terminations, there can be no §482. What is said of the sonnet? From whom was it borrowed? What renders it diflacult of construction ? To what is the artificial character of the sonnet to be attributed ? What is said of the rules of the sonnet ? Of how many lines is it composed ? In these fourteen lines, how many rhymes are there ? As regards the rhyming of the first eight lines, what is the most approved arrange- ment ? With respect to the last six lines, what d5es Hallam pronounce the worst 18 410 THE HEEOIO LINE. objection to what has abundant precedents even in theirs, the rhyming of the first and fourth, second and fifth, third and sixth lines." The follow- ing is an example of the best arrangement : — AUTUMN. " The blithe birds of the summer-tide are flown ; Cold, motionless, and mute, stands all the wood. Save as the restless wind, in mournful mood. Strays through the tossing limbs with saddest moan. The leaves it wooed with kisses, overblown By gusts, capricious, pitiless, and rude, Lie dank and dead amid the solitude ; Where-through it wailcth desolate and lona But with a clearer splendor sunlight streams Athwart the bare, slim, branches ; and on high Each star, in Night's rich coronal that beams. Pours down iutenser brilliance on the eye ; Till dazzled Fancy finds her gorgeous dreams Outshone in beauty by the autumn sky I "— Pikb. § 483. Iambic tetrameter is a favorite measure, and maj- be used with advantage, not only in small fugitive pieces, but also, without any division into stanzas, throughout a long poem. It is thus employed by Byron in his 3Iazeppa, and Scott in his Lady of the Lake and Marmion, It is the easiest of all measures to write in ; and this very facility is apt to betray a poet, unless he is on his guard, into com- monplace expressions, and a careless habit which is fatal to the effect of his verses. § 484. Iambic pentameter constitutes what is called the Heroic Line. It is the most dignified of measures, and is peculiarly adapted to grave, solemn, or sublime, subjects. Heroic lines arc frequently combined in the quatrain, or stanza of four lines rhyming alternately ; as m the specimen from Gray's "Elegy in a Country Church-yard", quoted in § 481. They are also, as we have seen, used in the Spcnsc^ rian stanza. But they appear most commonly in the fonn of arrangement ? Wiiat, the best ? Wliat other arrangement docs he say has pre- cedents in the Italian language, and is not objectionable ? Repeat a sonnet coii- Btnictcd according to the Vest arrangement. § 483. What is said of iambic tetrameter? In what long poems has it been employed ? Why is it apt to betray a poet into a careless habit of exprcsfllon ? § 48-1. What name is given to iambic pentameter ? What is the character of this measure ? In what stanza docs it frcciuontly appear ? What is its common- THE ALEXANDRINE. 411 the couplet, and in poems which have no division into stanzas but are written continuously. They are thus em- ployed by Pope in his " Essay on Criticism ", his " Essay on Man ", and his translations of the Iliad and the Odyssey. The pentameter couplet should have complete sense within itself, and is most effective when enlivened with an epigrammatic turn. " It is formed," says Webb, in his " Beauties of Poetry ", " to run into points : but above all it delights in the antithesis ; and the art of the versifier is complete when the discordance in the ideas is proportioned to the accordance in the sounds. To jar and jingle in the same breath is a masterpiece of Gothic refinement." The epigrammatic tendency alluded to is illustrated in the opening lines of the " Essay on Criticism ", which constitute a fair speci- men of Pope's delicate skill in the management of this his favorite metre : — - " 'Tis hard to say if greater want of skill Appear in writing, or in judging, ill ; But of the two, less dangerous is the offence To tire our patience, than mislead our sense. Some few in that, but numbers err in this ; Ten censure wrong for one who writes amiss : A fool might once himself alone expose ; Now one in verse makes many more in prose." § 485. The line of six iambi is called the Alexandrine, from a poem on Alexander the Great, in which it is said to have been first employed. It is a majestic line occasionally used as the third of a triplet, and at the close of Spenserian and other stanzas, for the purpose of imparting additional weight or solemnity. Thus, from Dryden's -^neid : — " Their fuiy falls ; he skims the liquid plains. High on his chariot, and with loosened reins, Majestic moves along, and awful peace maintains." The Alexandrine is peculiarly effective when the poet desires to ex- press by the sound of his verse a slow or difficult motion. When the line is so constructed as to admit of a pause in the middle, or at the close of the first hemistich, it is by no means inharmonious, yet it is too est form ? Who has thus employed it ? What is said of the sense of the couplet ? To be most effective, with what should it be enlivened ? What does Webb say respecting it ? Quote a passage from Pope illustrating this epigrammatic turn, § 485. Of what is the Alexandrine composed ? Whence is its name derived ? Where is it used, and for what purpose ? Scan the lines quoted from Dryden in illustration. In what case is tbe Alexandrine peculiarly effective ? Where should it admit of a pause ? How should it be used ? 412 , BLANK VERSE. cumbrous to be carried through an entire piece. It should be used sparingly ; and that only in a livelier metre, for the sake of an occasional contrast. § 486. Heroic lines, — that is, iambic pentameters, — when constructed without rhyme, constitute what is called Blank Verse. This is the most elevated of all measures, and is the only form in which epic poetry should appear. At the same time, to succeed in it is more difficult than in any other kind of verse. The reason is evident ; the effect, having no assistance, as in most cases, from rhyme, is produced en- tirely by a musical disposition of the feet, frequent inver- sions, and the constant introduction of those other peculiari- ties which have been already enumerated as constituting the distinction between the outward form of prose and that of poetry. A correct ear, a delicate taste, and true poetical genius, are essential to success in blank verse. Milton has made a more effective use of blank verse than any other poet in our literature. It has been employed to a considerable extent in tragedy, to which, as Addison says, " it seems wonderfully adapted " ; but even Shakspeare himself has not attained the harmony and effect which characterize the author of "Paradise Lost". Notwithstanding Milton's success, the older critics seem, in general, to have looked on blank verse with disfavor. Dr. Johnson, in his Ufe of the poet just men- tioned, pronounces against it in the following terms : — " Poetry may sub- sist without rhyme ; but English poetry will not often please, nor can rhyme ever be safely spared, but where the subject is able to support itself. Of the Italian writers without rhyme whom Milton alleges as pre- cedents, not one is popular ; what reason could urge in its defence has been confuted by the ear. * * Like other heroes, Milton is to be ad- mired rather than imitated. He that thinks himself capable of astonish- ing, may write blank verse ; but those that hope only to please, must condescend to rhyme." Yet, in spite of this verdict from a master-critic, it is evident that § 486. What ia meant by blank veree ? What Is its character ? What renders It difficult to succeed In blank verse ? What arc essential to succesB In this meas- ure ? In whose hands lias the most effective use been made of It ? To what de- partment of literature does Addison declare blank verse adapted ? Notwith- standing this, how docs Shakspeare himself compare with Milton ? How did the older critics regard blank verse ? What docs Johnson say about it ? W^ith \Vhat aclvanf Jigi'9 is blank verse attended ? What docs Dryden pay rcppcctin.'j rhyme ? KIIYISIE. 413 blank verso has many advantages. It certainly allows the poet a far freer scope : both from the fact that the sense is not, as in rhymed pen- tameters, confined to the couplet, and also because it does away with the necessity which rhyme too often imposes on the versifier, of putting in superfluous matter simply for the purpose of filling out the sound. " What rhyme adds to sweetness," says Dryden, " it takes away from sense ; and he who loses least by it may be called a gainer." For a choice specimen of blank verse, the pupil is referred to p. 224. § 487. Whatever may be the effect of dispensmg with rhyme in the case of iambic pentameters, there can be no question as to its inexpediency in other measures. It has occasionally been attempted ; but never, perhaps, with suc- cess, except in the case of Southey's " Thalaba ", for which, despite this drawback, its author's genius has procured an honorable place in our literature. LESSON CVII. RHYMES. PAUSES. § 488. Rhyme has been already defined. As we have seen, it enters largely into English verse. The following principles are to be observed respecting it : — I. The more numerous the letters that make the rhyme, the better it is. The French designate as rich rhymes those into which a number of consonants enter. Thus, the rhyme of the first couplet given below is fuller, and therefore better, than that of the second : — 1. " True wit is nature to advantage dressed ; What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed.''^ 2. " Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be."" II. No syllable must rhyme with itself. Hence there is a fault in the following couplet : — § 487. Wliat is the eflfect of dispensing with rhyme in measures other than iambic pentameter ? § 488. What rhymes are considered the best ? What name is applied to such by the French ? Illustrate this by means of the two given couplets. What is the 414 KHYMES. " We go from Ilium's ruined walls away. Wherever favoring fortune points the ivay.^^ III. Rhyme speaks to the ear, and not to the eye. If, therefore, the concluding sound is the same, no matter what the spelling, the rhyme is perfect. This is the case in the following couplet, though the combin;>. tions of letters in the rhyming syllables are quite different : — " The increasing prospect tires our wandering ei/es ; Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps ame." Vice versa, though the concluding letters be the same, if the sound is different, the rhyme is imperfect ; as in the following : — " Encouraged thus, wit's Titans braved the skies ; And the press groaned with licensed blasphemi€.«." IV. In lines terminating with trochees or amphibrachs, the last two syllables must rhyme ; in such as close with dactyls, the last three. " In the dark and green and gloomy valley. Satyrs by the brooklet love to dally.'''' " Take her up tenderly. Fashioned so slenderly.''' § 489. Rh3niies are divided into two classes ; perfect, and admissible. In the former, as we have seen, the clos- ing vowel sounds are the same (without reference to spell- ing), while the consonant sounds that precede them are diflerent; in the latter, the closing vowel sounds, though not the same, closely resemble each other. In either case, if the closing vowel sounds are followed by consonant sounds, the latter must correspond, or the rhyme is inad- missible. Examples follow : — 1. Perfect. — " Be thou the first true merit to befriend ; His praise is lost who stays till all coram«ui." 2. Admissible. — " Good nature and gopd sense must c\cr join: To err is human ; to forgive, divine.'" 3. Inadmiss.— " Yet he was kind ; or, if severe in aught. The love he bore to learning was in/ault." § 490. With respect to the number of lines that may rhyme together in a stanza, there is no definite rule. Two is second principle with respect to rhymes ? To what does rhyme speak ? What is necessary to make a perfect rhyme ? ^Vhat is the character of the rhyme, if the sound is different though the concluding letters be the same? In what lines must the last two syllables rhyme ? In what, the last three ? § 489. Into what two classes are rhymes divided ? When is a rhyme said to be perfect ? When, admissible ? When is a rhyme inadmissible ? Give examples. § 490. What is said of the number of lines that may rhyme together ? 'WTiat Ifl PAUSES. 415 the most common ; though we often have three, and even four in the sonnet and the Spenserian stanza. Other things being equal, the difficulty of constructing a stanza is proportioned to the number of lines made to close with the same sound. Though there is no rule as to the number of lines that may rhyma together, it is a general principle, that, throughout the same poem, those which do rhyme should stand at regular intervals. This the ear expects, and it is disappointed when it finds the regularity disturbed. A capricious disposition of rhymes may surprise the reader, but it rare- ly pleases him. § 491. Ease of utterance requires that every line of ten or more syllables should be so constructed, with regard to its sense, as to admit of at least one cessation of voice, which is known as the Primary Pause. Some lines admit of sev- eral; in which case, the inferior or shorter ones are de- nominated Secondary Pauses. Whether primary or second- ary, these pauses must not contravene the sense ; and, there- fore, it is clear, I. That they must not divide a word. n. Tliat they must not separate an adjective and its noun, or an adverb and its verb, when, in either case, the latter immediately follows the former. § 492. Heroic lines, or iambic pentameters, are most melodious when the primary pause comes after the fourth or the fifth syllable. Pope, whose accurate ear rarely al- lowed him to err in matters of euphony, generally brings the pause in question in one of these positions ; as in the following lines : — the commonest number ? How many do we Bometimea have ? To what is the difficulty of constructing a stanza proportioned ? What principle prevails with respect to the regular occurrence of rhymes ? § 491. What does ease of utterance require ? What is a primary pause ? What is a secondary pause ? With what must these pauses he consistent ? What two principles, therefore, are established respecting them ? § 492. Where does the primary pause occur in the most harmonious heroic lines ? What poet generally brings his pauses in one of these positions ? Show how they fall in the passage quoted. ^16 PAUSES. " Thee, bold Longinus 1 1 all the Nine inspire, And bless their critic i with a poet's fire : An ardent judge, i who, zealous to his trust, With warmth gives sentence, | yet is always just ; Whose own example | strengthens all his laws, And is himself i that great sublime he draws." § 493. The Aexandrine, or iambic hexameter, require^: its primary pause, after the third foot : — *' The cruel, ravenous, hounds 1 and bloody hunters near, This noblest beast of chase, 1| that vainly doth but fear, Some bank or quick-set finds ; a to which his haunch opposed, lie turns upon his foes, | that soon have him enclosed." § 494. Secondary pauses may occur in any part of a line, but contribute most to its melody when they stand at a short distance from the primary. Observe how they fall in the following passages: the secondary pause is denoted by a single vertical line ; the primary, by parallels. " Two principles B in human nature | reign ; Self-love I to urge, H and reason | to restrain : Nor this | a good, B nor that a bad, | we call. Each works its end, | to move | or govern | all ; And I to their proper operation || still Ascribe all good, 1 to their improper, | ill." " The dew was falling fast, B the stars | began to blink ; I heard a voice ; | it said, H ' Drink, | pretty creature, | drink 1 ' And, I looking o'er the hedge, B before me I espied A snow-white mountain lamb, 1 with a maiden at its side." EXERCISE. I. Each of the following lines contains its own words ; but they are misplaced, so that there is neither rhyme nor rhythm. Restore the order, so as to make the verses ana- pcstic tetrameter acatalectlc, rhyining consecutively. THE ALBATROSS. Where, in magnificence, tlie fathomless waves toss, The wild albatross soars, high and homeless ; Unshrinking, alone, undaunted, unwearied. The tempest his throne, his empire the ocean. § 493. Where does the Alexandrine require its primary pause f §494. Where may secondary pauses occur? lu what position do they con- tribute most to the melody of a line ? POETICAL EXERCISE. 417 When, o'er the surge, the wild terrible whirlwind raves, And the hurricane hurls the mariner's dirge out, The dark-heaving sea thou in thy glory spurnest, Proud, free, and homeless, bird of the ocean-world. When the winds are at rest and in his glow the sun, And below the glittering tide in beauty sleeps, Above, triumphant, in the pride of thy power. Thou, with thy mate, thy revels of love art holding. Unconfined, unfettered, untired, unwatched. In the world of the mind, like thee be my spirit ; No leaning for earth, its flight e'er to weary. And in regions of light fresh as thy pinions. II. Restore the words in the following lines to their order, so that they may rhyme as required in the best fonn of the Sonnet: — THE AUTUMN OP LIFE. Flown are the songs of buoyant youth's swift hours ; And through his heart whose locks are white and tuin With rime of age, the Spirit of Delight With a melancholy moan goes wailing. For all the joys, that, with winning tone, Hope Proclaimed should linger, dear, bright, and deathless, Around the day which to night now waneth. Alone, the spirit fruitless search maketh. Yet to the soul, aspiring and trustful. Are given visions exalting of its home : And its lofty goal grander glory clothes. Than, in cloudless autumn's even, stars assume. In dole and in darkness Earth slowly sinks, While the auroral, pure, light of Heaven breaks, III. Restore the words in the following lines to their order, so that they may rhyme, and form alternately trochaic tetrameter ax^atalectic^ and trochaic tetrameter catalectic : — IRON. While stronger grows our faith in good, Means of greater good increase ; No longer slave of war, iron The march of peace onward leads. Still finding new modes of service, It moves air, earth, and ocean ; And, binding the distant nations. It proves like the kindred tie ; Sharing, with its Atlas-shoulder, Loads of toil and human care ; Bearing, on its wing of lightning. Through the air swift thought's mission. 418 VARIETIES OF rOETEY. IV. Restore the words in the following lines to their order, so that they may form dactylic tetrameters acatalec- tic, and rhyme consecutively : — For human fraternity one more new claimant, Swelling the flood that on to eternity sweeps. I, who have filled the cup, to think of it tremble, For I must drink of it yet, be it what it may. Into the ranks of humanity, room for him ! In your kingdom of vanity, give him a place I With kindly atfection welcome the stranger, Not with dejection, hopefully, trustfully. LESSON CYIII. VAKIETIES or rOETKY. § 495. The principal varieties of poetry are Epic, Dra- matic, Lyric, Elegiac, Pastoral, Didactic, and Satirical. Each of these classes has its distinctive features ; yet the charac- teristics of several varieties may enter into the same }X)em, and sometimes do so to such an extent that it is difficult to decide to which it belongs. § 496. Epic Poetry is that which treats of the exploits of heroes. It generally embraces a variety of characters and incidents ; but must be so constructed that unity of design may be preserved, — that is, one leading and complete action should be carried through the work, with the distinctness and prominence of which the less important stories, or episodes, as tliey are called, should not be allowed to interfere. Epic IS universally admitted to be the most elevated and majestic department of poetiy. It is, at the same time, the most dif- § 495. Enumerate the principal varieties of poetry. §496. What is epic poetry ? How docs itcompare with the other varieties? What must be preserved throughout ? Wlmt is meant by unity of design ? ^V^lat is said of the difficulty of writing epics T What are the great masterpieces of antiquity in this department of poetry ? Of modem literatures, which has produced the greatest V^HIETIES OF POETKY. 419 ficult, and that in which mediocrity is least endurable ; hence, few have attempted it, and a still smaller nmnber have at- tained success. There are few literatures that can boast of more than one great epic. Homer's Iliad and Virgil's ^neid are the masterpieces of antiquity in this department of poetry. In modem times, English literature has produced, in Milton's Paradise Lost, incomparably the greatest epic ; in Italian, Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, — in Spanish, the Romance of the did, — in Portuguese, the Imsiad, — in German, the Niehelungen-Lied, — and, in French, the Henriade, — are generally ranked by critics in this class of poems. An epic is also technically termed an Epopea, or Epopoeia. The word epic is derived from the Greek £7rof , an heroic poem ; and the species of poetry so called claims a very ancient origin. History has generally furnished its themes : but a strict regard for historical truth in the development of the story is by no means requisite. Fiction, invention, imagination, may be indulged in to an almost unlimited ex- tent, provided the unity be preserved. According to Aristotle, the plot of an epic must be important in itself and instructive in the reflections It suggests ; must be filled with suitable incidents, as well as enlivened with a variety of characters and descriptions ; and must maintain throughout propriety of character and elevation of style. Besides these essentials, there are generally episodes, formal addresses, sustained pomp, and machinery. This last term, as used by critics, signifies the introduction of supernatural beings ; without which the French main- tain that no poem can be admitted as an epic. § 497. Dramatic Poetry is closely allied to epic. Like the latter, it generally relates to some important event, and for the most part appears in the form of blank, or heroic, verse. The term drama [derived from the Greek verb 6pa(^^ I do or aci\ is applied to compositions, whether prose or epic? Enumerate the epics of different literatures. What othername is sometimes fjiven to an epic poem ? From what is the word epic derived ? What is said of the origin of epic poetry ? Whence are its themes', for the most part, taken ? In carrying out an historical event, what may be indulged in ? According to Aris- totle, what are the essentials of an epic ? Besides these essentials, what are gen- erally found in a poem of this class ? § 497. To what is dramatic poetry closely allied ? To what does it generally re- tote ? In what form does it, for the most part, appear ? From what is the word 420 VAKIETIES OF POETEY. poetry, in which the events that form their subjects arc not related by the author, but are represented as actually taking place by means of dialogue between the various characters, who speak the poet's language as if it were their own. The principles here laid down respecting poetical dramas are equally applicable to compositions of the same class in prose. In dramatic, as in epic, poetry, strict regard must be had to unity. The Dramatic Unities are three : — 1. Unity of action ; which requires that but one leading train of events be kept in view, and forbids the in- troduction of all underplots except such as are closely connected with the principal action and are calculated to develop it. 2. Unity of iime^ which limits the action to a short period, generally a single day. 3. Unity ofplace^ which confines the action to narrow geographical bounds. In addition to this, regard should be had to what is termed poetical jus- tice ; that is, the plot should be so constructed that the different charac- ters, whether good or bad, may, at the termination of the piece, obtain their respective deserts. The great dramatists of antiquity are iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, — all ornaments of Grecian literature. Of these, ^schylus is the most sublime ; Sophocles, the most beautiful ; Euripides, the most pathetic. The first displays the lofty intellect ; the second ex- ercises the cultivated taste ; the third indulges the feeling heart. Among moderns, the first place belongs to Shakspearc. In French literature, Racine, Molicire, and Comeille, are the leading dramatists ; in German, Schiller and Kotzebue ; in Spanish, Lope de Vega and Calderon. The leading divisions of dramatic poetry are two ; Tragedy and Comedy. The former embraces those compositions which represent some great or sublime action, attended with a fatal catastrophe and calculated to awaken in the reader or spectator strong emotions of pity or horror. Its diction is elevated ; and it is generally written in blank, or heroic, verse. Comedy, on the other hand, is that species of drama in which the incidents and language resemble those of ordinary life and the plot has a happy termination. drama derived ? To wbat compositions is the term applied ? What must bo strictly regarded in dramatic poetry? How many dramatic unities are there? Define them. Who are the great dramatists of antiquity ? Mention the charac- teristics of each. Among moderns, to whom does the first place belong? Who ore the leading dramatists of French literature ? of German ? of Spanish ? What are the leading divisions of dramatic poetry ? What compositions arc embraced under the head of tragedy ? What is said of the diction of tragedy ? In what is it generally written ? Define comedy. \W\a.i arc acts aw^ scenes f To how many VAEIETIES OF POETKY. 421 The great dUisions of dramas are called Acts, and these arc sub-^ divided into Scenes. Regular tragedies and comedies are limited to five acts. The division must in a great measure be arbitrary, though rules have been laid down by various writers to define the portion of the plot which should be contained in each. According to Vossius, tho first act must present the intrigue ; the second must develop it ; the third should be filled with incidents forming its complication ; and the fourth should prepare the means of unravelling it, which is finally ac- complished in the fifth. A Farce is a short piece of low comic character. Its object being simply to excite mirth, there is nothing too unnatural or improbable for it to contain. The farce is restricted to three acts as its greatest limit, but is often confined to two, and sometimes even to one. In England, it seems to have risen to the dignity of a regular theatrical entertainment, about the beginning of the last century ; since which time, it has maintained a high degree of popularity, being usually per- formed, by way of contrast, after a tragedy. A Burlesque is a dramatic composition, the humor of which consists in mixing things nigh and low, — clothing elevated thoughts in low ex- pressions, or investing ordinary topics with the artificial dignity of poetic diction. A Parody, or Travestie, is a species of Burlesque in which the form and expressions of serious dramas are closely imitated in language of a ridiculous character. A Melodrama is a short dramatic composition into which music is introduced. Its plot is generally of an insignificant character, the dis- play of gorgeous scenery being its chief object. A Burletta is a short comic musical drama. A Prologue is a short composition in verse, used to introduce a drama and intended to be recited before its representation. An Epilogue is a closing address to the audience at the conclusion of a drama. It sometimes recapitulates the chief incidents of the piece, and draws a moral from them. § 498. Lyric Poetry is that variety which is adapted to singing and an accompaniment of the lyre or other musical instrmnent. Of lyric compositions, the Ode is the most elevated. It acts are regular tragedies and comedies confined ? What is said of the division into acts ? What rule does Vossius lay down ? What is a farce ? Of how many- acts does it consist? At what time, in England, did it rise to the dignity of a regular theatrical entertainment? What is a burlesque? What is a parody or travestie? What is a melodrama? What is a hurletta? What is a prologue? What is an epilogue ? § 498. What is meant by lyric poetry ? What is the most elevated of lyric com- 422 VARIETIES OF POETEY. is characterized by length and variety, and is for the most part confined to the expression of sentiment or imaginative thought, admitting of narrative only incidentally. In ancient literatm-e, it was sometimes distinguished by a high degree of sublimity, as in the case of the odes of Pindar. Previously to the discoveries which have been recently made by scholars in the science of Greek metres, the Pindaric ode was supposed to admit of the most capricious irregularity in the length and measure of its lines ; and hence our modem compositions which were imitated from those ancient models were con- structed on a system of absolute license in this respect. In point of fact, however, a scheme of perfect metrical regularity pervades the Greek ode of both Pindar and the dramatic choruses. In English literature, Collins's " Ode on the Pas- sions ", and Drydcn's on " St. Cecilia's Day ", are among the finest specimens of this variety of composition. A Song differs from an ode in being shorter, having greater uniform- ity of metre, and treating rather of tender and melancholy, than of sublime, subjects. A Ballad is a popular species of lyric poem which records in easy and uniform verse some interesting incident or romantic adventure. Our most approved ballad-measure is iambic heptameter, often written, however, in two lines, tetrameter and trimeter alternately. Odes sung in honor of the gods were anciently called Hymns ; and this term has been applied, in modern times, to the spiritual songs used in church-worship. The term Psalm, originally applied to the lyric com- positions of King David and others of the Hebrew poets, is now used as synonymous with hymn. The Madrigal generally consists of less than twelve lines, and is often constructed without strict reference to rule, according to the fancy of the poet, rhymes and verses of different species being frequently inter- mingled. The subjects arc generally of a tender or amorous character ; and the expressions used in it are simple and often quaint. positions? DescrJbo the ode. By what, In ancient literature, was It character- ized ? IIow is the Irrejjtilarity of metre in our modern odes accounted fbr ? \Miat odes are mentioned as among the finest specimens in our lanpruafrc ? In what re- spects does a soHa: differ from an ode ? What is a ballad ? ^Vhat Is onr most ap- proved ballad-measure ? What was formerly meant by the term hymn t To what Is this term now applied ? What was the original meaning of the term Psalm f With what is it now synonymous? What is a madnpral? What is said of the ijubjccts of madrigals ? VARIETIES OF POETEY. 423 The Epigram closely resembles thc-madrigal in form, though it is written without reference to musical adaptation. It consists of a few lines embodying a lively or ingenious thought qoncisely expressed. Its point often consists in a verbal pun ; but the higher species of epigram is rather characterized by fineness and delicacy. § 499. Elegiac Poetry is that variety which treats of mournful subjects. Gray's "Elegy in a Country Church- yard" is the most noted poem of this description in the whole range of our literature. A short elegy, commemora- tive of the dead and expressive of the sorrow of surviving friends, is called an Epitaph. § 500. Pastoral Poetry depicts shepherd-life by means of narratives, songs, and dialogues. An Idyl is a short descrip- tive pastoral poem. An Eclogue is a pastoral in which shepherds are represented as conversing. The art of the pas- toral poet lies in selecting for his descriptions the beauties of rural life, and carefully avoiding all its repulsive features. § 501. Didactic Poetry aims to instruct rather than to please. Generally devoted to the exposition of some dry abstract subject, it fails to interest the reader unless re- plete with ornament. Of this species of poetry, Pollok's " Course of Time ", Young's " Night Thoughts ", and Pope's " Essay on Man ", will serve as specimens. § 502. Satirical Poetry is that in which the weaknesses, follies, or wickedness, of men, are held up to ridicule, or re- buked with serious severity. A Satire is general in its character, and is aimed at the weakness, folly or wickedness, rather than the individual. Its object is the reformation of the abuses it attacks. A Lampoon, or Pasquinade, on the other hand, is personally offensive, assailing the individual rather than his fault. It employs abuse in preference to argument, and aims rather to annoy or injure than to reform. § 499. What is elegiac poetry ? What is the most noted poem of this descrip- tion in our literature ? What is an epitaph ? §500. What does pastoral poetry depict? What is an idyl? What is an eclogue ? In what does the art of the pastoral poet consist ? § 501. What is the aim of didactic poetry ? Why should it be replete with ornament ? What works are mentioned as specimens of didactic poems ? § 502. What is satirical poetry ? What is a satire ? What is a lampoon ? SPECIMEN PROOF-SHEET, EZBIBITINO THE MAEKS USED IN THE CORRECTION OF ERRORS. WILLIAM FALCONER. H£)a|ti. a. ^a[vi^ William Falconer was the son of a ^ barber in ^ ^a/ Edinburgh, ^nd was bom in 1730. lie had vary few ^ ^ d/ avantages of education, and (went to sea ( in early lifc) U."^ in the merchant service. He afterwards became mate u>ct&/ of a vessel that wrecked in the Levant and was savTjd cJloE.^ ,/ ® f c^ vf'^t^ only tvro of his crew : ^his catastrophc"formed ST/ ^ \^^ the subject of his poem entitled " The Shipwreck, on cy ^^ X which his reputation as a writer chiefly rests. Early ^^ luf. in 1769, his " Marine Dictionary " appear]cd, which ^room. 3 ** ^ hasbeen highly spoken of by those capable of csti- m: "^ mating its merits. I cN& GicaL'^ * *cu>te/ (in this-seaffl-year, he embarked on the Aurora but C. c. ;/ * the vessel was never heard of after she passed the" * :/ Cape ; the poet of the Shipwreck is therefore sup- oY^f^ \>eiit\ ' ^e/ posed to have perished by the same disaster he had 27 Cfl^ him a otf so graphically described. 1 The subject of «r ^ th® "Shipwreck" and its authors fate demand our \^^^ in*^rest and sympathy. If we pay respect to the / — /^ ingeniious scholar who can produce agreeable verses 1/ * in leisure and retirement, how much more interest c^ ^taX ** must we take iu the " shipboy on the high and giddy /-/ ^ *3 A 1 I "vy mast', cherishing the hour which he may casually A , ^ snatch from langer and fatigue. J/' eimco U1M01V& ol [cutcii' al/ SPECIMEN PKOOF-SHEET, AS CORRSCTED. WILLIAM FALCONER. "William Falconek was tlie son of a barber in Edinburgh, and was born in 1730. He bad very few advantages of education, and in early life went to sea in the merchant service. lie afterwards became mate of a vessel that was wrecked in the Levant^ and was saved with only two of his crew. This catastrophe formed the subject of his poem entitled "The Ship- wreck ", on which his reputation as a writer chiefly rests. Early in 1769, his "Marine Dictionary " ap- peared, which has been highly spoken of by those capable of estimating its merits. In this same year, he embarked on the Aurora ; but the vessel was never heard of after she passed the Cape : the poet of the Shipwreck is therefore supposed to have perished by the same disaster he had himself so graphically de- scribed. The subject of the " Shipwreck " and its author's fate demand our interest and sympathy. — If we pay respect to the ingenious scholar who can produce agreeable verses in leisure and retirement, how much more interest must we take in the " ship-boy on the high and giddy mast ", cherishing refined visions of fancy at the hour which he may casually snatch from danger and fatigue! EXPLANATION OF MARKS USED ON THE SPECIMEN PROOF-SHEET. If it is desired to change any word to capitals, small capitals, Roman text (tko ordinary letter), or italics, draw a line beneath it, and write in the margin, Caps., S. caps., Horn., or licU., as the case may be. See corrections 1, 2, 14, and 8, on the specimen sheet. When it is necessary to expunge a letter or word, draw a line through it, and place in the margin a cliaracter resembling a d of current hand, which stands for the Latin word dele (erase) ; as in No. 3. When a wrong letter or word occurs in the proof-sheet, draw a line through it, and place what must be substituted for it in the margin, with a vertical line at the right ; as in the corrections marked 4. Attention is drawn to an inverted letter by underscoring it, and writing oppo- site the character used in No. 5. An omitted word, letter, comma, semicolon, colon, exclamation-point, or interrogation-point, as well as brackets and parentheses, are written in the mar- gin, with a vertical line at the right; as in the various corrections marked G: a caret shows where to introduce what is thus marked in. When there is so much omitted that there is not room for it in the margin, it is written at the top or bottom of the page, and a line is used to show where it is to be introduced ; as at the bottom of the specimen sheet. A period is marked in by placing it in the margin inside of a circle, as in No. 9. Apostrophes and quotation-points are introduced in a character resembling a V, and a caret is placed in the text to show where they are to be inserted. This is illustrated in No. 11. No. 22 shows how the dash and hyphen are introduced. When a letter or word should be transposed, a line is drawn around it and carried to the place where it should stand, and the letters tr. are placed opposite, as in No. 7. No. 10 shows how to mark out a quadrat or space which improperly appears. In a broken or imperfect letter is used, draw a line through or beneath it, and make an inclined cross in the margin, as in No. 12. Sometimes a letter of the wrong size will be used by mistake ; in such a case, underline it and place the letters w.f. {wrong font) in the margin, as in 13. If the letters of a word stand apart from each other, draw a curved lino be- neath the space which separates them, and two curves in the margin, as in 15. If the proper space is wanting between two contiguous words, place a caret where the space should be, and opposite to them make a character like a music sharp, as shown in No. 16. Two parallel horizontal lines, as in No. 17, are used when the letters of a word are not all in the same level, and a horizontal line is also drawn under such as are out of place. When a new paragraph has been improperly begun, a line is drawn from Its commencement to the end of the previous paragraph, and the words tw break arc written in the margin ; see No. 18. When it is desired to commence a new par- agraph, the paragraph mark (1) is introduced at the place, and also in the margin. When letters at the commencement of a line are out of the proper level, a horizontal lino should be drawn beneath them, and a similar one placed in the margin ; as in No. 21. When any portion of a paragraph projects laterally beyond the rest, a vertical line should be drawn beside it, and a similar one must stand opposite to it in the margin ; see No. 2^3. When a lead has been Improperly omitted, the word Lead is written at the side of the page, and a horizontal line shows where it is to bo introduced, as iu No. 2.'). If a lead too many has been introduced, the error is corrected as in *4. When uneven spaces are left between words, a line is drawn beneath, and sjmce better is written opposite ; see 26. If it is desired to retain a word which has been marked out, dots arc placed "beneath It, and tho word stet {let it stand) is written in the margin ; as in 27. A LIST OF SUBJECTS. TuE student will find it to his advantage always to prepare a pre- liminary analysis. To aid Mm in this, models in the principal depart- ments of prose composition are first presented. 1. A Parallel. — TJie Old and the New Testament. I. Their respective writers. II. The parties to whom they are each addressed, III. The languages in which they are respectively written. IV. Comparison of their style. V. Authenticity of each, by whom acknowledged. VI. Tone of the teachings of each. 2. A Descriptive Letter. — Dated Niagara Falls. I. Acknowledge receipt of a friend's letter, and offer to give an account of a summer tour which you are supposed to have taken. II. Preparations for leaving home. m. Incidents on the way to Niagara. IV. General remarks on the pleasures, fatigues, and advantages, of travelling. V. Description of the Falls and the surrounding places. VI. Comparison with any other scene. VII. Emotions awakened by sublime scenery. VIII. General remarks about returning, and the anticipated pleasure of rejoining friends. 3. Historical Narrative. — TJie Spanish Armada. I. Introductory remarks on the great expeditions of which history tells us. II. Causes that led to the outfit of the Armada. III. General description of the Spanish vessels of that age. IV. Strength of the Armada. V. Consternation in Britain, and preparations to meet it. VI. Fate of the Armada. Vn. Political Consequences. VIII. General reflections. History shows that divine interference often frus- trates the greatest human efforts. 4. Biographical Sketch. — Julius Coisar. I. State of Rome at the time of Caesar's birth. II. Caesar's birth and parentage. III. Incidents of his youth. Came near falling a victim to Sylla's cruelty. IV. His first military exploits. V. Means which he took to obtain popularity. VI. Rapid political advancement. Mighty conquests. VII. His fate ; the causes that led to it, and its consequences, Vin. Ca3sar's character, as a general ; as an author ; as a man. 428 LIST OF SUBJECTS. 5. Essay. — Sldps. I. Origin. When and by -whom first made ? II. Appearance. Original form and eubseqacnt improvements. III. Inventions. Mariners' compass ; application of steam. rv. Objects for which they are used. V. Usefulness, as compared with other means of transportation. VI. Effects that ships have produced on mankind. Vn. Feelings excited by seeing a ship under full sail. . The Discovery of America. PARALLELS. 0. The character of Columbus and that of Sir Isaac Newton. 7. The character of St. John and that of St. Paul. 8. Luther and Calvin. 9. Caesar and Alexander. 10. Firmness and Obstinacy. 11. Physical and Moral Courage. 12. Ancient and Modem Literature. 13. Invention of the Mariners' Compass and Application of Steam to Navi- gation. 14. Ancient and Modem Greece. 15. Ancient and Modern Eome. 16. A Concise and a Diffuse Style. 17. Prose and Poetry. 18. Beauty and Sublimity. 19. The Man of Talent and the Man of Genius. 20. Wit and Humor. 21. French and English Character. 22. Courage and Rashness. 23. Theory and Practice. 24. The Ideal and the Real. 25. Ancient and Modem Patriotism. 20. The Sacred and the Profane Poets. HISTORICAL NARRATIVES. 27. The Deluge. 28. The Crossing of the Red Sea. (Ex- odus, chap. XIV.) 29. Naaman, the Leper. (II. Kings, chap. V.) ?50. The History of Jonah. 31. Jcphthah's Daughter. (Judges, chap. XI., V. 29.) S2. David and Goliath. (I. Samuel, chap. XVII.) !53. The Reign of the Emperor Nero. 84. The Era of Haroun Al Raschid. 35, The Norman Conquest. 86. The Crusades. 67. Granting of the Magna Charta. 39. The Settling of America. 40. The Reformation. 41. Luther at the Diet of Worms. 42. The Thirty Years' War. 43. The Reign of Queen Anne. 44. The Era of Louis XIV. 45. The American Revolution. 46. The Battle of Bunker HUl. 47. The Reign of Terror. 43. The Invasion of Russia by Napo- ■ Icon. 49. The Hungarian Revolution. 50. The Russo-Turkish War. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 51. Moses. 52. Ruth. 53. Solomon. 54. Homer. 55. Daniel. 56. Alexander the Great. 57. Cicero. 58. Mark Antony. 59. Mohammed. 60. Charlemagne. 61. Richard Coeur dc Lioa. 62. Petrarch. 03. Tasso. 64. Columbus. 65. Henry Vm. 66. Erasmus. 67. Bloody Mary. 68. Sir Isaac Newton. 69. Queen Elizabeth. 70. Shakspcare. 71. Maria Theresa. 72. Peter the Great. 73. Voltaire. 74. Patrick Henry. 75. Washington. 70. Franklin, 77, Robespierre, 78, Aaron Burr. 79, Howard, the philanthropist. LIST OF SUBJECTS. 429 80. MunffoPark FICTION, Adventures in California. An Encounter with Pirates. A Lion Hunt in Southern Africa. The Indian's Eevenge. The History of a Pin. The History of a Bible. The History of a Cent. The History of a Shoe. The History of a Looking-glass. The History of a Belle. The History of a School-room. The Story of an Old Soldier. Robinson Crusoe. A Hurricane in the Torrid Zone. Visit to Mount St. Bernard. The Victim of Intemperance. Incidents of a Whaling Voyage. Adventures in Australia, The Prisoner of the Bastile. The Smugglers. The Alchemist. The Flower-girl . A Voyage to the Mediterranean. Visit to an Almshouse. Encounter with Robbers. 87, 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. lOS. 109. 110. 111. 112. iia 114. 115. 110. llf. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. ESSAYS. Spring. A Thunder-storm* Flowers. The Beauties of Nature. Snow. Mountains. Forests. A Lake Scene. A Storm at Sea. Our Country. Thanksgiving Day. The Study of History. The Advantages of Education. Peace. War. An Earthquake. Chivalry. Scene in an Auction-room. The Ruins of Time. The Fickleness of Fortune. Disease. The Cholera. Prayer. 129. Death. 130. Life, 131. Youth. 132. Old Age. 133. Morning. 134. Evening. 135. Day. 130. Night. 137. Summer. 138. Autumn. 139. Winter. 140. The Mission of the Dew-drop. 141. Truth. 142. Honesty. 143. Earth's Battle-fields. 144. Gambling. 145. Echo. 146. Anger. 147. Self-government. 148. Ambition. 149. Contentment. 150. The Love of Fame. 151. Palestine and its Associations. 152. City Life, 153. The West Indies. 154. Melancholy. 155. Life in the Country. 156. Purity of Thought. 157. Patience. 158. The Life of the Merchant. 159. The Life of the Sailor. 160. The Life of the Soldier. 161. The Mariners' Compass. 162. The Spirit of Discovery. 163. Pride. 164. The Art of Printing. 165. The Third Commandment. 166. Mirrors. 167. Newspapers. 168. Jerusalem. 169. Novelty. 170. The Bible. 171. The Sun. 172. The Starry Heavens. 173. Astronomy. 174. The Rainbow. 175. The Moon. 176. The Aurora Borealis. 177. The Stars. 178. Comets. 179. The Earth. 180. The Study of Geography. 430 LIST OF SUBJECTS. 381. The Froviuce of Rhetoric. 233. Perseverance. 182. The Mystic Seven. 2M. Silent Cities. 183. The Pleasures of Travelling. 235. Riches and Poverty. 184. The Congress of the United States. 236. Eloquence. 185. The Applications of Steam. 237. The Miser. 18«. Public Libraries. 238. Fireside Angels. 187. Rain, 239, Conscience and Law. 188. The Fourth Commandment. 240. Taste. 189. Rivers. ail. Tyranny. 190. To-morrow. 242. Smuggling. 191. The Russian Empire. 243. The Evils of Extravagance. 192. The Ocean. 244. The Inquisition. 193. True Politeness. 245. Revenge. 194. Icebergs. 246. The Attraction of Gravitation. 195. The Pearl Fishery. 247. The Tempter and the Tempted. 1%. Early Piety. 5^48. The Art of Writing. 19T. The Arctic Regions. 249. Advantages of Studying the Cla* 198. The Wrongs of the Indian. sics. 199. Egyptian Pyramids. 250. Female Character. 200. Government. 251. Knowledge is Power. 201. Manufactures. 252. The Trials of the Teacher. 902. Character of the Ancient Romans, 253. The March of Intellect. 203, The Influence of Woman. 254. The Revival of Learning. 204, The Schoolmaster Abroad, 255. Gratitude, 205, The Pleasures of Memory. 256, Modesty. 200. Humility. 257. Benevolence. 207. Natural History. 258. Genius. 208, Music, 259. The Power of Conscience. 209, The Hypocrite, 260, The Orator, 210. The Art of Composition. 2(51, Aristocracy. 211, The Invisible World, 202. Ancient Travellers. 212, Poctiy, 263. Dreams, 213. Man's True Greatness. 2&4, Magic and Magicians. 214. Virtue. 265. Twilight, 215. Vice. 266. Horace and his Friends. 210, The Sabbath. 207. Formality. 217, Jealousy. 268. The Rhine. 218. The Fifth Commandment. 269. Legendary Poetry. 219. A Volcanic Eruption. 270. Clemency. 220. Oriental Countries. 271, Parental AflTectlon. 221, Deserts. 272. The Spirit of Song. 222. Egypt, 273. Hope. 223. The Mohammedan Religion. 274. Where is thy Home? 224, Paganism. 275. Love, 225. Industry. 276, Forgiveness, 220. Idleness. 277. Earth's Bencfectors, 227. Flattery. 278. Peasant Life, 228, Intemperance, 279. The Power of Association. 22i). Excelsior. 280. Mis.sionary Enterprise. 230. Courage, 281. The Lord's Prayer. 231, Duplicity. 282. The Jews. 282, Early ImprcHsions. 283. The End not yet. LIST OF SUBJECTS. 431 884. The Feudal System. 336. The Philosopher's Stone. 285. The Progress of Civilization. 337. Poetesses of Ancient Greece. 286. The Dark Ages. 338. The Insolence of Office. 287. Monastic Institutions. 339. Authorship. 288. Generosity. 340. Affectation. 289. The Hermit. 341. The Standard of Taste. 290. Philanthropy. 342. The Mind. 291. The Good Part. 343. The Stoic Philosophy. 292. Patriotism. 344. The Drama. 293. Freedom. 345. The Bulwarks of Despotic Power. 294. The Fourth of July. 346. Edenv 295. Honor. 347. Nature and Art. 296. A Republican Government. 348. The True. 297. Old things have passed away. ai9. The Good. 298. Hero-worship. 350. The Ludicrous. 299. The True Hero. 351. Epicurus and his Followers. 300. Happiness. 352. Reformation. 301-. Sources of a Nation's Wealth. 353. The Freedom of the Press. 302. The English Noble. 354. The Present. 803. Commerce. 355. The Past. 804. The Art of Painting. 356. The Future. 305. "Let there be Light." 357. Rome under Augustus. 306. Early Rising. 358. Criticism. 307. Candor. 359. Silent Influence. 308. Dissipation. 360. The Immortality of the Soul. 309. The Proselyting Spirit. 361. Martyrdom for Tnith. 310. Envy. 362. The Monuments of Antiquity. 311. The Evils of Anarchy. 363. The Power of Verse to Perpetuate. 312. College Life. 364. Rome was not built in a Day. 313. Cheerfulness. 365. The First Stroke is Half the Battle. 314. Fashion. 366. Make Hay while the Sun shines. 315. The Uses of Biography. 367. Order is Needful for Improvement, 316. Party-spirit. 368. Resist the Beginnings of Evil. 317. Atheism. 369. Necessity is the Mother of Inven- 318. Polytheism. tion. 319. Physical Education. 370. A Soft Answer tumeth away 320. The Opening of Japan. Wrath. 321. Pastoral Poetry. 371. Familiarity begets Contempt. 322. Election Day. 372. Refinement, a National Benefit. 323. The Pleasures of the Antiquarian. 373. A Rolling Stone gathers no Moss. 324. The Backwoodsman. 374. Only a Fool turns aside to Deceit. 325. Punctuality. 375. Avoid Extremes. 326. The Great West. 376. Cast not Pearls before Swine. 327. Cruelty to Animals. 377. Study to mind your own Business. 328. Curiosity. 378. Hunger is the Best Sauce. 329. Foppery. 379. Fools make a Mock of Sin. 330. Concentration of Mind. 380. A Fault confessed is half redressed. 331. Gardening. 381. Necessity has no Law. 3.32. Christmas Day. 382. The Face is an Index of the Mind. 333. Modem Delusions. 383. Science, the Handmaid of Religion. 334. Young America. 384. Fortune favors the Brave. ai5. The Multiplication of Books. 385. Love thy Neighbor as thyself. 432 LIST OF SUBJECTS. 387, ;390. 391, 393. SM. 395. 396. 397. 398. 399. 400. 401. 402. 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 411. 412. 413. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418. 419. 420. 4C5. 46& 407. Many Men of Many Minds. Opportunity makes the Thief. What can't be cured must be en- dured. Grasp All, lose All. New Brooms sweep Clean. Where there's a Will there's a Way. The Race is not to the Swift. The Burnt Child dreads the Fire. Good Wine needs no Bush. Time brings All Things to Light. Look before you leap. It never rains but it pours. Out of Debt, out of Danger. Wliatever is, is right. Political Parties at Athens in the Time of Demosthenes. The Literary Character of Julius Caesar. Influence of Shakspeare's Plays on Popular Estimation of Historical Characters. The Nobility and Responsibility of the Teacher's Vocation. Independence of Thought in Amer- ica. Great Men, as Types and as Indi- viduals. The Love of Money, the Root of All EvU. By Others' Faults Wise Men cor- rect their own. The Perfection of Art is to conceal Art. A Bird in the Hand is Worth Two in the Bush. Economy, the Philosopher's Stone. Many a Slip 'twlxt the Cup and the Lip. Treason does never prosper. Honesty is the best Policy. Gi-eat talkers, little doers. Decision of Character. National Prejudice. Horrors of Civil War. The Passion for Dress. Our Duties as Citizens. Never too old to leani. | I 421. Contrivance proves Design. 422. The Necessity of Relaxation. 423. Example, Better than Precept. 424. Popular Clamor. 425. The Dress is not the Man. 426. Herculaneum and Pompeii. 427. Contemplation. 428. Nature, the Source of Poetic In- epiration. 429. The Conflict of Duties. 430. Infirmities of Men of Genius. 431. The Antediluvians. 432. The Ingratitude of Republics. 433. Domestic Life of the Ancient Greeks. 434. Sir Walter Raleigh and his Age. 435. Political Economy. 436. The Fate of Reformers. 437. Idolatry. 438. Evidences of Revealed Religion. 439. The Pleasures of Imagination. 440. Comparison of Classical with Mod- em Literature. 441. The Decline of the Roman Empire. 442. Literary Empiricism. 443. The Examples of Great Men. 444. Bacon and Aristotle. 445. Speculation in Philosophy. 446. Fanaticism. 447. Progress versus Conservatism. 448. Radicalism. 449. Intellectual Excitements. 450. Mesmerism. 451. Psychology. 453. Spiritualism. 453. The Force of Prejudice. 454. The Moral Sublime. 455. The Moral Beautlftil. 456. Permanence of Literary Fame. 457. Roman Eloquence. 458. Grecian Mythology. 459. The Scholar's Hope. 400. American Literature. 461. The Tendency of American Insti- tutions. 462. The Revolutionary Spirit. 463. Romance of the American Revolu- tion. 404. Magazine Literature. The Satisfaction resulting from a Conscientious Discharge of Duty. The Necessity for Conventional Laws and Forms in Society. The Fatal Results arising from an Eariy Neglect of the Mental Powers. LIST OF SUBJECTS. 433 468. The Folly of expecting too much from our Fellow-creature g. 469. The Duty of Patient Resignation to Misfortunes. 470. The Necessity of examining into our Secret Motives of Action. 471. The Advantages to be derived from an Acquaintance with Modem Languages. 472. The Difficulty of conquering Bad Habits. 473. The Happy Results arising from the Cultivation of Taste. 474. The Soothing Power of Music. 475. The Importance of early cultivating the Affections. 476. The Beneficial Effects of Constant Intercourse with our Fellow-creatures. 477. Charity, an Essential Part of True Religion. 478. Religious Enthusiasm, frequently made a Mask for the Basest Purposes. 479. The Danger of forming Hasty Judgments. • 480. The Importance of an Early Observance of Religious Duties. 481. The Folly of devoting too much Time to Accomplishments. 482. The Feelings with which we should regard Death. 483. The Danger of indulging in a Habit of Exaggeration. 484. The Possession of a Lively Imagination, a Great Misfortune. 485. The Necessity of repressing Idle Curiosity in Youth. 480. The Wisdom of not giving Free Expression to all our Thoughts, 487. The Folly of blindly following the Judgment and Opinions of Others. 488. The Vanity of Human Grandeur. 489. Religion, as a Civilizing Agent. 490. The Danger of becoming too much addicted to the Pleasures of the World. 491. Our Duties to our Inferiors. 492. The Folly of striving to please every one. 493. Innovation, as regai'ded by the Young and by tbe Old. 494. The Prospects of a Young Professional Man in the United States. 495. Reading, a means of Intellectual Improvement. 496. The Use and Abuse of Worldly Advantages. 497. Life is short and Art is long. 498. No one lives for himself alone. 499. Independence must have Limits. 500. Man and Government, as found in the Savage, the Pastoral, the Agiicultural, and the Commercial, State, 501. How far the Right should be controlled by the Expedient. 502. Color, as an Element of Beauty. 503. Poetry, Painting, Architectui'e, and Sculpture, as Means of refining Taste. 504. The Good and Bad Effects of Emulation. 505. The Influence of Greek, Latin, French, and English, Literature, on Taste. 506. Ancient and Modern Notions of Liberty. 507. Personal Beauty, Rank, and Wealth, as Passports in Society. 508. The Study of Logic, as a Mental Discipline. 509. The Respective Effects of Agriculture and Manufactures on the Morals of the Community. 510. An Old and a New Country, as Fields of Enterprise. 611. Patronage, Emulation, and Personal Necessity, as Promotive of Literary Exertion. 612. The Views taken of a Nation by itself and Others. 513. Ancient and Modem Views of Death. 514. The Comparative Influence of Individuals and Leamed Societies in forming the Literary Character of a Nation. 515. Proofs afforded by Astronomy of an intelligent Creator. 19 434 LIST OF SUBJECTS. BIG. Beware of deeperatc steps ; the darkest day, Live till to-morrow, will have passed away. 517. There's a Divinity that shapes our ends, Rough hew them how we may. 518. Health is the vital principle of hliss. 519. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 520. Be it ever so humble, there's no place like horn©. 521. The bolt that strikes the towei-ing cedar dead. Oft passes hai-mless o'er the hazel's head. 523. Who by repentance is not satisfied. Is nor of Heaven, nor earth. 523. Honor and shame from no condition rise : Act well your part ; there all the honor lie*. 524. Good name in man or woman, Is the immediate jewel of their souls. 525. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 526. Justice may sleep, but never dies. 527. Man yields to custom as he bows to fate ; In all things ruled— mind, body, and estate. 528. Experience is the school Where man learns wisdom. 529. All is not gold that glitters. 530. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 531. Birds of a feather flock together. 533. All the world's a stage, And all the meu and women merely players. ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES. 533. Was Napoleon greater in the field than in the cabinet ? 534. Is conscience in all cases a correct moral guide ? 535. Do inventions improve the condition of the laboring classes ? 530. Is the expectation of reward a greater incentive to exertion than the fear of puniahmcnt ? 537. Would it be right for Congress to pass an InterHational copy-right law f 538. Is it expedient for Congress to pass an International copy-right law ? 539. Is the penal transportation of convicts as efffective in preventing crime as solitary confinement ? 540. Is the country a better place for a University than a large city ? 541. Are increased facilities of intercourse with Europe an advantage to UB ? 542. Has popular superstition a favorable effect on a nation's literature ? 543. Do savage nations possess a right to the soil ? 544. Ought capital pimishment, as a matter of right, to be abolished ? 545. Ought capital pimishment, as a matter of expediency, to be abolished f 646. Is the mind of woman Inferior to that of man ? 647. Is it expedient that a new version of the Bible should be made t 548. Is the pen mightier than the sword ? 549. Has increased wealth a favorable effect on the morals of a people f 550. Is a nation's literature affected by its form of government ? 551. Ought there to be a property qualification for suffrage ? 552. Does the study of the classics afford better discipline to the mind than that of mathematics ? 653. Is truth invincible, if loft to grapple with fiUechood on equal temiB t LIST OF SUBJECTS. 435 554. Is a monarchy the fstrongest and most stable form of government ? 555. Is it beneficial to a country to have a union between Church and State ? 556. Did the Crusades have a beneficial influence on Europe ? 557. Is a man justified in obeying a law of his country which he feels to be morally wrong ? 558. Is it best for judges to be elected by the people ? 659. Do the learned professions ofier as promising an opening to a young man as mercantile life ? 5G0. Had the Olympic and other games a favorable eflTect on the ancient Greeks ? 561. Is the existence of political parties beneficial to a state ? 563. Do parents exercise a greater influence than teachers in forming the char- acter of the young ? 5G3. Is a general war in Europe favorable to the interests of America ? 564. Does climate have any efffect on the character of a nation ? 565. Is a lawyer justified in defending a bad cause ? 566. Does the pulpit afford a better field for eloquence than the bar ? TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS. A., acre or acres. A. A. S., Academke Americance Socius, Fellow of the American Academy. A. B., Artium BacccUaureus, Bachelor of Arts. A. B. C. F. M., American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Missions. A. C, ante Christum, before Christ. Acct., account. A. D., anno DonUni^ in the year of our Lord. Ad lib,, ad libitum, at pleasure. Adj., adjective. Adjt., Adjutant. Adjt.-Gen., Adjutant-General. Admr., Administrator. Admx., Administratrix. Adv., adverb. Mi., cetatis, of age. A. & F. B. S., American and Foreign Bible Society. Agt., agent. Ala. or Al., Alabama. Aid., Alderman or Aldermen. Alex., Alexander. Alt., altitude. A. M., Artium Magister, Master of Arts. A. M., anno mundi, in the year of the world. A. M., ante meridiem, morning. Am., American. Amer., America. And., Andrew. Anon., anonymous. Ans. or A., answer. Anth., Anthony. Apoc, Apocalypse. Apr., April. Arch., Archibald. Archb. orApb,, Archbishop. Ark., Arkansas. Art., article. Assist. Sec, Assistant Secretary. A. S. S. U., American Sunday School Union. Atty., Attorney. Attys., Attorneys. Atty.-Gen., Attorney-General. A. U. C, anno urbis conditce, in the year after the building of the city. Aug., August. Auth. Ver., Authorized Version. B., Book or Books. B. A., Bacchlaurem Artium^ Bachelor of Arts. B. A., British America. Bar. or bl., barrel. Bar., Baruch. Bart., Baronet. B. C, before Christ. B. D., Baccalaureu* Divinitaiis, Bache- lor of Divinity. Bcnj., Benjamin. B. L.. Baccalaureus Legum, Bachelor of Laws. Bis. or bbl., barrels. B. M., Baccalaureus Medicinal, Bache- lor of Medicine. B. M., British Mail. B. M. or Brit. Mus., British Museum. Bp., Bl(*hop. B. R., Banco Regis, King's Bench. Br., brig. Brig., Brigade ; Brigadier. Brig.-Gen., Brigadier-General. Bro., Brother. Bros., Brothers. Bu., bushel or bushels. B. v., Bcaia Virgo, Blessed Virgin. ABBEEVIATIONS. 437 Cset. par., cceteris paribus, other thingc being equal. Cal., Calendoe, the Calends. Cal., California. Can., Canada. Cantab., Cambridge. Cap. or c., caput, chapter. Cap., Capital. Caps., Capitals, Capt., Captain. Capt.-Gen., Captain-General. Cash., Cashier. Cath., Catharine ; Catholic. C. B., Companion of the Bath. C. C. P., Court of Common Pleas. C.E., Canada East. Cf., confer, compare. Ch., chaldron or chaldrons. Ch., Church, Chs,, Churches. Chanc, Chancellor, Chap., c, or ch., chapter. Chas., Charles. Chron., Chronicles, CI. Dom. Com., Clerk of the House of Commons. Cld., cleared. Co., County; Company. Coch., cocJdeare, a spoonful. Col., Colorado, Col., Colonel ; Colossians. Coid., colored. Coll., Collegium, College. Com., Commodore ; Committee ; Com- missioner. Com. Arr., Committee of Arrangements.. Comdg., Commanding. Comp., Company (Military). Comp., compare. Com. Ver., Common Version. Conj., conjunction. Conn, or Ct., Connecticut. Const., Constable ; Constitution. Contr., contraction. Cor., Corinthians. Cor. Sec, Corresponding Secretary. C. P., Common Pleas. C. P., Court of Probate. C. P. S„ Cusios Privati SigiUi, Keeper of the Privy Seal. C R., Gustos Rotulorum, Keeper of the RoUs. Cr., Creditor. C. S,, Court of Sessions. C, S,, Custos Sigilli, Keeper of the Seal. Ct., Count. Ct. or c, cent. Cts,, cents. Curt., current (month). C. W., Canada West. Cwt., hundred- weight. D., day or days ; dime or dimes, D., denarius, a penny ; denarii, pence. Dan., Daniel. D. C, District of Columbia, D, C. L., Doctor of Civil Law. D. D., Doctor of Divinity. Dea., Deacon. Dec, December. Deg., degree or degrees. Del,, Delaware. Del., delineavit, drew. Dcm., Democrat. Dep., Deputy; Department. Deut., Deuteronomy. Dft., Defendant. D. G., Dei Gratia, by the grace of God. Dist. Atty., District Attorney, Div,, Division. Do. or ditto, the same. Doll,, dollar. Dolls,, dollars. Doz., dozen. D. P., Doctor of Philosophy. Dr., dear ; drachm or drachms. Dr., Doctor ; Debtor. D. V,, Deo volente, God willing. Dwt., pennyweight, E., East. Eben., Ebenezer. Eccl., Ecclcsiastes. Eccles., Ecclesiasticus. Ed., Editor; Eds,, Editors. Edin,, Edinburgh. Edit, or Ed., edition. Edm., Edmund. Edw., Edward. E. E., errors excepted, E. E., ell or ells English. E. Fl., ell or ells Flemish. E. Fr., ell or ells French. E. G. or ex. g., exempli gratia, for ex- ample. E. I., East Indies. Eliz., Elizabeth. Eng., England. Engd., engraved. Ep., Epistle. 438 ABBREVIATIONS. Eph., Ephraim ; Ephcsians. E. S,, ell or ells Scotch. Esq., Esquire. Eeqrs., Esquires. Esth., Esther. Etal, et alibi, and elsewhere; et alii, and others. Etc., ei ccBter-i-ce-a, and so forth. Et seq., et sequentla, and what follows. Ex., Example. Esc, Exception. Exec. orExr., Executor. Exec. Com., Executive Committee. Execx., Executrix. Exod., Exodus. Ezd., Ezdra. Ezek., Ezekiel. Fahr., Fahrenheit. F. A. S., Fellow of the Antiquarian So- ciety. Fath., fathom or fathoms, F. D., Fidel Defensor, Defender of the Faith. Feb., February. F. E. S., Fellow of the Entomological Society. F. G. S., Fellow of the Geological So- ciety. F. II. S., Fellow of the Horticultm-al So- ciety. Fig., figure or figures. Fir., fli-kin or firkins. Fla., Flor., Florida. P. L. S., Fellow of the Linnsean Society. F. M., flat mixtura, let a mixture be made. Fol., fo., or f., folio or folios. Fred., Frederick. F. R. S., Fellow of the Royal Society. F. S. A., Fellow of the Society of Arts. Ft. or f., foot or feet. Fur., furlong or furlongs. Fut., Future. Ga., Georgia. Gal., Galatians. Gal., gallon. Gals., gallons. G.B.. Great Britain. G. C. B., Grand Cross of thoBath. Gen., General ; Genesis. Gent., Gentleman. Geo., George. Gov., Governor. Gov.-Gcn., Governor-General. G. R., Georgius Hex, King George. Gr., grain or grains. Guin. or G., guinea or guineas. II. or hr., hour or hours. nab., Habakkuk. Hag., Haggai. H. B. M., His or Her Britannic Majesty. Ileb., Hebrews. Hd., hogshead. Hhd., hogsheads. H. E. I. C, Honorable East India Com- pany. H. M., His or Her Majesty. H. M. S., His or Her Majesty's Ship or Service. Hon., Honorable. Hon. Gent., Honorable Gentleman. Hon. Mem.. Honorable Member. Hon. Sec, Honorary Secretary. Hos., Hosea. H. P., half-pay. H. R. H., His Royal Highness. Hund., hundred or hundreds. I., island. Is., islands. Ibid, or ib., ibidem, in the same placG. Id., idem, the same. I. e., id est, that is. I. H. S., Jesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of Men. m., Illinois. Imp., Imperfect. In., inch or inches. Incog., incognito, unknown. Ind. or la., Indiana. Jn. lim., in limine, at the outset. In loc, in loco, in or at the place. I. N. R. I., Jesus Nazarenus Rex Jtt' dxorum, Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews. Ins., Inspector. Ins.-Gen., Inspector-General. Inst., instant, of this month. Int., interest: interjection. In traas., in transitu, on the passage. lo., Iowa. I. O. O. F., Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Irreg., Irregular, Isa., Isaiah. Jan., January. Jas., James. J. D., Jitrtim Doctor, Doctor of Laws. Jcr., Jeremiah. ABBEEVIATIONS. 439 Jno., John. Jona., Jonathan. Jos., Joseph. Josh., Joshua. J. P., Justice of the Peace, Jud., Judith. Judg., Judges. Judg. Adv., Judge Advocate. Jun. or Jr.. Junior. Just., Justice. J. V. D., Juris utriusque Doctor^ Doctor of each Law (of the Canon and the Civil Law). Kan., Kansas. K. B., King's Bench. K. B., Knight of the Bath. K. C, King's Counsel. K. C. B., Knight Commander of the Bath. Ken. or Ky., Kentucky. K. G., Knight of the Garter. Kil., kilderkin or kilderkins. K. M., Knight of Malta. K. P., Knight of St. Patrick. K. T., Knight of the Thistle. Kt. or Knt., Elnight. L., line. La., Louisiana. Lam., Lamentations. Lat., latitude. Lb., pound or pounds (weight). L. C, Lower Canada. L.D., Lady Day. Ld., Lord. Ldp., Lordship. Leag., lea., or 1., league or leagues. L. I., Long Island. Lib. or 1., lU)er^ Book. Lieut., Lieutenant. Lieut.-Col., Lieutenant-Colonel. Lieut. Comdg., Lieutenant Command- ing. Lieut.-Gen., Lieutenant-General. Lieut.-Gov., Lieutenant-Governor. Liv., Liverpool. LL. B., Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Laws. LL. D,, Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. Lon. or Lond., London. , Lon. or long., longitude. L. S., Locus Sigilli, Place of the Seal. Lt., Light. Lt. In., Light Infantry. L X X., Scptuagint (Version). M., mille, one thousand. M., manipultcs, a handful. M., meridie,. mevidisin, noon. M., misce, mix. M., mile or miles. M. or Mons., Monsieur, Mr., Sir. Mace, Maccabees. Mag., Magazine. Maj., Major. Maj.-Gen., Major-Geueral. Mai., Malachi. Man., Manasses. Mar., March. Mass. or Ms., Massachusetts. Math., Mathematics. Matt., Matthew. M. B., MediciruBBaccalaureus, Bachelor of Medicine. M. B., Musiccs Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Music. M. C, Member of Congress. M. D., Medldrm Doctor, Doctor of Med- icine. Md., Maryland. Me., Maine. MQxa.., memento, remember; memoran- dum. Messrs., Messieurs, gentlemen. Mic, Micah. Mich., Michigan; Michael. Mid., Midshipman. Miss., Mississippi. Mo., Missouri. Mo., month. Mos., months. M. P., Member of Parliament. M. P., Member of Police. Mr., Mister. M. R. A. S., Member of the Royal Asiatic Society. M. R. C. S,, Member of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons. M. R. I. A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Mrs., Mistress. MS., manuscriptum, manuscript MSS., manuscripts. Mus. D., Doctor of Music. M. W., Most Worthy. K, North. N., note or notes. N. A., North America, 440 ABBEEVIATIONS. Nah., Nahum. Nath., Nathaniel. N. B., nota bene, mark well. N. B,, New Brunswick. N. C, North Carolina. N. E., New England. Neb,, Nebraska. Neh., Neheruiah. Nem. con,, nemine contradicente ; Nera. diss, nemine dissentiente, unanimously. Ncv,, Nevada. N. F., Newfoundland. N. n,, New Uampshire. N. J., New Jersey. Nl., nail. Nls,, nails. N. M., New Mexico. N. O,, Now Orleans. No., numero, in number ; number. Nos., numbers. Nov., November. N. S., Nova Scotia ; New Style. N. T. or New Test,, No\r Testament. Num., Numbers. N. Y., New York. O., Ohio, Ob., objection. Obad,, Obadiah. Obt., obedient. Oct., October. Olym., Olympiad. Or., Oregon. O. S., Old Style. O. T. or Old Test., Old Testament. O, U, A., Order of United Americans. Oxon., Oxford. O.?., ounce or ounces. P., page. Pp., pages. P., pole or poles. P. ocq,, jmrtes cequaies, cqaal parts. Par,, paragraph. Part., participle. Payt,, payment. Pd., paid, Penn. or Pa,, Pennsylvania. Per an., per annum, by the year. Perf,, Perfect. Pet,, Peter, Ph. D., PhUosophUz Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. Phil., Philippians. Pliila. or Phil,, Philadelphia. Pbilcm,, Philemon. Pinx. or Pxt,, pinxit, painted. Plff., Plaintiff. P. M,, Post Master. P. M., post meridiem, evening. P, M. G., Post Master General. P. O,, Post Office. Pop,, population. Prep,, preposition. Pres,, President ; present. Prob,, Problem. Prof,, Professor. Prop., Proposition. Prot,, Protestant. Pro tem., pro tempore, for the time being. Prov,, Proverbs. Prox,, ])7'oximo, of next month. P. R S., President of the Royal Society. P. S., Post scriptum. Postscript. P. S,, J^rivy Seal. Ps., Psalm or Psalms. Pt., pint, Pts., pints. Pub. Doc, Public Documents. Pun,, puncheon or puncheons. Q., Queen. Q. or Ques., Question. Q., Quadrans, farthing ; guadrantes, farthings, Q. B., Queen's Bench. Q, C, Queen's Counsel. Q, E, D., quod ei-at demonstrandum, which was to be proved, Q. E, P., qvod erat faciendum, which was to be done. Q. 1, or q. p., quantum libet or placet, as much as you please. Qr., quarter. Q. S,, quantum svfflcit, a sufflciciU quantity. Qt,, quart. Qts,, quarts. Qy., Qucrj'. R., Rex, King ; Regiim, Queen. R., rood or roods ; rod or rods. R. A., Roj'al Academician. R. A,, Royal Artillery. R, A,, Russian America. R. E., Royal Euglneere. Reed., Received. Rec. Sec, Recording Secretary. Rect., Rector. Rcf., Reformed ; Reformation Reg,, Register. ABlBREViATlOKS. 441 Rcgt., Regiment. Rep., Representative, Re v., Reverend ; Revelations. R. I., Rhode Island. Richd., Richard. R. M., Royal Marines. R. N., Royal Navy. Robt., Robert. Rom., Roman ; Epistle to the Ro- mans. R. R., Railroad. R. S. S., Regim Socletatis Socim, Fellow of the Royal Society. Rt. Hon., Right Honorable. Rt. Rev., Right Reverend. Rt. Wpful., Right Worshipful. R.W., Right Worthy. S., South. S., shilling or shillings. S. or sec, second or seconds. S. A,, South America. Sam., Samuel (Book of). Saml., Samuel. S. A. S., Societatis Anliquariorum So- cins. Fellow of the Society of Anti- quarians. S. C, South Carolina. Sc, sciflpsit, engraved. Sc, scruple or scruples. S. caps., small capitals. Schr., Schooner. Soil., sc, or s., scilicet^ namely. Sec, Secretary. Sect., sec, or s.y section or sections. Sen., Senior; Senate; Senator. Sept., September. Serg., Sergeant. Scrg.-Maj., Sergeant-Major. Servt., servant. S. J. C, Supreme Judicial Court. Sol., solution ; Solomon. Sol., Solicitor. Sol.-Gen., Solicitor-General. S. P. Q, R., Senatus ]x^utttsq2te liO' manus, the Senate and people of Rome. Sq. m., square mile or miles. S. S., Sunday School. SS., sequeniia^ what follows. St., Saint; street. S. T. D., Sanctm TJieologice Docior^Doc- tor of Divinityi Ster., Sterling. S. T. P., Sanctce Theologice Professor, Professor of Divinity. S. T. T. L., sit tibi terra levis, may the earth be light to thee. Sup., Supplement; Supernumerary. Surg., Surgeon. Surg.-Gen., Surgeon-General. Sus., Susannah. T,, ton or tons. Tenn., Tennessee. Tex., Texas. Text. Rec, Texttcs Heceptus, the Re- ceived Text. Theo., Theodore. Theor., Theorem. Thess., Thessalonians. Thos., Thomas. Tier., tierce or tierces. Tim., Timothy. Tit., Titus. T. O., turn over. Tob., Tobit. Tr., transpose. Tr., Tnistee. Trs., Trustees. Trans., translation; translator. Treas., Treasurer. U. C, Upper Canada. U. E. I. C, United East India Com* pany. U. J. D., Utriusque Juris Doctor, Doctor of each Law (Canon and Civil). U. K., United Kingdom. Ult., ultimo, of last month. Univ., University. U. S., United States. U. S. A., United States of America. U. S. A., United States Army. U. S. M., United States Mail. U, S. N., United States Navy. V. or vid., vide, see. Va., Virginia. Ver. or v., verse or verses^ Vers., vs., or v., versus, against. V. g., verbi gratia, for example. Viz., videlicet, namely. Vol. or v., volume. Vols., Volume^. V. Pres. or V. P., Vice President. V. R., Victoria Regind^ Quceii Victoria» Vt., Vermont. W., West. W. f., wrong font* 442 AI31J11KVIATIOXS. W. I„ West Indies. Wis., Wisconsin. Wisd., Wisdom (Book of). Wk. or w., week. Wm., William. W. T., Wasliington Territory. VV^t., weight. W, Va., West Virginia. Xmas, Christmas. Xn., Christian. Xnty., Christianity. Xt., Christ. Yr., year. Yrs., years. &c., et ccekr-irOE-a, and bo forth. INDEX Abbreviations, to be followed by periods, 89. Table of, 436. Abridging, in wbat it consists, 340. Accent (character), acute, where used, 149. Grave, where used, 149. Cir- cumflex, where used, 149. Accent (stress of the voice), tendency to throw it back in polysyllables, 60. In poetry, constitutes length, 403. Adage, the, 345. Addison, his illustration of delicacy of taste, 175. His style, 264. Adjectives, origin of, 30. Definition of, 63. Adjunct, definition of, 69. Adverbs, origin of, 32. Definition of, 64, When misplaced, are often a source of obscurity, 286. Agreeableness, held by some to consti- tute beauty, 215. Alexandrine, the, of what it consists, 411. Where used, 411. Too cumbrous for an entire piece, 412. Alison, his view of taste, 171. Allegory, what it is, 248. Allusions, often form pleasing introduc- tions, 332. AlpJiabet, derivation of the word, 24. The Phoenician, supposed to have been derived from the Hebrew, 27. The Greek, and its derivatives, 28. The Latin, derived from the Greek, 28. The English, derived from the Latin, 28. Number of letters in dif- ferent alphabets, 29. Ambiguity, in what it consists, 285. A fault of frequent occurrence, 290. Its commonest varieties, 290. Amphibrach, the, 403. Amphimacer, the, 403. Amplification, in what it consists, 329. Of definitions, 333. Of arguments, 333. Analogy, argument from, 333. Analysis, of subjects, 326—328. Should invariably be drawn up, 329. Anapest, the, 403. Anecdote, the, 370. Angles, the, united with the Saxons in invading England, 44. Who they were, 44. Outnumbered by the Sax- ons on the continent, 45. Gave their name to Britain, 44, 45. Anglo-Saxon Language, an ofi'shoot of Gothic, 46. Modified but little by the Danish invasions, 47. Changes by which it was converted into English, 51. Antibacchius, the, 403. Anticlimax, 251. Antithesis, 250. Used in Proverbs, 251. Often employed in parallels, 343. Aphceresis, 236. Aphorism, the, 345. Ajwcope, 236. Apologue, the, 339. Apopliasis, 252. Apophthegm, the, 345. Apostrophe, meaning of the word, 143. Form and position of the character so called, 142. Kules for the, 142. When used to denote the omission of letters, 142. Used to form the plural of let- 444: INDEX. tcrs, &c., 143. The figure so called 250. Appeal to the feelings, in an argumenta- tive discour:je, 389. Archaism, 230. Arguinenf, what is it, 354. Argumentative Discourse^ the, 885. For- mal divisions of, 385. Arguments, proper arrangement of, 389. Aristotle, his rules for unity of action, 169. Armorican Language, its wonderful re- semblance to Welsh, 38. Art, its relation to science, 165. Article, the, definition of, 63. The defi- nite, 63. The indefinite, 63. Associations, instrumental in increasing the pleasures of the imagination, 186. Personal, 187. National, 187. Histor- ical, 187. Source of sublimity in sounds, 200. Source of beauty in sounds, 223. Asterisk, the, where used, 151. Ast^rism, the, where used, 150. AsTjndeton, 294. B. Bacchitis, the, 4a3. Ballad, the, defined, 422. Barbarisms, of what they conslBt, 271. Battles, sublime descriptions of, 202. Beauty, character of the emotions it ex- cites, 214. Variety of its applications, 215. Theories as to its source, 215. Color, one of its chief elements, 216. Regularity of figure, one of its ele- ments, 217. Hogarth's line of, 217. Smoothness, essential ^o it, 218. Gen- tle motion, an element of, 218. Small- ness and delicacy, elements of, 219. Design, a source of, 219. Moral beau- ty, 221. Beauty of the human counte- nance, 221 ; depends mainly on the ex- I)res8ion, 222. Beautiful sounds, 223. The beautiful in writing, 223. belles-lettres, its meaning in the French language, 166. Its general accepta- tion in English, 167. B^le, sublimity of the, 210. Biographij, what it is, 869. Style ap- ])ropriate to, 369. Blank Verse, a favorable medium for expressing eublime ideas, 212. Of what it consists, 412. Tho most ele- vated of all measures, 412. Most dif- ficult to write, 412. Bombast, 213. Brace, the, for what used, 151. Brackets, for what they are used, 139, 140. How to punctuate matter with- in brackets, 140. Bretagm, tradition respecting its settle- ment, 39. Breve, the, 150. Britain, state of, before the Roman con- quest, 34. Settled by Celti*, 35. Ger- man colonics planted there at an early date, 42. Invasion of, by the Saxons, 43. Invasion of, by the Danes, 46. Conquest of, by the Normans, 48. Burlesque, a species of wit, 227. A bur- lesque, what it is, 421. Burletla, the, defined, 421. C. Cadence, of periods, 803. Cad7nus, the introducer of letters into Greece, 25. Cainbnan, a branch of the Celtic tongue, 33. CaintaJs, 74. Rules for, 74— 78. Small, 78. Too free use of, to be avoided, 78. When used for figures, to be fol- lowed by periods, 89. Captions, what they are, 155. Cai^et, the, for what used, 152. Catch-words, whet they are, 155. Cedilla, the, where used, 152. Celtic Language, the parent of many tongues, 36. An ofl'shoot from the lie- brew or Phoenician, 37. Branches of, 88. Its peculiar features, .39. Celtic of Britain, how far modified during the period of Roman supremacy, 40 ; Bupcreeded by Saxon, 44. English words derived from it, 55. Characters, astronomical, 153. Chaucer, writings of, 50. Cicero, the most harmonious of writers, 801. Circumlocutions, indefinite, violate pre- cision, 282. Clarendon, the style of, often violates unity, 311. Clause, definition of, 09. RelaUto, 60. INDEX. 445 Participial, 69. Adrerbial, C9. Voca- tive, 70. Adjective, 70. Appositional, 70. Causal, 70. Hypothetical, 70. Dependent, 70. Independent, 70. Vocative and causal, never restric- tive, 110. Participial, when restric- tive, 111. Appositional, rule for punc- tuating, 113. Absolute, to be set off by the comma, 116. Vlearness^ in what it consists, 284. In- volves purity, propriety, and pre- cision, 284. Faults opposed to it, 284. Climax, what it is, 251. Derivation of the term, 251. Climax of sound, 251. Coining, of words, forbidden except to those who are unfolding a new sci- ence, 272. Of compound words, 272. Colloquialisms, to be avoided, 276. Colon, derivation of the word, 97. Its first use, 97. Formerly much used, 97. Its place at the present day usurped by the semicolon, 97. Rules for the, 97—99. When to be followed by a dash, 98. Coloi', one of the chief elements of beauty, 216. Peculiarities which en- hance its beauty, 216. Comedy, defined, 420. Coinedy, English, too often disgraced by obscenity, 233. Comma, meaning of the word, 104. De- gree of separation it denotes, 104. Not found in early manuscripts, 104. How previously denoted, 104. Gen- eral rule for the, 104. Special rules for the, 106—126. Cautions in the use of, 128. Not to be introduced simply because a sentence is long, 128. Not to be used after a grammatical sub- ject when immediately followed by its verb, 128. Not to be used before and connecting two words only, 128. To be omitted when there is doubt as to the propriety of using it, 129. Communication, media of, 13. Comjx)sition, successive steps of, 329. The art defined, 348. Compositions, revision of, 334. Sugges- tions as to the correction of, 335. Omciseness, essential to sublimity in writing, 207. Carried to excess, pro- duces obscurity, 266. Conjunctions, origin of, 32. Definition of, 64. List of, 64. Connection of words, clauses, and mem- bers, general principles relating to the, 87, 83. Contrast, a, heightened by a resem- blance in language and construction, 298. Correspondence epistolary, 356. Countenance, beauty of the, 222. Couplet, the, of what it consists, 402. The heroic should have complete sense within itself, 411. Delights in antitheses, 411. Cousin, his view of taste, 171. Criticism, fatal to the pleasures of the imagination, 185. Reason why it is sel- dom correct in the case of young per- sons, 185. Definition of, 318. De- veloped the rules of rhetoric, 318. Beauty and truth, its objects, 319. Relation between its ancient and its present character, 319. Literary, 320 ; its office, 320 ; should be based ou feeling as well as rules, 321 ; abuse of, 321 ; objections to, 322 ; its prin- ciples not arbitrary, 322. Curiosity, a universal passion, 191. D. Dactyl, the, 403. Darkness, a source of sublimity, 197. Dash, but lately introduced, 131. Too freely used at the present day, 131. Rules for the use of, 131—1.34. When to be used after other points, 132, 133. When used to denote the omission, of letters, 142. Dates, how to be written, 126. Definitions, how they may be amplified, 333. Delicacy, an element of beauty, 219. Description, in what it consists, 318. Of material objects, 349. Of natural scenery, 350. Of persons, 351. Design, an element of beauty, 219. Unity of, essential to the effect of a composition, 220. DicBresis, the, for what used, 151. Mean- ing of the word, 152. The figure so called, 236. Dialogue, the, 376. Used for the discus- sion of serious topics, 370. 44:6 INDEX. Didactic Poetry^ 423. Diffmeness, too great, to be avoided, 266. Dimeter, of what it consists, 404. Diminutives, origin of, 219. Disorder, a source of sublimity, 198. Disquisition, the, 380. Dissertation, the, 380. Distich, the, what it is, 402. Division, the, of an argumentative dis- course, 387. Division-Marks, 150. Double Comma, the, for wliat used, 152. Double Dagger, the, 151. Dramas, of what they consist. Sin. Derivation of the term, 419. Division of, into acts and scenes, 421. Dramatic Poetry, closely allied to Epic, 419. Three dramatic unities, 420. Leading divisions of, 420. Dramatists, the distinguished, of an- tiquity, 420. The distinguished, in modem literatures, 420. Eclogue, the, 423. Editorial, the, 380. Elegiac Poetry, of what it treats, 423. Ellipsis, marks of, 151. The figure bo called, 237. Improper, a cause of ob- scurity, 285. Emphasis-Marks, 150. E7ns, what they are, 154. Enallage, what it is, 238. Does not justify a violation of syntactical rules, 238. England, a corruption of Angleland, 44. English Language, the, formation of, 49. First book in, 50. Its forms settled by Wicliffe's translation of the Bible, 50. Its Saxon derivatives, 52, 53. Its Norman-Fiench derivatives, 53. Its modern French derivatives, 51. Its Latin derivatives, 54. Its Celtic de- rivatives, 55. Its Greek derivatives, 50. Its miscellaneous elements, 66. Four-tifths of its current words, of Saxon origin, 57. Its characteristics, B7. Its orthography, 58. Its syntac- tical constructions, 58. Its variety, 58. Its poetical terms, 53, Its strength, 69. Its fiexibillty, 00. ltd harmony, 60. Its simplicity, 01. Epic Poetry, of what it treats, 418. Unity of design, essential to, 418. Epic poems of different languages, 419. Derivation of the term epic, 419. The plot of an epic, what it should be, 419. Epigram, the, defined, 423. Ejnlogue, the, 421. Episodes, what they are, 418. Epitomizing, in what it consists, 846. Em^ea, the, 419. Equivocation, in what it consists, 284. Varieties of, 289. Erse Language, a branch of Celtic, 38. Essays, 379. Wide application of tho term, 379. Difi'erent classes of, 380. Latitude allowed in the conduct of, 380. Etjjmology, figures of, 236. Exclamation (the figure), 250. Exclamation-point, rules for the use of tho, 92—95. Does not always denote the same degree of separatlori, 93. Use of more than one, 95. Exordium, the, 386. Exposition, in what it consists, 354. Expression, has much to do with beauty of countenance, 222. Fable, the, a39. Farce, the, defined, 421. Feet, what they are, 403. Enumeration of, 403. Primary, 404. Secondary, 404. Fiction, what it is, 374. May be made the vehicle of good or evil, 375. Figw'e, regularity of, a source of beau- ty, 217 ; not synonymous with same- ness, 217. Figures, what they are, 235. Four classes of, 235. Of orthography, 235. Of etymology, 230, Of syntax, 237. Of rhetoric, 239, 246; origin of, ^40; history of figurative language, 241 ; most used in the early stages of so- ciety, 242; grow lesa common as a language progresses in refinement, 242; advantages accruing from tho use of, 242—244; frequently convey tho meaning more forcibly than plain language, 241; rules for the u?e of, 244—254; not absolutely essential to INDEX. 447 beauty of composition, 244; ehould not ha the chief object had in view, 255 ; Bhould spring naturally from the subject, 255; should not be used to excess, 255. French Language, the source of many English words, 54. Character of the, 59. Its poetry, without rhyme, indis- tinguishable from prose, 59. Frigidity/, 213. Frisian Language, its resemblance to English, 45. Fiisians, reasons for supposing that they engaged in the invasion of Brit- ain, 45. Where they lived, 45. Frontispiece, the, 155. G. Gaelic, a branch of Celtic, 33. GaUicisms, 2T3. Gardens, Chinese, 193. Genius, distinction between it and taste, 181,. 182. Universal, 183. Germanic Languages, offshoots of Gothic, 46. Gestures, 14. Extent to which they were carried on the ancient stage, 15. Decline of their use, 16. Gothic Language, its two great branch- es, 46. Grace, Hogarth's line of, 217. What it is, 221. Grandeur, see Sublimity. Greek Language, the, English scientific terms borrowed from, 50. Harmony, in what it consists, 299. Words to be avoided as inharmo- nious, 300. Requires the writer to avoid repeating a sound, 300. Re- quires him to avoid a succession of words of the same number of syl- lables, 301. Depends on the proper arrangement of the parts' of a sen- tence, 301. Carried to greater perfec- tion in the ancient languages, than in ours, 301. Danger of paying too much attention to, 302. Requires that the fullest clauses and most sonorous words be reserved for the close of a •entence, 303. Highest kind of, con- sists in the adaptation of sound to sense, 304. Bead-lines, what they are, 155. Hebrews, their claim to the invention of letters, 26. Hemistich, a, what it is, 402. Hengist and Horsa, expedition of, 42. Hengist'a stratagem for procuring land, 43. Heptameter, of what it consists, 404. The regular ballad-measure of our language, 408. Generally written in two lines, 408. Heroic Line, its character, 410. Used in the Spenserian stanza, 410. Most commonly found in the form of the couplet, 411. Constitute blank verse, 412. Hexameter, of what it consists, 404. Hieroglyphics, 21. Hindoos, their claim to the invention of letters, 26. Historians, of England, 368. Of Amer- ica, 369. History, a, what it is, 368. Essentials of a good history, 368. Style appro- priate to, 369. Hogarth, his line of beauty and line of grace, 217. Hume, his view of taste, 170. Humx)r, in what it consists, 231. Op- posed to the pathetic, 232. Its sub- jects, 232. Not short-lived, like wit, 232. Novelty not essential to it, 232. Enters into every literature, 233. Carried to the greatest perfection in Don Quixote, 233. Distinction be- tween it and ridicule, 233. Hymn, the, 422. Hyperbaton, what it is, 238. Enters largely into poetry, 238. Hyperbole, what it is, 219. Occurs in common conversation, 249. Has its origin in liveliness of imagination, 249. Violent hyperbole, out of place in mere descriptions, 259. May be so extravagant as to render the writer ridiculous, 259. Hyphen, derivation of the word, 143. What it is used to denote, 143. Rules for its use, 143, 144. Sometimes employed instead of the diaeresis, 144. 448 INDEX. I. Jamhus^ the, 403. Idyl, the, 423. Imagery, or Virion, 250. Imagination, defined, 1&3. Pleasures of, 183; process by which they are excited, 183. Its exuberance in youth fatal to sound criticism, 180. Its pleasures increased by associations, 186. Has had much to do with the origin of figures, 2^11. Vividness of, apt to betray the young into too great floridity, 264. Imitation, fidelity of, a source of pleas- ure to the imagination, 190. Servile, to be avoided, 316. Index, or Hand, for what used, 150. Induction, the process of, 333. Infinitive Mood, when to be preceded by the comma, 124. Infinity, a source of sublimity, 196. Interjections, the first words, 29. Defi- nition of, 65. To be followed by ex- clamation-points, 94. Interrogation (the figure), 250. Interrogation-point, rules for the, 91. Does not always denote the same de- gree of separation, 93. Introduction, importance of an eflfective, 830. Varieties of, 331, a32. Of an argumentative discourse, 386; mod- esty, essential to It, 387. Should be accommodated to the discourse that is to follow, 387. Invention, not a division of rhetoric, 161. In what it consists, 325. The most difficult part of composition, 325. Ireland, originally peopled by Cartha- ginian colonies, 35. Irony, 234, 252. Italian Language, origin of the, 41. Italics, how indicated in manuscript, 154. For what used, 154. Not to be too freely employed, 154. Their use in the English Bible, 154. J. Jeu de mots, 230. Justice, poetical, 420. K. Kasdterides, or SciUy Isles, intercourse of tlie Phoenicians with the, 36. Peopled by Celts, 36. Lampoon, the, 423. Language, spoken, 16; its origin, 17; theories as to its origin, 18 ; the gift of Deity, 19. Written language, 20 ; its different systems, 21. The Phoe- nician, written from right to left, 28. Mode of writing the Greek, 28. Grad- ual development of a system of, 29. English, see English .Language. Irish, supposed to have been derived from the Phoenician, .35. Celtic, see Celtic Language. Effect of climate and at- mosphere on, 38. Individual lan- guages affected by the character of those who speak them, 59. Latinizing, of Johnson and his imi- tators, 55. Latin Language, English words de- rived from it, 54. Leaders, 152. Leads, what they are, 1&4. Letters (characters), introduced into Greece by Cadmus, 25. First divided into different classes by Tliaut, 25. Their Invention attributed to Thaut by Sanchonlathon, 25. The honor of their inveutiou claimed by the In- dians, 26. Letters (species of composition), 356. News, 356. Of business. 356. Official, 356. Of friendship, .357. Of condolence, a57. Of congrarnlation, 358. Of Intro- dnction,358. Style of, 358. Answers to, 359. Manual execution of, 359. Date of, a59. Address of, 360. Subscrip- tion of, 361. Folding and sealing of, 365. Superscription of, 366. Licenses, poetical, 401. Lyric Poetry, 421. Ifl. Machine.ry, of an epic poem, 419. Macron, the, 150. Madrigal, the, 422. Manmrism, what it is, 270. An excess of It to be avoided, 216. Maxim, the, ^45. Measures, defined, 404. Varieties of, 404. Iambic, 4a") ; constitute the great body of our poetry, 40(5. Trochaic, 405 ; adapted to gay and tender sen- timents, 406. Anapestic, 405 ; adapt- INDEX. 449 ed to animated sentiments, 406. Dac- tylic, 406; difficult to write, 407. Melodrama, the, 421. Metaphor, what it is, 248. The com- monest of figures, 248. Should not be far-fetched, trite, obscure, or in- appropriate, 258. Metaphorical and plain language should not be blended, 258. Mixed metaphors, to be avoided, 259. Should not be carried too far, 259. Metonymy, what it is, 249. Relations on which it is founded, 249. Metre, long, 407. Common, 407. Short, 408. Might, actively exerted, the principal source of the sublime, 195. Mimesis, 236. Molossus, the, 403. Monometer, of what it consists, 404. Motion, when gentle, an element of beauty, 218. When very swift, an element of sublimity, 218. Often vividly represented in composition by peculiar combinations of words, 306. Mime, eflfect of, increased by associa- tions, 187, 200. When beautiful, and when sublime, 222. N. Narration, what it is, 353. Narratives, what they are, 367. Classes of, 368. Nature, the productions of, a source of pleasure to the imagination, 190. Noi^man French, origin of, 41. First introduction of, into England, under Edward the Confessor, 47. Made the court language under William the Conqueror, 48. Source of many Eng- lish words, 53. Notes, 366. Of invitation, 366. Nouns, origin of, 30. Definition of, 62. Common, 62. Proper, 62. Novel, the, 375. Novelty, a source of pleasure to the im- agination, 191. Different degrees of, 192. Essential to the effect of a pun, 230. Number, plural, origin of the, 30. O. and ohy dififoreuce between, 78. ObelisJc, or Dagger, 151. Obituary, the, 369. Obscurity, a source of sublimity, 197. As opposed to clearness, in what it consists, 284; causes from which it results, 285. Odometer, of what it consists, 404. Gen- erally written in two lines, 408. Ode, the, 422. Omission (the figure), 252. Onomatopoeia, 252. Continued, 305. Oration, the, 386, 392. Style appro- priate to, 393. Orthography, figures of, 235. Ossian, why his writings are classed as poems, 59. One of the sublimost of writers, 211. Description of his style, 211. Paragoge, 233. Paragraph (character), where used, 150. Meaning of the word, 150. Paralijms, 252. Parallels (character), 151. Parallels (a variety of composition), 342. Paraphrase, what it is, 344. Parentheses, meaning of the word, 136. How indicated in reading, 136. Much used by old writers, 136. In disfavor with modern critics, 136. Rules for the use of, 137—139. Their proper place in a sentence, 137. How to punctuate matter within parentheses, 138. Long, to be avoided, 312. Parenthetical Expressions, 104. Where generally used, 104. To be preceded and followed by the comma, 104, 106, 107. Examples of, 105. Parodies, what they are, 226, 421. Paronomasia, see Pun. Parsing, difficulties in, explained, 66. Participles, definition of, 64. Number of, 64. Particles, splitting of, 295. Pasquinade, the, 423. Pastoral Poetry, 423. Patriotism, a source of moral sublimity, 205. Pauses, should be distributed at proper intervals, 302. Poetical, 415 ; primary, 415 ; secondary, 415, 416. Pentameter, of what it consists, 404. 450 INDEX. Iambic, constitutes the Iieroic line, 410; its character, 410; used in the Spenserian stanza, 410; most com- monly found in the form of the coup- let, 411. Period, meaning of the term, 86. Found in manuscripts of an early date, 86. Rules for the, 87—90. When used to denote the omission of letters, 142. Feroration, the, of an argumentative discourse, 389. Personification, 250. Perspicuity, see Clearness. Phrases, definition of, 69. Picturesque, the, 193, 194. Pleonasm, 237. Plot, the, what it is, 374. Characteris- tics of a good, 374. Poetry, what compositions it embraces, 400. Features that distinguish it from prose, 401. Varieties of, 418. Points, punctuation, first use of, 81. To be used independently of reading- pauses, 84. Used to separate words and clauses, 84. Used to indicate the parts of speech, 84. Show to what class a sentence belongs, 85. Indicate sudden transitions, 85. Denote the omission of words, 85. Must be used only when there is a positive rule for Bo doing, 85. Enumeration of the, 86. Polysyndeton, 295. Portuguese Language, origin of the, 42. Possessive Case, rules for the formation of the, 142. Precision, derivation of the term, 279. In what it consists, 279. Violated by a want of discrimination in the use of synonymcs, 279, Rejects unneces- sary words, 281. Often violated by indefinite circumlocutions, 282. Predicate, what it is, 68. When the comma must bo inserted in a com- pound, 119. Ptepositions, origin of, 30. Defined, 64. List of, 64. List of prepositions that follow certain words, 159. Should not close a sentence, 297. Prescott, remarks on the stylo of, 869. Prologue, the, 421. Prormins, adjective,- origin of, 81 ; defi- nition of, 03. Personal, origin of, 31 ; definition of, 02. Relative, origin of, 32; definition of, 62. Interrogative, definition of, 62. The same pronoun not to refer to different objects in the same sentence, 287. Propriety, in what it consists, 270. Faults opposed to it, 276. Violated by the confounding of derivatives, 276. Prase, compositions it embraces, 318. Prosopo2)oeia, 250. Prosthesis, 236. Proverb, the, 345. Psalm, the, 422. Pun, the, 230. Novelty essential to its effect, 230. Punctuation, what it is, 81. By whom invented, 81. Too generally neglect- ed, 82. Prevents misconceptions, 82. Founded on great and definite prin- ciples, 83. General principles of, 8'!— 86. Purity, in what it consists, 271. Pyrrhic, the, 403. Quantity, of syllables, on what it de- pends, 402; how indicated, 403; in Latin and Greek, independent cf accent, 403. Quantity-Marks, 150. Quatrain, the, 407. Quintilian, his view of the perfect orator, 164. Quotation-points, of what they consist, 145. By whom first used, 145. For what employed, 145. Not to be used when merely the substance of a quo- tation is given, 145. IIow to punctu. ate matter within, 146. Single, when used, 146. Quotations, when to be preceded by tht colon, 97. When to be preceded by the comma, 124. Reason, the distinction between man and brutes, 13. Reasoning, the, in an argumentative discourse, 889. Rtfa^ence-Marks, 150. Regimen, of verbs and propositions, 68. Rej)etition (the figure), 252. INDEX. 451 Eestrictive Expressions, defined, 105. Not to be separated by the comma from that which they restrict, 105, 110. To be set off by the comma, when they refer to several antece- dents themselves separated by that point, 110. Should stand immediate- ly after their logical antecedents, 110. lieview, the, 380. Hevision, the best means of correcting too great floridity, 2&i. Necessary to the effect of good writing, 315. Mhetoric, ancient meaning of the word, 163. Its present acceptation, 163. Its province as a science and as an art, 164. To be regarded as a useful and an elegant art, 165. Advantages re- sulting from the study of, 166—168. Objection to its rules, 168. Source from which its rules are drawn, 169. Figures of, 246. Rhyme, an unfavorable medium for the expression of sublime ideas, 211. De- fined, 402. Principles to be observed respecting it, 413, 414. Eich rhymes, 413. Speaks to the ear, 414. Perfect rhymes, 414. Admissible rhymes, 414. Inadmissible rhymes, 414. Regular- ity of, important, 415. Ridicule, in what it consists, 233. To what it may be effectively applied, 233. Its attack covert, 234. Romance, the, 375. Difference between it and the novel, 375. Romans, the, their policy in introdu- cing their language into conquered states, 40. S. Sanscrit, supposed to be one of the most ancient of languages, 20. Siitire, the, 423. Satiiieal Poetry, 423. Saw, the, 345. Saxon Language, an offshoot of Gothic, 46. Saxons, what part of Germany they in- habited, 44. Scandinavia, emigration of barbarians from, 41. Scandinavian Language, an offshoot of Gothic, 46. Scanning, in what it consists, 405. Science, its relation to art, 165. Section (.character), where used, 150. Semicolon, meaning of the word, 100. Degree of separation which it de- notes, 100. First employed in Italy, 100. When first used in England, 100. Eules for the, 100—102. Semi-Saxon Writings, 50. Sense, adaptation of sound to, 304. Senses, the, rendered acute by constant use, 172. Three of them incapable of awakening pleasure in the imagina- tion, 188. Sentences, definition of, 67. Component parts of, 07. Subjects of, 67; how ascertained, 68. Predicates of, 68. Members of, 69. Declarative, 70. In- terrogative, 71. Imperative, 71. Ex- clamatory, 71. Simple, 71. Com- pound, 71. Sermons, 393- S09. SliaJcspeare, his dramatic poems highly irregular, 322; their popularity ac- counted for, 323. Side-heads, what they are, 155. Silence, a source of sublimity, 197. Simile, the, what it is, 247. Sometimes used without any formal term of com- parison, 247. The explanatory, 247. The embellishing, 248. Rules for its use, 256. Should not be founded on faint resemblances, 256. Should not be trite, 250. Should not be founded on local allusions, 257. Should not be drawn from resemblances to trivial objects, 257. Is out of place, when anger, terror, or despair, is the prev- alent passion, 258. Simplicity, essential to sublimity, 208. Sketches, historical, 368. Biographical, 369. Smallness, an element of beauty, 219. The idea of, associated with whatever we are fond of, 219. Smell, a source of pleasure to the im- agination only by means of associa- tions, 189. Smoothness, an element of beauty, 218. Solecisms, 273. Solitude, a source of sublimity, 197. Solon, the laws of, how written, 28. Sonnet, the, borrowed from the Itr.lians, 452 INDEX. 409. Of what it consists, 409. Ar- rangement of its rhymes, 409. Sophism, difference between it and sophistry, 277. Sound, beauty of, 222. Adaptation of, to sense, 304. Sounds, inarticulate, 16. Employed in composition to imitate motion, 306 ; to represent the emotions of the I mind, 307. Spanish Language, the, origin of, 42. Character of, 59. Speculation, what it is, 354. Speech, parts of, their origin, 29—33; their number, 62 ; to be carefully dis- tinguished, 65. Spondee, the, 403. Stanzas, what they are, 402. Their va- riety, infinite, 407. Four-lined, 407. Six-lined, 408. The Spenserian stanza, borrowed from Italian, 408 ; by whom used, 408 ; of what it consists, 408. Statement, the, of an argumentative dis- ■ course, 388. Story, the, 376. Difference between it and the tale, 376. Strength, in what it consists, 293. Re- quires the rejection of superfluous words, 293. Requires that proper connectives be used, 293. Requires that the too frequent use of and be avoided, 294. Requires the writer to avoid splitting particles, 295. Re- quires that the important words be so disposed as to make the greatest impression, 295. Requires that a shorter member should precede a longer, and a weaker a stronger, 296. Requires that a sentence should not be closed with an unaccented word, 297. Style, dignified by figures, 243. What it is, 262. Derivation of the word, 262. Varieties of, 263; appropriate to dif- ferent subjects, 26.3. The dry, 263. The plain, 263. The neat, 268; adapt- ed to all subjects, 2(>4. The elegant, 2(V4. The florid, 264; two varieties of, 264 ; best means of correcting too great floridity, 264, The simple, 266. The labored, 2(55. The concise, 265. The difluse, 266. The nervous, 2(K5. The feeble, 260. Essential pvopcrtica of, 270. Forming of, 313; rules for the, 314—316. Must be adapted to the subject, 316. Suth/ieads, what they are, 155. Subjects, definition of, 67. How to be ascertained, 68. Grammatical, 68. Logical, 68. Logical, when to be fol- lowed by the comma, 115. List of, 427-435. Sublimity, defined, 194. Its principal source, 195. An element in scriptural descriptions of powerful animals, 195. Vastncss, one of its sources, 196. Darkness, solitude, and silence, con- ducive to it, 197. Obscurity, one of its sources, 197. Heightened by dis- order, 198. Sounds characterized by, 199. Produced, in sounds, exclusive- ly by associations, 200. The sublime in writing, 201; excludes what is merely beautiful, 201. Moral or sen- timental sublime, 204; its sources, 204. Style essential to it, 206; con- ciseness, one of its essentials, 207; simplicity, one of its essentials, 208. The emotion it excites, short-lived, 209. An unimproved state of society, favorable to it, 210. Rhyme, unfa- vorable to sublimity in writing, 212. Faults opposed to it, 213. Very swift motion, an element of, 218. Substantives, what they are, 62. Syllabication, two systems of, 144. Rules of, 145. Syllepsis, what it is, 237. Syntax, principles for correcting false, 150-159. Figures of, 237. STjncuresis, 236. Syncoi)e, 236. Synecdoche, 249. Synonymes, what they arc, 380. Want of discrimination between them vio- lates precision, 279. T. Tale, the, 375. Taste, defined, 170. Various theories respecting it, 170, 171. Common to all men, 171. Possessed in different degrees, 171. An improvable faculty, 172. Its connection with the judg- ment, 173. Its elements, 174. Its INDEX. 453 characteristics, 174. Delicacy of, 174. Correctness of, 175. Mutations of, 176. Often vitiated, 176, 177. Diver- sity of, when admissible, 178. Stan- dard of, 179. Distinction between it and genius, 181, 182. Pleasures of, 183; derived from imagination, 185; Increased by associations, 186. Tautology, what it is, 300. How to cor- rect it, 300. Technical Tei^ms, to be avoided in com- position, 288. Testimony, argument from, 333. Tetrameter, of what it consists, 404. Iambic, a favorite measure, 411 ; its facility of construction, 410. Teutonic Language, a bmnch of Gothic, 46. Texts, choice of, 394. Thaut, supposed to be identical with Hermes Trismegistus, 25. Thesis, the, 385. Thought, essential to eflfectlve writing, 326. Title-page, the, 155. Titles Running, what they are, 155. Tmesis, 237. Touch, incapable of awakening pleasure in the imagination without the aid of sight, 189. Tract, the, 380. Tragedy, defined, 420. Travels, 370. Travesties, what they are, 226, 421. Treatise, the, 380. Tribro^h, the, 403. Trimeter, of what it consists, 404. Triplet, the, what it is, 402. Trochee, the, 403. Tropes, 247. Type, kinds of, 154. Unity, in what it consists, 309. Re- quires that the scene and subject be changed as little as possible, 309. Re- quires us to avoid crowding into one sentence things that have no connec- tion, 310. Punctuation, no remedy for yjolations of, 311. Requires the writer to avoid long parentheses, 312. The three dramatic unities, 420. Unity and Variety, held by some to con- stitute beauty, 215. Usage, the only staudard of speaking and writing, 274. Present, 274. Na- tional, 274. Reputable, 274. Rules with respect to words when usage is divided, 275. Utility, held by some to constitute beauty, 215. Variety, one of the elements of beauty of figure, 217. Vastness, a source of sublimity, 196. Verbs, origin of, 31. Defined, 63. Sub- jects of, 63. Transitive, 63. Intran- sitive, 63. Fmite, 63. Voices of, 63. Transitive and intransitive, to bo carefully distinguished, 158. Verse, of what it consists, 401. Iambic, 404. Trochaic, 404. Anapestic, 404. Dactylic, 404. Blank, see Blank Verses, what they are, 402. When called pure, 404. When said to be mixed, 404. Catalectic, 404. Hypercatalectic, 405. Acatalectic, 405. Versification, what it is, 402. Vignette, the, 155. Vision, 250. Volumes, dififerent sizes of, folio, quarto, &c., 153. Voyages, 370. Vulgarisms, to be avoided, 276. Welsh, its resemblance to Hebrew, 37. Wit, what it is, 225. How produced, 226. Varieties of, 226— 231. Capable of making beauties, as well as blem- ishes, subjects of derision, 321. Wonderful, the, a source of pleasure to the imagination, 193. An element in Chinese gardening, 193., Writing, ideographic system of, 21 ; used by the Mexicans and North American Indians, 21. Verbal sys- tem of, 21 ; objection to it, 22. Chi- nese system of, 22 ; read and under- stood by other Asiatic nations, 22. 464 INDEX. Syllabic system of, 23; written lan- guages of which it is the basis, 23. Alphabetic system of, 23; its origin, 21 ; its invention attributed to the Deity, to Moses, Abraham, Enoch, and Adam, 34; its invention attrib- uted by the Grcelis and Romans to the Phoenicians, 25; difl'erent theories as to its invention, 26 ; known to the Jews in the time of Moses, 27. Pres • ent manner of, introduced by Pronap- ides, 28. TnK END. Appletons' Standard Scientific Text-Booiis, Youmans's Pirst Book of Botany. Designed to cultivate the Observing Powers of Children. By Eliza A. 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